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031        N53 


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This  Volume  is  for 
REFERENCE  USE  ONLY 

^W^f^f^f^l^^ 


THE  NEW 

INTERNATIONAL 

YEAR  BOOK 


COPYBIGHT,   1949,  BY 

FUNK  &  WAGNALLS  COMPANY 

[Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America] 


Copyright  under  the  Articles  of  the  Copyright  Convention 
of  the  Pan- American  Republics  and  the  United  States 


FOHEWOKU 

THE  RECORD  of  the  world  for  the  calendar  year  1948  Is  replete  with  important  happenings 
and  developments.  The  "cold  war"  between  the  U.S.S.R.  and  the  western  world  continued; 
President  Truman  won  the  Presidential  election  in  the  United  States;  Burma  became  inde- 
pendent, and  Mohandas  K.  Gandhi  was  assassinated  in  New  Delhi,  India;  Great  Britain's 
mandate  in  Palestine  ended,  and  the  state  of  Israel  was  proclaimed;  the  European  Recovery 
Program  (Marshall  Plan)  went  into  effect;  Queen  Wilhelmina  of  the  Netherlands  abdicated 
and  was  succeeded  by  her  daughter,  Princess  Juliana;  a  son  was  born  to  Princess  Elizabeth 
of  England;  the  Republic  of  Ireland  Bill  was  signed  by  President  Sean  T.  O'Kelly;  and, 
late  in  the  year,  the  Prime  Minister  of  Egypt,  Nokrashy  Pasha,  was  assassinated. 

The  editor  wishes  to  express  his  sincere  thanks  to  all  the  contributors.  Many  of  them  are 
already  well-known  to  the  readers  of  the  YEAE  BOOK,  and  need  no  introduction  here. 
Among  the  writers  contributing  to  THE  NEW  INTERNATIONAL  YEAE  BOOK  for  the  first 
time  are:  Miss  Edna  H.  Barr,  U.S.  State  Department,  who  prepared  the  article  on  SOUTH 
PACIFIC  COMMISSION;  The  Rev.  Henry  G.  J.  Beck,  VATICAN  CITY;  Dr.  Eugene  M.  Blake, 
Clinical  Professor  of  Ophthalmology,  Yale  Medical  School,  OPHTHALMOLOGY;  Dallas  S. 
Burch,  VETERINARY  MEDICINE;  Rabbi  Abraham  Burstein,  JUDAISM;  Dr.  Edwin  S.  Cal- 
verley,  ISLAM;  Dr.  G.  Brock  Chisholm,  WORLD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION;  Miss  Jane  Collins, 
of  the  R.  H.  Macy  Advertising  Department,  FASHIONS;  William  J.  Cronin,  MOTOR  VEHI- 
CLES; William  B.  Dall,  Managing  Editor,  Textile  World,  TEXTILES;  Dr.  Ed.  F.  Degering, 
of  the  Department  of  Chemistry,  Purdue  University,  CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECH- 
NOLOGY; Norris  E.  Dodd,  FOOD  AND  AGRICULTURAL  ORGANIZATION; 

Also:  Mrs.  Dorothea  Seelye  Franck,  AFGHANISTAN,  ARAB  LEAGUE  AFFAIRS;  IRAQ; 
ISRAEL;  TURKEY,  and  others;  Miss  Ellen  Hammer,  FRENCH  INDOCHINA;  John  M.  Hayes, 
of  Purdue  University,  BRIDGES;  Daniel  Z.  Henkin,  NAVAL  PROGRESS;  Matthias  Hollander, 
AVIATION,  MILITARY;  Dr.  W.  E.  Rowland,  of  Purdue  University,  AQUEDUCTS,  DAMS, 
FLOOD  CONTROL;  SANITATION;  WATER  SUPPLY  AND  SANITATION;  Dr.  B.  Hunningher,  of 
Columbia  University,  NETHERLANDS  LITERATURE;  Brother  Alexander  Joseph,  Ph.D., 
ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH;  MacEdward  Leach,  FOLKLORE;  Carl  F.  Bartz,  KOREA;  Prof. 
Raymond  F.  Mikesell,  SAUDI  ARABIA;  E.  C.  Moore,  AGRICULTURAL  RESEARCH  ADMINIS- 
TRATION; Frank  Neumann,  SEISMOLOGY; 

Also:  Bruce  R.  Prentice,  General  Electric  Company,  NUCLEAR  ENERGY;  Miss  Frances 
McReynolds,  U.S.  Department  of  State,  CARIBBEAN  COMMISSION;  Dr.  Marc  Slonim,  RUS- 
SIAN LITERATURE;  Dr.  William  Solzbacher,  ESPERANTO;  Dr.  Ralph  Stoody,  THE  METH- 
ODIST CHURCH;  Prof.  F.  W.  Stubbs,  of  Purdue  University,  CONSTRUCTION;  Dr.  Leon  Edgar 
Truesdell,  POPULATION;  Dr.  Halbert  L.  Dunn,  VITAL  STATISTICS;  K  B.  Woods,  Purdue 
University,  ROADS  AND  STREETS;  T.  Cuyler  Young,  Princeton  University,  IRAN.  To  Ronald 
Stuart  Kain,  M.A.,  the  foreign  affairs  editor  on  previous  issues  (1930-44)  of  THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL  YEAR  BOOK,  the  editor  extends  his  appreciation  and  thanks  for  the  article 
on  INDONESIA. 

The  editor  also  wishes  to  express  his  gratitude  to  the  many  representatives  of  Federal, 
State,  and  foreign  governments,  to  the  heads  of  the  numerous  educational  and  cultural 
institutions,  to  Mr.  Robert  W.  Voorhees  (Manager  of  the  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Editorial  De- 
partment), and  to  the  members  of  the  YEAR  BOOK  Editorial  Staff  (especially  to  Miss 
Gudlaug  Kjdsterud-Randby  and  Mr.  Gerald  Gottlieb)  for  their  unstinted  help  and  gener- 
osity which  have  made  possible  the  completion  of  this  volume.  In  conclusion,  the  editor 
extends  his  thanks  to  Miss  Catherine  Hayes,  of  the  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Advertising  Depart- 
ment, for  her  timely  aid  in  securing  expert  contributors  for  a  number  of  important  articles 
in  this  YEAR  BOOK. 


MAY  4    194» 


AND  EDITORS 


Arthur  J.  Altmey&r,/f*ti&,  LLD. 

Commissioner,    Social    Security    Administration 

SOCIAL  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 

Dean  Amadou,  B.S. 

Assistant  Curator  of  Birds,  American  Museum 

of  Natural  History,  New  York 

ZOOLOGY 

P.  N.  Annand,  B.S.,  M.A.,  Pfc.D.,  D.Sc. 

Chief,  Bureau  of  Entomology  and  Plant  Quar- 
antine, Agricultural  Research  Administration, 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

INSECT  PESTS  AND  PLANT  QUARANTINES 

Worry  J.  Anslinger,  LLB. 

Commissioner,  Bureau  of  Narcotics,  Department 
of  the  Treasury 

NARCOTIC  DRUGS  CONTROL 

John  Anthony 

Eastern  Regional  Editor,  The  Iron  Age 
ALUMINUM;  COAL;  COPPER;  IRON  AND  STEEL;  TIN; 
ZINC;  and  other  articles  on  metals  and  ores 

Edna  H.  Borr 

Division  of  Dependent  Area  Affairs,  U.S.  De- 
partment of  State 

SOUTH  PACIFIC  COMMISSION 

Carl  F.  Bartz,  Jf. 

Rockefeller  Fellow  in  Korean  History,  University 

of  California 

KOREA 

A.  D.  Battey  ' 

Senior  Statistician,  National  Safety  Council 

ACCIDENTS 

Henry  G.  J.  Becfc,  D.ec.Hisf. 

Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  Immaculate 
Conception  Seminary,  Darlington,  N.J.;  Re- 
search Scholar,  Vatican  Library,  1938-1940, 
1947-1948 

VATICAN  CITY 
Harold  Benjamin,  Ph.D. 

Dean,  College  of  Education,  University  of  Mary- 
land; Consulting  Editor,  McGraw-Hill  Series  in 
Education 

EDUCATION 
James  V.  B.  Bennett,  A.B.,  LLB. 

Director,  Bureau  of  Prisons,  U.S.  Department  of 

Justice 

PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME  CONTROL 
Eugene  M.  Blake,  M.D. 

Clinical  Professor  of  Ophthalmology,  Yale  Uni- 
versity 

OPHTHALMOLOGY 
O.  A.  Bonfempo,  A.B.,  Ph.C. 

Assistant  Editor  and  Contributor,  The  Modern 
Language  Journal;  Director,  The  Language 
Workshop,  CoUege  of  the  City  of  New  York 

ITALIAN  LITERATURE 

Charles  A.  Breskin 

Editor  and  Publisher,  Modern  Plastics 
PLASTICS 
Jack  H.  Bryan 

Director  of  Information,  Housing  and  Home 
Finance  Agency 

HOUSING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
A.  5.  Bvrack  \ 

Editor,  The  Writer 

MAGAZINES 


Da//as  S.  Burch,  B.S.A. 

Information  specialist,  in  charge  Information 
Division,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Agricul- 
tural Kesearch  Administration,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture 

VETERINARY  MEDICINE 

Abraham  Bi/rsfe/n,  AM. 

Secretary,  Jewish  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences; 
editor,  Jewish  Outlook;  literary  editor,  Jewish 
Review 
JUDAISM 

Edwin  E.  Ccr/ver/ey,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Arabic  and  Islamics,  Hartford  Sem- 
inary Foundation;  Editor,  The  Muslim  World 
ISLAM 

H.  M.  Chang 

Head,    Research    Department,    Chinese    News 

Service 

CHINA 

Arthur  P.  Chew 

Special  Writer,  Office  of  Information,  U.S.  De^ 
partment  of  Agriculture 

AGRICULTURE;  AGRICULTURE,  U.S.  DEPARTMENT  OF 

G.  firocfc  Chisholm,  C.B.E,  M.D. 

Direct  or- General,  World  Health  Organization 

WORLD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION  (wHO) 

H.  Walton  Cocfiran,  M.D, 

Associate  Clinical  Professor  of  Surgery?  South- 
western Medical  College 

MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 

Leo  Otis  Colbert 

Rear  Admiral,  U.S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 

COAST  AND  GEODETIC  SURVEY 

Jane  £.  Collins 

Fashion  Copywriter,  Advertising  Department, 
R.  H.  Macy  &  Co.,  New  York  City 

FASHIONS 

Fred  H.  Cofw'n,  M.E. 

Editor  Emeritus,  American  Machinist;  Writer 
and  Consultant  on  mechanical  subjects;  former 
editor  of  Machinery,  Locomotive  Engineering 

MACHINE  BUILDING 

Alzada  ComsfocJc,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Economics,  Mount  Holyoke  College 

AUSTRALIA;  BURMA;  CANADA;  CEYLON;  EIRE; 
GREAT  BRITAIN;  INDIA,  UNION  OF;  IRELAND, 
NORTHERN;  NEW  ZEALAND;  PAKISTAN;  SOUTH 

AFRICA,  UNION  OF;  and  others 

C/m/mer  I.  Cooper,  Ph.D. 

Geologist  (Publications),  Office  of  the  Director, 
U.S.  Geological  Survey 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

Harold  J.  Cooper 

Former   Foreign  Editor,   The  World  Almanac 

PHILIPPINES,  REPUBLIC  OF  THE;  SIAM 

William  J.  Cronln 

Managing  Director,  Automobile  Manufacturers 
Association 

MOTOR  VEHICLES 

Robert  Cross 

Secretary,  New  York  Cocoa  Exchange,  Inc. 
COCOA 


VI 


Contributors  to  the  New  International  Yearbook — Continued 


Bernard  Cushman 

Labor  Relations  Consultant,  Labor  Bureau  o£ 
Middle  West;  formerly  Assistant  General  Coun- 
sel, National  War  Labor  Board;  Chief,  Legisla- 
tive and  Bureau  Services  Section,  Solicitor's 
Office,  U.S.  Department  of  Labor 

LABOR  CONDITIONS 

WWam  B.  Do//,  B.A. 

Managing  Editor,   Textile  World 

TEXTILES 

Wafson  Daws,  C.E 

Director,  Science  Service,  Washington,  D.C. 
PHYSICS 

Albert  M.  Day,  B.5. 

Director,  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service,  U.S.  De- 
partment of  the  Interior 

FISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SERVICE 

Ed.  F.  Degermg,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Chemistry,  Purdue  University;  Sec- 
retary, Section  C,  A.A.A.S.;  International  Coun- 
sellor, Lions  International 

CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 

Angel  del  R/'o,  Ph.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Spanish,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity; Author,  Historia  de  la  literatura  e$p&- 
nola,  and  other  books 

SPANISH  LITERATURE 

Donald  Docforow,  0.5.5. 

Associate  Editor,  C/wwz,  Glass  and  Decorative 
Accessories;  Contributing  Editor,  The  American 
Glass  Review;  contributor,  The  American  Col- 
lege Dictionary 

CERAMICS;  GLASS  AND  GLASSWARE 

Norn's  Jr.  Doc/d 

Director-General,  Food  and  Agriculture  Organi- 
zation of  the  United  Nations 

FOOD  AND  AGRICtTLTURE  ORGANIZATION 

Newton  B.  Drury,  B.L.,  U.B. 

Director,  National  Park  Service,  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior 

NATIONAL  PARKS  AND  MONUMENTS 

Pan/  B.  Dimbar,  Ph.D. 

Commissioner,  Food  and  Drug  Administration, 
Federal  Security  Agency 

FOOD  AND  DRUG  ADMINISTRATION 

Wilfrid  Eggleston 

Professor  of  Journalism,  Carleton  College,  Ot- 
tawa, Canada 

CANADIAN  LITERATURE 

Luther  H.  Evans,  Ph.D. 

Librarian  of  Congress 

LIBRARY  OF  CONGRESS 

David  Ewen 

Music  critic;  author  of  Dictators  of  the  Baton, 
Music  for  the  Millions,  From  Bach  to  Stravinsky, 
The  Book  of  Modern  Composers;  Director  of 
Allen,  Towne  &  Heath,  Inc. 
MUSIC 

Oscar  R.  Ewwig,  A.B.,  U.B. 

Federal  Security  Administrator,  Washington 

FEDERAL  SECURITY  AGENCY 

Joseph  F.  Farley 

Admiral,  U.S.  Coast  Guard;  Commandant,  U.S. 
Coast  Guard 

COAST  GUARD,  U.S. 

Clarence  B.  Farrar,  M.D. 

Professor  Emeritus  of  Psychiatry,  University  of 
Toronto;  Editor,  American  Journal  of  Psychiatry 

PSYCHIATRY 


William  B.  Foxhall 

Associate  Editor,  Heating  and  Ventilating 

AIR  CONDITIONING  AND  REFRIGERATION;  HEATING 
AND  VENTILATING 

Dorothea  Seelye  Franck,  MA. 

Recently  with  Department  of  State  working  on 
Middle  Eastern  and  cultural  affairs 
AFGHANISTAN;  ARAB  LEAGUE  AFFAIRS;  EGYPT  and 
other  Arab  countries;  ISRAEL;  TURKEY 

C.  A,  Freeman 

Chief,  Statistics  Section.  Bureau  of  Customs, 
U.S.  Department  of  the  Treasury 

CUSTOMS,  BUREAU  OF 

Jerome  Fried,  B.S.S. 

Associate  Editor,  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Standard 
Dictionary  of  Folklore,  Mythology,  and  Legend 
CHESS 

John  H.  E.  Fried,  Ph.D.,  11.0. 

Special  Legal  Consultant  to  the  U.S.  War  Crimes 
Tribunals,  Nuremberg 

DANUBE  CONFERENCE;  RED  CROSS  CONFERENCE, 
INTERNATIONAL;  WAR  CRIMES  TRIALS 

G.  O.  Gillingham 

Director  of  Information,  Federal  Communica- 
tions Commission 

FEDERAL   COMMUNICATIONS  COMMISSION 

Jose  Gomez-Srcre 

Head,  Visual  Arts  Section,  Department  of  Cul- 
tural Affairs,  Pan  American  Union 

LATIN  AMERICAN  ART 

Robert  C.  Goodwin 

Director,  Bureau  of  Employment  Security  of  the 
Social  Security  Administration 

EMPLOYMENT  SECURITY  OPERATIONS 
Gerald  Gottlieb 

Assistant  Editor 

EUROPEAN  RECOVERY  PROGRAM;  PULITZER 
PRIZES,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES;  etc. 

C.  Hartley  Grattan 

Journalist;  Author,  Introducing  Australia;  Edi- 
tor, Australia 

AUSTRALIAN  LITERATURE 

Carl  R.  Gray,  Jr. 

Administrator  of  Veterans  Affairs,  Veterans  Ad- 
ministration 

VETERANS   ADMINISTRATION 

John  C.  Green,  0.S.,  U.B. 

Director,  Office  of  Technical  Services,  U.S,  De- 
partment of  Commerce 

NATIONAL  INVENTORS  COUNCIL 

Ellen  Hammer,  A4.A. 

Member  of  Research  Staff,  Council  on  Foreign 
Relations;  author,  The  Emergence  of  Viet  Nam 

FRENCH  INDOCHINA 

Thomas  V.  Honey 

Staff  Member,  the  New  York  Times 
ARCHERY,  BADMINTON,  BASEBALL,  and  other  ar- 
ticles on  sports 

Doug/as  Hasfce//,  A.B. 

Senior  Associate  Editor,  Architectural  Record 

ARCHITECTURE 

William  H.  Hasfie 

Governor  of  the  Virgin  Islands 

VIRGIN  ISLANDS,  U.S. 

John  M.  Hayes,  B.S.C.E,  MS.,  C.E 
Associate  Professor  of  Structural  Engineering, 
Purdue  University 
BRIDGES 


Vll 


Contributors  to  the  New  International  Yearbook — Continued 


John  W.  Hazen 

Research  Writer  and  Editor 

FOUNDATIONS;  PORTS  AND  HARBORS;  RAPID  TRAN- 
SIT; TUNNELS;  WATERWAYS,  INLAND 
HaroW  Hedges,  M.A. 

Chief,  and  Staff  Members,  Cooperative  Research 
and  Service  Division,  Farm  Credit  Administra- 
tion 

AGRICULTURAL  COOPERATION 
Daniel  Z,  Hen/on 
Reporter,  Army  and  Navy  Journal 

NAVAL  PROGRESS 

G.  Ross  Henninger,  B.S.  in  E.E.,  f.AJ.E.E. 

Editor,  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neers; Colonel,  U.S.  Air  Force  Reserve 

COMMUNICATIONS,  ELECTRICAL;  ELECTRICAL  IN- 
DUSTRIES; ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER;  ILLUMI- 
NATION; TELEVISION 

lewis  B.  Hershey 

Major  General,  U.S.  Army;  Director  of  Selective 
Service 

SELECTIVE  SERVICE,  U.S. 

Grcmv/Me  Hicks 

Author,  The  Great  Tradition,  John  Reed,  1  Like 
America,  Small  Town,  and  other  books 
COMMUNISM 

H,  W.  Hirs 

Consul,  Consulate  General  of  Switzerland,  New 
York 

SWITZERLAND 

Matthias  Hollander 

Electronics  engineer;  editor,  technical  publica- 
tions, United  States  Air  Force 

AVIATION,  MILITARY 

William  E.  Hooper 

Former  Financial  Editor,  Railway  Age 
RAILWAYS 

John  Edgar  Hoover,  U.M.,  U.0.,  Sc.D.,  D.C.I. 

Director,  Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation 

CRIMINOLOGY;  FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGA- 
TION 

Warren  £.  How/ana",  JXSc. 

Professor  of  Sanitary  Engineering,  Purdue  Uni- 
versity 

AQUEDUCTS;  DAMS;  FLOOD  CONTROL;  SANITATION; 
WATER  SUPPLY  AND  PURIFICATION 

Benjamfn  Hiinningher,  Lit.  and  Phil.D. 

Queen  Wilhehnina  Professor  of  History,  Lan- 
guage and  Literature  of  the  Netherlands,  Co- 
lumbia University 

NETHERLANDS  LITERATURE 

Anthony  Hyde 

Managing  Director,  Tea  Bureau,  Inc. 
TEA 

Sara  Anderson  /mmerwanr,  Ph.D. 

Archaeologist;  contributor  to  the  American  Jour- 
nal of  Archaeology 

ARCHAEOLOGY 
John  H.  /vet 

Colonel,  U.S.  Air  Force;  Deputy  Secretary,  The 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff 

JOINT  CHIEFS  OF  STAFF,  U.S. 

Anno  Jacohson,  Ph.D. 

Associate  Professor  and  Chairman  of  Depart- 
ment of  German,  Hunter  College;  Author, 
Charles  Kingsley's  Beziehungen  zu  Deutschland, 
Nachklange  Richard  Wagners  im  Roman 

GERMAN  LITERATURE 


Arthur  E.  Jensen,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  English,  Dartmouth  College 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE;  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 
Joachim  Joesfen 

Author,  Rats  in  the  Larder,  Stalwart  Sweden, 
What  Russia  Wants,  and  other  books 
BELGIUM;  CZECHOSLOVAKIA;  DENMARK;  FINLAND; 
GERMANY;  ICELAND;  NETHERLANDS;  NORWAY;  PO- 
LAND; SWEDEN 

J.  Monroe  Johnson 

Colonel,  U.S.  Army;  Director  of  Defense  Trans- 
portation, Washington 

DEFENSE  TRANSPORTATION,   OFFICE  OF 
Thorsfen  Jonsson,  M.A. 

Author;  Editor,  book  review  department  of 
Dagens  Nyheter 

SWEDISH  LITERATURE 
Miguel  Jorr/'n,  Docfor  of  Public  and  Civil  Law 

Professor  of  Government;  Director,  School  of 
Inter-American  Affairs,  University  of  New  Mex- 
ico 

ARGENTINA;    BRAZIL;    CHILE;    PORTUGAL;     SPAIN; 

and  other  Central  and  South  American  countries 
Brother  Alexander  Joseph,  F.S.C.,  Ph.D. 

Professor,  Head  of  the  Department  of  History 
and  Government,  Manhattan  College,  New  York 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 
Ronald  Stuart  Kairt,  M.A. 

Author,  Europe:  Versailles  to  Warsaw,  and  a 
forthcoming  study  of  the  Indonesian  revolution 

INDONESIA 
Paul  R.  Ke/faaugh,  M.A. 

Chief,  Division  of  Conferences  and  Organiza- 
tions, Pan  American  Union 

PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES 
Lawrence  C.  Kings/and 

Commissioner,  Patent  Office,  U.S.  Department 
of  Commerce 

PATENT  OFFICE 

Gudlaug  JC/osferucf-Jtancfb/ 

Assistant  Editor 

EXPLORATION;  NECROLOGY;  SOCIETIES  AND  OR- 
GANIZATIONS; articles  on  foreign  colonies  and 
dependencies,  etc. 

Harry  W.  laiJ/er,  Ph.D. 

Executive  Director,  League  for  Industrial  De- 
mocracy;  President,  National  Bureau  of  Eco- 
nomic Research 
SOCIALISM 

Mervin  L  lane 

Insurance  broker,  Lane  Agency,  New  York;  col- 
umnist; author,  Selling  the  Interview,  Let  There 
Be  "Life"  How  to  Sell  Life  Insurance,  and  The 
Successful  Practice  of  Insurance;  lecturer  on  in- 
surance selling 

INSURANCE 

MacEdward  leach,  Ph.D. 

Secretary-Treasurer,  American  Folklore  Society; 
Associate  Professor  of  English,  University  of 
Pennsylvania 

FOLKLORE 
Henry  P.  Lefebure 

National  Catholic  Welfare  Conference 

CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
Bernard  I.  lewis 

Vice  President,  Publicity  Associates,  Inc.;  Direc- 
tor  of    Research    and    Information,    American 
Spice  Trade  Association 
SPICES 


vm 


Contributors  to  the  New  Internationa!  Yearbook — Continued 


Evelyn  B.  McCune 

Author  and  lecturer  on  Korean  art  and  literature 

KOREAN  LITERATURE,  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

D'Arcy  McNickle 

Assistant  to  the  Commissioner,  Bureau  of  Indian 
Affairs,  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior 

INDIAN  AFFAIRS,  OFFICE  OF 

Frances  R.  P.  AtcReyno/ds 

Division  of  Dependent  Area  Affairs,  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  State,  Washington 

CARIBBEAN  COMMISSION 

Glenn  £.  Mafffiews,  F.R.P.S.,  F.P.S.A. 

Technical  Editor,  Kodak  Research  Laboratories 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 

Raymond  F.  Mikesell,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Economics,  University  of  Virginia; 
co-author,  Arabian  Oil:  Americas  Stake  in  the 
Middle  East 

SAUDI  ARABIA 

Frieda  S.  Mi7/er,  LH.D. 

Director,  Women's  Bureau,  U.S.  Department  of 

Labor 

WOMEN'S  BUREAU 

Watson  B.  Miller 

Commissioner,  Immigration  and  Naturalization 
Service,  U.S.  Department  of  Justice 

,  IMMIGRATION,     EMIGRATION,     and     NATURALIZA- 
TION 

Harry  B.  Mitchell 

President,  U.S.  Civil  Service  Commission 

CIVIL  SERVICE,  U.S. 

James  William  Moore,  J.D.,  J.S.D. 

Professor  of  Law,  Yale  University 
LAW 

Artvro  Morales-Carrion 

Chairman,   History  Department,   University   of 
Puerto  Rico 
PUERTO  RICO 

Charles  S.  Morgan 

Engineer,  National  Fire  Protection  Association 

FIRE  PROTECTION 

John  D.  Morse 

Director  of  Publications*  Art  Students  League, 
New  York 

ART 

Di//ion  S.  Myer 

President,  The  Institute  of  Inter-American  Af- 
fairs 

INTER- AMERICAN  AFFAIRS,  INSTITUTE  OF 

Frank  Neumann 

Chief  of  Seismology  Branch,  Division  of  Geo- 
magnetism and  Seismology,  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey 

SEISMOLOGY 

Leslie  E.  Nevitfe 

Director,  Standard  Aeronautical  Indexing  Sys- 
tem, Institute  of  the  Aeronautical  Sciences 

AVIATION,  CIVIL 

Hugh  Odishaw,  M.A.,  B.S.  in  E.E. 

Assistant  to  the  Director,  National  Bureau  of 
Standards,  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce 

NATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 

Florence    E.    Parker 

Senior  Economist,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics, 
U.S.  Department  of  Labor 
CONSUMERS'  COOPERATIVES 


Mildred  Othmer  Peferson 

Special  Assistant,  American  Library  Association 

LIBRARY  PROGRESS 

Henri  M.  Peyre,  Docfeur  es  leffres 

Sterling  Professor  of  French,  Chairman  of 
French  Department,  Yale  University;  author, 
Writers  and  Their  Critics  and  other  books 

FRENCH  LITERATURE 

George  Vladimir  P/crchy 

Secretary,  Amateur  Astronomers  Association, 
Hayden  Planetarium,  New  York 

ASTRONOMY 

Bruce  R.  Prentice 

Member  of  the  staff  of  the  General  Manager, 
Nucleonics  Department,  General  Electric  Com- 
pany 

NUCLEAR  ENERGY 

Charles  McD.  PucJteffe 

General  Manager,  the  Chattanooga  Times 

NEWSPAPERS 

Terry  Ram  say  e 

Editor,  Motion  Picture  Herald,  Motion  Picture 
Almanac,  and  Fame;  author,  A  Million  and  One 
Nights — The  History  of  the  Motion  Picture 

MOTION  PICTURES 

Charles  E.  Randall,  M.A. 

Information  Specialist,  U.S.  Forest  Service 

FOREST  SERVICE,  U.S. 

Lawrence  Reddick,  Pn.D. 

Chief  Librarian,  Atlanta  University;  editor,  lec- 
turer 
NEGROES 

Francis  W.  Reichelderfer,  D.Sc. 

Chief,  Weather  Bureau,  U.S.  Department  of 
Commerce 

METEOROLOGY;  WEATHER  BUREAU,  U.S. 

Harold  William  Rickett,  Ph.D. 

Bibliographer,  The  New  York  Botanical  Garden 
BOTANY 

Joseph  S.  Roucek,  Ph.D. 

Professor,  Chairman  of  the  Departments  of  So- 
ciology and  Political  Science,  University  of 
Bridgeport 

ALBANIA;  BULGARIA;  GREECE;  RUMANIA;  YUGO- 
SLAVIA 

Frederick  Lewis  Schuman,  Ph.D. 

Woodrow    Wilson    Professor    of    Government, 
Williams  College;   author,   Soviet  Politics;  De- 
sign for  Power;  Night  over  Europe,  etc. 
AUSTRIA;  FRANCE;  HUNGARY;  ITALY;  UNION  OF 

SOVIET  SOCIALIST   REPUBLICS 

Charles  E.  Scribner 

Chairman,  Planned  Parenthood  Federation  of 
America 

PLANNED  PARENTHOOD 

Sidney  Sherwood,  A.B. 

Secretary  of  Export-Import  Bank  of  Washington 
and  Assistant  to  the  Chairman 

EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK  OF  WASHINGTON   (Elfi) 

Samuef  S.  Shipman,  M.BJb.,  D.C.S. 

Research  Associate,  Institute  of  International 
Finance;  Instructor  of  Finance,  New  York  Uni- 
versity 

BANKS  AND  BANKING;  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  FINAN- 
CIAL REVIEW;  FOREIGN  EXCHANGE;  PUBLIC  FI- 
NANCE; TAXATION 


X8L 


Contributors  to  the  New  International  Yearbook — Continued 


Michael  J.  Sfiorf/ey 

Director,  Office  of  Vocational  Rehabilitation, 
Federal  Security  Agency 

VOCATIONAL  REHABILITATION,  OFFICE  OF 

louis  G.  $ilverhergf  M.A. 

Director  of  Information,  National  Labor  Rela- 
tions Board;  author,  Citizens  Committees;  Their 
Role  in  the  Industrial  Conflict;  The  Wagner  Act; 
Ten  'Years  After 

NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS  BOARD 

More  I.  S/on/m,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Russian  Literature,  Sarah  Lawrence 
College 

RUSSIAN   LITERATURE 

H.  Gem's  A  SmifA 

President,  Shipbuilders  Council  of  America 

SHIPBUILDING,  MERCHANT 

William  Ward  Smith 

Vice  Admiral  U.S.N.  (Retired);  Chairman,  U.S. 
Maritime  Commission 

MARITIME  COMMISSION,  UNITED  STATES 


Bernard  Sobef,  PA.B.,  B.S.,  M.A. 

Author,  Burleycue,  a  History  of  Burlesque;  Edi- 
tor, The  Theatre  Handbook;  contributor  to 
Collier's  New  Encyclopedia,  and  the  forthcom- 
ing Companion  to  the  American  Stage,  The 
Saturday  Review  of  Literature,  Readers  Digest, 
Theatre  Arts,  American  Mercury,  etc. 

THEATER 

William  Solzbacher 

Acting  President,  Esperanto  Association  of  North 
America 

ESPERANTO 
Ingram  M.  Stainback 

Governor  of  Hawaii 

HAWAII,   TERRITORY  OF 

Francis  S.  Sfein,  B.S.,  M.B.A. 

Price  Economist,  Prices  and  Cost  of  Living 
Branch,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Labor 

PRICES  AND  LIVTNG  COSTS 

RafpA  Sfooefy,  0.D.,  S.T.D. 

Executive  Director,  Commission  on  Public  In- 
formation of  The  Methodist  Church 

METHODIST  CHURCH,  THE 

David  fi.  Stout,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Anthropology,  Syracuse 
University;  Secretary,  American  Anthropological 
Association 

ANTHROPOLOGY 

Frank  W.  Stubbs,  Jr. 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Purdue  Uni- 
versity 

CONSTRUCTION 

Charles  P,  Taft,  UJV  UJD. 

Director,  Wartime  Economic  Affairs,  U.S.  De- 
partment of  State;  Chairman,  Advisory  Com- 
mittee on  Voluntary  Foreign  Aid 

FOREIGN  AID 

frank  J.  Taylor 

President,  American  Merchant  Marine  Institute 

SHIPPING,  MERCHANT 

Norman  Thomas,  tiff.D. 

Socialist  Candidate  for  President  in  1948 
SOCIALISM 

Samuel  A-  Tower,  M.A, 

Staff  Correspondent,  Washington  Bureau,  The 
New  York  Tinws 

UNITED   STATES 


leon  £.  TrueseJe//,  Ph.D.,  Sc.D. 

Chief  Demographer,  U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census 
POPULATION 

J.  Royal  Van  ArsdaSe 

Vice  President,  The  Schuyler  Hopper  Company, 
New  York 

ADVERTISING 
Harold  M.  VJnacfce,  Pft.0. 

Professor  of  Political  Science,  University  of  Cin- 
cinnati; author,  History  of  the  Far  East  in  Mod- 
ern Times  and  other  books 
JAPAN 

Ralph  S.  Voorfiees,  D.D.S. 

Consultant  in  Oral  Diagnosis,  School  of  Medicine 
and  Dentistry,  University  of  Rochester;  Lecturer 
in  Radiodontia  and  Dental  Anatomy,  Eastman 
School  for  Dental  Hygienists 

DENTISTRY 

Wendell  K.   Walker 

Librarian,  Grand  Lodge,  F.  &  A.M.,  New  York 

FREEMASONRY 

Donald  D.  Walsh,  S.B, 

Head  of  the  Spanish  Department,  The  Choate 
School;  Vice-President,  American  Association  of 
Teachers  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese;  author  and 
editor 

LATIN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Harold  Ward 

Science  Editor,  Funk  and  Wagnalls  Reference 
Editorial  Department;  Editor,  New  Worlds  in 
Science,  New  Worlds  in  Medicine 

GLOSSARY;  CHRONOLOGY 

Sam  Bass  Warner 

Register  of  Copyrights,  Library  of  Congress 

COPYRIGHT,  U.S. 

George  L  Warren 

Adviser  on  Refugees  and  Displaced  Persons,  U.S. 
Department  of  State 

REFUGEES  AND  DISPLACED  PERSONS 

leRoy  Whitman 

Editor,  Army  and  Navy  Journal 

MILITARY  PROGRESS 

Herfcerf  I.  Wiltsee 

Regional  Representative,  Council  of  State  Gov- 
ernments, Chicago 

u.s.  ELECTIONS;  sections  on  LEGISLATION  and 
ELECTIONS  in  State  articles 

Kenneth   B.  Woods 

Professor  of  Highway  Engineering  and  Associate 
Director,  Highway  Research  Laboratories,  Pur- 
due University 

ROADS   AND   STREETS 

Tighe  E.  Woods 

Expediter,  Office  of  the  Housing  Expediter, 
Washington 

HOUSING  EXPEDITER,  OFFICE  OF 
Robert  Gale  Woolbert,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  History,  Social  Science  Foundation, 

University  of  Denver;  Review  Editor,  Foreign 

Affairs 

ALGERIA;    ANGLO-EGYPTIAN    SUDAN;    ETHIOPIA; 

LIBEPJA;   LIBYA;  MOROCCO,  FRENCH;  MOROCCO, 

SPANISH;  TANGIER;  TUNISIA 

T.  Coy/er  Young,  M,A.,  TAJ. 

Associate  Professor  of  Persian  Language  and 

History,  Princeton  University 

IRAN 

John  J.  Zf'mct 

Statistician,  Newsprint  Service  Bureau 
NEWSPRINT 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Foreword   . » v 

List  of  Contributors  and  Editors vi 

Table  of  Contents xi 

List  of  Illustrations xi 

List  of  Maps , . . xii 

List  of  Charts  and  Diagrams xii 

Chronology  of  1948   xiii 

The  New  International  Year  Book — 1948 1 

Glossary    657 

Index    663 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Jefferson  Memorial  in  St.  Louis 
Exterior  of  Terrace  Plaza  Hotel 
Ministry  of  Education  Building 

Living  Room  Interior 

Interior  View  of  Dining  Room  . 
Office  Building  at  Thornliebank 

Riverside  Apartments    

Greenwich  Observatory 

African  Colonial  Conference  . . . 
Paradogs  Aid  in  Alaska  Rescue  . 


BETWEEN 


Landscape 64-65 

The  Assemblage 64-65 

Blue  Table  Still  Life 64-65 

Perilous  Night 64-65 

Medieval  Shadows 64-65 

Apteka 64-65 

Camille 64-65 

Rest  on  the  Flight  into  Egypt 64-65 

Woman  with  Birds 64-65 

Thorn  Blossom 64-65 

Martin  2-0-2  Airliner 96-97 

Jet  Airliner 96-97 

Hermes  Airliner  96-97 

Canadair    96-97 

Vampire     96-97 

Gloster-Meteor 96-97 

Handley-Page  Hastings 96-97 

Airlift     96-97 

Northrop  F-86A 96-97 

McDonnell  XF-88   96-97 

U.S.A.F.  XH-15,  Helicopter 96-97 

Constitution     96-97 

Swept-Wing  Jet  Plane 96-97 

Skyrocket 96-97 

Communist  Coup  in  Czechoslovakia  ....  128—9 

Danube  Conference 128-9 

Czech  Parliament 128-9 

Bullets  in  Bogota 128-9 

Revolt  in  Colombia 128-9 

President  of  Cuba   128-9 

Mission  for  Aid   128-9 

General  Mao  Tse-tung   128-9 

Republic  of  Korea 128-9 

Death  in  Japan 128-9 

Ordination  Ceremony   128—9 

Devalued  Franc 128—9 

Labor  in  Unrest 128-9 

Fashions  in  1948 224-5 


PAGES  BETWEEN  PAGES 

32-33       Fashions  in  Woolens  224-5 

32-33       Airlift,  Night  and  Day 224-5 

32-33       Hunger  in  Berlin 224-5 

32-33       A  Petition  for  Unity 224r-5 

32-33      Prince  Charles   22^-5 

32-33       Commonwealth  Conference 22^-5 

32-33       Roosevelt  Memorial 224-5 

32-33 

32-33      Election  Eve  in  Italy 288-9 

32-33      Friendship  Food    288-9 

Defeated  in  Vital  Elections 288-9 

Gandhi's  Death    288-9 

Refugees  from  Greece 288-9 

The  Snake  Pit   288-9 

The  Naked  City 288-9 

Paisan    288-9 

Hamlet    288-9 

Sitting  Pretty    288-9 

Unconquered    288-9 

Easter  Parade 288-9 

I  Remember  Mama 288-9 


U.S.S.  Des  Moines 

U.S.S.  Norton  Sound 

U.S.S.  Perch 

Bridge  of  U.S.S.  Norton  Sound  . . 

U.S.S.  Newport  News 

Rocket  Launching  Racks 

U.S.  Navy  Aircraft  Carrier 

Bow  on  View  of  U.S.S.  Norton  Sound  . 

Martin  AM-1  Mauler 

Twin  Jet  Fighter   

Martin  AM-1  Mauler  (Wings  Folded) 


Queen  of  the  Netherlands  . 
World  Council  of  Churches 
President  Elpidio  Quirmo  . . 

Spitsbergen 

Flying  Mapmakers 

Map  Transparency 

Reconstruction  in  Norway  . . 
Oil-Storage  Repairs 


xi 


Olympic  Yachting   

Olympic  Swimming 

Olympic  Diving  Champion 

Netherlands  Housewife 

Discus  Champion 

Dead  Heat  in  Women's  200-meter  dash 

Czech  Wins  10,000-Meter  Run  . . 

Final  400-Meters  Relay 

Swedish  Victory  . . , 


352-3 
352-3 
352-3 
352-3 
352-3 
352-3 
352-3 
352-3 
352-3 
352-3 
352-3 

384-5 
384-5 
384-5 
384-5 
384-5 
384-5 
384-5 
384-5 

416-7 
416-7 
416-7 
416-7 
416-7 
416-7 
416-7 
416-7 
416-7 


List  of  Illustrations — Continued 

BETWEEN  PAGES                                  BETWEEN  PAGES 

Decathlon  Winner  416-7  Caronia   544-5 

800-Meters  Record 416-7  S.S.  Jaque   544-5 

Olympic  Cyclists   416-7  Mobile  X-Ray  Machine 544-5 

Olympic  Jumper 416-7  Mobile  Newsreel  Theater  544-5 

Olympic  Marathon  Winner 416-7  President  Truman  Wins   544-5 

Olympic  High  Divers   416-7  Governor  Thomas  E.  Dewey  544-5 

Progressive  Party  Rally    544-5 

Photographic  Print  Machine 512-3  General  Dwight  Eisenhower 544-5 

Diagram  of  Ultrafax  System  512-3  Leap  to  Freedom  544-5 

Rocket-Borne  Sequence  Cameras 512-3 

Electron  Track  512-3  Palais  de  Chaillot,  Paris 576-7 

Autoradiograph    512-3  UN  Flag  Unfurled  in  Paris 576-7 

P-80  Jet  Airplane 512-3  Burma  Joins  the  United  Nations 576-7 

Kiss  Me,  Kate 512-3  United  Nations  General  Assembly 576-7 

Private  Lives    512-3  Count  Folke  Bernadotte  Reports  to  UN  . .  576-7 

Life  With  Mother  512-3  Kashmir:  Votes  Instead  of  Guns 576-7 

Light  Up  The  Sky 512-3  Genocide  Convention 576-7 

Anne  of  the  Thousand  Days 512-3  Burma  Applies  For  Membership 576—7 

Summer  and  Smoke 512-3  World  Health  Organization   576-7 

Red  Gloves  512-3  International  Court   576-7 


MAPS 

PAGE 

Afghanistan   6 

The  Arab  League  and  Its  Neighbors 33 


CHARTS  AND  DIAGRAMS 


PAGE 

Loans  at  Member  Banks  in  Leading  Cities 66 

Member  Bank  Reserves  and  Related  Items 67 

Industrial  Production 88 

Department  Store  Sales  and  Inventories 89 

Wholesale  Prices 90 

Corporate  Profits 91 

Dow- Jones  Industrial  Average 188 

Dow- Jones  40-Bond  Average 189 

Consumer  Income  and  Spending 190 

Total  Current  Assets  of  "U.S.  Corporations 191 

The  Federal  Budget 459 

Federal  Expenditures 459 

The  Public  Debt 460 

Federal  Receipts 540 

Internal  Revenue  Collections 541 


CHRONOLOGY  FOR  1948 


Jan.  1.  New  Constitution  of  the  Italian  Republic 

became  effective. 

Jan.  4.  Burma  became  an  independent  republic. 
Jan.  5.  Interim  Committee  ("Little  Assembly"*)  of 

the  United  Nations  General  Assembly  held  its 

first  meeting  at  Lake  Success. 
Jan.  6.  Eightieth  Congress  o£  the  U.S.  opened  its 

sessions. 

Jan.  9.  United  Nations  Commission  on  Palestine 
held  its  first  meeting. 

Jan.*  10.  The  "Third  Force/'  opposed  both  to  Com- 
munism and  de  Gaulle,  officially  constituted  in 
France. 

Jan.  13.  The  Inter-American  Labor  Congress,  at 
its  closing  session  in  Lima,  recommended  estab- 
lishment of  an  Inter-American  Labor  Federation. 

Jan.  16.  Bulgaria  and  Rumania  signed  a  treaty  of 
friendship  and  collaboration. 

Jan.  17.  Security  Council  of  the  United  Nations  re- 
quested India  and  Pakistan  to  seek  ways  of  end- 
ing the  strife  in  Kashmir. 

Jan.  18.  The  Progressive  Citizens  of  America  (PCA) 
adopted  proposals  for  changes  in  the  foreign  and 
domestic  policies  of  the  U.S. 

Jan.  21 .  Treaty  for  the  establishment  of  the  Federa- 
tion of  Malaya  signed  by  nine  rulers  of  the 
Malay  States. 

Jan.  23.  France  and  Britain  agreed  on  proposals  for 
a  Franco-British  treaty  with  Benelux  customs 
union  countries  leading  to  Western  unity. 

Jan.  23.  General  Eisenhower  announced  that  he  was 
not  available  as  a  candidate  for  Presidency  of  the 
U.S. 

Jan.  25.  Bulgarian  government  issued  decree  na- 
tionalizing most  of  the  country's  industries. 

Jan.  26.  Poland  and  the  U.S.S.R.  signed  a  trade 
agreement. 

Jan.  28.  The  National  Convention  in  Newfoundland 
rejected  a  proposal  to  join  Canada. 

Jan.  30.  Mohandas  K.  Gandhi  assassinated  in  Delhi 
by  a  member  of  the  Hindu  Mahasabha. 

Feb.  1.  New  constitution  of  the  Federation  of  Ma- 
laya inaugurated. 

Feb.  2.  Italian  government  signed  a  10-year  treaty 
of  friendship,  trade,  and  navigation  with  the  U.S. 

Feb.  4.  Ceylon  achieved  Dominion  status  in  the 
British  Commonwealth  of  Nations,  with  Sir  Hen- 
ry Moore  as  Governor-General. 

Feb.  5.  Poland  and  Finland  signed  a  one-year  trade 
agreement 

Feb.  6.  General  Otto  von  Stiilpnagel,  Commander 
of  Paris  during  Nazi  occupation,  committed  sui- 
cide in  prison. 

Feb.  7.  The  World  Health  Organization,  a  special 
agency  of  the  United  Nations,  came  into  formal 
existence. 

Feb.  9.  The  frontier  between  France  and  Spain  was 

reopened. 
Feb.  11.  Czechoslovakia  and  the  Netherlands  signed 

a  trade  agreement  in  Prague. 

Feb.  12.  Great  Britain  and  Argentina  signed  the  An- 
des Agreement  providing  for  mutual  trade. 

Feb.  13.  The  Foreign  Relations  Committee  of  the 
U.S.  Senate  voted  approval  of  the  4-year  Euro- 
pean Recovery  Program,  beginning  April  1. 


Feb.  14.  British  and  American  authorities  in  West- 
ern Germany  authorized  a  Bank  of  German 
States  to  take  over  functions  of  old  Reichsbank. 

Feb.  15.  Romulo  Gallegos,  first  Venezuelan  presi- 
dent to  be  elected  by  popular  vote,  inaugurated 
at  Caracas. 

Feb.  18.  John  A.  Costello  became  the  new  premier 
of  Eire,  replacing  Eamon  de  Valera. 

Feb.  20.  Britain,  France,  and  the  U.S.  reached  an 
agreement  on  the  economic  integration  of  the 
Saar  with  France. 

Feb.  25.  Dr.  Eduard  Bene£  accepted  resignation  of 
Czechoslovak  cabinet;  new  government  formed 
with  Element  Gottwald,  Communist,  as  premier. 

Feb.  28.  Last  British  troops  left  India. 

Mar.  2.  Viennese  factory  workers  struck  in  protest 
against  food  shortages  in  Austria. 

Mar.  3.  Egypt  and  the  U.S.S.R.  signed  a  trade 
agreement  covering  agricultural  and  industrial 
products. 

Mar.  4.  Canadian  government  adopted  a  proposal 
to  bar  all  Communists  from  entering  the  country. 

Mar.  5.  Czechoslovakia  decreed  the  nationalization 
of  most  of  the  country's  industries  and  enter- 
prises. 

Mar.  10.  Jan  Masaryk,  Foreign  Minister  of  Czecho- 
slovakia, committed  "suicide"  in  Prague. 
Mar.  12.  Civil  war  broke  out  in  Costa  Rica. 

Mar.  13.  U.S.  Senate  voted  for  an  appropriation  of 
$5,300  million  for  European  Recovery  Program. 

Mar.  15.  The  second  session  of  the  European  Eco- 
nomic Conference  opened  in  Paris,  with  repre- 
sentatives of  16  nations  present. 

Mar.  17.  France,  Britain,  and  Benelux  countries 
signed  a  50-year  treaty  of  economic  cooperation 
and  military  aid. 

Mar.  18.  Bulgaria  and  the  U.S.S.R.  concluded  a  20- 
year  treaty  of  friendship  and  mutual  aid. 

Mar.  19.  United  States  withdrew  its  support  from 
plan  to  partition  Palestine. 

Mar.  20.  France,  Britain,  and  the  U.S.  proposed 
that  the  Free  Territory  of  Trieste  be  returned 
to  Italy. 

Mar.  21.  International  Conference  of  American 
States  opened  at  Bogota,  Colombia. 

Mar.  23.  World  altitude  record  of  59,446  feet  set  by 
Captain  Cunningham  in  a  de  Havilland  airplane. 

Mar.  23.  Conference  on  Freedom  of  Information 
opened  in  Geneva. 

Mar.  24.  Charter  of  an  International  Trade  Organi- 
zation (Havana  Charter)  signed  by  delegates  of 
53  nations  of  the  United  Nations. 

Mar.  28.  Rumanian  general  elections  gave  People's 
Democratic  Front  90.8  percent  of  the  vote  and 
405  seats  in  the  Grand  National  Assembly. 

Mar.  30.  The  United  Nations  Atomic  Energy  Com- 
mission adjourned  indefinitely. 

Mar.  31 .  House  of  Representatives  passed  Economic 
Cooperation  Act  granting  $6,205  million  for 
foreign  aid,  and  reaffirmed  its  invitation  to  Spain 
to  join  Marshall  Plan. 

Apr.  1.  Nationalization  of  the  British  electrical  in- 
dustry came  into  force. 


Xlll 


Chronology  for  1948 — Confirmed 


Apr.  2.  Congress  voted  Republican  tax  reduction 
bill  cutting  taxes  by  an  estimated  $4,800  million. 

Apr.  4.  Chiang  Kai-shek  announced  that  he  would 
not  run  for  reelection  as  president  of  Chinese 
Republic. 

Apr.  5.  First  shipments  of  goods  under  the  ERP  left 
U.S.  ports. 

Apr.  6.  Finland  and  the  U.S.S.R.  signed  a  10-year 
treaty  of  friendship  and  non-aggression. 

Apr.  9.  Dr.  Jorge  Gaitan,  leader  of  the  Liberal  Par- 
ty, assassinated  in  Bogota,  Colombia. 

Apr.  10.  Italy's  application  for  membership  in  the 
United  Nations  was  vetoed  by  die  U.S.S.R. 

Apr.  12.  General  Zionist  Council  issued  a  proclama- 
tion establishing  an  independent  Jewish  State 
upon  termination  of  the  British  mandate. 

Apr.  13.  New  Rumanian  Constitution  adopted  by 
the  National  Assembly;  Dr.  Parhon  elected  Pres- 
ident of  Presidium. 

Apr.  18.  General  elections  in  Italy  gave  Christian 
Democrats  48.7  percent  of  votes  for  Chamber 
of  Deputies  and  47.9  percent  for  Senate. 

Apr.  19.  Burma  admitted  to  membership  in  the 
United  Nations. 

Apr.  19.  John  L.  Lewis,  of  United  Mine  Workers, 
found  guilty  of  contempt  of  court. 

Apr.  20.  Costa  Rica  protested  against  invasion  of 
country  by  Nicaraguan  troops. 

Apr.  23.  Czechoslovakia  and  Bulgaria  signed  a 
treaty  of  alliance,  friendship,  ana  mutual  assist- 
ance. 

Apr.  25.  First  meeting  of  the  Ambassadors*  Com- 
mittee of  the  Consultative  Council  of  the  West- 
ern Union  held  in  Brussels. 

Apr.  30.  Ninth  International  Conference  of  Ameri- 
can States  closed  in  Bogota,  Colombia, 

May  1.  Great  Britain  signed  a  trade  agreement  with 
Hungary. 

M0y  2.  General  Dwight  D.  Eisenhower  took  his 
farewell  salute  from  the  Army  at  Fort  Myer,  Va, 

May  3.  Colombia  severed  diplomatic  relations  with 
the  U.S.S.R. 

May  4.  Siam  established  diplomatic  relations  with 
the  U.S.S.R. 

May  6.  Four-Power  talks  on  Austrian  peace  treaty 
adjourned  in  London  by  deadlock  over  Yugoslav 
claims. 

May  7.  Winston  Churchill  opened  the  Congress  of 
Europe  at  The  Hague. 

May  8.  New  Chinese  Parliament  opened  in  Nan- 
king. 

May  9.  New  Constitution  of  Czechoslovakia  adopt- 
ed by  Constituent  Assembly  without  a  dissenting 
vote. 

May  11.  Henry  A.  Wallace,  in  an  open  letter  to 
Josef  Stalin,  made  proposals  for  improving  re- 
lations between  the  U.S.S.R.  and  the  U.S. 

May  1 1 .  Senator  Luigi  Einaudi  elected  President  of 
the  Italian  Republic  on  the  fourth  ballot. 

May  14.  British  mandate  over  Palestine  terminated 
at  midnight. 

May  14,  The  Jewish  National  Council  proclaimed 
in  Tel  Aviv  the  establishment  of  the  State  of 
Israel  upon  termination  of  the  British  mandate. 

May  16,  Dr.  Chaim  Weizman  elected  President  of 
die  Council  of  Government  of  Israel. 

May  17.  Recognition  of  Israel  given  by  the  U.S.S.R. 

May  17.  Josef  Stalin  replied  favorably  to  Mr.  Wal- 
lace's open  letter  suggesting  better  relations 
between  the  U.S.S.R.  and  the  U.S. 

May  19.  France  agreed  to  the  establishment  of  a 
provisional  central  government  of  Viet  Nam. 

May  21*  Count  Folke  Bernadotte  assumed  duties  as 
mediator  in  Palestine  disputes. 


May  23,  New  Italian  government  formed,  with  Al- 

cide  de  Gasperi,  Christian  Democrat,  as  Premier. 
May  26.  Jan  Christian  Smuts  and  his  Party  defeated 

in  general  elections  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa. 
May  30.  General  elections  in  Czechoslovakia  gave 

the  National  Front  89.28  percent  of  the  total 

votes  cast. 

June  1 .  General  election  in  Cuba  gave  a  heavy  ma- 
jority to  the  Government  party. 

June  3.  General  Higinio  Morinigo,  President  of 
Paraguay,  deposed  by  a  dissident  group  repre- 
senting the  pro-Government  party. 

June  3.  Dr.  D.  F.  Malan,  of  the  National  Party, 
formed  a  new  government  in  South  Africa,  with 
himself  as  Prime  Minister. 

June  4.  Ceylon  applied  for  membership  in  the  Unit- 

.     ed  Nations. 

June  5.  France  signed  an  agreement  recognizing  the 
independence  of  Viet  Nam,  General  Nguyen 
Xuan  being  head  of  provisional  government. 

June  7.  Eduard  Bene§  resigned  as  President  of  the 
Czechoslovak  Republic. 

June  8.  The  U.S.S.R.  announced  a  50  percent  re- 
duction in  reparations  from  Rumania  and  Hun- 
gary. 

June  9.  Klement  Gottwald,  Acting  President  of 
Czechoslovakia,  signed  the  new  Constitution. 

June  14.  Premier  Klement  Gottwald  elected  Presi- 
dent of  Czechoslovakia  by  the  National  Assem- 
bly. 

June  16.  The  Hungarian  National  Assembly  passed 
the  bill  nationalizing  the  schools. 

June  17.  Henry  A.  Wallace  endorsed  as  candidate 
for  Presidency  of  the  U.S.  by  annual  convention 
of  Progressive  Citizens  of  America. 

June  20.  New  German  currency,  the  Deutschmark, 
issued  to  replace  the  Reichsmark  in  the  western 
zones  of  Germany. 

June  23.  Conference  of  Foreign  Ministers  of  East 
European  States  opened  in  Warsaw  to  discuss 
the  London  agreement  on  Germany, 

June  24.  Thomas  E.  Dewey  nominated  as  Republi- 
can candidate  for  the  Presidency  at  the  Republi- 
can National  Convention  in  Philadelphia. 

June  24.  Railway  traffic  between  eastern  and  west- 
ern sectors  of  Berlin  stopped  on  orders  of  the 
Soviet  command. 

June  28.  The  Communist  Information  Bureau,  in 
session  in  Rumania,  denounced  Marshal  Tito  and 
the  leadership  of  the  Yugoslav  Communist  Party, 

June  30.  Last  British  troops  left  Palestine  from 
Haifa,  thus  terminating  the  mandate. 

July  1.  Robert  Schuman,  premier  of  France,  an- 
nounced price  cuts  in  certain  products,  but  for- 
bade any  rise  in  wages. 

July  2.  Secretary-General  of  the  Arab  League  states 
announced  rejection  of  Bernadotte's  proposals 
for  settlement  of  the  Palestine  dispute. 

July  5.  Great  Britain's  National  Health  Service  Plan 
became  effective, 

July  6.  Great  Britain,  France,  and  the  U.S.,  in  paral- 
lel notes,  called  on  the  U.S.S.R.  to  lift  her  block- 
ade of  the  western  sectors  of  Berlin. 

July  7.  Netherlands  elections  gave  a  plurality  to  the 
government  bloc  headed  by  the  Catholic  Peo- 
ple's Party. 

July  12.  Democratic  National  Convention  opened 
in  Philadelphia. 

July  14.  Palmiro  Togliatti,  Italian  Communist  lead- 
er, shot  and  gravely  wounded  by  a  Sicilian  law 
student,  Antonio  Pallante, 


XIV 


Chronology  for  1948 — Continued 


July  15.  President  Harry  S.  Truman  nominated  by 
Democratic  National  Convention  as  candidate 
for  the  Presidency. 

July  17.  J.  Strom  Thurmond,  Governor  of  South 
Carolina,  was  nominated  as  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  of  the  U.S.  by  the  States'  Rights 
Party  Convention  in  Birmingham,  Ala. 

July  19.  Hungary  and  Bulgaria  signed  a  20-year 
treaty  of  mutual  aid. 

July  19.  The  Schuman  cabinet  in  France  overthrown 
by  a  vote  of  297  to  214. 

July  20.  A  Federal  Grand  Jury  indicted  12  Com- 
munist leaders  on  charges  of  advocating  political 
views  held  subversive  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States. 

July  21.  Czechoslovakia  and  Rumania  signed  a 
treaty  of  friendship  and  alliance. 

July  22.  Andre  Marie,  Socialist-Radical,  accepted 
invitation  of  the  French  President  to  form  a  new 
government. 

July  23.  The  third  party  of  Henry  A.  Wallace 
opened  its  first  convention  in  Philadelphia, 
adopting  the  name  Progressive  Party. 

July  24.  The  Progressive  Party  nominated  Henry  A. 
Wallace  as  candidate  for  President  and  Glenn  H. 
Taylor  as  candidate  for  Vice  President. 

July  24.  Andre  Marie  became  premier  of  France. 

July  26.  Special  session  of  the  80th  Congress  con- 
vened in  Washington  under  instructions  from 
President  Truman. 

July  29.  King  George  VI  opened  the  Olympic  Games 
in  London. 

July  30.  Zoltan  Tildy  announced  his  resignation  as 
President  of  Hungary. 

July  30.  The  Danube  Conference  opened  in  Bel- 
grade, Yugoslavia  with  delegates  of  10  countries 
in  attendance. 

Aug.  2.  Envoys  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  the 
U.S.  were  received  by  Stalin  in  Moscow. 

Aug.  3.  A.  Szakasits,  Chairman  of  the  United  Work- 
ers' Party,  was  elected  President  of  Hungary. 

Aug.  5.  Rumanian  government  placed  all  education 
under  state  control. 

Aug.  7.  Poland  and  Czechoslovakia  concluded  an 
agreement  for  close  coordination  of  long-term 
economic  and  industrial  planning  in  both  coun- 
tries. 

Aug.  10.  The  Arab  League  rejected  Israeli  proposals 
to  discuss  peace,  on  ground  it  did  not  recognize 
the  state  of  Israel. 

Aug.  11.  Italian  Catholic  workers  formed  a  new  or- 
ganization, the  Confederation  of  Free  Italian 
Workers. 

Aug.  12.  Mass  demonstrations  against  high  food 
prices  took  place  in  Frankfurt  and  other  German 
cities  in  the  American  zone. 

Aug.  14.  Hungarian  government  published  decree 
establishing  agricultural  cooperatives. 

Aug.  15.  The  Republic  of  Korea  was  proclaimed  in 
Seoul,  with  Dr.  Syngman  Rhee  as  President. 

Aug.  18.  The  Soviet  draft  of  the  Danube  Conven- 
tion was  passed,  the  U.S.  voting  against,  Britain 
and  France  abstaining. 

Aug.  19.  Chinese  government  announced  a  new  cur- 
rency with  a  gold  yuan  valued  at  about  25  cents. 

Aug.  20.  The  17th  Congress  of  the  International 
Red  Cross  opened  in  Stockholm,  with  Count 
Bernadotte  in  the  chair  and  58  nations  repre- 
sented. 

Aug.  21.  The  Central  Action  Committee  of  Czecho- 
slovakia announced  a  complete  reorganization  of 
the  Sokol  system  in  accord  with  government  ob- 
jectives. 


Aug.  28.  In  France  the  government  of  Andre  Marie 
resigned  over  disagreement  on  finance  measures 
proposed  by  M.  Reynaud. 

Aug.  31.  Robert  Schuman  again  became  Prime  Min- 
ister of  France. 

Sept.  4.  Queen  Wilhelmina  of  the  Netherlands  abdi- 
cated the  throne  in  favor  of  her  daughter,  Prin- 
cess Juliana  of  Orange  and  Nassau. 

Sept.  7.  The  government  of  Robert  Schuman  was 
defeated  in  the  French  National  Assembly,  295 
votes  to  289. 

Sept.  8.  The  Scandinavian  Conference  of  the  For- 
eign Ministers  of  Denmark,  Iceland,  Norway, 
and  Sweden  met  in  Stockholm  to  discuss  their 
common  interests. 

Sept.  10.  Henri  Queuille,  Socialist-Radical,  was 
elected  Premier  of  France  by  the  National  As- 
sembly, 351  to  196,  with  47  abstentions. 

Sept.  12.  The  Supreme  National  Assembly  for  Korea, 
meeting  in  the  Soviet  zone,  unanimously  ap- 
proved a  new  government 

Sept.  13.  Troops  of  the  Dominion  of  India  invaded 
Hyderabad  from  many  points,  •  advancing  from 
20  to  30  miles  into  the  country. 

Sept.  17.  Martial  law  was  proclaimed  in  Indonesia 
to  facilitate  the  crushing  of  Communist  uprisings. 

Sept.  17.  The  United  Nations  Mediator  in  Palestine, 
Count  Folke  Bernadotte,  and  his  aide,  assassinat- 
ed in  the  Israeli  section  of  Jerusalem. 

Sept.  18.  The  Nizam  of  Hyderabad  formally  sur- 
rendered to  the  troops  of  the  Dominion  of  India. 

Sept.  20.  United  Nations  General  Assembly  made 
public  Count  Bernadotte's  report  on  Palestine, 
with  recommendations. 

Sept.  21.  House  of  Commons  passed  the  bill  to  re- 
form the  House  of  Lords,  which  rejected  it  on 
Sept.  23.  1  TT 

Sept.  21.  The  Third  General  Assembly  of  the  United 
Nations  opened  in  Paris. 

Sept.  22.  The  Arab  Higher  Committee,  meeting  in 
Damascus,  announced  the  formation  of  a  Pal- 
estine government  with  headquarters  at  Gaza. 

Sept.  26.  France,  Britain,  and  the  U.S.  agreed  to 
submit  the  problem  of  Berlin  to  the  United  Na- 
tions Security  Council. 

Sept.  30.  General  Francisco  Franco  received  U.S. 
Senator  Gurney  and  a  party  of  U.S.  Army  and 
Navy  officers  in  Madrid. 

Oct.  2.  Hungary  and  the  U.S.S.R.  signed  a  trade 
agreement  on  a  barter  basis. 

Oct.  3.  Czechoslovakia,  and  the  U.S.S.R.  signed  a 
trade  agreement. 

Oct.  4.  400,000  French  miners  went  on  strike  in 
protest  against  government  decrees. 

Oct.  4.  Field  Marshal  Lord  Montgomery  was  ap- 
pointed permanent  Military  Chairman  ot  the  De- 
fense Council  of  the  western  European  powers. 

Oct.  7.  Czechoslovak  Parliament  unanimously  ap- 
proved a  severe  law  for  the  defense  of  the  Peo- 
ple's Republic. 

Oct.  10.  Carlos  Prio  Socarrds,  of  the  Autentico 
Party,  was  inaugurated  President  of  Cuba,  suc- 
ceeding Grau  San  Martin. 

Oct.  12.  General  Dwight  D.  Eisenhower  was  in- 
ducted as  the  thirteenth  President  of  Columbia 
University,  New  York. 

Oct.  14.  Dr.  van  Mook,  Lieutenant-General  ot  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies,  resigned. 

Oct.  17.  Secretary  of  State  George  Marshall  arrived 
in  Athens  and  talked  with  government  offacials. 

Oct.  19.  In  Japan  the  conservative  cabinet  ot  Pre- 
mier Shigeru  Yoshida  was  inaugurated  by  Em- 
peror Hirohito. 


xv 


Chronology  for  1948—- -Continued 


Oct.  19.  Soviet  troops  began  their  withdrawal  from 
the  northern  zone  of  Korea. 

Oct.  22.  Hungarian  Government  issued  a  statement 
denouncing  the  treasonable  activities  of  the 
Prince  Primate,  Cardinal  Mindszenty. 

Oct.  22.  A  German  People's  Council  met  in  the 
Soviet  sector  of  Berlin  under  the  chairmanship  of 
Wilhelm  Pieck  of  the  Socialist  Unity  Party. 

Oct.  25.  The  South  Pacific  Commission  began  its 
sessions  in  Sydney,  with  delegates  representing 
six  nations. 

Oct.  25.  French  police,  security  guards,  and  troops 
occupied  numerous  strikebound  coal  mines  in 
the  north  of  France. 

Oct.  26.  New  session  of  British  Parliament  opened 
by  King  George  VI. 

Oct.  27.  An  extreme  right-wing  military  revolt  broke 
out  in  Peru,  under  the  leadership  of  General 
Odria,  ex-minister  of  the  Interior. 

Oct.  27.  The  British  Trades  Union  Congress  Coun- 
cil issued  a  statement  denouncing  Communism 
and  recommending  suspension  of  activities  by 
the  World  Federation  of  Trade  Unions. 

Oct.  28.  Large  numbers  of  people  in  Stuttgart  in 
the  American  zone  of  Germany,  demonstrated 
against  high  prices  and  low  wages. 

Oct.  30.  Chinese  Communist  armies  occupied  Muk- 
den in  Manchuria,  capturing  large  supplies  of 
arms. 

Nov.  2.  President  Harry  S.  Truman  received  49.87 
percent  of  the  vote  in  the  presidential  elections, 
defeating  his  Republican  opponent,  Thomas  E. 
Dewey,  45.77  percent. 

Nov.  3.  The  General  Assembly  of  the  United  Na- 
tions unanimously  adopted  a  Mexican  proposal 
that  the  Great  Powers  renew  their  efforts  to 
establish  a  lasting  peace. 

Nov.  7.  The  French  electoral  college  of  100,000  del- 
egates commenced  voting  for  members  of  the 
Council  of  the  Republic. 

Nov.  8.  Chiang  Kai-shek  called  on  the  Chinese  peo- 
ple to  prepare  for  another  eight  years  of  civil 
war. 

Nov.  10.  British  and  U,S.  authorities  in  Germany 
announced  plans  for  the  coordination  of  the  Ruhr 
iron,  steel,  and  coal  industries. 

Nov.  12.  The  International  Military  Tribunal  of  the 
Far  East  sentenced  Hideki  Tojo  and  6  other 
Japanese  war  criminals  to  be  hanged,  and  17 
others  to  life  imprisonment. 

Nov.  13.  Poland,  Belgium,  and  Luxembourg  signed 
a  mutual  trade  agreement  in  Brussels. 

Nov.  14.  The  Rumanian  Government  fined  the 
Astra-Romana  Oil  Company  4,000  million  lei  for 
robbery  of  oil  from  state  properties. 

Nov.  15.  Moshe  Shertok  declared  before  the  Polit- 
ical Committee  of  the  United  Nations  that  Israel 
would  not  relinquish  its  claim  to  the  Negeb. 

Nov.  17.  The  government  of  Dr.  Malan  introduced 
a  national  registration  system  in  South  Africa 
based  on  race. 

Nov.  18.  Premier  Themistocles  Sophoulis  became 
head  of  a  new  Greek  coalition  Government  of 
the  Liberal  and  People's  Party. 

Nov.  19.  The  Socialist-Catholic  coalition  govern- 
ment of  Belgium,  under  the  premiership  of  Paul 
Henri  Spaak,  resigned. 

Nov.  20.  Czechoslovakia  and  Hungary  signed  a 
5-year  trade  agreement. 

Nov.  22.  Kuomintang  Government  declared  martial 
law  throughout  North  China. 


Nov.  23.  The  Venezuelan  army  took  over  the  control 

of  Venezuela. 
Nov.  26.  Paul  Henri  Spaak  formed  a  new  coalition 

government  in  Belgium. 
Nov.  26.  Dr.  Sun  Fo  was  elected  Prime  Minister  of 

China  by  the  Legislative  Yuan. 
Nov.  28.  Madame  Chiang  Kai-shek  left  China  by 

airplane  for  the  United  States. 
Nov.  29.  The  Constituent  Assembly  of  India  ap- 

E roved  an  article  in  the  draft  Constitution  for- 
idding  the  practice  of  untouchability. 
Nov.  29.  Mr.  Shertok  applied  for  admission  of  the 
state  of  Israel  to  membership  in  the  United  Na- 
tions. 

Dec.  2.  The  U.S.  and  Soviet  members  of  the  Security 
Council  of  the  United  Nations  supported  the  re- 
quest of  Israel  to  be  admitted  to  membership. 

Dec.  2.  Chinese  Communist  armies  entered  Suchow. 

Dec.  3.  The  Treaty  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  binding  na- 
tions of  the  Western  Hemisphere  to  mutual  aid 
against  aggression,  came  into  force. 

Dec.  5.  Elections  were  held  in  the  western  sectors 
of  Berlin,  giving  the  Social  Democrats  64,5  per- 
cent of  the  votes. 

Dec.  8.  Elections  in  Costa  Rica  for  the  Constituent 
Assembly  gave  the  National  Union  Party  of  Dr. 
Ulati  33  of  the  45  seats. 

Dec.  9.  The  General  Assembly  of  the  United  Nations 
unanimously  adopted  a  draft  convention  declar- 
ing genocide  a  crime  in  international  law. 

Dec.  9.  Lajos  Dinnyes,  the  Prime  Minister  of  Hun- 
gary, resigned,  to  be  succeeded  by  Istvan  Dobi, 
of  the  Smallholders  Party. 

Dec.  10.  Costa  Rica  was  invaded  by  armed  forces 
from  Nicaragua. 

Dec.  11.  Canada  and  Newfoundland  signed  the 
terms  of  agreement  making  Newfoundland  a 
province  of  the  Canadian  confederation, 

Dec.  12.  The  Third  Assembly  of  the  United  Nations 
adjourned  in  Paris. 

Dec.  14.  Chinese  Communist  forces  advanced  to  the 
outskirts  of  Peking. 

Dec.  15.  A  military  council  took  over  the  control  of 
El  Salvador,  the  President,  Castaneda  Castro,  re- 
signing. 

Dec.  19.  The  Republic  of  Indonesia  reported  the 
bombing  of  Jogjakarta  by  airplanes  or  the  Neth- 
erlands airforce. 

Dec.  20.  The  United  States  Supreme  Court  dis- 
claimed jurisdiction  in  the  appeal  of  the  Japanese 
war  criminals  sentenced  by  the  International 
Military  Tribunal. 

Dec.  21.  Chinese  Communist  forces  captured  Tang- 
tu,  port  city  30  miles  east  of  Tientsin. 

Dec.  21.  President  O'Kelly  of  Eire  signed  the  Re- 
public of  Ireland  Bill  severing  the  last  constitu- 
tional ties  with  Great  Britain  (to  become  effec- 
tive in  the  Spring  of  1949.) 

Dec.  23.  Hideki  Tojo  and  six  of  his  most  prominent 
collaborators  in  the  war  against  the  Allied  Pow- 
ers, were  hanged  outside  of  Tokyo. 

Dec.  23.  Great  Britain  and  Yugoslavia  signed  a  trade 
agreement. 

Dec.  27.  The  Hungarian  Government  announced  the 
arrest  of  Cardinal  Mindszenty  on  charges  of 
treason,  espionage,  and  sabotage. 

Dec.  28.  Mahmoud  Fahmy  Nokrashy  Pasha,  Prime 
Minister  of  Egypt,  was  assassinated  in  Cairo  by  a 
student  member  of  the  Moslem  Brotherhood, 

Dec.  31.  The  80th  Congress  of-tlie  U.S.  ended. 


xvi 


THE      NEW 

INTERNATIONAL 

YEAR      BOOK 

1948 


ACADEMY,  French  (Academie  Frangaise).  The  oldest  of 
five  academies  which  make  up  the  Institute  of 
France  and  officially  considered  the  highest; 
founded  in  1635.  The  membership  is  limited  to  40. 
The  list  of  Immortals  in  1948,  in  order  of  their 
election,  was  as  follows:  1919 — Henry-Camille 
Bordeaux;  1920 — Andre  Louis  Chevrillon;  1924 — 
Georges  Lecomte;  1925 — Due  de  la  Force;  1927 — 
Mathieu  Emile  Mile  and  Louis  Madelin;  1930 — 
Andre  Chaumeix;  1931 — Pierre  Benoit  and  Max- 
ime  Weygand;  1933 — Francois  Mauriac;  1934 — 
Due  de  Broglie  and  Leon  Berard;  1935 — Claude 
Farrere  and 'Georges  Duhamel;  1936 — Edmond  Ja- 
loux,  Maurice  Genevoix,  Admiral  Lacaze,  Georges 
Francois  Marie  Grente,  and  Jacques  de  Lacretefle; 
1938 — Andre  Maurois  and  Jerome  Tharaud;  1944 
— Prince  de  Broglie,  Pasteur  Vallery-Radot,  and 
Andre  Siegfried;  1945 — Edouard  Le  Roy  and 
Emile  Henriot;  1946— Baron  Seillieres,  Jean  Tha- 
raud, Rene  Grousset,  Edouard  Herriot,  Rene  d'Har- 
court,  Paul  Claudel,  Maurice  Gargon,  Comte 
Charles  de  Chambrun,  Maurice  Pagnol,  Henri 
Mondor,  Jules  Rornains,  and  Etienne  Gilson, 

ACADEMY  OF  ARTS,  Royal.  The  Royal  Academy  of 
Arts,  founded  by  King  George  III  in  1768,  is  main- 
tained, through  the  public  support  of  its  exhibi- 
tions, for  the  promotion  of  the  Fine  Arts.  The 
membership  consists  of  40  Academicians  and  30 
Associates,  elected  by  ballot  by  the  members  from 
among  the  outstanding  painters,  sculptors,  archi- 
tects, and  engravers  practising  in  Great  Britain. 

During  1948  the  Royal  Academy  continued  to 
hold  till  March  an  exhibition  of  Art,  chiefly  from 
the  Dominions  of  India  and  Pakistan;  its  180th 
Summer  Exhibition  (May  1-August  8);  and  two 
autumn  exhibitions  of  Design  for  Industry  and  of 
past  students  of  the  Royal  College  of  Art. 

Officers  of  the  Royal  Academy  for  1947  were: 
President  and  Trustee,  Sir  Alfred  J.  Munnings; 
Keeper,  Philip  Connard;  Treasurer  and  Trustee, 
E.  V.  Harris;  Trustees,  Sir  William  Reid  Dick  and 
W.  Russell  Flint;  Secretary,  Sir  Walter  R.  M. 
Lamb.  Headquarters:  Burlington  House,  London, 
W.I,  England. 

ACADEMY  OF  ARTS  AND  LETTERS,  American.  A  society 
founded  in  1904  by  members  of  the  National  Insti- 
tute of  Arts  and  Letters.  Membership  is  limited  to 
50,  vacancies  being  filled  by  elections  from  the 
membership  of  the  Institute. 

On  May  21,  1948,  a  Special  Meeting  of  the 
Academy  was  held,  followed  by  the  seventh  Public 
Ceremonial  given  jointly  with  the  National  Insti- 
tute of  Arts  and  Letters  at  which  new  members  of 


the  Academy  and  Institute  were  inducted,  fifteen 
$1,000  "Arts  and  Letters"  grants  given,  and  medals 
awarded.  An  exhibition  of  works  by  newly  elected 
members  of  both  organizations,  and  Grantees  in 
Art,  was  opened  on  the  same  day  in  the  Art  Gal- 
lery, and  continued  through  June  30.  On  Novem- 
ber 23  the  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Academy  was 
held  at  the  Academy  Building. 

The  membership  as  of  November,  1948,  con- 
sisted of  the  following,  in  the  order  of  their  elec- 
tion: Bliss  Perry,  Archer  Milton  Huntington,  James 
Earle  Fraser,  Robert  Frost,  James  Truslow  Adams, 
Adolph  Alexander  Weinman,  Walter  Damrosch, 
Anna  Hyatt  Huntington,  Paul  Manship,  Eugene 
O'Neill,  Henry  Dwight  Sedgwick,  Walter  Lipp- 
mann,  M.  A.  De  Wolfe  Howe,  Frank  Jewett 
Mather,  Jr.,  Deems  Taylor,  Van  Wyck  Brooks,  Her- 
bert Putnam,  William  Adams  Delano,  Charles  War- 
ren, Bernard  Berenson,  Chauncey  Brewster  Tinker, 
Albert  Spalding,  Sinclair  Lewis,  Thornton  Wilder, 
Edna  St.  Vincent  Millay,  Carl  Sandburg,  Agnes 
Repplier,  Charles  Hopkinson,  Eugene  Speicher, 
Henry  R.  Shepley,  John  Alden  Carpenter,  John 
Sloan,  Barry  Faulkner,  Edward  W.  Redfield,  Gif- 
ford  Beal,  Frederick  Law  Olmsted,  Ernest  Bloch, 
John  Marin,  Douglas  Southall  Freeman,  Robinson 
Jeffers,  Lee  Lawrie,  Archibald  MacLeish,  Gilmore 
D.  Clarke,  John  Dos  Passes,  Mahonri  Young,  John 
Taylor  Arms,  William  Faulkner,  John  Steinbeck, 
Leon  Kroll,  and  Mark  Van  Doren. 

Officers  (elected  in  1948) :  President,  Paul  Man- 
ship  (Walter  Damrosch  retired  in  March,  1948); 
Chancellor  and  Treasurer,  James  Truslow  Adams; 
Secretary,  Archibald  MacLeish,  Administrative  of- 
fices: 633  West  155th  St.,  New  York  32,  N.Y. 

ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCE,  Finnish  (Suomaldnen  Tiede- 
akatemia).  The  Finnish  Academy  of  Science  was 
founded  in  1908  for  the  purpose  of  furthering  the 
advancement  of  scientific  research.  Membership  to- 
tals 105  academicians  for  the  two  sections :  Mathe- 
matics and  Natural  Sciences,  and  Humanities. 
There  are  also  12  honorary  members  and  39  corre- 
sponding members.  Officers  for  1948-49  are:  Presi- 
dent, Yrjo  Ilvessalo;  Secretary  General,  Ernil  Oh- 
man.  The  Academy  publishes  Annales  Academiae 
Scientiarum  Fennicae  (Series  A  and  B),  Docu- 
menta  Historic^  Communications  (Folklore),  and 
Proceedings.  Headquarters:  Saatytalo,  Helsingfors, 
Finland. 

ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCE  AND  ART,  South  African  (Suid- 
Afrikaanse  Akademie  vir  Wetenskap  en  Kuns).  Found- 
ed in  1909  for  the  advancement  of  the  Afrikaans 
language,  literature,  arts,  science,  and  technology. 


ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES 


ACCIDENTS 


Membership:  600.  Officers  until  1949:  Dr.  J.  K. 
Marais,  Chairman;  Dr.  S.  H.  Pellissier,  Vice  Chair- 
man; Dr.  F.  C.  L.  Bosnian,  Secretary;  I.  M.  Lom- 
bard, Treasurer.  Five  awards  were  made  during 
the  year  1948.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  Academy 
will  be  held  in  July,  1949,  in  Pretoria,  South  Africa. 
Headquarters:  Engelenburg  House,  Hamilton  St., 
Pretoria,  South  Africa. 

ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES,  French  (Academie  des  Sci- 
ences). One  of  the  five  Academies  which  comprise 
the  Institute  of  France;  founded  by  Louis  XIV  in 
1666.  Membership  consists  of  96  Members,  12  for- 
eign associates,  and  111  correspondents.  Officers 
for  1949  are:  President,  Charles  Jacob;  Vice  Presi- 
dent, Gaston  Julia.  Permanent  Secretaries,  Louis 
de  Broglie  (Mathematical  Sciences)  and  Robert 
Courrier  (Physical  Sciences).  The  yearly  meeting 
at  which  prizes  and  awards  are  announced  takes 
place  in  December.  The  Academy  publishes  Comp- 
tes  Rendus  and  M&moires.  Headquarters;  23  Quai 
Conti,  Paris  6*,  France. 

ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES,  Royal  Netherlands  (Koninklijke 
Nederlandsche  Akademie  van  Wetenschappen).  The 

Royal  Netherlands  Academy  of  Sciences  was 
founded  in  1851  as  an  advisory  body  to  the  gov- 
ernment in  scientific  matters  and  as  a  connecting 
link  between  scholars  in  Holland  and  abroad. 
Membership  is  limited  to  50  ordinary,  25  foreign, 
and  20  corresponding  for  each  of  the  two  sections 
of  the  Academy:  Sciences  and  Arts.  Library:  200,- 
000  volumes. 

The  Academy  publishes  a  Yearbook;  the  Section 
for  Sciences  issues  reports,  proceedings,  transac- 
tions, and  Indagationes  Mathematicae;  the  Section 
for  Art  issues  communications  and  transactions.  An- 
nual meeting  of  the  Academy  takes  place  in  March 
or  April  and  monthly  meetings  are  held  by  each 
section,  except  during  July  and  August.  On  Oct. 
30,  1948,  the  Lorentz  Medal  was  awarded  to  Pro- 
fessor Dr.  H.  A.  Kramers,  Academician  since  1929. 

Officers  for  1949-50  are:  President,  Dr.  A.  J. 
Kluyver;  General  Secretary,  Dr.^M.  W.  Woerde- 
man;  Executive  Secretary,  M.  E.  *t  Hart;  Librarian, 
R.  O.  Spanier;  President,  Section  of  Sciences,  Dr. 
A.  J.  Kluyver;  President,  Section  of  Arts,  Professor 
E.  M.  Meyers. 

ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES,  Royal  Swedish  (Kungliga 
Svenska  Vetenskapsakademien).  The  Swedish  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences  was  founded  in  1739  for  the 
promotion  of  research,  especially  in  the  fields  of 
mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences.  Member- 
ship: 140  academicians;  108  foreign  members.  Offi- 
cers for  1948-49:  President,  Gunnar  Holmgren; 
Vice  President,  Rob.  E.  Fries;  Permanent  Secre- 
tary, Arne  Westgren;  Vice  Secretary,  T.  G.  Halle. 
The  Academy  publishes:  Proceedings,  eight 
Archives  (Mathematics,  Astronomy,  Physics,  Chem- 
istry, Botany,  Geology,  Zoology,  and  Geophysics), 
Yearbook,  Annals,  Biographies  and  Dissertations. 
Headquarters:  Stockholm  50,  Sweden. 

ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES  AND  LETTERS,  The  Royal  Dan- 
ish (Kongelige  Danske  Videnskabernes  Selskab).  The 

Academy  was  founded  in  1742  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  the  historical,  physical,  mathematical, 
and  philosophical  sciences.  Membership  includes 
28  academicians  in  the  Section  of  Letters  and  44 
academicians  in  the  Section  of  Sciences.  In  addi- 
tion there  are  140  foreign  members.  The  Academy 
publishes  Oversigt  (annual),  Meddelelser  (Com- 
munications), and  Skrifter  (Memoirs),  Officers  of 
the  Academy  are:  President,  Dr.  Niels  Boehr;  Sec- 


retary, Dr.  Jakob  Nielsen;  Treasurer,  Dr.  Mathias 
Thomsen;  Editor,  Dr.  L.  L.  Hammerick.  Head- 
quarters: Dantes  Plads  35,  Copenhagen  V,  Den- 
mark, 

ACCIDENTS.  There  were  approximately  81,200 
deaths  from  accidents  in  the  United  States  during 
the  first  ten  months  of  1948,  or  2  percent  fewer 
than  occurred  in  the  same  months  of  1947.  The 
decrease  was  limited  to  six  months,  as  shown  by 
the  following  estimates,  made  by  the  National 
Safety  Council. 


Month  1948 

January 8,100 

February 7,600 

March 7,700 

April 7,700 

May 7,700 

June 8,400 

July 8,700 

August 8,900 

September 8, 100 

October 8,400 

10  Months 81,300 


1947  Change 

8,400  -4 

7,500  +1 

8,000  -4 

8,200  -6 

8,100  -5 

8,600  -2 

8,600  +1 

9,200  -3 

8,100  0 

8,100  4-4 


82,800 


-2 


With  accidental  deaths  in  1948  numbering  about 
the  same  as  in  1947,  it  is  probable  that  they  re- 
tained their  position  as  fourth  in  the  list  of  leading 
causes  of  death.  In  1947,  according  to  data  from 
the  National  Office  of  Vital  Statistics,  the  highest 
U.S.  death  rates  per  100,000  population  were: 
Heart  disease,  321.2;  cancer,  132.4;  cerebral  hem- 
orrhage, 91.4;  and  accidents,  69.4. 

Motor-Vehicle  Accidents.  There  was  considerable 
variation  in  the  1947—48  trend  of  motor  vehicle 
deaths  from  month  to  month,  starting  with  a  12 
percent  reduction  in  January,  followed  by  de- 
creases of  3,  5  and  7  percent  in  the  next  3  months. 
In  May  there  were  4  percent  more  deaths  than  in 
1947;  in  June,  the  same  number  as  in  June,  1947. 
July  and  August  saw  small  decreases,  but  in  Sep- 
tember and  October  the  death  totals  were  4  per- 
cent and  8  percent  respectively  above  1947. 

The  10-month  death  total  was  estimated  at  25,- 
720,  or  1  percent  less  than  the  comparable  total 
for  1947. 

The  death  rate  based  on  vehicle  mileage  was 
7.7,  a  decrease  of  8  percent  from  1947,  and  33  per- 
cent from  1941.  It  was,  in  fact,  the  lowest  10- 
month  death  rate  on  record. 

Ten-month  reports  of  452  cities  with  more  than 
10,000  population  showed  a  7  percent  decrease  in 
deaths  from  1947.  Although  this  is  not  the  com- 
plete urban  experience,  it  suggests  that  deaths  from 
accidents  in  rural  areas  may  have  numbered  some- 
what more  than  in  the  first  ten  months  of  1947. 

Regional  changes  in  the  10-month  death  totals 
were: 


North  Atlantic 
South  Atlantic 
North  Central 


South  Central 

Mountain 

Pacific 


iPoblic  Nonmotor-Vehicle  Accidents.  The  1948  10- 
month  total  of  deaths  in  public  accidents  not  in- 
volving motor  vehicles  was  approximately  14,600. 
This  was  6  percent  less  than  the  total  for  the  same 
months  of  1947,  Most  types  of  accidents  showed 
some  decrease,  with  the  largest  reductions  re- 
corded for  burns,  aviation  accidents,  and  drown- 
ings.  However,  there  were  more  fatal  falls  than  in 
1947,  and  more  deaths  in  water  transportation 
accidents. 

All  age  groups  below  65  years  shared  in  the  de- 
crease in  deaths.  Among  persons  65  years  old  and 


ADEN 


ADVERTISING 


older  there  was  a  substantial  increase,  largely  in 
fatal  falls. 

Occupational  Accidents.  Deaths  from  occupational 
accidents  in  the  first  ten  months  of  1948  numbered 
approximately  13,600,  or  6  percent  fewer  than 
occurred  in  the  same  months  of  1947.  About  half 
of  the  decrease  came  from  the  fact  that  the  1947 
total  included  two  major  disasters — the  Texas  City 
ship  explosions,  and  the  Centralia,  111.,  coal  mine 
explosion.  However,  even  omitting  the  disasters, 
the  decrease  in  1948  was  sizable. 

Non-fatal  injury  rates  decreased,  according  to 
reports  of  plants  in  accident-prevention  contests. 
In  one  group  of  contests  the  average  frequency 
rate  went  down  3  percent;  in  another  group,  13 
percent 

Home  Accidents.  During  the  ten  months  there 
were  approximately  28,700  deaths  due  to  home  ac- 
cidents, a  1  percent  increase  over  the  January- 
October  total  for  1947.  Most  types  of  accidents 
were  more  numerous  than  in  the  previous  year, 
with  the  largest  changes  recorded  for  fatal  burns 
and  gas  asphyxiations.  Increases  in  mechanical 
suffocation  cases  and  fatal  falls  were  relatively 
small.  These  increases  were  partly  offset  by  sizable 
decreases  in  deaths  from  poisoning  and  firearms 
accidents. 

The  1947—48  trend  varied  considerably  from  one 
age  group  to  another,  with  decreases  almost  bal- 
ancing increases.  There  was  a  substantial  rise  in 
the  death  rate  for  children  5  to  14  years  old,  but 
an  equally  large  decrease  in  deaths  among  young 
people  15  to  24  years  old.  Smaller  decreases  were 
noted  for  children  under  5  years  and  persons  25 
to  64  years  old,  which  were  more  than  offset  by 
the  increase  in  deaths  of  persons  65  years  old  and 
older.  — A.  D.  BATTEY 

ADEN.  A  British  crown  colony  on  the  southern  tip 
of  Arabia,  about  100  miles  east  of  the  Straits  of 
Bab  el  Mandeb.  The  island  of  Perim  (5  sq.  mi.; 
pop.  360  in  1946)  and  the  five  Kuria  Muria  Is- 
lands (pop,  70  in  1947)  are  also  included  in  the 
colony.  Total  area:  80  square  miles.  Total  popula- 
tion (1946  census):  80,876,  of  whom  9,456  were 
Indians,  7,273  Jews,  and  365  Europeans.  Chief 
towns:  Aden  (capital),  32,490  inhabitants  (1931); 
Sheikh  Othman,  12,167.  Education  (1947):  26 
recognized  schools  with  5,705  students. 

Aden  has  a  fortified  naval  base  and  a  large  free 
port  which  serves  as  an  entrepot  for  trade  with 
Arabia  and  other  adjacent  territories.  Local  prod- 
ucts are  salt  (199,236  long  tons,  1943),  cigarettes, 
coffee,  gums,  dyes,  spices,  feathers,  and  cotton 
"goods.  Trade  (1946-47):  Rs207,7l5,257  for  im- 
ports and  Rs95,125,907  for  exports.  During  1946 
the  merchant  shipping  entering  the  port  totaled 
5,814,573  net  tons.  Finance  (1946-47):  revenue, 
Rsl2,285,773;  expenditure,  9,869,652.  The  colony 
is  administered  by  a  governor,  aided  by  an  execu- 
tive council  (4  members  in  1947)  and  a  legislative 
council  Governor:  Sir  Reginald  S.  Champion. 

ADEN  PROTECTORATE.  The  region  in  southern  Arabia 
extending  east,  north  and  west  of  the  colony  of 
Aden.  Area:  112,000  square  miles.  Estimated  pop- 
ulation, 600,000,  mostly  Arabs.  The  Protectorate  is 
divided  into:  ( 1 )  Western  Aden  Protectorate,  com- 
prising 19  sultanates  of  which  the  premier  chief  is 
the  Sultan  of  Lahej;  (2)  Eastern  Aden  Protector- 
ate, comprising  tie  Hadramaut  (made  up  of  the 
Qu'aiti  State  of  "  Shihr  and  Mukalla,  and  the  Ka- 
thiri  State  of  Seiyun),  the  Mahri  Sultanate  of 
Oishn  and  Socotra,  the  Wahidi  Sultanates  of  Bir 
'AH,  and  the  Sheikdoms  of  Irqa  and  Haura.  The 


Sultan  of  Shihr  and  Mukalla  is  the  premier  chief  in 
the  Eastern  Aden  Protectorate.  The  island  of  So- 
cotra (1,400  sq.  mi.;  pop.  12,000,  capital,  Tama- 
rida),  lies  150  miles  eastward  of  Cape  Guardafui, 
Africa.  Education  (1945):  41  schools  and  3,666 
students. 

The  people  are  mainly  agricultural,  the  chief 
crops  being  com,  bulrush  millet,  and  Indian  corn. 
Other  crops  are  sesame,  lucerne,  dates  and  coffee. 
Fruits  and  honey  are  produced  in  a  few  areas.  The 
only  industries  are  weaving,  dying  and  charcoal- 
burning.  There  are  large  numbers  of  sheep,  goats, 
and  cattle.  The  local  rulers  have  protective  treaty 
relations  with  Creat  Britain  and  manage  their  own 
affairs  subject  to  the  supervision  by  British  officials, 
under  the  Governor  of  Aden. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  islands  (Mantis  is 
the  largest)  in  the  United  Nations  Trust  Territory 
of  New  Guinea,  of  which  it  forms  the  Manus  dis- 
trict. Total  area:  800  square  miles.  Population 
(June  30,  1941):  14,234  natives.  Capital,  Loren- 
gau  (on  the  island  of  Manus).  Coconuts  are  the 
principal  crop.  There  are  also  valuable  pearl  fish- 
eries, 

ADVENT  MOVEMENT.  A  religious  movement  which 
originated  in  America  with  William  Miller  ( 1782- 
1849),  who  believed  in  the  imminent,  personal 
second  coming  of  Christ 

Seventh-day  Adventisfs.  The  largest  of  the  five 
Advenrist  bodies,  with  2,750  congregations,  2,467 
ministers,  11,051  other  workers,  and  228,179  mem- 
bers in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  There  are 
1,338  foreign  missionaries  and  20,379  national 
workers  who  through  12  world  divisions  serve 
400,415  members  overseas.  The  world  church 
maintains  290  colleges  and  academies  and  3,474 
elementary  schools  witih.  170,295  students  and 
8,444  teachers.  The  church  also  operates  177  be- 
nevolent institutions  and  49  publishing  houses. 
Income  from  home  and  overseas  contributions 
(1947),  $38,978,496;  value  of  all  church  proper- 
ties, $138,440,570.  There  were  14,455  baptisms  in 
North  America  and  40,260  overseas  in  1947.  Head- 
quarters: Takoma  Park,  Washington  12,  D.C. 

ADVERTISING.  Advertising,  in  its  broadest  sense, 
includes  all  forms  of  commercial  expression  that 
are  intended  to  influence  special  groups  or  large 
masses  of  people  to  purchase  specific  products  or 
to  accept  specific  ideas  that  are  calculated  to  ad- 
vance some  specific  interest  or  advantage  of  the 
advertiser. 

According  to  the  advertising  trade  publication, 
Printers'  Ink,  approximately  two  percent  of  our 
1948  national  income  of  $215,500  million  has  been 
invested  in  advertising.  That  means  an  expendi- 
ture exceeding  $4,000  million,  which  is  the  largest 
amount  that  business  and  industry  has  ever  spent 
in  its  effort  to  sell  goods  or  to  otherwise  influence 
people. 

That  record  1948  advertising  expenditure  was 
made  in  the  face  of  many  business  uncertainties. 
The  continuation  of  enormous  drains  on  our  na- 
tional economy  by  European  and  Asiatic  countries 
and  by  an  otherwise  expanding  national  budget, 
coupled  with  labor's  drives  for  higher  wages  and 
industry's  requirements  for  higher  prices,  has  con- 
tributed to  an  inflationary  condition  tending  to 
increase  a  consumer  indifference  to  buying  that, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  year,  was  making  itself 
felt  in  many  trade  channels. 

The  war-created  shortages  of  most  consumer 
goods  have  been  made  up,  the  pipe-lines  of  supply 


ADVERT15/NG  4 

are  again  full,  and  competition  for  the  consumer's 
dollar  has  increased  steadily  throughout  the  year. 
The  general  effect  of  these  changes  on  advertising 
has  been  an  intensified  search  on  the  part  of  adver- 
tisers for  the  most  favorable  means  of  realizing 
greater  returns  from  their  advertising  appropria- 
tion. Their  selection  of  media  has  become  more 
highly  critical  Copy  and  techniques  of  presenta- 
tion have  acquired  a  much  sharper  selling  edge. 
More  attention  is  being  paid  to  pretesting  the  ef- 
fectiveness of  individual  advertisements  before 
releasing  them  on  full-scale  campaigns. 

Television.  The  most  conspicuous  advertising  de- 
velopment during  1948  has  been  in  television.  Ac- 
cording to  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  radio  industry, 
"Television's  repercussions  within  three,  or  four, 
or  five  years  will  have  a  more  profound  effect  upon 
the  social,  economic,  and  educational  life  of  the 
United  States  than  the  automobile  had  in  its  first 
twenty  years." 

The  following  figures  afford  some  indication  of 
the  trend  behind  that  statement.  In  1946,  there 
W6re  6,485  home  television  receivers  in  the  United 
States;  in  1947,  there  were  178,571.  By  the  end  of 
1948,  it  is  estimated  that  750,000  homes  were  cov- 
ered and,  according  to  the  Television  Broadcasting 
Association,  there  will  be  1,106,000  home  receivers 
by  the  close  of  1949.  In  October,  1948,  there  were 
37  television  stations  on  the  air,  86  in  process  of 
construction;  and  the  Federal  Communications 
Commission  had  applications  on  file  for  302  more. 

Although  the  impact  of  television  on  radio  and 
on  other  advertising  media  is  already  beginning 
to  make  itself  felt,  it  is  likely  that  this  brilliant  new 
mass  medium  wiU  build  a  niche  of  its  own  with- 
out too  swiftly  revolutionizing  the  positions  of  ra- 
dio, newspapers,  or  consumer  magazines. 

Radio  Advertising.  In  1922,  the  number  of  homes 
owning  radio  sets  was  negligible.  In  1948,  there 
were  estimated  to  be  73  million  radio  sets  in  use, 
including  coverage  of  37  million  homes,  Nearly 
every  American  family  with  spending  power — the 
consumer  advertiser's  objective — has  a  radio. 
These  listeners  were  served  by  1,962  broadcasting 
stations,  The  1947  advertising  investment  in  ra- 
dio time,  talent,  and  production  costs  amounted 
to  over  $530  million.  This  compares  with  an  ex- 
penditure of  $200  million  in  1940. 

Magazine  Advertising.  Despite  the  great  growth  in 
radio  advertising  expenditures,  both  general  maga- 
zines and  newspapers  not  only  appear  to  be  hold- 
ing their  own,  but  to  be  expanding  their  claims  for 
advertising  volume.  The  final  1947  dollar  volume 
for  national  magazine  advertising  as  computed  by 
the  Publishers  Information  Bureau  was  slightly 
more  than  $442  million.  This  compares  with  a 
Printer/  Ink  figure  of  $430.4  million  for  1946.  The 
Magazine  Advertising  Bureau  estimates  a  1948 
dollar  volume  of  $450  million,  thus  maintaining  an 
upward  trend,  though  at  a  slightly  decelerated 
rate. 

During  1948,  Printers*  Ink  published  an  inter- 
esting table  showing  the  course  of  magazine  cir- 
culation development  from  1905  to  1947,  as  fol- 
lows: 

COMBINED  MAGAZINE  CIRCULATIONS 

Year  Mail  Order  Women's            General 

1905 23,000,000  5,000,000        10,000,000 

1920 12,000,000  22,000,000        23,000,000 

1930 7,000,000  26,000,000        41,000,000 

1947 36,000  27,000,000  103,000,000 

Newspaper  Advertising.  Newspapers  will  show  a 
1948  national  advertising  total  estimated  at  $434 
million.  This  is  the  third  consecutive  all-time  high 


ADVISORY  COMMITTEE 


and  compares  with  the  1947  expenditure  of 
million,  according  to  the  Bureau  of  Advertising, 
American  Newspaper  Publishers  Association.  In 
1947,  there  were  1,769  daily  newspapers  in  the 
country,  with  a  combined  circulation  of  51,673,- 
276.  In  1940,  the  last  full  year  before  the  war, 
there  were  more  daily  newspapers,  1,878  to  be 
exact,  but  the  total  combined  circulation  was  less, 
only  41,131,611. 

Business  Paper  Advertising.  For  the  last  ten  years, 
the  volume  of  advertising  in  business  and  indus- 
trial publications  has  exhibited  an  unchecked 
growth.  In  1938,  the  dollar  volume  was  approxi- 
mately $58  million;  in  1947,  it  was  $196  million. 
Partial  figures  for  1948  indicate  a  continuance  of 
that  upward  trend  in  dollar  volume,  although  ac- 
tual use  of  space  had  decreased  somewhat. 

Although  the  business  paper  share  of  the  coun- 
try's $4,000  million  total  advertising  investment  is 
small,  the  effectiveness  of  these  publications  as  ex- 
pediters of  information  at  the  grassroots  of  our 
economy  is  great,  and  the  volume  of  transactions 
fostered  by  business  paper  advertising  is  out  of  all 
proportion  to  its  low  cost. 

Direct  Mail.  The  use  of  the  mails  for  sales  letters, 
brochures,  bulletins,  booklets,  catalogs,  and  other 
commercial  forms  of  the  printed  word  not  appear- 
ing in  regular  publications  very  nearly  equals  in 
expenditure,  if  it  does  not  actually  exceed,  radio's 
$530  million.  In  1936,  expenditures  for  direct 
mail  advertising  were  $266  million;  in  1946,  $279 
million;  in  1947,  $483  million;  and  in  the  first  nine 
months  of  1948,  they  were  30  percent  over  the  first 
nine  months  of  1947. 

Space  does  not  permit  recording  the  conditions 
and  trends  affecting  and  affected  by  other  forms 
of  advertising,  such  as  outdoor  signboards,  car 
cards,  packaging,  premiums,  films;  nor  to  discuss 
the  growth  of  the  public  and  employee  relations 
ideas  that  business  and  industry  are  implementing 
with  increasing  expenditures.  However,  such  facts 
as  have  been  presented  suggest  the  importance 
that  business  and  industry  attach  to  the  use  of 
advertising  in  its  various  forms  as  a  selling  and 
opinion-molding  tool,  increasing  as  competition 
becomes  sharper  and  business  organizations  fight 
to  hold  their  individual  and  collective  spots  in  the 
economic  sun. 

The  problem  of  distributing  the  products  of  in- 
dustry to  the  140-odd  million  people  who  inhabit 
the  cities  and  towns  and  hamlets  and  farmlands 
of  America  is  a  problem  not  only  of  making  those 
products  easily  available  but  of  making  them 
known  to  the  greatest  possible  number  of  individ- 
uals who  are  likely  to  be  interested  in  their  pur- 
chase and  use.  Advertising  is  the  means  of  dis- 
persing that  information  throughout  the  land. 
— J.  R.  VAN"  ARSDALE 

ADVISORY  COMMITTEE  ON  VOLUNTARY  FOREIGN  AID, 

A  committee,  established  on  May  15,  1946  by  let- 
ter from  the  President  to  the  Secretary  of  State 
and  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  to  tie  together 
the  Governmental  and  private  programs  in  the 
field  of  foreign  relief  and  to  facilitate  the  organiza- 
tion of  voluntary  relief  resources  at  home  and  their 
administration  abroad.  It  is  an  advisory  and  expe- 
diting body,  successor  to  the  President's  War  Re- 
lief Control  Board.  There  are  six  committee  mem- 
bers: Charles  P.  Taft  (Chairman),  William  Batt, 
Dr,  William  I.  Myers,  Lessing  J.  Rosenwald,  Dr. 
Joseph  P.  Chamberlain,  and  Francis  P.  Matthews. 
The  Committee  registers  United  States  voluntary 
nonprofit  relief  agencies.  These  agencies  file  with 
the  Committee  their  programs,  budgets,  financial 


AEGEAN  ISLANDS  I 

statements,  and  reports  of  relief  exports  for  public 
inspection.  Based  on  this  information,  the  Com- 
mittee formulates  policies  and  procedures  to  facili- 
tate the  operations  of  the  agencies  in  relation  to  the 
controls  in  the  foreign  field  of  the  Departments  of 
State,  Treasury,  Justice,  Agriculture,  Commerce, 
and  Army,  the  Economic  Cooperation  Administra- 
tion, the  International  Refugee  Organization,  and 
the  International  Children's  Emergency  Fund  of 
the  United  Nations, 

Assistance  in  relief  and  rehabilitation  given  by 
the  American  people  through  the  voluntary  agen- 
cies is  supplementary  to  the  programs  of  the 
United  States  Government  and  the  United  Nations 
organizations.  The  value  of  this  assistance  sent 
abroad  by  agencies  registered  with  the  Advisory 
Committee  on  Voluntary  Foreign  Aid  during  the 
fiscal  year  1948  was  $130,950,301. 

— CHAELES  P.  TAFT 

AEGEAN  ISLANDS.  The  islands  in  the  Aegean  Sea, 
near  Turkey  in  Asia.  Formerly  (1912-14)  under 
the  rule  of  Italy,  the  islands  were  officially  incor- 
porated in  the  kingdom  of  Greece,  Mar.  7,  1948. 
The  award  was  confirmed  in  the  terms  of  the  Peace 
Treaty  between  the  Allied  Powers  and  Italy,  signed 
at  Paris  on  Feb.  10,  1947,  and  which  came  into 
force  at  midnight,  Sept.  15,  1947.  Included  in  the 
islands  are  the  Dodecanese  (Astropalia,  Casos, 
Lipso,  Nisyros,  Patmos,  Symi,  Tilos),  Rhodes,  and 
Castelrosso.  Total  area:  1,035  square  miles.  Total 
population  ( 1947  census ) :  115,913. 

Production.  Among  the  agricultural  products  are 
grapes,  olives,  tobacco,  oranges,  and  vegetables. 
The  main  industries  are  sponge  fishing,  and  the 
manufacture  of  tobacco,  wine,  olive  oil,  oriental 
carpets,  and  artistic  pottery  and  tiles.  Governor 
General:  Dr.  Nicholas  Marvis. 

AFGHANISTAN.  A  kingdom  in  central  Asia.  Area: 
251,000  square  miles.  Population,  according  to  the 
latest  estimate,  12  million.  Chief  towns:  Kabul 
(capital)  300,000  inhabitants,  Kandahar  100,000 
(including  suburbs),  Herat  160,000,  Mazar-i-Sharif 
50,000.  Afghanistan  has  an  extreme  width  from 
the  northeast  to  the  southwest  of  700  miles,  and  its 
length  from  the  Khyber  Pass  to  the  Herat  frontier 
is  about  600  miles. 

Religion  and  Education.  Most  of  the  people  are 
Moslems  of  the  Sunni  sect,  though  there  is  a  mi- 
nority of  a  million  Shiah  Moslems.  Persian  and 
Pashto  are  the  principal  languages.  The  legal  sys- 
tem is  based  partly  on  the  Shariat  (Moslem  laws), 
and  partly  on  secular  Western  law. 

In  1947  there  were  329  primary  schools,  49 
secondary  schools,  and  12  technical  schools  and 
colleges,  four  of  which  form  Kabul  University, 
established  in  1932.  Primary  education  is  compul- 
sory. All  schooling  is  at  Government  expense.  Re- 
cently teachers  have  been  brought  from  the  United 
States,  France,  and  Austria,  and  government  stu- 
dents went  abroad  to  study  in  the  United  States 
and  elsewhere.  The  Education  Ministry  plans  ex- 
panded secondary  and  college  facilities, 

Production.  Agriculture  and  stock  raising  are  the 
chief  occupations,  the  main  products  being  cereals, 
fruits,  nuts,  vegetables,  cotton,  wool,  hides  and 
skins,  and  meat  from  the  native  fat-tailed  sheep. 
The  mineral  resources  include  iron,  copper,  lead, 
gold,  silver,  lapis  lazuli,  coal,  manganese,  beryl, 
and  chrome.  Although  production  is  below  capac- 
ity, the  early  development  of  mineral  deposits 
is  planned.  More  than  50  corporate  business  firms 
(snirkats)  with  capital  ranging  from  10  to  350  mil- 
lion afghanis  ($25  million),  produce  boots,  mili- 


AfGHAMSTAN 

tary  clothing,  furniture,  matches,  buttons,  leather, 
soap,  cotton  goods,  and  wool  products.  Arms  and 
ammunition  are  state-manufactured. 

Foreign  Trade.  Commerce  is  mainly  with  the 
United  States,  which  takes  three-fifths  of  all  ex- 
ports (primarily  karakul  fur),  India,  and  the  U.S. 
S.R.  Chief  exports  are:  fruits,  nuts,  timber,  spices, 
cotton,  carpets,  wool,  and  furs.  Cotton  textiles, 
machinery,  gasoline,  kerosene,  sugar,  motor  ve- 
hicles, and  tea  are  the  main  imports,  coming  pri- 
marily from  the  United  States  and  India.  Total 
commercial  exports  and  imports  have  averaged 
1,500  million  afghanis  annually  ($107  million). 
During  1947-48  purchase  contracts  with  Japanese 
and  German  firms  were  concluded  and  the  Soviet 
trade  agreement  renewed.  Negotiations  have  been 
begun  for  a  commercial  treaty  with  India. 

Finance,  Government  revenues  have  been  in- 
creasing sharply.  The  regular  1947  budget  ex- 
ceeded 400  million  afghanis  ($28.5  million).  Rev- 
enues are  derived  one-third  from  export  and  im- 
port tariffs,  one-third  from  cattle,  income  and 
land  taxes,  and  one-tenth  from  governmental  com- 
mercial transactions  and  investments,  and  taxes 
on  monopolies  (sugar,  petroleum  products,  and 
automobiles).  Deficit  financing  through  central 
bank  loans  was  negligible.  The  Bank  Millie  Af- 
ghan (National  Bank  of  Afghanistan),  a  large 
commerical  and  traders  bank,  promotes  many  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  enterprises.  The  Da 
Afghanistan  Bank,  operating  a  note  issuing  and 
banking  department,  is  responsible  for  a  stable 
money  system  and  helps  the  Finance  Ministry  con- 
trol foreign  exchange.  The  paper  currency  is 
backed  by  a  substantial  gold,  silver,  and  foreign 
exchange  reserve. 

Transportation.  Afghanistan  has  no  railways  and 
practically  no  navigable  rivers.  Four  thousand 
miles  of  roads  are  suitable  for  motor  transport  in 
dry  weather,  and  trucks  are  increasingly  replacing 
pack  animals  as  the  chief  means  of  transportation. 
There  is  an  all-weather  motor  highway  from  Kabul 
to  Peshawar,  India;  a  500-mile  motor  route  from 
Stalinabad,  Soviet  Turkestan,  to  Khorog  on  the 
Afghan  border;  and  a  trade  route  linking  Kandahar 
to  the  Indian  railhead  at  Chaman.  Telephones  are 
installed  in  most  of  the  towns.  There  is  a  govern- 
ment-operated radio  service. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  Oct.  31, 
1931,  Afghanistan  is  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
with  legislative  power  vested  in  the  King,  a  Senate 
of  45  members  nominated  for  life,  and  a  National 
Assembly  of  138  elected  members.  From  time  to 
time  the  Great  Assembly  (Loe  Jirga)  of  about 
1,200  delegates  convenes  to  decide  important  is- 
sues, including  war  and  the  king's  election. 

The  reigning  king,  MohammecfZahir  Shah,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  after  the  latter's  assassination  in 
1933.  His  father's  proclamation  of  the  new  Consti- 
tution was  accompanied  by  a  statement  reaffirming 
the  abolition  of  slavery  and  forced  labor  first  out- 
lawed in  1908.  A  stabilized  central  Government 
and  strengthened  provincial  ^  administration  have 
supplanted  the  royal  family's  earlier  patriarchal 
rule  over  the  loosely  federated  tribes. 

Events,  1948.  During  the  year  there  was  an  in- 
crease in  exchange  with  the  United  States  of  teach- 
ers, students,  and  experts.  The  election  of  a  new 
Kabul  city  administration  produced  significant 
economic  and  civic  changes.  Increased  participa- 
tion in  UN  (United  Nations)  affairs  was  evi- 
denced by  attendance  at  the  Conference  on  Trade 
and  Employment,  and  by  membership  in  the 
World  Health  Organization  (WHO)  and 
UNESCO — out  of  whose  November  conference 


AFGHANISTAN 


AFGHANISTAN 


AFRICA  i 

developed  plans  for  a  1949  UNESCO  educational 
survey  of  Afghanistan. 

An  agreement  between  the  U.S.S.R.  and  Af- 
ghanistan was  ratified  at  Tashkent  on  Oct.  31, 
1948,  fixing  the  frontier  between  the  two  countries. 
No  details  were  made  public. 

Economic  Development  Plan.  The  government  in 
cooperation  with  the  Banke  Millie  Afghan  (Na- 
tional Bank  of  Afghanistan),  business  leaders,  and 
United  States  and  East  Indian  engineering  firms, 
implemented  an  economic  development  plan  pro- 
viding chiefly  for  road-building  and  the  cultivation 
and  reclamation  of  much  cultivable  land  through 
irrigation  and  modernization  of  agricultural  tech- 
niques. Increased  crops,  some  for  export,  would  in- 
clude cotton,  fruits,  vegetables,  sugar  beets,  and 
grains.  The  plan  includes  the  expansion  of  the  cot- 
ton textile  industry  and  electric  power  stations,  and 
the  erection  of  building-material  plants.  Total  in- 
vestments were  estimated  at  $120  million  over  a  5- 
year  period.  Forty  percent  was  to  be  furnished  by 
business,  the  remainder  by  special  government 
loans  and  foreign  exchange  reserves. 

— DOROTHEA  SEELYE  FRANCE 

AFRICA.  The  second  largest  continent,  situated  in 
the  eastern  hemisphere.  Area,  about  11,710,000 
square  miles  (30,330,000  square  kilometers).  Pop- 
ulation (Jan.  1,  1940,  estimate),  157,900,000.  See 
the  separate  articles  on  its  subdivisions,  countries, 
and  territories,  such  as  ALGERIA,  EGYPT,  ETHIOPIA, 
KENYA,  MOROCCO,  FRENCH;  MOROCCO,  SPANISH; 
SOUTH  AFRICA,  UNION  OF;  TUNISIA. 

AGRICULTURAL  COOPERATION.  Farmers*  marketing 
and  purchasing  cooperatives,  although  remaining 
about  the  same  in  number,  experienced  an  increase 
in  their  membership  and  volume  of  business  dur- 
ing 1947.*  The  number  of  associations  which  in- 
cludes independent  local  associations,  federations, 
large-scale  centralized  associations,  and  sales  agen- 
cies totaled  10,125,  of  which  7,268  were  predomi- 
nantly marketing  associations  and  2,857  were  pur- 
chasing associations.  The  total  membership  in  these 
two  groups  was  5,436,000,  compared  with  5,010,- 
000  a  year  earlier.  This  membership,  however,  does 
not  represent  the  actual  number  of  cooperating 
farmers  since  many  are  members  of  more  man  one 
association.  The  combined  business  of  these  two 
groups  was  $7,116,000,000  for  1946-47  as  against 
$6,070,000,000  for  the  previous  year.  The  increase 
in  dollar  volume  reflects  advancing  price  levels. 

Grain  cooperatives  continued  in  first  place  in 
volume  of  business.  There  was  a  slight  decrease  in 
number  of  associations  but  substantial  increases  in 
membership  and  volume.  Both  local  and  regional 
cooperatives  continued  to  enlarge  elevator  facilities 
and  to  install  new  equipment  to  speed  up  the  han- 
dling of  grain.  They  have  continued  to  build  up 
reserves  and  to  improve  their  financial  position. 

Dairy  cooperatives  held  second  place  in  the 
value  of  sales,  showing  a  substantial  increase  over 
the  previous  year.  In  general,  prices  for  dairy 

Eroducts  were  maintained  during  1948.  Erratic 
uctuations,  however,  provided  many  inventory 
headaches  for  managers  of  both  merchandising  and 
fluid-milk  bargaining  associations.  As  a  result,  milk 
bargaining  and  merchandising  associations  in  sev- 
eral areas  attempted  to  devise  new  means  to  in- 
crease production  during  the  fall  and  winter 
months  and  thus  stabilize  prices. 

Fruit  and  vegetable  cooperatives  ranked  third 

*  Figures  released  by  the  Farm  Credit  Administration, 
Cooperative  Research  and  Service  Division  in  1948  are 
for  the  year  1946-47. 


AGRICULTURAL  COOPERATION 

in  sales  volume.  Achievements  during  the  year 
were  characterized  by  economies  of  operation  and 
the  adoption  of  improved  procedures  and  merchan- 
dising practices.  These  were  prompted  by  in- 
creased costs  of  labor,  materials,  equipment,  trans- 
portation, and  other  items,  coupled  with  sharp  re- 
ductions in  prices  received  for  many  fruits  and 
vegetables.  Failure  to  reestablish  exports  in  the  vol- 
ume anticipated  was  also  felt  keenly.  Fruit  and 
vegetable  cooperatives  continued  to  make  progress 
in  processing,  and  are  gradually  becoming  more  ac- 
tive in  the  packing  of  fresh  products  in  consumer- 
size  packages. 

Livestock  cooperatives  ranked  fourth  in  the  mar- 
keting field.  The  main  expansion  took  place  at 
country  points  through  the  establishment  of  decen- 
tralized and  localized  services  for  marketing  live- 
stock. In  some  states,  there  are  now  as  many  as  25 
points  where  farmers  can  market  livestock  cooper- 
atively. Interest  in  the  cooperative  processing  and 
rendering  of  inedible  products  continued.  Several 
cooperatives  handling  wool  constructed  new  ware- 
houses and  expanded  the  service  of  grading  and 
appraising  wool  in  the  producing  areas. 

Cooperative  cotton  gins  increased  in  number, 
particularly  in  the  lower  Rio  Grande  Valley  of 
Texas.  Generally,  cooperative  gins  are  increasing 
in  size,  installing  improved  cleaning  and  drying 
equipment,  expanding  their  services  by  handling 
farm  supplies,  extracting  cottonseed  oil,  and  dis- 
tributing cottonseed.  Cooperative  cottonseed-  and 
soybean-oil  mills  are  showing  increased  interest  in 
the  new  solvent  oil  extraction  process. 

Cooperative  marketing  of  poultry  products 
moved  along  at  a  steady  pace  in  most  instances. 
A  few  new  associations  were  organized  in  1948 
but  existing  cooperatives  are  responsible  for  most 
of  the  development.  Broiler  processing  cooperatives 
experienced  difficulties  during  the  past  year  due 
mainly  to  lack  of  experience,  heavy  investments  for 
building  and  equipment,  strong  competition,  and 
the  relative  instability  of  this  industry.  Turkey 
marketing  cooperatives  have  continued  efforts  to 
create  a  market  for  turkeys  throughout  the  year. 

Tobacco  producers  continued  to  use  the  services 
of  their  cooperative  stabilization  organizations  as 
agencies  to  obtain  production  loans  and  to  market 
tobacco.  Rice  producers  continued  to  experience 
successful  operations  through  their  cooperative 
mills  during  1948.  Honey  producers  have  been 
studying  possibilities  for  organizing  new  marketing 
cooperatives  in  different  sections  of  the  country  to 
help  stabilize  prices  in  those  areas.  Cooperatives 
handling  dried  beans  in  the  West  organized  a  cen- 
tral sales  agency  which  handled  95  percent  of 
their  volume  this  year. 

Purchasing  cooperatives,  in  general,  experienced 
their  best  year  in  1948.  A  few  cooperatives  had 
less  successful  operations  than  in  the  previous  year 
due  mainly  to  excessive  inventories  and  accounts 
receivable  and  increased  competition.  The  princi- 
pal development  among  cooperatives  in  the  petro- 
leum business  was  the  purchasing  of  eight  oil  re- 
fineries during  the  year  and  the  acquiring  o£ 
sources  of  additional  crude  oil.  Two  cooperatives 
whose  major  business  is  petroleum  now  either  own 
or  control  approximately  50  percent  of  their  crude 
oil  requirements. 

Many  new  fertilizer  mixing  plants  were  built  by 
cooperatives  and  several  also  constructed  super- 
phosphate acidulation  plants.  A  federation  of  mid- 
western  regional  cooperatives  acquired  deposits  of 
phosphate  rock  in  Idaho  and  potash  in  New  Mex- 
ico. Several  purchasing  associations  continued  the 
development  of  marketing  services,  particularly  for 


AGRICULTURAL  COOPERATION 

grain,  poultry,  and  eggs.  The  past  year  has  in  gen- 
eral been  one  of  consolidation  of  gains  by  feed 
cooperatives;  however,  several  built  new  mills.  The 
cooperative  manufacture  and  distribution  of  farm 
machinery  made  definite  progress  in  1948. 

Frozen  food  locker  associations  constructed  few- 
er additional  plants  during  the  year.  High  costs 
of  construction  and  a  reduced  demand  for  lockers 
by  patrons  were  a  restraining  influence.  The  asso- 
ciations continued  to  expand,  however,  and  to  di- 
versify their  services,  particularly  those  of  slaugh- 
tering and  processing  livestock  and  poultry. 

The  amount  of  insurance  carried  with  the  fann- 
ers mutual  fire  insurance  companies  reached  an 
all-rime  high  in  1948,  while  loss  ratios  and  other 
costs  remained  less  than  average.  Several  new  as- 
sociations were  organized  by  State  Farm  Bureaus. 
Farmers  mutual  telephone  companies  generally 
need  a  program  of  rehabilitation,  and  preliminary 
work  in  this  direction  is  being  undertaken. 

About  850  rural  electric  cooperatives  were  sup- 
plying power  to  about  two-fifths  of  the  four  mil- 
lion farms  which  had  central  station  electric  serv- 
ice on  June  30,  1948.  During  the  preceding  12 
months,  farm  electrification  increased  from  61  per- 
cent to  68.6  percent  of  the  nation's  farms.  More 
than  half  of  this  increase  was  accomplished  by  co- 
operatives financed  with  loans  from  the  Rural  Elec- 
trification Administration  (REA).  These  electric 
cooperatives  in  1948  provided  service  for  several 
hundred  thousand  additional  farms  and  also  for 
approximately  10.0,000  other  new  rural  consumers, 
including  non-farm  residences,  schools,  churches, 
commercial  establishments,  and  rural  industries. 

During  1948  farmers  in  many  sections  of  the 
country  showed  increased  interest  in  the  problems 
of  rural  health.  Fanner  cooperatives  joined  in 
health  discussions  and  planning  councils,  contrib- 
uted funds  to  build  local  hospitals  and  clinics,  and 
helped  finance  the  education  of  medical  students. 
The  growth  of  health  cooperatives  has  been  slow 
because  of  high  building  and  operating  costs,  short- 
age of  doctors  and  nurses,  and  lack  of  information 
by  local  people.  Mutual  health  insurance  plans, 
however,  have  expanded. 

Cooperatives,  as  a  group,  entered  into  many  ac- 
tivities designed  to  improve  functional  operations 
and  to  meet  problems  of  membership  and  finance. 
Freight  rates  have  increased  about  50  percent  since 
the  end  of  1946.  To  help  reduce  these  costs  and 
improve  services,  some  cooperatives  inaugurated 
transportation  and  shipping  associations,  or  ex- 
panded those  already  operating.  The  National 
Council  of  Fanner  Cooperatives  set  up  a  national 
agricultural  cooperative  transportation  committee 
to  serve  as  a  clearing  house  for  its  members.  Train- 
ing programs  for  directors  and  operating  personnel 
were  instituted  or  expanded  by  many  associations. 
More  associations  adopted  employee  insurance  and 
retirement  plans  and  improved  welfare  programs. 

The  large  associations  recognize  the  increased 
difficulty  of  keeping  members  informed  and  main- 
taining an  attitude  of  ownership  responsibility. 
Several  issued  informative  booklets  and  all  made 
full  use  of  house  organs  and  strove  to  increase  at- 
tendance at  annual  and  other  meetings.  State  co- 
operative councils  have  been  active  in  educational 
work — sponsoring  clinics,  publishing  pamphlets, 
and  getting  information  regarding  cooperatives  to 
the  public.  The  American  Institute  of  Cooperation 
has  worked  closely  with  educational  groups,  par- 
ticularly teachers  in  high  schools  and  colleges.  Co- 
operatives have  been  interested  in  projects  carried 
on  under  the  Research  and  Marketing  Act  to  im- 
prove marketing  and  utilization  of  farm  products. 


8  AGRICULTURAL  RESEARCH  ADMINISTRATION 

Increased  farm  operating  costs  were  reflected  in 
the  increased  volume  of  credit  extended  by  the 
institutions  supervised  by  the  Farm  Credit  Admin- 
istration during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1948,  To- 
tal loans  to  farmers  and  their  cooperatives  amount- 
ed to  nearly  $1,800  million  compared  with  $1,500 
million  in  the  previous  year.  The  503  production 
credit  associations  made  loans  totaling  about  $850,- 
000,000.  These  associations  are  making  continued 
progress  toward  complete  farmer  ownership,  the 
capital  stock  owned  by  Farm  Credit  agencies  now 
being  less  than  25  percent  of  their  total  net  worth. 
The  12  Federal  Land  Banks  and  the  localized  Na- 
tional Farm  Loan  Associations  are  now  completely 
farmer-owned  and  their  loans  closed  during  the 
fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1948,  were  approxi- 
mately $140,000,000.  The  13  banks  for  coopera- 
tives serving  1,559  farmer  cooperatives  with  a 
membership  of  2%  million  made  loans  totaling 
about  $547,000,000. 

In  summary,  1948  was,  on  the  whole,  a  satisfac- 
tory year  for  farmers'  cooperatives,  with  prices  and 
demand  generally  stable.  Farmers'  equities  in  their 
cooperatives  at  the  end  of  1947  were  almost  $1,000 
million  and  there  was  a  substantial  additional  in- 
crease during  1948.  These  equities,  though  assum- 
ing importance  in  the  list  of  farmers'  total  assets, 
are  still  only  a  fraction  of  the  total  investment  in 
farms  and  production  facilities.  Members  and  man- 
agement have  increased  confidence  in  the  value 
and  stability  of  agricultural  cooperatives.  At  the 
same  time  they  are  aware  of  the  problems  that 
must  be  met  to  maintain  and  increase  the  services 
cooperatives  can  provide  for  farmers  in  the  United 
States.  — HAROLD  HEDGES 

AGRICULTURAL  ECONOMICS,  Bureau  of.  A  Bureau  of 
the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  created  in  1922 
by  the  merger  of  two  existing  units.  It  is  the  central 
statistical  and  economic  research  agency  of  the  De- 
partment. It  acquires,  analyzes,  interprets,  and  dis- 
tributes economic  information  relating  to  Agricul- 
tural production  and  distribution  and  to  land  utili- 
zation and  conservation  in  its  broadest  aspects,  It 
collects,  compiles,  analyzes,  summarizes,  and  pub- 
lishes extensive  data  relating  to  agriculture  and 
foods.  Chief:  Oris  V.  Wells. 

AGRICULTURAL  RESEARCH  ADMINISTRATION.  The  Ag- 
ricultural Research  Administration  was  established 
late  in  1941  to  direct  and  coordinate  research  in 
the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  Adminis- 
tration comprises  seven  research  agencies,  operates 
a  12,000-acre  research  center  at  Beltsville,  Md., 
and  coordinates  all  other  Department  research  in 
the  physical  and  biological  sciences.  Dr.  P,  V.  Car- 
don  is  Research  Administrator. 

Many  of  the  current  projects  are  carried  on  un- 
der the  Research  and  Marketing  Act  of  1946.  Close 
cooperation  is  maintained  with  the  State  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations  and  other  research  or- 
ganizations. Brief  statements  on  the  functions  of 
the  agencies  comprising  the  Administration  and 
a  few  examples  of  the  past  year's  research  results 
follow. 

Bureau  of  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Chemistry.  The 
work  of  this  bureau  is  directed  toward  finding  new 
and  wider  industrial  and  food  uses  for  farm  prod- 
ucts. It  operates  four  large  regional  research  labo- 
ratories and  12  field  stations  located  throughout  the 
United  States.  Each  of  the  four  laboratories  works 
on  selected  products  of  particular  importance  in  its 
region.  The  Northern  Regional  Research  Laborato- 
ry, at  Peoria,  III,  deals  with  corn,  wheat,  and  other 
cereal  crops,  soybeans  and  other  oilseeds,  and  ag- 


AGRICULTURAL  RESEARCH  ADMINISTRATION 

ricultural  residues,  such  as  corncobs,  straws,  and 
hulls;  it  works  for  the  improvement  of  fermentation 
processes  and  products  and  maintains  one  of  the 
largest  collections  of  molds  and  other  micro-organ- 
isms in  the  United  States. 

The  Southern  Laboratory,  New  Orleans,  La., 
concentrates  on  cotton,  peanuts,  sweet  potatoes, 
and  rice.  At  the  Eastern  Laboratory,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  tobacco,  apples,  potatoes,  leafy  vegetables, 
milk  products,  hides  and  skins,  tanning  materials, 
animal  fats  and  oils,  and  honey  and  maple  prod- 
ucts are  the  chief  commodities  under  consideration. 

The  Western  Laboratory,  located  at  Albany, 
near  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  conducts  research  main- 
ly on  fruits,  vegetables,  wheat  protein,  alfalfa, 
poultry  products,  wool,  and  dried  beans  and  peas. 
In  other  research  divisions  the  problems  considered 
relate  to  processing  and  utilizing  the  products  and 
by-products  of  pine  gum,  tung  nuts,  sugar  plants, 
and  citrus  and  other  fruits;  'the  preservation  of 
vegetables  by  brining  or  fermentation;  the  extrac- 
tion and  processing  of  rubber  from  guayule  plants; 
and  the  production  of  liquid  motor  fuels  from  crop 
wastes.  Fundamental  research  is  conducted  on  the 
chemistry  and  immunology  of  allergens  existing  in 
agricultural  products,  biologically  active  chemical 
compounds,  the  nature  and  control  of  enzyme  ac- 
tion, substances  with  possible  medicinal  uses,  and 
micro-organisms  in  processed  foods. 

During  the  past  year,  processes  were  perfected 
at  the  Northern  Laboratory  for  making  two  types 
of  useful  products  from  wheat  straw,  nearly  half 
the  95  million  tons  of  which  produced  annually 
in  the  United  States  is  now  wasted.  Fine  paper 
of  the  better  grades  and  insulating  building-board 
can  both  be  made  commercially  from  wheat  straw 
by  the  new  processes.  For  the  papers,  the  straw 
would  be  combined  with  wood  pulp. 

Leaf  meals  of  high  protein  and  vitamin  A  value 
were  prepared  from  field  and  packing-house  wastes 
of  beets,  broccoli,  carrots,  and  other  vegetables  at 
the  Eastern  Laboratory.  Poultry-feeding  tests 
were  of  value.  An  improved  process  for  extract- 
ing an  oil  suitable  for  salad  and  cooking  from  the 
seed-coating  and  germ  removed  from  rice  in  mill- 
ing was  developed  at  the  Southern  Laboratory.  It* 
is  estimated  that  20  million  Ib.  of  such  oil  might 
be  recovered  as  a  by-product  of  the  United  States 
rice  crop  each  year. 

The  synthetic-liquid  fuels  project  reached  the 
stage  of  converting  corncobs  into  motor  fuel. 
Blends  of  5  parts  regular  gasoline  and  1  part  corn- 
cob alcohol  performed  in  a  high-compression  motor 
as  well  as  90-octane  gasoline. 

A  promising  new  antibiotic  named  subtilin  was 
discovered  at  the  Western  Regional  Laboratory. 
It  was  found  to  be  effective  in  culture  against 
micro-organisms  that  cause  tuberculosis,  bovine 
mastitis,  and  several  other  serious  animal  and  hu- 
man diseases. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  This  bureau's  functions 
relate  to  the  breeding,  feeding,  and  management 
of  domestic  animals,  poultry,  and  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals raised  in  captivity;  control  of  animal  diseases 
and  parasites;  improvement  of  animal  products; 
and  the  enforcement  of  livestock  laws  and  regula- 
tions, including  quarantines,  meat  inspection,  and 
inspection  of  other  animal  products,  Many  of  the 
bureau's  activities  are  in  cooperation  with  State 
and  other  agencies. 

Cooperation  with  Mexico  was  continued  in  the 
effort  to  suppress  an  outbreak  of  foot-and-mouth 
disease  that  began  in  that  country  in  1946.  The 
original  plan  to  attempt  eradication  of  the  disease 
by  slaughtering  all  affected  and  exposed  animals 


9  AGRICULTURAL  RESEARCH  ADMINISTRATION 

was  modified.  The  goal  of  the  less  drastic  program 
is  prevention  of  the  spread  of  the  disease,  espe- 
cially of  its  introduction  into  the  United  States, 
gradual  reduction  of  the  infected  area,  and  even- 
tual complete  eradication. 

More  purebred  animals  were  certified  for  entry 
into  the  country  for  breeding  purposes  during  the 
fiscal  year  1948  than  in  any  previous  comparable 
period.  Such  animals  are  admitted  free  of  duty 
except  from  countries  where  certain  animal  dis- 
eases are  present  and  from  which  importations  are 
restricted. 

More  than  a  million  calves  were  vaccinated  in  a 
campaign  to  eradicate  brucellosis.  It  was  shown 
that  spraying  anemic  cattle  infested  with  lice  with 
DDT  cured  the  anemia. 

Crossbred  pullets  of  Rhode  Island  Red  and 
White  Leghorn  breeds  produced  more  eggs  than 
those  of  either  parent  breed,  in  investigations  at 
Beltsville,  Md.  Benzene  hexachloride  proved  to  be 
effective  in  treating  sheep  for  scabies. 

Bureau  of  Dairy  Industry.  The  principal  functions 
of  this  bureau  are  breeding  and  feeding  dairy  cat- 
tle for  the  highest  possible  production  of  milk  and 
butterfat,  and  improving  dairy  products  and  by- 
products. Results  continued  to  be  favorable  in  the 
cross-breeding  experiment  with  various  breeds  of 
dairy  cattle.  Cows  with  the  mixed  blood  of  three 
breeds  produced  more  butterfat  on  an  average 
than  their  two-breed  dams.  A  requirement  for  such 
improvement  is  the  use  of  sires  proved  to  pass  on 
high  milk  and  fat  producing  ability  to  their  daugh- 
ters, regardless  of  breed. 

Feeding  tests  showed  that  dairy  cows  can  main- 
tain satisfactory  growth  and  milk  production  on  a 
ration  containing  less  protein  than  formerly  recom- 
mended. 

Penicillin  was  found  to  control  mastitis  in  88 
percent  of  affected  cows  treated  in  the  bureau 
herd.  It  appeared  that  the  organism  believed  chiefly 
responsible  for  the  disease  is  less  prevalent  as  a 
cause  than  some  related  forms.  • 

Experiments  to  determine  the  effects  of  thyro- 
protein  when  fed  to  dairy  cows  to  stimulate  milk 
secretion  show  that  feeding  the  drug  increases  milk 
production  temporarily  if  extra  feed  is  given,  but 
that  the  increase  in  milk  yield  is  accompanied  by 
accelerated  heart  action  and  respiratory  activity. 
The  use  of  thyroprotein  by  dairy  fanners  is  not 
recommended.  Fortifying  milk  with  vitamin  C  (as- 
corbic acid)  was  found  to  prolong  the  keeping 
quality  of  milk  in  frozen  storage. 

Bureau  of  Entomology  and  Plant  Quarantine.  The 
search  for  more  effective  materials  and  methods 
for  controlling  insect  pests,  the  study  o£  beneficial 
insects  such  as  bees,  and  the  enforcement  of  quar- 
antines to  prevent  the  spread  of  insects  and  plant 
diseases  are  the  main  functions  of  this  bureau. 

Among  new  insecticidal  materials  under  test  are 
chlordane,  chlorinated  camphene,  and  parathion. 
Each  of  these  promises  to  be  effective  against  cer- 
tain insects,  in  some  cases  more  effective  even  than 
DDT.  Parathion  is  especially  promising  as  a  killer 
of  certain  fruit  insects,  adult  and  larval  mosquitoes, 
and  adult  houseflies.  This  chemical  is  highly  toxic 
to  man,  however,  and  its  general  use  cannot  be 
recommended  at  present. 

It  was  shown  in  both  laboratory  and  field  tests 
that  corn  growing  in  soil  treated  with  parathion 
absorbed  enough  of  the  chemical  to  kill  larvae  of 
the  European  corn-borer  feeding  on  it.  A  method 
for  detecting  the  amount  of  weevil  infestation  in 
stored  wheat  and  other  grains  was  developed. 
Grain  samples  soaked  for  10  minutes  in  a  dye  so- 
lution containing  acid  fuchsin  and  then  washed 


AGR/Cl/lTURAl  RESEARCH  ADMIN/STRAT/ON 


10 


AGRICULTURE 


retain  cherry-red  dots  in  kernels  where  weevil  eggs 
have  been-  deposited.  The  dots  are  easily  seen  and 
make  it  easy  to  calculate  the  percentage  of  infes- 
tation in  the  grain, 

It  was  demonstrated  that  a  leaf-hopper  transmits 
the  phloem  necrosis  disease  of  elms,  which  has 
destroyed  thousands  of  trees,  especially  in  the 
Middle  West.  Control  of  the  disease  is  now  pos- 
sible through  control  of  the  insect  carrier. 

An  automatically  operated  multiple  aerosol  spray 
for  clearing  airplanes  of  insects  was  designed  and 
demonstrated.  One  switch  releases  an  aerosol 
through  a  number  of  nozzles  placed  throughout 
the  plane.  Such  protection  is  important  to  prevent 
the  introduction  of  insects  into  new  territory  by 
means  of  air  transportation. 

Bureau  of  Human  Nutrition  and  Home  Economics. 
This  bureau  completed  25  years  of  service  to  home- 
makers  in  1948.  Its  functions  are  the  determination 
of  basic  human  needs  for  food  and  other  essentials, 
studies  of  the  nutritional  value  of  foods  and  of 
the  nature  of  other  products  serving  human  needs, 
and  the  finding  of  more  scientific  and  efficient  ways 
for  homemakers  to  perform  their  tasks. 

A  study  of  the  effects  of  various  methods  of 
home-cooking  on  nutrients  in  foods  was  completed 
and  a  report  issued.  The  research  dealt  with  20 
vegetables,  meats,  cereals,  and  breads.  Their  vita- 
min and  mineral  content  was  analyzed  before  and 
after  cooking  in  two  or  more  ways.  Green  peas, 
carrots,  and  potatoes  were  studied  even  more  in- 
tensively. It  was  found  that  vitamin  C  and  thia- 
mine  are  lost  more  readily  in  all  methods  of  cook- 
ing than  the  other  vitamins  and  the  minerals. 
Potatoes  boiled  whole  in  their  skins  retain  more 
vitamin  C  than  when  cooked  in  any  other  way. 

A  model  U-shaped  kitchen  was  built  and  ex- 
hibited. Plans  for  building  it  were  made  available 
through  the  States.  Working  drawings  for  a  series 
of  easy-to-build  kitchen  cabinets  were  also  made 
available.  The  kitchen  was  planned  on  the  basis 
of  research  findings.  Its  U-shaped  design  saves 
steps  and  stooping  and  reaching  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum  by  the  arrangement  of  cupboards  and 
the  establishment  of  work  centers  for  the  various 
kitchen  tasks.  Revolving  shelves  at  the  corners  of 
the  cabinets  are  a  feature. 

A  report  on  How  Families  Use  Their  Incomes 
was  published.  It  summarizes  the  findings  of  a 
study  of  the  kinds  and  amounts  of  goods  and  serv- 
ices required  by  families  in  the  United  States,  both 
rural  and  urban.  The  report  is  intended  especially 
for  use  by  teachers,  social  workers,  and  others  who 
work  with  families. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Soils,  and  Agricultural  En- 
gineering. Plant  breeding,  control  of  plant  diseases, 
the  study  of  soils,  the  influence  of  fertilizers  on 
plant  growth,  farm  machinery  and  buildings  are 
the  fields  of  this  bureau's  work.  Many  of  the  proj- 
ects are  carried  on  in  cooperation  with  State  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations. 

In  plant  breeding,  seven  new  corn  hybrids,  new 
wheat  varieties  resistant  to  a  number  of  diseases, 
a  new  long-staple  cotton,  and  new  varieties  of 
sugarcane  and  sugar  beets  were  released.  New 
Burley  tobacco  varieties  were  developed  that  in- 
crease the  percentage  of  cigarette  leaf  without  re- 
ducing yields. 

Cauliflower  treated  with  a  hormone  spray  two 
weeks  before  harvest  kept  fresh  longer.  Easter 
lilies  stored  at  28°  to  31°  F.  produced  more  buds 
than  bulbs  of  similar  size  stored  at  32°  to  35°.  The 
Scarlet  Runner  bean  was  found  to  be  resistant  to 
two  serious  bean  diseases.  Cracking  of  sweet  po- 
tatoes was  found  to  be  caused  by  nematodes  in  the 


soil  rather  than  by  any  disease  of  the  plant  itself. 

In  the  Columbia  River  basin,  where  irrigation 
has  been  recently  introduced,  yields  of  corn  were 
experimentally  increased  from  20  bushels  to  176 
bushels  to  the  acre  by  closer  spacing  and  the  use 
of  fertilizer. 

Bureau  engineers  improved  equipment  for  har- 
vesting and  drying  ramie  and  kenaf  fiber;  improved 
methods  for  drying  peanuts;  designed  a  tobacco- 
curing  barn  that  requires  less  fuel;  devised  a  new 
type  of  cleaner  for  removing  fine  trash  from  cot- 
ton Hnt  in  ginning  cotton;  and  developed  a  method 
for  artificially  drying  ear  corn  in  farm  cribs  that 
saves  its  own  cost. 

The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.  This  office  ad- 
ministers Federal  grants  to  the  State,  Hawaii,  and 
Puerto  Rico  "Agricultural  Experiment  Stations. 
These  funds  totaled  $9,575,808  in  the  fiscal  year 
1948.  The  stations  received  from  State  legislatures 
about  four  times  that  amount  for  research.  Over 
4,000  lines  of  research  were  active  under  Federal 
grants,  approximately  4,700  under  non-Federal 
funds. 

The  office  assisted  in  coordinating  the  research 
programs  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture with  those  of  the  State  stations  under  1,400 
formal  memoranda  of  understanding  and  took  an 
active  part  in  planning  and  coordinating  coopera- 
tive regional  research  among  the  stations. 

— E.  G.  MOORE 

AGRICULTURE.  Total  farm  production  on  United 
States  farms  in  1948,  as  measured  by  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  in  terms  of  output  for  hu- 
man use,  was  about  37  percent  above  the  prewar 
(1935-39)  level.  It  was  consequently  an  all-time 
record.  Corresponding  figures  for  recent  years 
were:  30  percent  above  prewar  in  1944;  29  per- 
cent above  in  1945;  34  percent  above  in  1946;  and 
29  percent  above  in  1947.  The  increase  over  pre- 
war years,  though  less  than  that  of  urban  industry, 
was  noteworthy  from  several  standpoints.  In  the 
first  place  it  was  without  historic  parallel.  Second- 
ly, it  mainly  reflected  steady  improvement  in  farm 
technology,  plus  renewed  favorable  weather. 

Crop  land  used  was  only  about  the  same  as  in 
the  1930's,  while  the  farm  labor  force  was  smaller 
though  up  from  the  low  point  to  which  it  fell  in 
the  war  years.  Agricultural  production  as  a  whole 
usually  increases  only  very  slowly  from  year  to 
year,  partly  because  of  its  dependence  on  relatively 
changeless  factors  such  as  land,  topography,  and 
climate.  Our  farmers  boosted  their  output  by  more 
than  one-third  within  a  decade  by  means  princi- 
pally of  machinery,  along  with  better  plants  and 
animals,  revolutionary  new  insecticides  and  other 
pest  controls,  and  a  record  fertilizer  use.  In  food 

E reduction  as  distinguished  from  total  farm  output 
?r  human  use,  the  1948  increase  over  the  prewar 
average  was  32  percent. 

Record  Crop  Production.  Aggregate  crop  production 
in  1948,  as  estimated  in  December,  was  the  largest 
on  record  by  a  wide  margin.  Feed-grain  produc- 
tion, dominated  by  a  record  corn  crop,  was  a  new 
high.  Output  of  food  grains  was  the  second  largest 
on  record.  Oilseed  production  topped  any  previous 
tonnage.  There  was  large  production  of  vegetables 
and  of  special  crops.  Fruit  production  was  only 
slightly  below  average.  Livestock  products  con- 
tinued their  downward  trend,  as  a  result  of  the 
relatively  small  production  of  feed  grains  in  1947. 
But  this  trend  is  likely  to  be  reversed  in  1949,  be- 
cause of  the  huge  1948  outturn  of  feed  crops. 

Combined  production  of  all  principal  crops  in 
1948,  based .  on  preliminary  estimates,  was  37  per- 


AGRICULTURE  11 

cent  above  the  1923-32  predrought  average.  It 
was  11  index  points  above  the  previous  high  mark 
set  in  1946.  Contributing  to  this  achievement  were 
record  outputs  of  corn,  rice,  soybeans,  peanuts,  and 
pecans;  near-record  outturns  of  wheat,  oats,  flax- 
seed  sorghum,  grain,  dry  beans,  and  citrus  fruits; 
a  cotton  crop  one-fourth  above  the  average;  and 
above  average  crops  of  barley,  all  hay,  potatoes, 
tobacco,  sugarcane,  sugar  beets,  hops,  peaches, 
grapes,  cherries,  apricots,  and  truck  crops.  Among 
the  major  crops,  only  rye,  buckwheat,  dry  peas, 
sweetpotatoes,  broomcorn,  apples,  and  pears  were 
below  average. 

CHOP  PRODUCTION:  ANNUAL  SUMMARY,  1948 


Production 
(in  thousands) 

Crop 

Average 

Unit 

1937-46 

1947 

1948 

Corn,  all  

Bu, 

2,813,529 

2,383,970 

3,650,548 

Wheat,  all  

Bu. 

942,623 

1,367,186 

1,288,406 

Winter  

Bu. 

688,606 

1,068,048 

990,098 

All  spring  

Bu. 

254,017 

299,138 

298,308 

Durum  

Bu. 

34,619 

44,328 

44,742 

Other  spring  

Bu. 

219,398 

254,810 

253,566 

Oats  

Bu. 

1,231,814 

1,199,422 

1,491,752 

Barley  

Bu. 

298,811 

281,185 

317,037 

Rye  

Bu. 

37,398 

25,975 

26,388 

Buckwheat  

Bu. 

7,022 

7,334 

6,324 

Flaxseed  

Bu. 

26,756 

40,536 

52,533 

Rice  

Bu. 

60,460 

78,259 

81,170 

Popcorn  

Lb. 

170,810 

102,325 

293,160 

Sorghums  grain  

Bu. 

99,791 

96,016 

131,644 

Sorghums  forage  .... 

Tons' 

11,975 

6,078 

7,616 

Sorghums  silage  

Tons5 

4,969 

3,448 

4,549 

Cotton,  lint  

Bales 

12,014 

11,857 

14,937 

Cottonseed  

Tons 

4,947 

4,681 

6,036 

Hay,  all  

Tons 

97,563 

102,765 

99,846 

Hay,  wild  
Alfalfa  seed  

Tons 
Bu. 

11,437 
1,260 

13,479 
1,700 

12,848 
990 

Red  clover  seed  

Bu. 

1,578 

1,262 

1,774 

Alsike  

Bu. 

325 

375 

388 

Sweetclover  seed  .... 

Bu. 

853 

574 

533 

Lespedeza  seed  

Lb. 

167,695 

149,760 

241,560 

Timothy  seed  

Bu. 

1,525 

1,589 

424 

Sudan  grass  seed  

Lb. 

49,763 

21,540 

23,800 

Beans  (dry  edible)  .  .  . 

Bags' 

16,716 

17,218 

20,833 

Peas  (dry  field)  

Bags" 

5,278 

6,513 

3,584 

Soybeans  

Bu. 

134,642 

183,558 

220,201 

Cowpeas  

Bu. 

5,854 

3,466 

3,416 

Peanuts  

Lb. 

1,750,704 

2,182,895 

2,268,110 

Velvetbeans  d  

Tons 

763 

407 

350 

Potatoes  

Bu. 

392,143 

389,048 

445,850 

Sweetpotatoes  

Bu. 

64,866 

55,746 

49,806 

Tobacco  

Lb. 

1,664,265 

2,109,581 

1,897,926 

Sorgo  sirup  

Gal. 

11,437 

9,845 

7,625 

Sugarcane  (sugar  and 

seed)  

Tons 

6,060 

5,297 

6,309 

Sugarcane  sirup  

Gal. 

21,113 

20,270 

13,790 

Sugar  beets  

Tons 

9,771 

12,504 

9,418 

Maple  sugar  

Lb. 

508 

305 

229 

Maple  sirup  

Gal. 

2,273 

2,039 

1,445 

Broomcorn  

Tons 

43 

34 

30 

Hops  

Lb. 

43,532 

50,098 

49,819 

Apples  

Bu. 

115,058 

113,041 

90,288 

Peaches  

Bu. 

66,725 

82,270 

65,749 

Pears  

Bu. 

30,222 

35,312 

26,399 

Grapes  

Tons 

2,705 

3,024 

2,998 

Cherries  (12  States)  .  . 

Tons 

170 

173 

217 

Apricots  (3  States)  .  . 

Tons 

240 

202 

250 

Plums  (2  States)  

Tons 

79 

78 

70 

Prunes,  dried 

(3  States)  

Tons 

207 

198 

171 

Prunes,  others 

(3  'States)  

Tons 

119 

94 

123 

Oranges  (5  States)  .  .  . 

Boxes 

93,087 

114,380 

118,900 

Grapefruit  (4  States). 
Lemons  (Calif.)  
Cranberries  (5  States) 

Boxes 
Boxes 
Bbl. 
Lb. 

47,478 
12,808 
674 
109,476 

61,630 
12,870 
790 
118,639 

56,250 
13,100 
922 
153,812 

Tung  nuts  (5  States)  . 

Tons 

21 

53 

67 

tt  Dry  weight.  *  Green  weight.  c  Bags  of  100  lb.,  uncleaned. 
d  All  purposes.  *  Short-time  average. 

Feed  supplies  per  animal  unit  became  the  most 
liberal  in  history,  though  carry-over  stocks  were 
relatively  small.  With  livestock  numbers  the  small- 
est in  10  years,  the  total  supply  of  corn,  oats,  bar- 
ley, and  sorghum  grain  rose  to  near-record  size. 
Hay  was  in  ample  supply,  with  a  large  carry-over 
and  an  above-average  crop,  but  with  tne  possibility 


AGRICULTURE 

of  some  shortages  in  the  East  North  Central  dairy 
section,  and  dry  range  areas. 

Production  of  food  grains  was  exceptionally 
large  as  a  result  of  a  record  rice  crop  and  a  wheat 
crop  second  only  to  that  of  1947.  The  winter  wheat 
crop  totaled  nearly  1,000  million  bu.;  the  spring 
wheat  crop  for  the  first  time  since  1944,  exceeded 
300  million  bu.  With  a  larger  carry-over  than  in 
the  two  preceding  seasons,  the  supply  provided 
an  ample  quantity  of  wheat  for  domestic  use  and 
as  much  for  export  as  in  either  of  the  previous  2 
years.  Rye  and  buckwheat,  however,  were  relative- 
ly small  crops. 

In  the  year's  oilseed  production,  soybeans  and 
peanuts  reached  new  peaks;  flaxseed  production 
was  the  second  largest  on  record,  and  cottonseed 
production  was  one-fourth  above  average.  In  cot- 
ton's long  history  in  this  country,  only  six  crops  of 
cotton  lint  have  been  larger.  The  yield  of  cotton 
per  acre  was  a  record,  on  an  acreage  slightly  above 
average. 

The  Crop  Reporting  Board  of  the  Bureau  of  Ag- 
ricultural Economics  supplied  the  figures  in  the 
following  table  on  crop  production,  as  of  Decem- 
ber, 1948,  for  the  United  States,  from  reports  and 
data  furnished  by  crop  correspondents,  field  statis- 
ticians, and  cooperating  State  agencies. 

livestock  anrf  Livestock  Products.  The  production 
of  livestock  and  livestock  products  in  1948  seemed 
likely  to  aggregate  about  4  percent  less  than  in 
1947  and  12  percent  less  than  in  the  peak  year, 
1943.  Though  smaller  than  in  any  year  since  1941, 
it  will  be  considerably  larger  than  in  any  year  up 
to  and  including  1941.  The  decline  from  the  previ- 
ous year  was  general  in  all  categories — meat  ani- 
mals, wool  mohair,  dairy,  and  poultry  products.  . 
The  only  item  expected  to  show  an  increase  for 
the  full  year  was  commercial  broilers.  The  expect- 
ed 1948  total  of  41.2  million  lb,  liveweight  of  cat- 
tle, hogs,  sheep,  and  poultry  is  about  2,4  million 
lb.  less  than  that  of  1947,  but  considerably  more 
than  in  any  year  prior  to  1942, 

The  number  of  hens  on  farms  declined  in  1948, 
continuing  a  downward  trend  from  the  1944  peak. 
In  the  first  10  months  of  the  year,  egg  production 
was  1  percent  less  than  in  the  same  portion  of 
1947,  but  for  the  year  was  likely  to  equal  1947. 
The  number  of  layers  in  October  was  2  percent 
less  than  in  1947,  but  the  rate  of  lay  was  at  a  rec- 
ord level.  Total  milk  production  in  1948  fell  off 
about  3  percent  from  the  1947  total  and  was  about 
4  percent  below  the  record  1945  total.  Only  in  the 
4  years  1944-47  has  the  1948  production  been  ex- 
ceeded. Milk  flow  per  cow  was  at  record  or  near- 
record  levels  during  the  first  10  months  of  1948, 
but  at  midyear  the  number  of  milk  cows  was  4 
percent  below  a  year  earlier. 

High  Domestic  Demand.  Consumption  of  agricul- 
tural commodities  in  the  United  States  in  1948  was 
at  a  near-record  level.  Consumption  of  food  on  a 
per  capita  basis,  though  slightly  lower  than  in 
1947,  was  12  percent  above  prewar  and  was  dis- 
tributed by  economic  groups  with  less  unevenness 
than  in  prewar  years.  Civilians  consumed  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  food  supply  than  in  any  year 
since  1941.  Shipments  out  of  the  country,  for  Unit- 
ed States  military  uses,  U.S.  Territories  and  exports, 
took  only  8  percent.  Greater  than  in  1947  in  cotton 
and  dried  fruits,  the  overseas  shipments  were  about 
tie  same  as  in  that  year  in  wheat  and  in  fats  and 
oils;  smaller  in  dairy  products,  fresh  fruits,  tobacco, 
eggs,  and  meats.  Though  huge  by  comparison  with 
the  exports  of  the  interwar  years,  the  shipments 
this  year  came  out  of  the  wartime  and  postwar  gain 
in  this  country's  farm  production.  Consequently 


AGRICULTURE 

they  involved  no  hardship  to  domestic  consumers. 
As  indicated,  the  domestic  consumption  was  ex- 
ceptionally high, 

Consumer  Incomes  and  Food  Buying.  Consumer  in- 
comes continued  to  increase  in  1948  and  so  did 
consumer's  food  expenditures.  With  salaries,  wages, 
profits,  and  farm  incomes  at  record  peacetime 
highs,  United  States  consumers  spent  more  money 
than  ever  before.  During  1947  and  the  first  half 
of  1948  consumers  spent,  on  the  average,  28  per- 
cent of  their  disposable  income  for  food,  compared 
with  23  percent  in  the  prewar  period  of  1935-39. 
The  actual  per  capita  annual  rate  of  expenditure 
for  food  in  the  second  quarter  of  1948  was  &  per- 
cent more  than  in  1947  and  approximately  3  times 
that  of  tie  prewar  period.  Per  capita  disposable 
income  for  the  same  period  was  about  2%  times  the 
1935-39  average. 

Total  utilization  or  disappearance  of  food  pro- 
duced in  or  imported  into  the  United  States  was 
slightly  smaller  in  1948  than  in  the  preceding  4 
years,  but  almost  a  third  higher  than  in  1935-39. 
A  significant  shift  in  utilization,  compared  with  the 
war  years,  began  in  1946.  Sharp  reductions  in  mili- 
tary takings  permitted  continued  high  civilian  con- 
sumption and  large  exports  to  meet  both  rehabili- 
tation and  relief  needs  abroad. 

The  nutritive  quality  of  the  civilian  per  capita 
food  supply  was  considerably  better  during  World 
War  II  than  in  the  years  1935-39,  and  the  im- 
provement continued  into  the  postwar  period.  Sig- 
nificant increases  in  the  daily  supplies  of  minerals 
and  vitamins  principally  reflected  enrichment  of 
cereal  products  and  greater  consumption  of  meat, 
fluid  milk,  citrus  fruit,  and  leafy,  green,  and  yellow 
vegetables. 

Foreign  Market  Somewhat  Unfavorable.  Foreign  de- 
mand outlook  included  important  unfavorable  ele- 
ments, notably  the  shortage  of  dollars  in  Europe 
and  throughout  the  world.  This  was  more  impor- 
tant than  the  year's  recovery  in  world  production. 
Our  total  exports  from  fields  and  factories  in  1946- 
47  amounted  to  $12,750  million;  exports  were 
above  imports  in  value  by  about  $7,350  million. 
The  excess  of  exports  over  imports  was  about  the 
same  in  1947-48.  In  order  to  pay  for  the  difference 
our  customers  abroad  drew  on  their  credits  here, 
liquidated  some  of  their  capital  assets  in  the  United 
States  and  elsewhere,  shipped  gold,  and  relied  on 
loans  and  grants  such  as  the  British  loan  and  what 
was  left  of  UNRBA  money.  Such  means  for  set- 
tling trade  balances  were  likely  to  be  scarce  in 
1948-49. 

Hope  for  quick  lessening  of  the  dollar  shortage 
was  not  high  on  the  basis  of  ERP  commitments; 
the  first  annual  appropriation  was  only  $5,000  mil- 
lion. Still  less  favorable  was  the  prospect  for  re- 
covery in  woild-earning  of  dollars.  Many  authori- 
ties were  profoundly  pessimistic  as  to  Europe's 
early  ability  to  pay  for  goods  with  goods.  Farm 
exports  from  the  United  States  could  evidently  de- 
cline, with  bad  effects  on  the  domestic  price  posi- 
tion. World  food  need  was  sure  to  continue  in  1949 
and  afterward,  despite  recovery  in  world  agricul- 
ture; but  economists  reminded  farmers  and  others 
that  in  world  trade  it  is  money  rather  than  need 
that  counts.  Worthwhile  money  is  the  world's 
scarcest  commodity. 

High  Food-Grain  Exports  May  Continue.  Neverthe- 
less, high  authority  gave  hope  for  maintenance  of  our 
bread-grain  exports.  D.  A.  Fitzgerald,  director  of 
the  Food  and  Agriculture  Division  of  the  Economic 
Recovery  Administration,  said  western  Europe 
would  have  to  import  as  much  food  grain  in  1948- 
49  as  it  did  in  1947-48,  Most  European  countries 


12  AGRICULTURE 

in  1948  still  had  a  bread  ration.  They  wanted  to 
increase  it;  and  they  placed  this  desire  near  the 
top  of  their  priority  for  dollars.  Our  exports  of 
wheat  to  all  countries  in  1947-48,  with  European 
countries  the  chief  recipients,  amounted  to  ap- 
proximately 475  million  bu.  Mr.  Fitzgerald  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  the  effective  demand  in 
1948-49,  or  the  requirement  backed  by  loaned 
plus  earned  dollars,  would  not  be  much  if  any 
smaller.  Bread-grain  production  in  European  ERP 
countries  in  1948  was  about  30  million  metric  tons, 
as  compared  with  21  million  tons  the  previous  year 
and  35  million  tons  on  the  average  in  the  prewar 
years  1935-39.  In  this  comparison  the  significant 
item  was  the  5  million  ton  deficit  from  the  prewar 
level.  With  25  million  more  people  to  feed  in  west- 
ern Europe,  continued  bread-grain  production  be- 
low the  1935-39  level  is  continued  tragedy. 

Europe's  Need  Far  from  Met.  This  region  was  de- 
pendent on  imports  even  in  prewar  years  for  about 
one-third  of  its  food  and  it  is  now  dependent  on 
imports  for  a  much  larger  proportion.  With  its 
farms  below  par  from  war  damage  and  its  farm 
machinery  scanty  and  in  disrepair,  it  has  no  pos- 
sibility of  becoming  self-sufficient  in  food  except 
through  calamitous  depopulation.  Mr.  Fitzgerald 
recognized^  the  dollar  obstacle  to  the  satisfaction 
of  Europe's  food-grain  need,  and  mentioned  two 
additional  qualifications  of  the  prospect  for  United 
States  food-grain  exports;  namely,  the  possibility 
of  increased  exports  from  the  U.S.S.R.  and  the  like- 
lihood that  increased  supplies  would  be  available 
also  from  Canada,  Australia,  and  Argentina.  Yet 
he  looked  for  a  good  world  demand  for  our  food 
grains,  along  with  an  increased  demand  for  coarse 
grains.  He  was  not  bullish  with  regard  to  exports 
of  tobacco,  meats,  and  dairy  products,  beans  and 
peas,  and  one  or  two  other  products.  Beyond  1949 
the  indicator  for  United  States  farm  exports  point- 
ed downward  in  general,  yet  with  fair  prospects 
for  cotton. 

World  Reports  Raise  Bread-grain  Total.  Reports  in 
November  to  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
warranted  an  upward  revision  in  the  estimate  of 
the  world^s  bread-grain  crop.  This  revision  placed 
the  world's  wheat  crop  at  6,285  million  bu.,  about 
35  million  bu.  more  than  the  September  forecast. 
At  the  revised  figure  the  production  would  be  a 
little  larger  than  average  and  considerably  above 
the  small  1947  harvest.  The  rye  production  esti- 
mate of  1,625  million  bu.  was  20  million  bu.  above 
the  previous  forecast  and  about  10  percent  larger 
than  in  1947  though  below  average. 

Chiefly  responsible  for  the  35  million  bu.  in- 
crease in  the  estimated  world  wheat  production 
were  upward  revisions  for  some  European  coun- 
tries, notably  France,  and  improved  prospects  for 
Australia.  Australian  harvest  begins  late  in  Novem- 
ber and  extends  through  January.  Generally  favor- 
able prospects  were  reported  for  Australia,  whose 
crop  was  forecast  at  aoout  185  million  bu.  This 
compared  with  the  record  crop  for  1947  reported 
at  220  million  bu.  Better-than-average  yields  were 
in  prospect  There  was  a  reduction  in  the  estimate 
for  Turkey,  The  upward  revision  of  20  million  bu. 
in  tlie  rye  estimate  was  entirely  in  Europe, 

Changes  in  North  American  estimates  were  mi- 
nor; they  included  a  slight  increase  in  the  1948 
Canadian  wheat  crop,  counteracted  in  part  by  a 
small  reduction  in  the  estimate  for  the  United 
States.  The  net  increase  for  North  America  in  wheat 
was  a  million  bu.,  offset  by  a  net  reduction  of  a 
million  bu.  in  the  North  American  1948  rye  pro- 
duction. Hence  the  estimate  for  the  total  bread- 
grain  crop  remained  virtually  unchanged.  Canada's 


AGRICULTURE 

1947  wheat  production  estimate  was  revived  down- 
ward by  4  million  bu.  in  the  latest  official  report. 

Estimates  for  Europe  increased  by  about  30  mil- 
lion bu.  of  wheat  and  20  million  bu.  of  rye,  on  the 
basis  of  the  November  information.  Wheat  produc- 
tion in  Europe  was  placed  at  1,465  million  bu.  and 
rye  660  million.  An  increase  of  25  million  bu.  in 
the  estimate  for  France  was  the  only  large  revision 
in  wheat.  The  increase  for  rye  largely  reflected  op- 
timistic reports  on  Poland,  where  yields  were  ex- 
pected to  approach  the  prewar  level. 

There  were  no  reports  in  November  as  to  chang- 
es in  the  estimated  1948  outturn  for  the  Soviet 
Union,  Africa,  or  South  America.  The  latter  conti- 
nent's wheat  harvest  was  beginning,  and  was  esti- 
mated at  245  million  bu.  The  forecast  of  180  mil- 
lion bu.  of  wheat  for  Argentina  was  below  average 
and  was  a  sharp  reduction  from  the  1947  outturn 
of  250  million  bu,  This  estimate  took  into  account 
damage  recently  reported  from  frosts. 

Long-time  Readjustments  Necessary.  Briefly,  the 
year-end  portents  indicated  world  demand  for  im- 
portant Ainerican  farm  products  might  shortly  de- 
cline, with  unavoidable  bad  effects  on  the  domestic 
market.  When  export  supplies  back  up  into  storage 
or  into  home  trade  channels,  prices  fall  at  home  as 
well  as  abroad,  even  if  domestic  consumption  and 
buying  power  remain  high.  This  was  the  fanner's 
chief  prewar  problem,  and  1948  saw  it  coming  up 
again. 

Momentum  developed  during  the  war  years  left 
agriculture  geared  high  for  the  export  trade;  it  had 
no  facilities  for  quick  curtailment.  Hence  the  pos- 
sibility of  a  drop  in  its  world  trade,  with  associated 
price  recessions  and  pressure  on  Government  price 
supports,  was  ground  for  some  concern. 

Officials  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
pointed  out  that  the  United  States  contribution  to 
Europe  through  EGA,  though  substantial  and  very 
important,  should  not  be  expected  to  serve  as  a 
complete  offset  to  the  bad  effects  of  the  dollar 
shortage.  In  other  words,  the  EGA  contribution 
was  not  a  guaranty  of  increased  or  even  of  undi- 
minished  farm  export  trade.  The  implication  was 
that  agriculture  should  get  ready  for  adjustments 
to  long-time  peace  conditions. 

Agricultural  Exports  in  1947-48.  Exports  accounted 
on  a  physical  quantity  basis  for  13.8  of  our  food 
distribution  in  the  fiscal  year  1947^8;  they  includ- 
ed military  shipments  of  food  for  relief  feeding- 
programs  in  occupied  areas.  Civilians  in  the  United 
States  took  84.7  percent.  Our  military  services  took 
1.1  percent  for  troops  stationed  at  home  and 
abroad;  non-contiguous  territories  of  the  United 
States  received  0.4  percent  Shipments  overseas 
accounted  for  only  small  fractions  of  the  meat  sup- 
ply and  of  the  eggs.  Exports  took  0.7  percent  of 
the  meats;  civilians  in  the  United  States  consumed 
96.9  percent;  our  military  agencies  took  2  percent; 
and  0.2  percent  went  to  U.S.  Territories. 

The  corresponding  distribution  of  eggs  was:  ex- 
ports, 4.4  percent;  U.S.  civilians,  94  percent;  our 
military  agencies,  1.4  percent;  and  U.S.  Territories, 
0.4  percent.  Civilians  in  this  country  received 
about  90  percent  of  the  cheese  distributed,  80  per- 
cent of  the  condensed  and  the  evaporated  milk; 
98  percent  of  the  vegetables;  and  90  percent  of  the 
fruits.  Nevertheless,  exports  had  economic  impor- 
tance out  of  proportion  to  their  volume.  They  con- 
tributed to  world  healing  and  cleared  markets  that 
otherwise  might  have  clogged. 

Total  food  exports  of  19,347,000  tons  in  1947- 
48  were  slightly  larger  on  a  tonnage  basis  than  dur- 
ing the  preceding  fiscal  year,  and  about  11  percent 
above  the  exports  in  the  first  postwar  year,  1945- 


13  AGRICULTURE 

46.  Exports  of  cereal  products,  including  rice,  to- 
taled 15,7  million  tons,  0.5  million  above  1946-47, 
This  increase  a  little  more  than  offset  a  small  re- 
duction from  the  level  of  the  previous  year  in  the 
exports  of  livestock  products  and  other  foods. 

Grains,  including  rice,  accounted  for  about  81 
percent  of  the  total  export  tonnage.  Wheat  and 
wheat  products  represented  67  percent;  the  other 
grains,  12  percent;  and  rice,  2  percent.  These  prod- 
ucts were  a  larger  proportion  of  the  total  exports 
than  in  the  preceding  two  fiscal  years.  Grain  ship- 
ments abroad  in  both  1946-47  and  1947-48  were 
restricted  to  food  and  seed  uses. 

Exports  of  wheat  and  wheat  products  amounted 
to  13,018,000  tons  grain  equivalent,  or  486  million 
bu.  and  were  the  largest  on  record.  They  were 
almost  10  times  the  average  annual  exports  for 
1935-39.  Exports  accounted  for  almost  half  of  the 
United  States  distribution  of  wheat  for  food  in 
1947_48. 

Exports  of  corn  and  corn  products  amounted  to 
a  million  tons  (grain  equivalent),  only  a  third  of 
the  1946-47  rate.  They  represented  about  30  per- 
cent of  the  total  distribution  of  com  for  food.  The 
outmovement  of  barley,  malt  grain  sorghums,  oats, 
oatmeal,  rye  and  rye  flour  totaled  1,234,000  tons 
(grain  equivalent) — slightly  above  the  level  of  the 
194&-47  fiscal  year,  but  %  greater  than  in  1945-46 
and  about  4  times  the  average  annual  exports  in 
1935-39. 

Exports  in  1947—48  accounted  for  54  percent  of 
the  total  distribution  of  these  grains  for  food.  India 
and  Pakistan  received  most  or  the  grain  sorghums. 
Rice  exports  at  407,000  tons  (milled  basis)  slightly 
exceeded  the  record  of  393,000  tons  established  in 
1946-47.  Exports  of  rice  amounted  to  about  45 
percent  of  the  total  1947-48  United  States  rice 
distribution.  They  went  principally  to  those  areas 
where  rice  is  an  important  food  in  the  local  diet — 
Cuba  and  the  Far  Eastern  countries. 

Exports  of  fats  and  oils  at  251,000  tons  were 
about  14  percent  above  those  of  the  preceding 
fiscal  year  and  almost  3  times  the  prewar  ( 1935- 
39 )  average  annual  rate,  but  19  percent  below  the 
1945-46  level.  An  improvement  in  the  domestic 
supply  of  vegetable  oils  permitted  the  increase. 

The  relatively  small  quantity  of  meat  exported 
in  1947-48  reflected  reduction  in  livestock  market- 
ings from  the  levels  of  the  two  preceding  fiscal 
years,  along  with  sustained  heavy  United  States 
civilian  demand.  Meat  exports  of  68,000  tons  (car- 
cass equivalent)  were  only  a  third  of  the  quantity 
shipped  out  of  the  United  States  in  1946-47;  only 
one-tenth  of  the  average  1945-46  exports. 

Exports  of  cheese,  canned  milk,  and  dried  milk 
in  1947-48  totaled  460,000  tons.  This  was  more 
than  10  percent  below  the  total  of  the  previous 
fiscal  year  and  44  percent  under  the  1945-46  rate, 
but  much  above  prewar  exports.  Exports  of  dairy 
products  consisted  mostly  of  canned  milk  and  non- 
fat dry-milk  solids.  They  accounted  for  37  percent 
of  the  dried  milk  and  16  percent  of  the  canned 
milk  distributed.  Nonfat  dry-milk  solids  (dry  skim 
milk)  were  given,  to  school  children  in  Germany 
and  Japan  under  a  school-lunch  feeding  program. 

Aggregate  exports  of  other  foods — principally 
fruits,  vegetables,  potatoes,  eggs,  dry  beans  and 
peas,  soybeans,  and  peanuts — amounted  to  2,911,- 
000  tons,  and  were  less  than  in  either  of  the  two 
preceding  fiscal  years.  Peanuts  exported  to  Europe 
were  crushed  there  for  peanut  oil.  Exports  repre- 
sented almost  30  percent  of  the  total  United  States 
distribution  of  dry  beans  and  peas  in  1947-48. 

Chief  Destinations  of  Farm  Exports.  Most  of  the  ex- 
ports of  food  from  the  United  States  in  1947-48 


AGRICULTURE 


14 


AGRICULTURE 


went  to  countries  cooperating  in  ;the  European  Re- 
covery Program.  These  European  countries  re- 
ceived a  total  of  12,557,000  tons  or  65  percent  of 
the  total  food  exports  from  the  United  States. 
European  countries  not  cooperating  under  this  plan 
received  1.4  percent;  Far  Eastern  countries,  16.4; 
Latin  American  Republics,  9.5;  Canada,  4.1;  and 
other  areas,  3.6  percent. 

The  bizone  or  United  States-United  Kingdom 
area  of  Germany  received  more  of  the  foods  ex- 
ported from  the  United  States  than  any  other 
country.  Germany  obtained  the  largest  quantity 
of  wheat  (3,720,000  tons),  other  grains  and  grain 
products  (514,000  tons),  and  other  foods  (661,000 
tons).  For  fats  and  oils  and  also  dairy  products, 
this  area  ranked  third  highest  with  35,000  and 
44,000  tons,  respectively.  The  dairy  products  were 
mainly  nonfat  dry-milk  solids  (dry  skim  milk). 
Relatively  little  meat  and  only  a  very  minor  quan- 
tity of  rice  were  sent  there. 

The  Far  East  area  under  United  States  military 
control  (i.e.,  Japan,  Korea,  and  the  Ryukyu  Islands) 
was  the  second  largest  recipient  of  United  States 
food  exports.  The  bulk  of  the  receipts  were  wheat 


Farmers'  Prices  and  Earnings  in  4th  Historic  Inflation. 

This  country  was  in  the  fourth  great  inflationary 
period  of  the  150-year  record  of  wholesale  prices. 
War  and  heavy  Government  spending  accompa- 
nied each  of  these  peaks.  During  most  of  World 
War  II,  inflationary  pressures  were  held  in  check 
by  various  control  measures.  In  1948,  however, 
most  prices  rose  to  new  record  highs;  declines  in 
prices  of  farm  crops  were  largely  offset  by  rising 
prices  of  livestock.  During  both  the  world  war  pe- 
riods, prices  received  by  farmers  went  up  faster 
and  higher  than  did  prices  paid  by  them.  In  early 
1948,  average  prices  paid  and  also  average  prices 
received  by  fanners  were  at  a  new  high.  The  ratio 
between  the  two  reached  a  peak  of  132  in  October, 
1946;  after  some  decline,  it  stayed  well  over  100 
in  1948.  The  prices  of  feed  grains  advanced  sharply 
during  1947  and  reached  an  all-time  high  early 
in  1948.  Prices  of  oats  and  barley  dropped  sharply 
in  the  spring  and  summer  of  1948  down  to  the 
Government  price-support  levels;  prices  of  corn 
declined  contrary  to  the  usual  seasonal  trend.  Be- 
cause of  record  production,  the  prices  of  feed 
grains  in  1948-49  averaged  lower  than  in  1947-48; 


SUMMARY  OF  FOOD  EXPORTS  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES  BY  MAJOR  GROUPS,  AVERAGE  1935-39 

AND  FISCAL  YEARS  1945-48 
(In  long  tons) 


Period 
1935-39  

Wheat  and 
wheat  products 
(grain  equiv.) 
1,366,000 

Other  grains 
(grain  equiv.) 
1,335,000 

Rice 
(milled) 
83,000 

Fats  and 
oils 
87,000 

Meat 
(carcass 
equiv.) 
55,000 

Dairy 
products 
(product 
weight) 
17,000 

Other 
foods 
1,280,000 

Total  food 
exports 
4,223,000 

1945-46  

10,504,000 

1,306,000 

352  000 

310,000 

614,000 

816,000 

3,596,000 

17,498  000 

1946-47  

10,629,000 

4,166,000 

393,000 

220  000 

181,000 

514,000 

3,057,000 

19,160,000 

1947-48  

13,018,000 

2,232,000 

407,000 

251  000 

68,000 

460,000 

2,911,000 

19,347,000 

and  wheat  flour  (1,214,000  tons),  other  grains 
and  grain  products  (382,000  tons),  and  other 
foods,  most  of  which  were  soybeans  (364,000 
tons). 

France  and  French  North  Africa  received  the 
third  largest  quantity  of  food  exported  by  the  Unit- 
ed States  in  1947-48—1,858,000  tons.  This  total 
consisted  principally  of  wheat  and  wheat  flour 
(1,605,000  tons)  and  other  grains  and  grain  prod- 
ucts (141,000  tons).  This  area,  with  37,000  tons, 
ranked  second  among  the  countries  receiving  fats 
and  oils  from  the  United  States. 

About  1,833,000  tons  of  food  were  shipped  to 
the  Latin  American  Republics.  Exports  of  wheat 
and  wheat  products  totaled  903,000  tons;  other 
grains  and  grain  products,  179,000  tons;  rice,  246,- 
000  tons;  fats  and  oils,  66,000  tons;  meat  10,000 
tons;  dairy  products,  55,000  tons;  and  other  foods, 
374,000  tons.  Most  of  the  rice  went  to  Cuba,  a 
country  which  has  always  been  a  large  market  for 
rice  produced  in  the  United  States. 

Other  areas  which  received  large  quantities  of 
food  from  this  country  in  1947-48  were  Italy 
(1,619,000  tons),  Greece  (775,000  tons),  Austria 
(766,000  tons),  and  Netherlands  (765,000  tons). 
All  of  these  countries  are  participants  in  the  Euro- 
pean Recovery  Program. 

Belgium  and  Luxembourg,  which  also  ranked 
high  among  the  recipients  of  United  States  foods, 
obtained  the  largest  quantity  of  dairy  products —  " 
89,000  tons.  The  United  Kingdom  received  only 
363,000  tons  of  food,  the  smallest  quantity  since 
before  World  War  II.  In  1947-48  meat  exports  of 
23,000  tons,  approximately  a  third  of  the  total  ex- 
ported, went  to  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Northern  Ireland, 

The  large  volume  of  exports  to  Germany  and 
the  occupied  area  in  the  Far  East  was  principally 
under  the  direction  of  United  States  military  agen- 
cies. 


they  were  unusually  low  in  relation  to  prices  of 
livestock  and  livestock  products. 

Net  Farm  Income  Lower  than  in  1947.  The  Bureau 
of  Agricultural  Economics  reported  that  the  peak 
year  in  real  income  to  farmers  was  1946  and  in 
net  income  1947.  In  prices  received  the  peak  came 
in  January,  1948.  The  parity-index,  or  the  ratio  of 
the  prices  received  to  the  prices  paid  by  farmers, 
reached  its  peak  in  August,  1948.  It  seemed  in  No- 
vember, according  to  the  BAE,  that  the  net  farm 
income  of  1948  would  be  about  8  percent  less  than 
that  of  1947,  owing  to  an  increase  that  took  place 
in  1948  in  the  farmer's  costs  of  production.  Never- 
theless, the  drop  in  net  farm  income  from  the  level 
of  the  previous  year  left  the  farmers  in  a  very 
strong  position.  Their  net  income  in  1947  was 
nearly  double  the  peak  reached  in  1919  after  the 
first  world  war.  Moreover,  fewer  farm  workers 
earned  the  1948  net  farm  income — 10  millions  as 
compared  with  11  millions  in  1919. 

In  both  these  postwar  peak  years  the  net  earn- 
ings of  farm  workers  averaged  nearly  as  much  as 
those  of  industrial  workers.  Specifically,  the  net 
income  per  person  engaged  in  farming  in  1948 
averaged  $2,050  as  compared  with  the  industrial 
worker's  average  of  $2,500.  In  1919  the  farm  net- 
income  average  was  $969 — the  factory  worker's 
$1,188.  These  comparisons  imply  a  substantial  ad- 
vantage on  the  farm  side,  because  net  income  on 
the  farm  goes  further  than  in  the  city  and  farm  life 
includes  other  values.  It  should  be  noted,  however, 
that  the  comparisons  take  the  whole  net  income  of 
agriculture  but  only  the  wage-earner's  portion  of 
the  factory  income.  Hence  the  resemblance  is  acci- 
dental or  arbitrary  rather  than  truly  significant. 

Cash  from  Marketings.  Cash  receipts  from  market- 
ings came  close  to  the  1947  total  of  40,000  million 
dollars,  with  gross  farm  income  about  the  same 
as  in  the  previous  year.  Payments  by  the  Govern- 
ment to  farmers  totaled  some  $300  million  as  com- 


AGRICULTURE  15 

pared  with  $342  million  in  1942.  Value  of  farm 
products  used  in  farm  homes  increased;  but  so  did 
trie  expenses  of  farm  production.  Allowance  for 
the  rise  in  costs  indicated  the  net  income  of  farm- 
ers, or  what  they  had  left  after  paying  production 
expenses,  interest,  and  taxes,  would  be  around 
$17,000  million  as  compared  with  $18,000  million 
in  1947. 

Costs  in  Farming.  Farmers'  expenses  of  production 
averaged  5  percent  or  more  above  1947,  with  hired 
labor,  operation  of  motor  vehicles,  fertilizer,  and 
maintenance  and  depreciation  of  buildings  and 
equipment  showing  the  greatest  rise.  Farm  wage 
increases  added  substantially  to  farmers'  cash  costs. 
The  rates  were  about  four  times  prewar  compared 
with  a  threefold  increase  in  net  farm  income.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  wages  of  hired  farm  labor  did  not 
hold  their  own  with  increases  in  rural  living  costs. 
In  other  words,  real  farm  wage  rates  declined. 

There  were  more  motor  vehicles  on  farms;  and 
repairs,  parts,  and  fuel  for  these  vehicles  were 
more  expensive.  Maintenance  of  buildings  and 
equipment  was  more  expensive.  Payments  by 
farmers  for  taxes  and  farm  mortgage  interest  were 
higher  than  in  1947.  Taxes  reflected  rising  costs  of 
local  Government;  mortgages  reflected  higher  in- 
terest rates  and  rising  farm  land  values. 

Outlay  for  fertilizer  was  greater  than  in  1947, 
at  slightly  higher  prices.  This  reflected  continued 
optimism  about  agricultural  prices.  Fertilizer  ap- 
plied at  high  rates  was  profitable  on  innumerable 
farms.  The  cost  of  fertilizer  is  rather  stable.  Fer- 
tilizer prices  have  risen  less  since  the  prewar  period 
than  most  other  prices  paid  by  farmers.  Fertilizer 
prices  may  decline  less  in  the  event  of  a  recession. 
Farmers  may  reduce  the  quantities  used,  but  will 
tend  to  maintain  much  of  the  recent  increase. 

Technology  Lowers  Unit  Costs — Boosts  Cash  Costs. 
Better  technology  lowered  total  unit  costs  of  farm 
production,  but  increased  the  farmers*  cash  costs, 
and  resulted  in  more  farm  specialization.  Gasoline, 
tractors,  combines,  and  other  necessary  equipment 
added  to  cash  costs.  Moreover,  the  wheat  farmer 
bought  bread  and  the  dairy  farmer  bought  butter 
and  cheese.  In  short  agriculture  continued  to  move 
away  from  farm  self-sufficiency.  Technical  progress 
varied  greatly  among  farms;  many  farmers  on 
farms  too  small  for  machinery  were  not  prosperous 
and  could  not  keep  step  with  changing  markets  and 
methods.  According  to  the  census  in  1945,  the 
upper  third  of  the  farms  in  the  United  States  pro- 
duced 80  percent  of  the  total  value;  the  lower 
third  only  4  percent.  In  1940,  the  upper  third  pro- 
duced 78  percent  of  the  total  value;  the  lower 
third  5  percent.  Large  numbers  of  relatively  un- 
productive farmers  on  small,  hilly,  or  otherwise 
unsuitable  land  eked  out  a  scanty  farm  income 
with  earnings  from  non-farm  work. 

The  Costs  of  Agricultural  Marketing.  The  retail  value 
of  farm  food  products  increased  to  around  $37,000 
million  in  1948,  but  fanners  received  little,  if  any, 
more  than  in  1947.  The  nation's  bill  for  marketing 
farm  food  products  was  $15,500  million  in  1947; 
it  totaled  about  $17,500  million  in  1948.  Farmers 
received  $19,400  million  out  of  the  retail  value  of 
$34,900  million  in  1947. 

The  greater  instability  of  farm  prices  in  the  mar- 
ket place  as  compared  with  wages  and  non-farm 
prices  showed  up  in  the  farmer's  share  of  the  con- 
sumer's food  dollar.  As  usual,  this  share  varied  with 
farm  prices,  in  part  because  inflexible  items  were  a 
large  portion  in  distribution  costs.  It  also  varied 
widely  among  different  commodities.  About  32$ 
in  1932  and  54<£  in  1945,  it  had  f  alien  in  early  1948 
back  to  the  level  of  early  war  years. 


AGRICULTURE 

An  important  factor  in  the  nation's  marketing 
bill  was  direct  labor  costs,  which  normally  make 
up  about  half  of  the  total  food-marketing  costs. 
Marketing  charges  in  1947  were  almost  50  percent 
more  than  in  the  prewar  period  1935-39.  Hourly 
earnings  in  1947  were  about  double  the  1935--39 
average.  However,  an  increase  in  labor  productiv- 
ity per  man  hour  and  a  decrease  in  marketing  serv- 
ices held  the  labor  cost  per  unit  of  food  marketed 
down  to  78  percent  above  the  prewar  period. 
Hourly  earnings  in  the  food  marketing  services  in 
1948  were  higher  than  those  of  1947. 

Agriculture's  Assets.  Farmers'  assets  in  1948  were 
about  double  those  of  1941,  doubled  chiefly  be- 
cause of  higher  prices.  Their  physical  plant  was 
much  higher  in  value  than  before  the  war,  though 
heavy  production  had  depleted  or  endangered  soil 
resources.  Equipment  had  been  increased,  but 
much  of  it  was  badly  worn,  and  buildings  needed 
repairs.  But  debts  have  been  reduced  and  liquid 
assets  tripled.  Fanners  were  in  a  position  to  rebuild 
their  physical  plants,  protect  the  soil,  and  weather 
any  moderate  financial  storm.  Farm  land  values 
continued  to  increase. 

Higher  prices,  higher  incomes,  higher  rents,  more 
cash  on  hand,  and  a  decrease  in  notes  in  the  bank 
were  powerful  causes.  Land  was  not  as  much  above 
prewar  as  rents,  prices,  or  income;  nevertheless, 
farm  land  values  set  new  high  records.  Values  on 
July  1,  1948,  in  the  United  States  as  a  whole  were 
109  percent  above  the  1935-39  average,  and  2 
percent  above  the  peak  reached  in  1920.  Until 
1947  land  values  in  the  Great  Plains  and  the  Mid- 
west increased  less  relative  to  farm  incomes  than 
in  the  rest  of  the  country.  In  1948  these  regions 
were  mainly  responsible  for  the  increase  in  the 
national  farm  land-value  average. 

Farm  Family  Spending.  The  Department  of  Agri- 
culture reported  changes  in  farm  family  spending, 
deduced  partly  from  reports  on  the  accounts  that 
farm  families  keep  and  send  to  the  State  Colleges 
of  Agriculture.  Reports  from  Iowa,  Illinois,  Kansas, 
and  Minnesota,  and  other  States  furnished  data 
over  an  11-year  period.  Comparable  data  for  urban 
family  spending  were  not  available.  Possibly  data 
from  these  account-keeping  farm  families  would 
difFer  from  an  average  for  all  farm  families.  Ac- 
count-keeping farm  families  are  the  more  prosper- 
ous ones.  Nevertheless,  the  farm  family  accounts 
gave  the  best  picture  available.  These  account- 
keeping  farm  families  generally  spent  less  money 
for  various  consumer  goods  than  the  per  capita 
average  for  all  consumers  in  the  country.  They  got 
some  food  and  fuel  from  the  farm;  moreover,  many 
carried  part  of  their  housing  expenses  as  a  business 
cost.  Also,  many  often  could  buy  farm  products 
cheaply  from  neighbors.  True,  the  farm  families 
had  on  the  average  less  to  spend,  at  least  in  the 
1930's  and  early  1940's,  than  city  families. 

Spending  by  these  account-keeping  farm  fami- 
lies for  consumer  goods  more  than  doubled  from 
1940  to  1947.  Significantly,  the  spending  increased 
more  than  prices  of  consumer  goods.  Farm  families 
greatly  stepped  up  their  spending  for  clothing. 
They  spent  one-fifth  more  for  new  clothing  in  1947 
than  in  1946.  Their  expenditures  for  medical,  care 
increased.  In  1947  these  yardstick  families  paid 
two  and  one-half  times  their  1940  figure  for  medi- 
cal care.  Farm  families  also  modernized  their  homes 
and  bought  household  equipment.  They  put  a  large 
share  of  their  additional  family-living  funds  into 
furnishings  and  household  equipment.  On  the  aver- 
age, they  spent  $500  more  for  family  living  in 
1947  than  in  1946,  with  nearly  a  third  of  the  addi- 
tional sum  going  into  furnishings  and  equipment. 


AGRICULTURE 


16 


AGRICULTURE 


Electrification  Boosts  Farm  Spending.  Extension  of 
electricity  to  rural  areas  stimulated  many  farm 
families  to  modernize  their  houses  and  to  buy 
household  equipment.  The  Rural  Electrification 
Administration  reported  that,  in  1947,  61  percent 
of  all  farms  were  receiving  service,  compared  with 
11  percent  in  1935.  Many  farms  remained  without 
electricity,  especially  in  sparsely  settled  States  such 
as  the  Dakotas,  Nebraska,  Montana,  and  in  some 
Southern  States,  Funds  are  available  for  new  loans 
to  extend  the  program,  but  materials  are  still  scarce. 
From  1940  to  1947  the  number  of  farmhouses  with 
modern  bathrooms  nearly  doubled,  and  more  than 
a  million  were  supplied  with  running  water.  How- 
ever, as  of  April,  1947,  two-thirds  of  the  farmhouses 
still  had  no  running  water;  four-fifths  were  without 
modern  bathrooms. 

livestock  Numbers  ess  of  Jan.  1,  1948.  Each  year 
the  crop  reporting  board  of  the  Bureau  of  Agricul- 
tural Economics  reports  on  the  numbers  and  value 
of  livestock  and  poultry  on  farms  ( including  ranch- 
es) as  of  January  1  for  the  United  States.  It  uses 
information  furnished  direct  by  livestock  and  poul- 
try producers,  reports  collected  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Post  Office  Department  through  the  rural 
mail  carriers,  and  data  assembled  by  field  statisti- 
cians and  cooperating  State  agencies.  Livestock  and 
poultry  not  on  farms  are  not  included. 

In  its  report  for  Jan.  1,  1948,  the  crop  reporting 
board  said  the  number  of  livestock  on  farms  and 
ranches  declined  during  1947  to  the  lowest  level 
since  1939.  Numbers  had  dropped  4  years  in  suc- 
cession since  the  peak  of  Jan.  1,  1944.  The  decline 
during  1947  was  somewhat  larger  than  in  1945  and 
1946  but  less  than  in  1944.  For  the  second  year 
consecutive  numbers  of  each  species  of  livestock 
and  of  chickens  and  turkeys  were  lower  at  the  end 
than  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

The 'decline  in  livestock  and  poultry  numbers  re- 
sulted from  various  causes.  High  prices  for  meat 
animals  encouraged  heavy  slaughter.  Reduced  feed 
supplies  in  the  last  half  of  the  year,  accompanied 
by  high  feed  prices,  curtailed  livestock  feeding  op- 
erations and  prompted  increased  marketing  and 
closer  culling  of  flocks  and  breeding  herds.  A  de- 
cline in  workstock  represented  further  mechaniza- 
tion. Comparatively  low  prices  for  workstock  of- 
fered little  incentive  to  check  the  downward  trend. 

Cattle  and  Hogs.  Cattle  numbers  in  the  United 
States  were  in  their  fourth  year  of  decline  since  the 
peak  number  of  85.6  million  on  Jan.  1,  1945.  In 
previous  cycles  practically  all  the  decline  was  in 
cattle  other  than  milk  cows.  Milk  cows  accounted 
for  a  substantial  part  of  the  reduction  during  1948. 
Important  in  the  total  decline  was  the  fact  that 
cows,  heifers,  and  steers  were  sold  for  slaughter 
and  not  replaced  from  the  large  calf  crops.  A  high 
percentage  of  calves  raised  have  recently  been 
slaughtered  in  their  first  year. 

Hog  production  remained  far  below  the  1943 
peak  made  possible  by  large  carry-overs  of  corn. 
Production  in  1948  was  about  as  large  as  was  pos- 
sible in  view  of  the  small  1947  corn  crop;  corn 
supplies  were  fed  down  to  unusually  low  levels  at 
the  end  of  the  1947-48  feeding  year.  Banner  pro- 
duction of  corn  in  1948,  along  with  hog-corn  price 
ratios  that  rapidly  became  more  favorable  to  hog 
producers,  probably  will  result  in  an  increase  in 
the  production  of  hogs  ahead  of  other  meat  ani- 
mals. A  substantially  larger  pig  crop  in  the  spring 
of  1949  than  a  year  before  woukf  provide  more 
pork  for  the  kte  fall.  Numbers  of  sheep  continued 
to  decline,  though  at  a  slower  rate  than  in  recent 
years. 

Livestock  (excluding  poultry)  numbers  on  Jan, 


1,  1948,  were  4  percent  below  a  year  earlier  and 
about  16  percent  below  the  record  high  numbers  of 
Jan.  1,  1944.  In  terms  of  feed-grain  consuming 
units,  numbers  were  down  3.9  percent;  including 
chickens,  they  were  down  3.7  percent.  In  terms  of 
roughage  and  pasture  units,  the  total  was  down 
4.1  percent. 

Form  Value  of  livestock.  Nevertheless,  the  farm 
value  of  livestock  and  poultry  on  Jan.  1,  1948,  hit 
a  record  high  of  $13.451  million — 12  percent  above 
1947  and  90  percent  above  the  1937-46  average. 
Values  per  head  of  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  chickens, 
and  turkeys  were  the  highest  on  record.  Values  per 
head  were  lower  than  in  1947  for  horses  and  mules. 
Stocks  of  feed  grains  on  farms  on  Jan.  1,  1948, 
were  down  more  than  livestock  numbers.  The  sup- 
ply was  well  below  the  average  for  the  preceding 
10  years,  though  somewhat  better  than  on  Jan.  1, 
1944,  when  livestock  numbers  were  at  an  all-time 
peak.  The  supply  per  unit  of  livestock  was  about 
23  percent  below  that  of  Jan.  1,  1947,  and  13  per- 
cent below  the  1938—47  average. 

Decrease  in  Livestock.  The  decrease  in  cattle  num- 
bers during  1947  amounted  to  2,643,000  head  and 
was  one  of  the  largest  on  record.  It  resulted  from  a 
record  slaughter  of  cattle  and  calves,  accompanied 
by  reduced  imports  of  cattle  from  Mexico.  A  bet- 

SUMMARY  OF  LIVESTOCK  CENSUS  JAN.  1,  1948. 

Number 
on  /arms 
(1,000  head) 
Class  of 
Livestock  *  1947 

Cattle 81,207 

Milk  cows 26,098 

Hogs 56,921 

All  sheep 37,818 

Stock  sheep 32,125 

Horses 7,249 

Mules 2,772 

Chickens 474,441 

Turkeys 6,650 


1948 

78,564 

25,165 

55,038 

35,332 

30,544 

6,607 

2,544 

462,976 

4,507 


Farm  value 
per  head 
(in  U.S.  dollars) 
Average 

1937-46    1947  1948 

52.90      97.40  116.00 

77.00     145.00  164.00 

15.10      36.00  42.80 

7.60       12".20  15'.66 

76.50      59.20  55.50 

124.00     141.00  133.00 

.89         1.44  1.44 

3.59        6.47  6.88 


TOTAL  FARM  VALUE 
(in  $1,000) 


Class  of 

Livestock*  1987-46 

Cattle  ..................  4,069,263 

Milk  cows  ...............  2,026,244 

Hogs  ...................  926,746 

All  sheep  ...............  387,236 

Stock  sheep  .............  337,742 

Horses  ..................  767,801 

Mules  ..................  467,781 

Chickens  ................  435,178 

Turkeys  ................  26,204 

Aggregate  5  species  &  .....  6,618,827 

Aggregate  7  species  *  .....  7,080,209 


1947 

7,907,198 

3,787,080 

2,049,066 

477,296 

393,440 

428,798 

389,776 

682,486 

43,016 

11,252,134 

11,977,636 


W4B 

9,150,013 

4,126,161 

2,355,609 

542,321 

457,510 

366,480 

337,901 

667,597 

30,989 

12,752,324 

13,450,910 


«  For  more  specific  description,  see  tables  by  States  in  USDA 
report  "Livestock  on  Farms,  Jan.  1,  1948."  b  Includes  horses, 
mules,  cattle,  all  sheep,  ana  hogs.  c  Includes  horses,  mules, 
cattle,  all  sheep,  hogs,  chickens,  and  turkeys. 

ter-than-average  calf  crop  in  1947  was  a  partial 
offset  to  the  heavy  slaughter.  The  downward 
phase  o£  the  cattle  numbers  cycle  started  in  1945. 
It  indicated  a  consistent  and  large  decline  in 
milk  cows  and  a  rather  irregular  and  smaller  de- 
cline in  other  cows.  Over  half  of  the  decrease  in 
all  cattle  in  1947  was  in  cows. 

Hog  numbers,  down  3  percent  from  Jan.  2,  1947, 
were  the  lowest  since  1941,  as  a  result  of  heavy 
marketings  of  hogs  during  the  last  quarter  of  1947 
which  more  than  offset  the  increase  in  the  1947 
pig  crop.  All  of  the  decrease  was  in  the  number  of 
hogs  over  6  months  old. 

The  number  of  horses  and  mules  declined 
sharply,  though  the  decrease  in  numbers  was  less 
than  in  1946  or  1945.  The  downward  trend  began 
in  1915  for  horses  and  in  1925  for  mules.  In  1947 


AGRICULTURE 


there  was  a  record  slaughter,  along  with  the  small- 
est crop  of  both  horse  and  mule  colts  on  record. 
Exports,  however,  were  below  the  shipments  in 
1946. 

Chickens  on  farms  on  Jan.  1,  1948,  were  down  2 
percent  in  number  from  1947  to  the  lowest  level 
since  1941.  Pullets  were  about  the  same,  the  de- 
crease being  in  hens  and  other  chickens.  A  drastic 
reduction  of  32  percent  was  recorded  for  turkeys. 
This  brought  the  January  1  inventory  to  the  small- 
est number  of  record  in  1929.  Turkey  breeder  hens 
were  likewise  the  fewest  of  record. 

Liquidation  of  sheep  numbers  continued  but 
the  rate  of  decline  during  1947  was  less  than  in 
any  year  since  1942.  Stock  sheep  for  1948  were  the 
fewest  since  records  began  in  1867.  Sheep  and 
lambs  on  feed  showed  a  16  percent  decrease  from 
a  year  earlier,  but  were  numerous  in  relation  to 
the  number  of  stock  sheep.  The  decline  in  stock 
sheep  was  relatively  greater  for  farm  flocks  than 
range  flocks.  There  was  a  further  drop  in  the  num- 
ber of  farms  keeping  sheep.  Several  Western  sheep 
States  showed  fairly  marked  increases  in  the  num- 
ber of  ewe  lambs,  an  indication  that  the  downward 
trend  was  being  checked  in  these  States. 

Meat  Production  and  Consumption.  Production  of 
meat  in  1948  was  down  about  9  percent  from  1947. 
Output  of  pork  declined  least;  the  spring  pig  crop 
was  only  3  percent  smaller  than  the  1947  spring 
pig  crop,  despite  sharply  reduced  corn  supplies. 
Production  of  beef  fell  short  of  the  1947  level, 
which  had  been  increased  by  rather  sharp  liqui- 
dation of  herds.  Further  reduction  in  numbers  of 
cattle  probably  occurred  in  1948  also,  and  the 
slaughter  contributed  to  the  supply  of  beef  for 
the  year. 

Production  of  lamb  and  mutton  continued  the 
fast  decline  that  began  in  1944.  Production  of  meat 
may  be  about  the  same  in  1949  as  in  1948,  espe- 
cially if  cattle  slaughter  is  reduced  enough  to  sta- 
bilize cattle  numbers.  Production  of  pork  probably 
will  increase,  with  additional  supplies  coming  in 
the  fall  as  hogs  from  the  spring  pig  crop  are 
slaughtered.  Prospects  are  that  output  of  lamb  and 
mutton  will  decline  again. 

About  ten  years  ago  consumption  of  meat  per 
person  in  the  United  States  began  to  rise  after  hav- 
ing declined  steadily  since  the  beginning  of  the 
century.  The  new  uptrend  was  stimulated  by  im- 

E  roving  consumer  incomes,  and  made  possible  by 
igher  yields  of  feed  grains  and  reduction  in  the 
quantities  of  feed  needed  for  workstock.  Early  in 
mis  century,  consumption  of  pork  and  of  beef  was 
nearly  equal,  but  in  later  years  more  pork  than  beef 
was  consumed. 

This  change  resulted  partly  from  a  decline  in 
meat  exports,  which  transferred  more  pork  than 
beef  from  foreign  to  domestic  consumers.  Pork  ex- 
ports remained  substantially  larger  than  beef  ex- 
ports, until  both  became  small  in  the  last  few 
years.  A  record  155  Ib.  of  meat  was  consumed  per 
person  in  1947,  when  reduction  of  cattle  herds  sent 
more  animals  to  slaughter  and  added  to  meat  sup- 
plies. With  fewer  cattle  on  hand  and  a  short  1947 
corn  qrop  cutting  down  meat  production,  consump- 
tion dropped  to  144  Ib.  in  1948.  It  may  remain  at 
approximately  1948  level  in  1949;  increased  pork 
will  about  offset  reduction  in  beef,  lamb,  and  mut- 
ton. 

Dairy  Conditions  Favorable.  Output  of  milk  per 
cow  continued  its  upward  trend,  in  reflection  of 
heavy  culling  of  low  producers  and  relatively  high 
feeding  rates.  Further  decline  in  numbers  of  cows 
during  1948  resulted  from  below  average  dairy- 
product  feed-price  relationships,  high  slaughter 


17  AGRICULTURE 

values  for  dairy  animals,  and  relatively  favorable 
alternative  farming  opportunities.  Numbers  of 
young  stock  were  at  record  levels  relative  to  milk 
cows.  Dairy-product  feed-price  relationships 
seemed  likely  to  be  above  average  throughout 
1948-49;  but  returns  from  other  farm  enterprises 
promised  to  be  above  average  in  relation  to 
dairying. 

Feed  Supplies  for  1948-49.  The  very  favorable 
growing  season  in  1948  resulted  in  a  record  pro- 
duction of  feed  grains,  7  percent  above  the  previ- 
ous record  in  1946,  and  38  percent  larger  than  the 
small  crops  of  1947.  The  increase  from  1947  was 
pronounced  in  the  Cora  Belt.  The  record  1948 
corn  crop  was  fully  adequate  to  meet  domestic 
needs,  provide  larger  exports,  and  still  leave  the 
largest  carry-over  in  recent  years.  Production  of 
hay  in  1948  was  the  smallest  since  1941,  but  ade- 
quate for  the  fewer  hay-consuming  livestock  now 
on  farms. 

Supplies  of  commercial  byproduct  feeds  will 
continue  large  through  1948-49.  Oilseed  cake  and 
meal  will  be  in  record  supply,  and  an  above-aver- 
age supply  of  byproduct  feeds  will  be  available 
from  grain  milling.  Total  supply  of  feed  concen- 
trates for  1948-49  will  be  the  largest  in  recent 
years,  and  only  a  little  below  the  record  supply  of 
1942-43.  With  livestock  on  farms  below  the  war- 
time peak,  supplies  of  feed  concentrates  per  ani- 
mal are  the  largest  on  record.  Ample  feed  supplies 
for  1948-49,  in  contrast  with  the  small  supply  in 
1947  ensures  liberal  feeding  of  livestock,  increased 
exports,  and  the  largest  carry-over  of  feed  grains 
in  recent  years. 

Wheat  Production,  Acreage,  and  Prices.  As  men- 
tioned, the  production  of  wheat  in  the  United 
States  in  1948  was  nearly  1,284  million  bu.,  sec- 
ond only  to  the  1947  record  total  of  1,365  million; 
and  world  production  of  wheat  at  about  6,285  mil- 
lion bu.  was  above  average  and  considerably  above 
the  production  of  1947.  Nevertheless,  cash  wheat 
prices  on  November  22  were  10  cents  a  bushel 
above  the  Government  loan  rate.  At  Minneapolis 
on  the  same  date  cash  wheat  was  15  cents  above 
the  loan  value.  These  prices  were  a  big  advance 
from  the  low  point  touched  in  August. 

Wheat  at  Kansas  City  on  August  2  was  about 
18  cents  below  the  loan  rate.  Moreover,  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  said  in  November  that 
prices  might  strengthen  further  in  the  early  months 
of  1949.  In  short  the  year-end  wheat  situation  from 
the  farmer's  standpoint  was  better  than  had  been 
expected  in  view  of  our  near-record  production 
and  the  improved  bread-grain  situation  through- 
out the  world.  Prices  seemed  to  reflect  improve- 
ment in  world  buying  power  based  partly  on  EGA 
loans  and  gifts,  plus  knowledge  that  in  many  coun- 
tries especially  in  Europe  cereal  supplies  would 
still  be  short  of  requirements. 

Wheat  disappearance  in  the  United  States  for 
the  1948-49  marketing  year,  according  to  the  U.S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture,  will  probably  reach  500 
million  bu.  for  food,  93  million  bu.  for  seed,  and 
110  million  bu.  for  livestock  feed.  This  will  leave 
about  775  million  bu.  for  export  or  carry-over 
July  17  1949.  In  1947-48  United  States  exports 
of  wheat  (as  grain  or  flour)  were  480  million  bu.? 
the  largest  quantity  ever  exported  in  a  single  year 
by  this  or  any  other  country.  Our  wheat  exports 
amounted  to  about  half  the  world  trade  in  bread 
grains.  Abnormal  world  demand,  financed  to  a 
substantial  extent  by  American  loans  and  gifts, 
was  the  basis  for  dais  tremendous  wheat-export 
movement,  as  had  been  the  case  for  the  entire  pe- 
riod since  World  War  II  came  to  its  end. 


AGRICULTURE 

In  the  years  between  the  world  wars  United 
States  wheat  exports  were  low,  as  a  result  partly 
o£  lowered  production  in  the  United  States  and 
partly  of  self-sufficiency  efforts  in  many  countries. 
With  exports  in  1948-49  down  to  some  extent 
from  the  previous  year's  high,  building  up  of  carry- 
over stocks  may  reach  300  million  bu.  by  July  1, 
1949,  as  compared  with  196  million  bu.  on  July  1, 
1948.  Marketing  quotas  will  not  be  in  effect  for 
1949  United  States  wheat  production  and  price- 
support  is  to  be  continued  for  another  year  at  90 
percent  of  parity.  Consequently  fanners  will  prob- 
ably seed  more  than  the  77.7  million  acres  seeded 
for  the  1948  harvest. 

Cotton  in  Crucial  Period.  Supply  of  cotton  in  the 
United  States  for  the  1948-49  season  was  about 
18.1  million  bales  and  probably  will  exceed  the 
disappearance  by  slightly  over  5  million  bales. 
There  will  be  14.8  million  bales  from  the  1948 
crop,  a  carry-over  of  3.1  million  bales,  and  im- 
ports of  about  250,000  bales.  Mill  consumption  in 
1948-49  is  expected  to  be  about  9  million  bales, 
slightly  lower  than  in  the  preceding  year.  Exports 
of  cotton  textiles  will  probably  be  lower.  Exports 
of  4  million  bales  in  1948-49  will  be  required  to 
balance  foreign  production  of  commercial  cotton 
against  foreign  mill  consumption.  Such  exports 
would  be  the  highest  since  1939  when  over  6  mil- 
lion bales  were  exported  with  the  assistance  of  a 
subsidy  program. 

World  production  of  commercial  cotton  in 
1948-49  is  estimated  to  be  about  28  million  bales 
and  will  exceed  world  mill  consumption  for  the 
first  time  since  the  crop  of  1944.  Expected  in- 
creases in  consumption  over  last  year  by  foreign 
mills  will  more  than  offset  the  prospective  decrease 
in  consumption  in  the  United  States  and  will  bring 
the  world  total  above  27  million  bales.  Even  so, 
stocks  of  cotton  at  the  end  of  the  current  season 
would  be  nearly  1  million  bales  larger  than  at  the 
beginning  of  the  season.  The  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  says  the  1949-50  season  will  be  a  cru- 
cial period  in  cotton.  Prices  of  cotton  already  are 
at  loan  levels  and  prospects  are  that  both  the  do- 
mestic and  world  carry-over  will  increase.  Mar- 
keting quotas  will  not  be  in  effect  for  the  1949 
cotton  crop.  A  large  crop  in  1949  might  result  in 
a  return  to  quotas  for  the  1950  cotton  crop. 

Tobacco  Products  and  Exports.  Production  of  ciga- 
rettes again  attained  a  new  record  in  1948 — about 
4  percent  above  the  previous  year's  high  and  2^4 
times  that  of  10  years  ago.  Production  of  cigars 
and  snuff  in  1948  was  probably  slightly  larger  than 
in  1947.  Smoking  tobacco  was  being  produced  in 
moderately  larger  quantities,  but  tine  1948  total 
was  substantially  lower  than  either  prewar  or  war 
years.  Production  of  chewing  tobacco  in  1948  was 
estimated  to  be  about  the  same  as  in  1947,  the  low- 
est on  record.  Per  capita  consumption  of  all  to- 
bacco products  combined  increased  to  a  level 
strikingly  above  prewar  with  continued  growth  in 
per  capita  personal  income.  The  large  increase 
in  cigarettes  was  the  major  factor  in  die  gain  in 
per  capita  consumption  of  tobacco;  as  per  capita 
trends  of  other  tobacco  products,  after  fluctua- 
tions during  the  war,  continued  downward. 

For  three  crop  years  prior  to  1947-48  average 
exports  of  tobacco  leaf  almost  equaled  the  600 
million  Ib.  average  (farm-sales  weight)  of 
1925-29.  However,  the  proportions  of  the  various 
types  in  total  exports  changed  considerably.  Flue- 
cured  tobacco  increased  from  less  than  70  percent 
of  the  total  leaf  exports  in  1925-29  to  nearly  82 
percent  during  the  last  three  years;  meanwhile 
dark  types  (flue-cured  and  dark  air-cured)  de- 


18  AGRICULTURE 

dined  from  more  than  one-fourth  to  10  percent  or 
less  of  the  total.  Burley  exports  trebled. 

Effects  of  DO//OT  Shortage  on  Tobacco  Exports.  Unit- 
ed States  exports  of  tobacco  leaf  during  the 
1947-48  crop  year  were  about  30  percent  below 
1946-47  and  approximately  the  same  as  the 
1934-38  average.  The  sharp  drop  below  the  pre- 
vious year  was  the  result  of  limited  dollar  resources 
of  foreign  purchasers,  the  biggest  factor  being  the 
sharp  decrease  in  purchases  of  flue-cured  by  the 
United  Kingdom-~-our  largest  foreign  customer. 
Tobacco  exports  in  1948-49  are  expected  to  be 
krger  than  in  1947-48  as  countries  of  western 
Europe  increase  their  imports. 

Domestic  Demand  Continues  High.  The  1947  season 
average  price  of  flue-cured  tobacco  was  the  lowest 
in  four  years  as  total  supply  in  relation  to  disap- 
pearance reached  the  highest  level  since  the  1942 
marketing  year.  The  1947  drop  in  disappearance 
was  due  to  a  35  percent  decline  in  exports  from  the 
previous  year;  domestic  consumption  continued 
large.  The  1948  production  of  flue-cured  was  sub- 
stantially smaller  than  1947  because  of  the  smaller 
acreage  allotment,  but  total  supply  for  1948-49  is 
only  slightly  lower  than  last  year  due  to  a  larger 
carry-over.  In  the  year  ahead,  domestic  consump- 
tion is  expected  to  continue  high  and  exports  will 
improve  as  trade  is  stimulated  by  the  ERP.  The 
active  demand  for  flue-cured  tobacco  generally 
kept  average  prices  above  the  support  level  of 
43.9  cents  per  Ib. 

Cigarette  production  and  domestic  consumption, 
at  a  new  record  in  1948,  may  go  higher  in  1949. 
Flue-cured,  burley,  and  Maryland  tobacco  growers 
will  benefit  by  the  marked  preference  of  American 
smokers  for  cigarettes.  With  high-level  economic 
activity,  cigarette  production  may  top  the  1948 
record  of  about  385,000  million. 

Sugar  Production  Recovers.  Sugar  supply  was  back 
to  prewar.  World  sugar  crop  for  1947-48,  esti- 
mated at  34  million  tons,  was  only  about  2  percent 
less  than  the  1935-39  average.  Year-end  informa- 
tion indicated  an  increase  of  1.5  million  tons  or 
more  in  1948-49,  enough  to  bring  world  sugar  pro- 
duction above  prewar.  An  increase  of  30  percent 
was  expected  in  Europe  exclusive  of  the  U.S.S.R. 
Russia  was  expected  to  return  to  prewar  levels. 
Sugar  production  was  recovering  rapidly  in  the 
Far  East,  in  Central  and  South  America,  in  Africa, 
and  in  India.  Output  in  Oceania  was  gradually  re- 
turning to  prewar  levels. 

Sugar  production  in  the  United  States,  in  its 
insular  areas,  and  in  Cuba  in  the  1947-48  crop 
year  amounted  to  11,355,000  tons,  the  highest  on 
record — 37  percent  more  than  the  1935-39  aver- 
age. Production  was  expected  to  continue  high  in 
1948-49,  with  a  crop  in  the  above-named  areas  of 
possibly  10.5  million  tons — about  8  percent  smaller 
than  the  1947-48  crop,  but  27  percent  larger  than 
the  1935—39  average.  In  Cuba  the  crop  seemed 
likely  to  be  reduced  about  1  million  tons  from  the 
1947-48  production  of  6,675,000  tons. 

Conditions  of  the  United  States  mainland  sugar 
crops  on  Oct.  1,  1948,  indicated  a  drop  of  about 
9  percent  from  the  1947-48  output.  Production  in 
Hawaii  was  expected  to  increase  about  10  percent 
from  860,000  tons,  back  to  approximately  its  pre- 
war level.  Recovery  was  continuing  in  the  Philip- 
pines with  an  expected  increase  in  production  in 
1949  of  about  50  percent  over  the  1947-48  crop 
year  of  500,000  tons.  Production  in  Puerto  Rico  in 
1949  was  expected  to  be  at  about  the  same  level  as 
in  1948,  1,108,000  tons. 

Fruits.  Aggregate  production  of  oranges,  grape- 
fruit, and  lemons  in  the  United  States  more  than 


AGRICULTURE 

trebled  between  1928  and  1948.  Much  of  the  in- 
creased production  of  oranges  and  grapefruit  of 
the  last  ten  years  was  canned  as  juice.  Before  the 
war,  prices  tended  to  decline  with  increasing  pro- 
duction; during  the  war  they  rose  substantially  be- 
cause of  unusually  strong  demand.  With  the  end 
of  wartime  demand,  prices  dropped  to  near  prewar 
levels.  Continued  large  production  and  low  prices 
are  in  prospect  for  the  next  few  years.  Prices  re- 
ceived by  growers  for  both  apples  and  citrus  fruits 
were  at  high  levels  during  the  1920's;  they  declined 
sharply  during  the  1930*s.  During  the  war  period 
they  again  advanced  rapidly.  In  1946  and  1947 
prices  for  both  apples  and  citrus  fruits  dropped 
sharply.  In  1947  prices  for  citrus  fruits  were  near 
the  1935-39  level,  whereas  prices  for  apples  were 
still  more  than  twice  that  level. 

Fats  and  Oils.  Production  of  fats  and  oils  from  do- 
mestic materials  totaled  nearly  as  much  in  1948 
as  in  1947.  Imports  amounted  to  moderately  less. 
A  moderate  decline  occurred  in  total  domestic  dis- 
appearance, with  most  of  the  reduction  in  the  use 
of  fats  for  soap.  Consumption  of  food  fats  and  use 
of  drying  oils  was  about  the  same  as  in  1947.  Prices 
of  fats  and  oils  probably  will  be  moderately  lower 
in  1949  than  in  1948.  Except  in  1935-37,  when 
production  was  curtailed  by  drought,  United 
States  exports  of  edible  fats  and  oils  exceeded  im- 
ports in  all  years  of  record.  Lard  was  the  leading 
export  item.  Net  imports  of  industrial  fats  were 
severely  reduced  during  the  war.  Imports  of  tung 
oil  and  coconut  oils  have  recovered  to  the  prewar 
level,  but  imports  of  palm  oil  are  still  far  below 
prewar.  Net  trade  in  both  edible  and  industrial 
fats  is  expected  to  be  somewhat  smaller  in  1948 
than  in  1947. 

Edible  use  of  peanuts  increased  greatly  during 
the  war  years  because  supplies  of  many  other 
foods  were  scarce.  After  the  war,  foreign  countries 
bought  large  quantities  of  peanuts  for  crushing. 
It  was  evident  in  1948,  however,  that  this  market 
would  diminish  as  world  export  supplies  of  fats, 
oils,  and  oilseeds  recovered. 

United  States  imports  of  fats  and  oils  ( including 
oilseeds  in  terms  of  oil)  were  smaller  in  1948  than 
in  1947.  Imports  of  copra  declined  because  of 
smaller  output  in  the  Philippines.  Large  crops  of 
flaxsee.d  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1947  and 
1948  brought  about  reduction  in  our  imports  of 
linseed  oil.  Exports  of  fats  and  oils  probably  will 
decline  moderately  in  1948,  but  not  enough  to  off- 
set the  reduction  in  imports.  — ARITEIUB  P.  CHEW 

AGRICULTURE,  U.S.  Department  of.  A  Department  of 
the  U.S.  Government,  created  by  Act  of  Congress, 
May  15,  1862,  and  directed  by  law  to  acquire  and 
diffuse  useful  information  on  agricultural  subjects 
in  the  most  general  and  comprehensive  sense.  The 
Department  performs  functions  relating  to  research, 
education,  conservation,  marketing,  regulatory 
work,  and  agricultural  adjustment.  It  conducts  re- 
search in  agricultural  and  industrial  chemistry,  the 
industrial  uses  of  farm  products,  entomology,  soils, 
agricultural  engineering,  agricultural  economics, 
marketing,  crop  and  livestock  production,  produc- 
tion and  manufacture  of  dairy  products,  human 
nutrition,  home  economics,  and  conservation.  It 
makes  research  results  available  for  practical  farm 
application  through  extension  and  experiment  sta- 
tion work  in  cooperation  with  the  States. 

The  Department  provides  crop  reports,  com- 
modity standards,  Federal  meat  inspection  service, 
and  other  marketing  services.  It  seeks  to  eradicate 
and  control  plant  and  animal  diseases  and  pests.  It 
administers  more  than  50  regulatory  laws  designed 


19  AGRICULTURE 

to  protect  the  farmer  and  consuming  public,  and 
enforces  the  Sugar  Act  of  1937  and  the  Commod- 
ity Exchange  Act,  June  15,  1936.  It  promotes  the 
efficient  use  of  soils  and  forests.  It  provides  rural 
rehabilitation,  and  guarantees  farmers  a  fair  price 
and  a  stable  market  through  commodity  loans  and 
marketing  quotas.  It  also  provides  agricultural 
credit,  assists  tenants  to  become  farm  owners,  and 
facilitates  the  introduction  of  electric  service  to 
persons  in  rural  areas. 

Principal  agencies  of  the  Department  include 
the  following:  The  Agricultural  Research  Admin- 
istration, which  directs  and  supervises  most  of  the 
scientific  research  activities  of  the  Department 
Agencies  which  report  to  ARA  include:  the  Bureau 
of  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Chemistry,  the  Bu- 
reau of  Animal  Industry,  the  Bureau  of  Dairy  In- 
dustry, the  Bureau  of  Entomology  and  Pknt  Quar- 
antine, the  Bureau  of  Human  Nutrition  and  Home 
Economics,  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Soils,  and 
Agricultural  Engineering,  the  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations  and  the  Agricultural  Research  Center  of 
Beltsville,  Maryland. 

Other  important  agencies  of  the  Department 
are:  the  Extension  Service  which  cooperates  with 
State  agricultural  agencies  in  education  programs: 
the  Farm  Credit  Administration,  organized  to  pro- 
vide a  complete  credit  service  for  farmers  and 
farmer  cooperative  associations;  the  Fanners  Home 
Administration,  which  makes  loans  and  gives  tech- 
nical supervision  to  family-type  farmers  unable  to 
get  sufficient  credit  elsewhere;  the  Forest  Service; 
the  Rural  Electrification  Administration;  the  Soil 
Conservation  Service;  the  Bureau  of  Agricultural 
Economics;  and  the  Office  of  Foreign  Agricultural 
Relations. 

Legislative  Basis  of  Action  Agencies.  In  1929  the 
Agricultural  Marketing  Act  was  passed,  followed 
by  the  establishment  of  the  Farm  Board.  The  For- 
eign Agricultural  Service  Act  was  enacted  in  1930. 
Enactment  of  the  Agricultural  Adjustment  Act 
May  12,  1933,  resulted  in  the  setting  up  of  many 
"action  agencies"  in  the  Department.  This  act  was 
designed  to  establish  and  maintain  such  balance 
between  the  production  and  consumption  of  agri- 
cultural commodities,  and  such  marketing  condi- 
tions therefor,  as  would  reestablish  prices  to  fann- 
ers at  a  level  that  would  give  farm  products  the 
purchasing  power  they  had  in  specified  earlier  base 
periods.  The  base  period  for  most  commodities  was 
1909  to  1914. 

Subsequent  legislative  acts  authorized  other 
parts  of  the  Department's  action  program.  These 
measurements  included:  the  Emergency  Farm 
Mortgage  Act  of  1933;  the  Farm  Credit  Act  of 
1933;  the  Federal  Farm  Mortgage  Corporation  Act 
and  the  Jones-Costigan  Sugar  Act  of  1934;  the  Soil 
Conservation  Act  of  1935;  the  Soil  Conservation 
and  Domestic  Allotment  Act,  the  Rural  Electrifi- 
cation Act,  and  the  Flood  Control  Act  of  1936;  the 
Agricultural  Marketing  Agreement  legislation;  the 
act  placing  functions  of  the  Federal  Surplus  Com- 
modities Corporation  in  the  Department;  the  Bank- 
head-Jones  Farm  Tenant  Act;  the  Norris-Doxey 
farm  forestry  legislation;  the  Pope-Jones  water- 
facilities  law;  the  Sugar  Acts  of  1937  and  1947; 
the  marketing-agreements  and  surplus-diversion 
programs,  authorized  in  1937-38;  and  the  Flood 
Control  Act,  the  Agricultural  Adjustment  Act,  and 
the  Federal  Crop  Insurance  Act  of  1938. 

The  Research  and  Marketing  Act,  which  became 
law  Aug.  14,  1946,  provided  for  extension  and  ex- 
pansion of  Department  research  and  marketing 
service  programs.  A  National  Advisory  Committee 
was  appointed  October  24,  and  an  administrator 


A/R-COND/T/OW/NG  AMD  REfRlGERATION  20 

for  the  act  was  designated  Dec.  5, 1946.  Tlie  Farm- 
ers Home  Administration  Act  became  law  Aug.  14, 
1946,  abolishing  the  Farm  Security  Administration 
as  such,  providing  for  establishment  of  the  Farmers 
Home  Administration,  and  giving  it  various  func- 
tions and  responsibilities,  including  some  formerly 
in  Farm  Credit  Administration.  Secretary's  Mem- 
orandum 1171,  August  19,  established  the  Farmers 
Home  Administration  as  of  Nov.  1,  1946. 

Important  Agencies  of  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  are  presented  in  this  volume  under 
their  own  titles.  See  AGRICULTURAL  RESEARCH  AD- 
MINISTRATION; COMMODITY  EXCHANGE  AUTHOR- 
ITY; FOREST  SERVICE;  FARM  CREDIT  ADMINISTRA- 
TION, etc.  — ARTHUR  P.  CHEW 

AIR-CONDITIONING  AND  REFRIGERATION.  The  air- 
conditioning  and  refrigeration  industry  in  1948  was 
notable  for  the  record  dollar  volume  of  equipment 
sold  and  for  two  or  three  innovations  which  were 
outstanding  as  extensions  of  established  practice 
rather  than  as  new  theoretical  developments.  Sales 
records  were  set  by  manufacturers  of  air-condition- 
ing equipment  during  the  year.  The  high  rate  es- 
tablished in  1947  continued  contraseasonally 
through  the  first  quarter  of  1948,  and  estimates 
set  the  probable  total  for  the  year  at  over  $250 
million. 

After  15  years  of  development,  gas  all-year  air- 
conditioning  now  is  an  established  service  in  the 
gas  industry.  Systems  are  in  commercial  produc- 
tion by  at  least  four  companies  and  include  winter 
heating,  summer  cooling,  and  humidity  control. 
Gas-operated  heat  pumps  also  are  coming  into  pro- 
duction, 

1  Central  station  air-conditioning  was  provided  for 
the  16-acre  shopping  center  of  the  New  York  Life 
Insurance  Company's  Fresh  Meadows  housing  proj- 
ect on  Long  Island.  This  is  the  first  such  system  to- 
be  installed.  Stores  will  be  charged  on  a  Btu  basis 
established  by  measuring  both  volume  and  tem~ 
perature  of  supply  and  return  chilled  water  piped 
to  the  premises, 

Installation  of  air-conditioning  systems  in  three 
New  Orleans  public  school  classrooms  was  made  in 
an  experiment  to  determine  the  effect  of  air-condi- 
tioning on  school  children  and  their  grades.  Sys- 
tems will  operate  for  three  years  with  one  split 
grade  working  in  identical  rooms  except  for  air- 
conditioning  in  one.  The  plan  is  to  install  air-con- 
ditioning in  third-grade  classrooms  and  study  stu- 
dents through  the  fifth  grade  in  conditioned  and 
non-conditioned  rooms.  Servel  Corporation  sup- 
plied $15,000  worth  of  equipment 

Regulation  of  the  use  of  water  for  air-condition- 
ing and  refrigeration  installations  in  Illinois  was 
recommended  in  a  State  water  survey  citing  five 
deficient  areas.  The  practice  of  "once  through"  use 
of  ground-water  for  cooling  was  listed  as  a  heavy 
drain  on  resources.  An  Indiana  law  effective  in 
1948  forbids  removal  of  more  than  200  gallons  per 
minute  of  water  from  the  ground  for  cooling  unless 
it  is  circulated  through  cooling  devices  or  returned 
to  the  ground  through  recharging  wells. 

Aircraft  capable  of  flight  speeds  over  500  m.p.h, 
require  continuous  and  highly  flexible  cabin-cool- 
ing to  offset  friction  and  other  heat  gains  charac- 
teristic of  high-speed  flight. 

For  planes  using  jet  engines,  an  air-cycle  refrig- 
erating unit  consists  of  an  expansion  turbine  which 
bleeds  air  from  the  jet  compressor.  This  air  can 
be  used  for  heating,  cooling,  ventilation,  and  pres- 
surization.  On  the  cooling  cycle,  the  jet-compressor 
air  is  cooled  in  a  heat  exchanger  and  then  further 
compressed  in  a  centrifugal  compressor,  cooled 


AIR  FORCE 

again  in  a  second  heat  exchanger,  and  finally 
cooled  by  expansion  in  the  turbine  and  ducted  to 
the  cabin.  Power  derived  from  the  expansion  tur- 
bine is  used  to  drive  the  centrifugal  compressor, 
For  heating,  some  of  the  jet-compressor  air  is  by- 
passed around  the  cooling  unit  and  introduced  to 
the  cabin  through  a  mixing  valve. 

Air-conditioning  became  a  collective  bargaining 
issue  with  publication  by  the  Textile  Workers  of 
America  (CIO),  of  a  60-page  technical  report  on 
air-conditioning  in  textile  mills.  The  report  was 
sent  to  companies  under  contract  with  the  union 
and  in  it  President  Emil  Rieve  urged  that  employ- 
ers take  it  under  advisement  and  act  on  its  sugges- 
tions. 

Scientists  at  Ohio  State  University  set  up  experi- 
ments to  develop  temperatures  near  absolute  zero 
(0.00001°  Kelvin).  Dr.  Herrick  L.  Johnston,  di- 
rector of  the  University's  cryogenic  laboratory  de- 
scribed methods  of  using  a  property  of  matter 
whereby  some  substances,  weakly  magnetic  at 
higher  temperatures,  become  strongly  magnetic 
near  absolute  zero. 

Revision  of  the  safety  code  for  mechanical  re- 
frigeration was  undertaken  by  a  committee  set  up 
under  procedures  of  the  American  Standards  As- 
sociation and  working  under  leadership  of  the 
American  Society  of  Refrigerating  Engineers.  Said 
to  be  the  largest  in  the  world,  the  Alford  Refrig- 
erated Warehouse  in  Dallas,  Tex.,  will  provide 
1,000  tons  of  refrigeration  to  7.5  million  cu.  ft.  of 
cold  storage  space  and  8  million  cu.  ft.  of  air- 
conditioned  dry  storage  space. 

A  new  continuous  process  for  making  ice  was 
described  by  its  inventor,  John  R.  Watts,  assistant 
professor  of  mechanical  engineering  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Texas.  In  this  method,  a  machine  using 
direct  expansion-freezing  cylinders  extrudes  ice  in 
continuous  columns  which  can  be  cut  into  cakes. 

The  Florida  Citrus  Canners  Cooperative  started 
at  Lake  Wales  a  plant  for  concentrating  fruit  juices 
which  works  on  a  new  principle  using  a  refrigerat- 
ing machine  instead  of  a  boiler  to  heat  citrus  juice 
and  drive  off  excess  moisture.  The  same  machine 
at  the  same  time  cools  and  condenses  the  water 
vapor  under  vacuum.  Juice  is  evaporated  so  quickly 
and  at  such  a  low  temperature  that  flavor  and 
food  values  are  preserved.  Fresh  juice  and  pulp  are 
added  to  the  concentrate  to  reinforce  the  flavor; 
the  product  is  passed  through  continuous  freezers, 
sealed  in  cans  under  vacuum,  hardened,  and  sold 
in  frozen  condition.  The  consumer  adds  three  cans 
of  water  to  one  can  of  frozen  concentrate. 

The  U.S.  Army  tested  a  new  type  of  Arctic  troop 
shelter,  light  enough  to  be  transported  by  glider 
with  a  detail  of  troops  and,  thermostatically  con- 
trolled to  provide  an  inside  temperature  of  70°  F. 
while  outside  temperatures  hit  70°  F.  below  zero 
in  a  wind  velocity  of  125  m.p.h.  Inside  relative 
humidity  will  be  kept  below  35  percent. 

Winter  heating  and  summer  cooling  of  a  large 
office  building  by  means  of  a  heat  pump  (reversible 
refrigeration  cycle)  was  accomplished  for  the  new 
12-story  office  building  of  the  Equitable  Savings 
and  Loan  in  Portland,  Ore.  Heat  is  extracted  from, 
or  dissipated  in,  wells  by  refrigeration  machines. 
— WILLIAM  B,  FOXHALL 

AIR  FORCE,  Department  of  the.  The  past  year  has 
been  one  of  notable  achievement  by  the  U.S.  Air 
Force.  In  the  first  full  year  of  its  existence  as  an 
autonomous  branch  of  the  Armed  Services,  jperhaps 
its  foremost  activity  was  the  Berlin  airlift.  'Opera- 
tion Vittles"  began  on  June  26,  1948,  in  a  joint 
effort  by  the  Western  Powers  to  overcome  the  land 


ALABAMA 

blockade  of  Berlin.  In  all  operations  by  year-end, 
729,605  tons  of  food,  fuel,  and  other  vital  supplies 
had  been  delivered  by  99,593  flights,  averaging  7*4 
tons  per  trip.  The  USAF,  augmented  by  the  re- 
sources of  the  U.S.  Navy  and  the  British  RAF,  was 
increasing  the  scope  and  size  of  its  effort  as  1948 
ended.  Other  milestones  were  the  assignment  to 
tactical  units  of  the  North  American  B-45,  the  first 
jet-propelled  bomber  in  mass  production;  the 
successful  launching  of  a  tiny  McDonnell  XF-85 
parasite  fighter  from  the  belly  of  a  B-29  "mother 
ship"  and  its  return  hook-up  after  completing  a 
simulated  interceptor  mission;  and  a  new  official 
world's  record  of  670.981  m.p.h.  set  by  a  North 
American  F-86  jet  fighter. 

It  was  announced  that  the  Bell  X-l,  a  USAF 
aircraft,  had  flown  faster  than  the  speed  of  sound 
(762  m.p.h.  at  sea  level)  many  times.  Designed  to 
fly  at  1,700  m.p.h.  at  an  altitude  of  80,000  feet, 
the  X-l  had  not  yet  reached  the  ultimate  limit  of 
its  potentialities.  In  cooperation  with  the  Navy, 
the  USAF  established  the  Military  Air  Transport 
Service  and  acted  as  executive  for  that  interservice 
command.  By  the  end  of  1948  the  USAF  had  en- 
larged its  over-all  composition  to  59  air  groups 
toward  an  ultimate  goal  of  70  groups.  Present 
strength  includes  two  groups  of  Consolidated  B-36 
bombers  with  a  range  of  10,000  miles  carrying  a 
10,000-lb.  payload.  With  an  appropriation  of 
$1,542  million  awarded  in  June,  the  USAF  ordered 
2,451  new  planes,  of  which  2,100  were  to  be  deliv- 
ered by  July,  1950. 

The  Continental  Air  Command  was  set  up  in  a 
move  to  centralize  authority  for  hemispheric  air 
defense  and  to  augment  the  Reserve  Forces  train- 
ing program.  Gen.  Carl  Spaatz,  first  USAF  Chief 
of  Staff,  retired  from  active  duty  in  June,  1948, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  Vice  Chief  of  Staff,  Gen. 
Hoyt  S.  Vandenberg.  Gen.  Muir  S.  Fairchild  be- 
came the  new  Vice  Chief  of  Staff.  No  changes  in 
top  civilian  administrative  posts  occurred.  The 
Hon.  W.  Stuart  Symington  continued  to  serve  as 
Secretary  of  the  Air  Force  and  Arthur  S.  Barrows 
as  Under  Secretary. 

ALABAMA.  An  east  south  central  State.  Area:  51,078 
sq.  mi.  Population  (July  1,  1948):  2,848,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  2,832,961.  Chief  cities: 
Montgomery  (capital),  78,084  inhabitants  in  1940; 
Birmingham,  267,583.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCA- 
TION, MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSI- 
TIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS,  etc. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  Sept  30,  1946, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $124,327,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $124,569,000. 

Elections.  In  the  November  election,  Truman's 
name  did  not  appear  on  the  ballot,  and  Thurmond, 
nominee  of  the  States'  Rights  party,  received  the 
large  majority  usually  accorded  the  candidate  of 
the  Democratic  party.  The  11  electoral  votes  of 
Alabama  thus  went  to  Thurmond.  Democratic  Sen- 
ator Sparkman  was  reelected.  Democrats  won  all 
9  seats  in  the  lower  house,  as  usual.  There  were 
no  Statewide  contests  for  major  state  offices. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  James  E.  Folsom;  Lieut. 
Governor,  J.  Clarence  Inzer;  Secretary  of  State, 
Sibyl  Pool;  Attorney  General,  Albert  A.  Carmichael; 
State  Treasurer,  John  Brandon;  State  Auditor,  Dan 
Thomas. 


ALAND  ISLANDS  (Avenanmaa).  An  archipelago  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  15  miles  from  the 
coast  of  Finland  and  25  miles  distant  from  the 
coast  of  Sweden.  This  group  of  some  300  islands, 
80  of  which  are  inhabited,  forms  an  autonomous 


21  AlASKA 

department  of  Finland.  Total  area:  572  square 
miles.  Population  (1940);  27,672.  Capital,  Maar- 
ianhamnia. 


ALASKA.  The  territory  of  Alaska  lies  in  the  far 
northwest  comer  of  the  North  American  continent 
and  includes  the  Aleutian  Islands  which  extend 
westward  more  than  1,200  miles  toward  the  Kam- 
chatka Peninsula.  The  area  of  Alaska,  inclusive  of 
inland  waters,  is  approximately  586,400  square 
miles  or  approximately  one-fifth  the  area  of  conti- 
nental United  States.  Three-fourths  of  Alaska  is  in 
the  North  Temperate  Zone. 

Population.  According  to  the  1940  census  the  pop- 
ulation of  Alaska  was  72,524,  of  which  whites  num- 
bered 40,066  and  natives  (Indians  and  Eskimos) 
32,458.  Eskimos  accounted  for  15,576,  Indians  for 
11,283  and  Aleuts  for  5,599.  The  population  of 
Alaska  in  1947,  excluding  members  of  the  armed 
forces,  was  estimated  at  91,000.  Juneau,  the  capital 
of  Alaska,  had  a  population  of  5,729  in  1940  and 
was  estimated  to  nave  7,000  in  1947. 

Education.  Alaska  has  two  school  systems,  one 
supported  wholly  by  the  Territory  and  its  individ- 
ual municipalities  and  school  districts;  the  other 
for  natives  (Indians  and  Eskimos)  administered  by 
the  Federal  Government,  through  the  Office  of 
Indian  Affairs.  The  University  of  Alaska,  founded 
in  1922,  had  an  enrollment  of  334  in  1946-47.  In 
the  same  year  there  were  13,254  students  enrolled 
in  the  primary  and  secondary  schools. 

Production.  The  leading  industries  of  Alaska  in 
order  of  their  importance  are  fishing,  mining,  and 
fur.  farming.  The  value  of  manufactured  fishery 
products  in  1947  was  $90  million,  Salmon  fishing 
and  packing,  which  formerly  accounted  for  80  per- 
cent of  the  people  employed  in  Alaska,  has  in  re- 
cent years  been  supplanted  as  the  No,  1  employer 
by  the  construction  industry.  The  normal  annual 
salmon  pack  for  Alaska  runs  6  million  cases  (of 
48-one-lb.  cans).  Alaska  alone  accounts  for  60  per- 
cent of  the  world's  supply  of  salmon.  There  are 
90  salmon  canneries  and  they  employ  about  25,000 
persons.  Other  fish  caught  in  Alaskan  waters  and 
marketed  commercially  include  herring,  halibut, 
cod,  shrimp,  crabs,  etc. 

Mining,  which  ranks  second  in  importance  as  an 
industry,  was  seriously  curtailed  during  World  War 
II  and  has  not  yet  recovered  its  prewar  levels  of 
production.  Gold,  the  leading  mineral  export,  ranks 
second  to  salmon  exports,  but  in  1947  only  $10,- 
580,465  was  produced,  in  contrast  with  $26,178,- 
000  in  1941.  Other  minerals  mined  in  Alaska  in- 
clude coal,  mercury,  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  plati- 
num, Total  value  of  mineral  production  (1947): 
$14,341,000. 

Alaska's  third  leading  industry  is  fur  farming 
and  the  sale  of  furs  derived  from  trapping.  The 
production  of  furs  during  1947  amounted  to  $3,- 
830,839  (excluding  fur  seals).  Mink  pelts  (valued 
at  $1,945,110),  and  sealskins  are  the  two  leading 
products.  The  Pribilof  Isknds  account  for  85  per- 
cent of  the  world's  supply  of  sealskins,  the  herd 
being  estimated  at  3.6  million  fur  seals. 

The  three  principal  farming  areas  in  Alaska  are 
located  in  the  Kenai  Peninsula  (Homer  Area), 
Tanana  Valley  (near  Fairbanks),  and  the  Mata- 
miska  Valley  (near  Palmer).  The  products  grown 
are  largely  for  local  consumption,  i.e.  vegetables, 
livestock,  dairy  products,  poultry,  and  potatoes. 
Most  crops  common  to  North  America  can  be 
grown  in  Alaska.  One  of  the  most  interesting  ex- 
periments in  agricultural  colonization  ever  under- 
taken under  Government  sponsorship  was  the  Mat- 
anuska  Valley  Colonization  Project,  fifty  miles  from 


ALASKA 

Anchorage  at  the  head  of  Cook  Inlet.  To  this  area 
in  1935  were  moved  200  families  from  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin,  and  Michigan.  Farms  in  Alaska  pro- 
duced an  estimated  $2,250,000  worth  of  products 
in  1947. 

The  national  forest  area  covers  20,883,421  acres 
(1946)  and  yielded  68.1  million  board  feet  of 
timber  in  1947.  The  estimated  stand  is  approxi- 
mately 85,000  million  board  feet,  of  which  73  per- 
cent is  hemlock,  21  percent  spruce,  and  6  percent 
cedar. 

Trade,  The  total  commerce  between  the  United 
States  and  Alaska  since  1867  exceeds  $4,500  mil- 
lion. Exports  of  Alaskan  products  to  the  United 
States  in  1946  totaled  $73,775,896.  Imports  from 
the  United  States  by  Alaska  totaled  $75,007,229. 

Finance.  Revenues  of  the  Territorial  Government 
for  1947-49  are  estimated  at  $6,686,000.  Since  ap- 
propriations totaled  $10,159,184,  and  since  the  Or- 
ganic Act  which  Congress  passed  respecting  gov- 
ernment in  Alaska  prohibits  the  incurring  of  a 
debt,  the  Territorial  Board  of  Administration  is  reg- 
ulating expenditures  so  as  to  stay  within  the  in- 
come of  the  territory. 

Government.  Although  Alaska  was  purchased  from 
Russia  in  1867  for  $7,200,000  it  did  not  become  an 
"incorporated  Territory"  until  1912  when  Congress 
passed  an  "Organic  Act"  creating  the  Territory  of 
Alaska.  Under  its  terms  the  Territory  does  not 
merely  belong  to  the  United  States,  but  is  a  part 
thereof.  The  Constitution  and  laws  of  the  United 
States  are  automatically  in  force  with  the  excep- 
tion of  certain  provisions  which  are  clearly  not  ap- 
plicable. The  Territorial  Government  is  headed  by 
a  Governor  appointed  for  a  four-year  term.  He  is 
assisted  by  a  Secretary  of  Alaska.  In  addition,  there 
is  a  Territorial  Legislature  which  meets  for  a  pe- 
riod of  60  days  biennially  beginning  with  the 
fourth  Monday  in  January  of  uneven  years.  Com- 
mencing with  the  1945  session  the  number  of  mem- 
bers in  this  body  was  increased  to  include  16  Sena- 
tors and  24  representatives.  A  delegate  (Edward 
L.  Bartlett  in  1948)  is  elected  by  Alaskans  every 
two  years  to  represent  Alaska  in  the  U.S.  Congress. 
He  is  empowered  to  prepare  and  introduce  legisla- 
tion and  act  as  a  member  of  Committees,  but  he 
has  no  vote.  Most  of  the  functions  of  government, 
including  administration  of  health,  welfare,  educa- 
tion, etc.,  are  responsibilities  of  the  Territory,  but 
expenses  of  the  legislature  and  judiciary  have  re- 
mained a  Federal  function.  Governor:  Ernest 
Gruening  (first  appointed  1939), 

Events,  1948.  Alaskan  events  during  1948  cen- 
tered around  the  continued  drive  for  Statehood. 
This  drive  began  in  1946  when  the  electorate  voted 
to  seek  admission  to  the  Union  on  a  basis  of  equal- 
ity with  the  other  48  States. 

Some  progress  towards  this  end  was  recorded 
during  the  year.  In  February  a  subcommittee  of 
the  House  Committee  on  Public  Lands  recom- 
mended full  Statehood  for  Alaska.  This  was  the 
first  hearing  ever  given  any  bill  to  make  Alaska  a 
State.  On  Apr.  7,  1948,  legislation  granting  State- 
hood was  unanimously  approved  by  the  House 
Public  Lands  Committee.  The  approved  bill  elimi- 
nated State  recognition  of  tribal  rights  and  granted 
the  proposed  State  an  added  million  acres  of  land. 
Alaskans  felt  that  the  election  of  President  Truman 
would  assure  Alaska  of  Statehood  at  the  next  ses- 
sion of  Congress. 

Concern  was  expressed  over  the  poorest  salmon 
fishing  season  in  the  Territory's  history.  The  salmon 
pack  is  the  basis  of  economic  life  and  many  com- 
munities are  greatly  affected  by  the  poor  catch. 
By  the  end  of  August  southeastern  Alaska  had 


22  ALBANIA 

canned  but  80,000  cases,  as  against  340,000  the 
previous  year. 

Culminating  the  efforts  of  some  30  years  to  estab- 
lish paper  mills  in  Alaska,  the  U.S.  Forest  Service 
in  August  accepted  bids  of  the  Ketchikan  Pulp  and 
Paper  Company  to  establish  a  paper  industry  at 
Ward's  Cove.  The  proposed  mill  was  estimated  to 
cost  from  $20  to  $30  million.  The  total  timber  in- 
volved in  the  deal  was  approximately  8,000  mil- 
lion cu.  ft.,  to  be  cut  on  a  sustained  yield  basis. 

ALBANIA.  A  Balkan  republic  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Adriatic  Sea.  Area:  10,629  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation: 1,063,000  (Jan.  1,  1940).  Chief  towns:  Ti- 
rana (capital),  30,806  inhabitants  (1930);  Scutari 
(Shkoder),  29,209;  Koritsa  (Korge),  22,787;  Elba- 
san,  13,796;  Durazzo  (Durres),  the  chief  port, 
8,739. 

Education  and  Religion.  Great?  strides  are  being 
made  to  reduce  the  country's  high  illiteracy. 
In  1946-47,  450  new  schools  brought  the  total  to 
1,759  elementary  schools.  On  the  secondary  level, 
there  were  56  schools  with  about  15,000  students. 
Primary  education  is  compulsory.  The  population, 
by  religion,  includes  688,280  Moslems,  210,313 
Orthodox  Christians,  and  104,184  Roman  Catho- 
lics. 

Production.  By  the  end  of  1946  some  200,000 
landless  peasants,  constituting  about  25  percent  of 
the  farming  population,  had  been  allotted  land. 
Chief  crops  are  maize  ( 86,000  metric  tons  in  1946 ) 
and  wheat  (60,000  metric  tons  in  1946).  Other 
products  are  tobacco,  timber,  wool,  dairy  products, 
olive  oil,  cattle,  and  hides.  Estimated  livestock 
(1946):  Horses,  50,000;  asses,  40,000;  cattle,  345,- 
000;  sheep,  1,548,000;  goats,  854,000.  With  few 
exceptions,  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  re- 
mains undeveloped.  Copper  mines,  bitumen  mines, 
and  salt  pits  are  being  worked  successfully.  Crude 
oil  production  reached  prewar  levels  in  1946.  Work 
on  a  hydroelectric  power  plant  near  Tirana  was 
begun  in  1947.  Since  World  War  II,  the  country's 
foreign  trade  has  been  confined  almost  entirely  to 
barter. 

Transportation.  Of  the  1,759  miles  of  highways 
(1940),  750  were  suitable  for  motor  vehicles.  But 
the  network  was  badly  damaged  during  World 
War  II.  Construction  of  a  railway  between  Duraz- 
zo and  Elbasan,  the  first  in  Albania,  was  begun  in 
May,  1940. 

Government.  Albania  was  proclaimed  a  republic 
on  Jan.  12,  1946,  following  general  elections  held 
on  Dec.  2,  1945.  The  dominant  party  is  the  Na- 
tional Liberation  Front,  led  by  General  Enver 
Hoxha  (Hodja),  who  is  Prime  Minister  and  Minis- 
ter for  Foreign  Affairs.  A  new  constitution  was 
promulgated  on  Jan.  12,  1946. 

Events,  1948.  Hoxha's  regime  is  controlled  from 
the  U.S.S.R.,  with  Soviet  advisers  in  the  Ministries 
and  Russian  organizers  in  the  army.  The  govern- 
ment refused  to  participate  in  the  Marshall  plan, 
in  spite  of  the  great  need  for  outside  help.  Al- 
though no  treaties  of  collaboration  were  signed 
with  the  U.S.S.R.,  Hoxha  carried  out  Moscow's  in- 
structions and  was  repeatedly  accused  by  the  tJ.N. 
Balkan  Committee  of  aiding  the  guerrillas  operat- 
ing against  Greece.  Opposition  to  Hoxha  was  evi- 
denced by  the  purge  of  more  than  3,000  persons 
in  August  and  the  growing  number  of  Albanians 
who  reportedly  fled  across  the  frontier  into  Yugo- 
slavia. In  October,  a  purge  of  "Trotskyists  and 
Tito's  friends"  resulted  in  the  downfall  of  Interior 
Minister  Koci  Xoxe  and  five  other  top  Communist 
leaders,  including  Pandi  Christo,  a  member  of  the 
Albanian  Politburo,  and  the  appointment  of  a  new 


ALBERTA  23 

Army  chief  of  staff,  Major  General  Mehmet  Shehu, 
a  Moscow-trained  soldier. 

Serving  as  the  spearhead  of  the  Commform  at- 
tacks against  Tito,  Albania  severed  trade  relations 
with  Yugoslavia  on  July  3,  in  spite  of  the  disas- 
trous food  situation  in  the  country,  and  ordered 
Tito's  military,  political,  and  cultural  missions  to 
get  out  ( thus  violating  the  economic  treaty  of  No- 
vember, 1946,  drafted  for  a  30-year  period).  Ja- 
kova,  Minister  of  Industry,  accused  Tito  of  trying 
to  absorb  Albania  into  Yugoslavia,  and  announced 
that  the  Soviet  Union  would  sell  goods  to  Albania 
"four  times  cheaper  than  the  price  fixed  by  tie 
Yugoslavs."  In  September,  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  and  France  charged  Albania  with  failing 
to  disarm  Greek  refugees  who  fled  across  the  fron- 
tier. On  October  1,  the  United  States  State  Depart- 
ment sharply  attacked  the  Albanian  rejection  of 
a  request  of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and 
France  that  the  United  Nations  Special  Committee 
on  the  Balkans  be  permitted  to  operate  in  Albanian 
territory.  The  Corfu  incident  was  debated  before 
the  United  Nations  Security  Council  which  de- 
cided, 7  to  2,  that  the  mines  "had  been  placed  with 
the  knowledge  of  the  Albanian  Government"  The 
case  was  heard  by  the  International  Court  of  Jus- 
tice in  November,  Great  Britain  charging  that  Yu- 
goslavia had  laid,  in  Albanian  waters,  the  mines 
that  blew  up  two  British  destroyers  on  Oct.  22, 
1946. 

As  an  ideal  place  from  which  to  exert  pressure  on 
Greece,  the  U.S.S.R.  used  Albania  to  support  Mar- 
kos*  rebels  against  Greece.  In  fact,  in  August,  when 
Greek  Army  troops  hammered  Markos'  flanks  in 
the  Grammos  Mountains,  Markos  moved  his  head- 
quarters and  most  of  his  provisional  government  to 
Nikolitsa,  in  Albania.  On  November  10,  the  Po- 
litical and  Security  Committee  of  the  UN  General 
Assembly  charged  Albania  (together  with  Yugo- 
slavia and  Bulgaria)  with  endangering  peace  in 
the  Balkans  and  decided  to  keep  the  United  Na- 
tions on-the-spot  observation  committee  at  work 
in  Greece  for  another  year. — JOSEPH  S.  ROUCEK 

ALBERTA.  One  of  the  prairie  provinces  of  Canada 
lying  between  Saskatchewan  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Area,  255,285  square  miles,  including  6,485 
square  miles  of  fresh  water.  Population  (1948  es- 
timate), 846,000.  Vital  statistics  (1946):  22,184 
live  births;  6,601  deaths;  9,478  marriages.  Chief 
cities:  Edmonton  (capital)  113,116  inhabitants  in 

1946  (quinquennial    census),    Calgary    100,044, 
Lethbridge  16,522,  Medicine  Hat  12,859.  Educa- 
tion   (1945-46):    181,228    students    enrolled    in 
Alberta's   schools  and  colleges.   Religion:    United 
Church  193,664,  Roman  Catholic  191,343,  Angli- 
can 113,279,  Lutheran  84,630,  and  Presbyterian 
68,910. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction for  1947  was  $354,895,000.  Value  of  all 
major  field  crops  produced  on  13,967,000  acres  in 

1947  amounted  to  $273,235,000.  Chief  field  crops 
(1947):  wheat  103,000,000  bu.  valued  at  ($136,- 
990,000),  oats  75,000,000  bu.  ($52,500,000),  bar- 
ley 52,000,000  bu.  ($52,520,000),  rye  4,250,000 
bu.   ($14,960,000),  flaxseed  2,150,000  bu.  ($11,- 
180,000),  sugar  beets  366,000  tons  ($5,483,000). 
Livestock  (June  1,  1947):  1,654,000  cattle  ($126,- 
136,000),  410,900  horses  ($19,619,000),  964,100 
swine  ($21,940,000),  613,800  sheep  ($6,053,000), 
10,916,000  poultry  ($10,016,000).  Fur  production 
(1946-47):    $3,738,788.   There  were    1,027   fur 
farms  (1946)  with  fur-bearing  animals  valued  at 
$3,049,500.   Marketed  value  of  fisheries    (1946) 
was  $1,339,083.  Dairy  products  (1947)  included 


ALGERIA 

32,068,000  Ib.  of  butter  ($16,355,000);  3,111,000 
Ib.  of  cheese  ($1,172,000);  6,507,000  Ib.  of  honey 
($1,366,000).  Estimated  total  farm  value  of  poul- 
try and  eggs  was  $20,095,000  in  1947.  Mineral 
production  included  8,070,430  tons  of  coal  (1947) 
valued  at  $36,439,158;  6,770,477  barrels  of  oil; 
and  44,106,643  M  cubic  feet  of  natural  gas  ( $7,- 
745,886).  The  total  value  of  mineral  production 
(1947)  was  $67,432,270. 

Manufacturing  production  (1946)  in  1,315  es- 
tablishments employing  22,694  persons  had  a  gross 
value  of  $257,031,867.  The  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing industries  ranked  first  in  importance  in 
1946.  Other  important  industries  were  flour  and 
feed  mills,  petroleum  products,  dairy  products,  and 
breweries. 

Finance.  For  the  year  ended  Mar.  31,  1947,  reve- 
nue totaled  $42,588,038;  expenditure  $31,939,342; 
net  general  debt  $126,146,821. 

Government.  The  executive  power  is  vested  nomi- 
nally in  the  Lieutenant  Governor  but  actually  in 
the  ministry  of  the  Legislature.  There  is  a  Legis- 
lative Assembly  of  57  members  elected  by  direct 
vote  of  the  people.  Party  standing  at  latest  general 
election  (Aug.  17,  1948):  51  Social  Credit,  2  CCF 
(Co-operative  Commonwealth  Federation),  and 
4  others.  Alberta  is  represented  by  6  Senators  (ap- 
pointed for  life )  and  17  elected  commoners  in  the 
Dominion  Parliament  at  Ottawa.  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor, J.  C.  Bowen  (app.  Mar.  20,  1937);  Premier, 
E.  C.  Manning  (app.  May  31, 1943,,Sept.  12, 1944, 
and  reelected  Aug.  17,  1948).  See  CANADA. 

ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS.  An  archipelago  extending  for 
1,000  miles  westward  from  the  extremity  of  the 
Alaska  peninsula,  and  forming  a  part  of  the  Terri- 
tory of  Alaska.  The  Aleutians  comprise  four  main 
groups:  Near  Islands  (Attu,  Agattu,  and  the 
Semichis),  Rat  Islands  (Amchitka,  Semisopochnoi, 
Kiska,  Little  Sitkin,  Rat,  Chugul,  Davidof,  and 
Khwostof ),  Andreanof  Islands  (Atka,  Amlia,  Great 
Sitkin.,  Adak,  Kanaga,  Tanaga,  etc.),  Islands  of 
Four  Mountains  (Chuginadak,  Herbert,  Carlisle, 
Kagamil,  and  Uliaga),  and  Fox  Islands  (Unimak, 
Unlaska,  Umnak,  and  the  islands  of  the  Krenitzen 
group — Ugamak,  Tigalda,  Avatanak,  Rootpk,  Akun, 
and  Akutan).  Total  area:  6,821  square  miles.  Pop- 
ulation (1939):  1,300. 

ALFALFA.  In  1948  the  alfalfa  hay  crop  of  the  United 
States  amounted  to  34,083,000  tons.  The  yields  of 
the  principal  producing  States  (in  tons)  were: 
California  4,162,000;  Kansas  2,411,000;  Nebraska 
2,192,000;  Idaho  1,968,000;  Wisconsin  1,948,000; 
Minnesota  1,804,000;  Michigan  1,606,000;  Iowa 
1,509,000;  Colorado  1,435,000;  Illinois  1,323,000; 
Montana  1,316,000.  Alfalfa  seed  produced  in  the 
United  States  during  1948  totaled  989,900  bushels. 
See  HAY. 

ALGERIA.  A  territory  of  France  in  northwest  Africa. 
The  country  is  divided  into  Northern  Algeria 
(comprising  the  departments  of  Algiers,  Oran,  and 
Constantine)  and  Southern  Algeria  (comprising 
the  territories  of  Ain  Sefra,  Ghardaia,  Touggourt, 
and  Saharan  Oasis).  The  estimated  population  on 
Jan.  1,  1947,  was  8,488,000  including  1,048,000 
Europeans  and  7,440,000  Moslems.  Chief  cities 
(estimated  1947  populations):  Algiers,  360,000; 
Oran,  252,500;  Constantine,  121,200;  Bona  (B6ne), 
82,400;  Tlemcen,  71,400;  Blida,  65,600;  Sidi-Bel- 
Abbes,  65,500. 

Education,  In  1946-47  there  was  a  total  of  2,043 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  with  322,905 
students,  and  5,143  students  were  enrolled  at  the 


ALGERIA 

university  in  Algiers.  Six  Normal  schools  provide 
teacher  training. 

Production.  Agriculture  and  stock  raising  are 
the  chief  occupations.  One  third  of  the  total  area 
under  cultivation  (15,600,000  acres)  is  owned  by 
Europeans.  Principal  crops  in  1946  were  fin  metric 
tons):  cereals  (wheat,  barley,  and  oats),  1,665,- 
100;  citrus  fruits,  110,000;  alfa,  100,000;  dry  dates, 
30,470;  potatoes,  1,100,000  quintals;  legumes, 
130,000  quintals.  Other  products  were  (in  U.S. 
gallons):  wine,  244,197,412;  brandies,  13,784,000; 
and  olive  oil,  1,956,400.  Wool,  mohair,  and  hides 
are  also  exported.  Mineral  output  ( in  metric  tons ) 
was:  natural  phosphates,  584,827  (1946);  pyrites, 
40,359  (1946);  iron  ore,  1,560,000  (1947);  coal, 
214,885  ( 1946 ) .  Local  canneries  processed  a  total 
of  3,080,021  kilos  of  fish  in  1945. 

Trade  and  Finance.  The  1947  imports  totaled  45,- 
384,000,000  francs;  exports,  35,796,000,000  francs. 
Budget  estimates  for  1947  placed  revenue  at  22,- 
386,438,796  francs;  expenses  at  22,840,000,560 
francs.  A  separate  post  office  budget  was  estimated 
to  balance  at  1,644,500,000  francs  for  1947. 

Transportation.  In  1946  Algeria  had  3,396  miles 
of  railway  line  in  operation;  some  20,000  miles  of 
road,  4,316  miles  of  which  were  paved  national 
highways  and  14,841  miles  were  secondary  gravel 
roads.  Air  services  connect  Algiers  with  Marseille, 
France,  with  the  United  States,  and  with  other 
parts  of  Africa.  Construction  of  a  trans-Saliaran 
railway,  begun  in  1941,  was  interrupted  in  1942. 

Government.  The  over-all  administration  rests  in 
the  hands  of  a  Governor  General,  who  is  responsi- 
ble to  the  government  of  the  Fourth  Republic  in 
Paris,  in  particular  to  the  Minister  of  the  Interior. 
Northern  Algeria  is  divided  into  3  departments 
( Constantine,  Algiers  and  Oran),  which  before 
World  War  II  sent  elected  representatives  to  the 
French  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  Senate,  Natives 
were  represented  only  on  local  bodies,  including 
the  largely  consultative  Delegations  Financieres, 
and  even  for  these  the  number  of  Moslem  electors 
was  greatly  restricted.  After  the  liberation  of 
France  the  franchise  was  broadened  and  Algeria 
was  represented  in  the  National  Assembly.  On 
Sept  1,  1948,  the  latter  body  adopted  a  new  Stat- 
ute for  Algeria,  permitting  even  greater  Moslem 
participation  in  government. 

Events,  1948.  The  outstanding  political  event  in 
Algeria  during  1948  was  the  April  election.  This 
was  the  first  poll  taken  under  the  new  Statute  and 
its  results  were  awaited  with  anxiety  by  both  the 
French  government  and  Algerian  public  opinion. 
The  Assembly  to  be  filled  by  the  election  was  com- 
posed of  120  seats,  divided  equally  between  two 
electoral  colleges.  The  first  college  comprised  some 
600,000  voters,  of  whom  all  were  Europeans  ex- 
cept some  80,000  Jews  and  100,000  Moslems  (the 
latter  having  special  educational  or  service  quali- 
fications). The  second  college  consisted  of  approx- 
imately 1,200,000  Moslems,  or  about  40  percent  of 
the  adult  males  of  Berber  and  Arab  ancestry. 

Contesting  the  60  seats  in  the  first  college  were, 
in  general,  the  same  parties  prominent  in  the  po- 
litical life  of  metropolitan  France,  including  the 
Communists.  The  two  main  parties  running  in  the 
second  college  were  the  movement  for  the  Tri- 
umph of  Democratic  Liberties  and  the  Democratic 
Union  of  the  Algerian  Manifesto.  The  first,  led  by 
Messali  Hadj,  was  for  outright  independence  and 
an  orientation  toward  the  old-style  theocratic  Is- 
lamic state.  The  other,  captained  by  Ferhat  Abbas, 
though  also  separatist  in  its  objective,  was  more 
aimed  at  providing  Algeria  with  a  European  po- 
litical structure  and  economy  and  at  giving  Al- 


24  ALGERIA 

gerians  the  same  rights  as  Frenchmen.  In  addition 
there  were  a  number  of  conservative  independents 
unwilling  to  break  the  tie  with  France,  and  the 
Communists,  regarded  as  anti-Islamic. 

The  first  round  of  the  election  was  held  on 
April  4,  with  violence  marking  the  occasion  in  sev- 
eral places,  notably  at  Aumale  where  several  per- 
sons were  killed  in  a  fight  between  police  and  na- 
tionalists. The  results  of  the  voting  showed  a  need 
for  run-off  polls  in  23  constituencies  in  the  first 
college  and  19  in  the  second.  This  was  considered 
to  represent  a  high  proportion  of  decisive  results 
on  the  first  round.  The  second  vote  was  set  for  the 
llth,  and  in  the  intervening  week  many  candidates 
withdrew  and  various  deals  were  made,  particu- 
larly to  prevent  the  Communists  from  gaining  any 
seats — they  had  won  none  in  the  first  round. 

The  run-offs  confirmed  the  moderate  trend  al- 
ready manifested  in  the  earlier  voting.  Final  re- 
sults were  as  follows. 

In  the  first  college:  Union  Committee  and  R.P.F. 
(De  Gaulle),  38;  Independents,  14;  Radical,  1; 
Socialist  Radical,  1;  Socialist,  4;  Communist,  1.  In 
the  second  college,  where  the  number  of  absten- 
tions appears  to  have  been  about  30  percent,  the 
division  of  seats  was:  Independents,  43;  Messali 
Hadfs  party,  9;  Ferhat  Abbas'  party,  8.  The  mod- 
erates thus  not  only  dominated  each  college  but 
actually  provided  the  %  majority  necessary  for  im- 
portant questions.  Under  these  circumstances  it 
was  felt  that  the  new  assembly  might  function 
without  too-  much  friction  with  the  French  admin- 
istration. In  any  case,  its  powers  were  very  defi- 
nitely limited. 

Observers  were  quick  to  remark  the  relatively 
poor  showing  of  the  two  separatist  parties  and  of 
the  Communists.  The  latter  had  steadily  lost 
ground  since  the  end  of  the  war.  They  no  longer 
had  representatives  of  their  party  in  the  govern- 
ment in  Paris  who  could  give  a  helping  hand  to 
the  comrades  in  North  Africa.  They  further  had 
less  economic  distress  on  which  to  play.  The  party's 
leaders  decided  that  in  the  future  they  must  iden- 
tify the  Communist  platform  with  nationalist  as- 
pirations among  the  Moslems  throughout  French 
North  Africa.  Algeria  was  important  because  it 
alone  had  a  representative,  elective  assembly 
through  which  native  opinion  could  effectively 
make  itself  heard.  Even  in  Algeria  less  than  half 
the  adult  males  held  the  franchise.  The  fact  that 
the  Communists  were  still  regarded  as  dangerous  is 
indicated  by  the  action  of  the  Council  of  the  De- 
partment of  Algiers  in  October  when  it  voted  24  to 
2  to  demand  the  dissolution  of  the  Communist 
Party. 

Communist  propaganda  could,  of  course,  feed 
on  the  perpetual  shortage  of  food  and  other  ne- 
cessities among  the  masses.  The  population  of 
French  North  Africa  was  increasing  faster  than  the 
means  of  subsistence.  At  the  same  time,  the  cry  for 
land  reform  meant,  if  carried  out,  dividing  up  the 
European-controlled  farms  into  small  plots,  which 
would  further  decrease  the  productivity  of  the  soil 
since  the  natives'  methods  of  farming  were  very 
backward.  In  order  to  furnish  expert  advice  on 
how  to  improve  the  agricultural  output  of  North 
Africa,  the  French  government  asked  Walter  Clay 
Lowdermilk,  noted  American  reclamation  engineer, 
to  carry  on  an  extensive  study  in  Morocco,  Algeria 
and  Tunisia.  Upon  returning  to  the  United  States 
in  October  after  a  four-months  four,  he  reported 
that  an  attack  on  the  problem  had  already  been 
launched.  He  recommended  classifying  the  land 
for  its  most  suitable  use  (cultivation,  pasture  or 
forest),  and  employing  such  tried  American  tech- 


ALIEN  PROPERTY 


25 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION  OF  LABOR 


tuques  as  contour-plowing,  crop  rotation  and  water 
control  in  order  to  conserve  resources  and  increase 
production. 

In  mid-November,  America's  greatest  wheat- 
grower,  Thomas  D.  Campbell  of  Hardin,  Montana, 
left  for  a  tour  of  French  North  Africa  to  investi- 
gate and  report  to  the  French  government  on  the 
possibilities  of  increasing  grain  production  in  those 
countries.  — ROBERT  GALE  WOOLBERT 

ALIEN  PROPERTY,  Office  of.  A  Division  of  the  U.S. 
Department  of  Justice;  established  pursuant  to  Ex- 
ecutive Order  No.  9788  of  Oct.  14,  1946.  An  As- 
sistant Attorney  General  is  Director  of  the  Office 
and  exercises  the  functions  and  powers  on  behalf 
of  the  Attorney  General  in  controlling,  directing, 
managing,  supervising,  vesting,  and  liquidating 
properties  vested  from  enemy  nationals  and  enemy 
governments. 

The  vested  properties  consist  of  business  enter- 
prises; patents,  copyrights,  and  trademarks;  estates 
and  trusts;  and  real  and  personal  property.  It  is  the 
policy  of  the  Office  to  liquidate,  except  patents, 
copyrights,  and  trademarks,  properties  vested  from 
enemy  nationals  and  their  governments  as  soon  as 
practicable  through  a  program  of  public  sales.  The 
return  of  properties  vested  from  certain  non-hostile 
persons  and  the  payment  of  debt  claims  is  author- 
ized by  statue.  The  net  proceeds  available  after  the 
liquidation  of  properties  vested  from  the  govern- 
ments and  nationals  of  Germany  and  Japan  are  to 
be  made  available  for  the  settlement  of  certain 
types  of  war  claims  of  United  States  civilians  and 
military  personnel. 

Pursuant  to  Executive  Order  No.  9989  of  Aug. 
20,  1948,  control  over  blocked  assets  of  certain 
foreign  governments  and  their  nationals  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  the 
Attorney  General  and  is  being  administered  by 
the  Office  of  Alien  Property.  The  policy  of  releas- 
ing blocked  assets  is  designed  to  aid  the  European 
Economic  Recovery  Program.  Director:  David  L. 
Bazelon,  Assistant  Attorney  General. 

ALUMINUM.  Domestic  and  world  demand  for  alu- 
minum was  tremendous  in  1948  and  could  not 
be  satisfied  by  reduction  facilities  which  were  lim- 
ited by  world- wide  power  shortages.  The  heavy 
demand  was  caused  in  part  by  shortages  of  steel 
and  nonferrous  metals,  and  by  a  market  transition 
in  favor  of  aluminum  caused  by  price  rises  less 
severe  during  the  year  than  in  most  other  metals. 

Domestic  production  of  primary  aluminum  was 
approximately  620,000  tons,  up  from  571,750  in 
1947.  This  was  a  peak  postwar  tonnage,  and  more 
than  two-thirds  of  the  wartime  production  peak 
in  1943. 

Prices  of  pig  aluminum  and  primary  ingot  were 
advanced  2  cents  per  Ib.  during  the  year,  to  16 
cents  and  17  cents,  respectively.  Mill  products  were 
also  advanced  appreciably,  and  extra  charges  were 
revised.  Although  the  industry  sets  its  prices  on 
the  basis  of  f.o.b.  plant  with  minimum  freight  al- 
lowed, one  producer  discontinued  the  freight  al- 
lowance on  pig  and  ingot  in  November. 

Aluminum  scrap  was  very  scarce  throughout  the 
year  and  competition  for  it  was  active  between  in- 
got makers  and  primary  producers.  Secondary  in- 
got prices,  in  consequence,  were  pushed  up  to  a 
top  range  of  27  cents  to  31  cents  per  Ib.,  well 
above  the  price  of  comparable  primary  ingot. 

All  primary  producers  of  aluminum  were  re- 
quired by  the  shortage  to  place  customers  on  a 
quota  basis.  In  addition,  they  restricted  consump- 
tion largely  to  applications  expected  to  continue 


when  other  metals  become  plentiful  Development 
and  promotion  of  new  fields  of  application  were 
held  in  abeyance. 

To  the  end  of  September,  the  Economic  Cooper- 
ation Administration  had  issued  authorizations  to 
western  European  nations  to  permit  them  to  pur- 
chase 100,000  tons  of  Canadian  ingot  aluminum 
at  U.S.  Government  expense.  The  principal  bene- 
ficiary was  the  United  Kingdom,  granted  more 
than  90,000  tons.  By  the  end  of  August,  imports 
of  aluminum  scrap,  ingot  and  sheets  from  that  area 
had  reached  significant  proportions.  In  the  five 
months  since  the  inception  of  the  EGA  program, 
imports  totaled  21,000  tons.  The  shortages  of  all 
forms  of  aluminum  during  the  year  fostered  the 
growth  of  gray  market  operations. 

The  Bonneville  Power  Administration,  beset  by 
the  rapidly  growing  power  needs  of  the  Northwest, 
was  forced  to  restrict  the  power  available  to  all 
aluminum  reduction  plants  in  that  area  toward  the 
end  of  the  year,  and  served  notice  that  further  cur- 
tailment might  be  necessary  during  a  two-hour  a 
day  interruptable  period.  The  maximum  restriction 
would  involve  an  ingot  loss  estimated  at  23,000  Ib. 
a  day  out  of  total  capacity  of  1.6  million  Ib.  a  day. 
Construction  of  a  new  reduction  plant  at  Point 
Comfort,  Tex.,  was  begun  by  the  Aluminum  Com- 
pany of  America.  It  will  have  a  capacity  of  35,000 
ingot  tons  a  year.  Natural  gas  will  be  the  source  of 
power,  to  be  converted  by  a  battery  of  diesel  en- 
gines into  80,000  kva.  This  departure  of  the  indus- 
try from  the  use  of  conventional  hydroelectric 
power  signifies  an  important  step  in  the  direction 
of  higher  power  costs.* 

The  government-built  Massena,  N.Y.,  reduction 
plant,  adjacent  to  a  plant  of  its  own,  was  bought 
by  the  Aluminum  Company  of  America  from  War 
Assets  Administration  for  ?5  million.  A  considera- 
tion in  the  purchase  was  an  agreement  made  by 
the  company  to  release  all  its  alloy  patents  and  its 
most  important  process  and  fabricating  patents  for 
the  free  use  of  the  entire  aluminum  industry. 

Inadequate  power  will  prevent  both  plants  at 
Massena  from  being  placed  into  full  production. 
There  will  be  a  net  gain  of  only  4  percent  in  ingot 
production  until  more  power  is  made  available, 
Next  year  the  company's  old  plant  at  Niagara 
Falls  will  be  closed  down.  This  will  represent  a 
loss  of  20,000  tons  annual  capacity. 

Consumption  of  aluminum  by  the  rearmament 
program  was  just  beginning  to  make  its  effect  felt 
by  the  end  of  the  year  when  the  first  evidences  of 
procurement  for  the  70-group  air  force  and  for 
airborne  equipment  were  observed.  The  National 
Military  Establishment  is  giving  much  considera- 
tion to  the  construction  of  a  great  variety  of  mili- 
tary equipment  in  light  metals. 

Production  of  secondary  aluminum  was  restrict- 
ed throughout  the  year  by  the  scarcity  of  scrap. 
Secondary  smelters  had  produced  136,519  tons  by 
the  end  of  September,  down  from  144,171  tons  in 
the  same  period  last  year.  Imports  of  crude  alumi- 
num from  Canada  had  reached  73,970  tons  by  the 
end  of  November.  U.S.  exports,  to  the  end  of  Au- 
gust; sheets,  plates  and  strip  totaled  37,790  tons; 
crude  metal,  1,147  tons.  Canadian  ingot  production 
was  approximately  375,000  tons  in  1948. 

Domestic  production  of  bauxite,  almost  wholl> 
from  Arkansas,  constituted  only  one-third  of  th« 
raw  material  used  by  alumina  plants  o£  the  United 
States  in  1948.  The  balance  was  imported,  princi- 
pally from  Surinam.  — JOHN  ANTHONY 

AMERICAN    FEDERATION    OF   LABOR   (AFL).   Fomidec 
Nov.  15, 1881,  a  federation  of  national  and  intema- 


AMERICAN  LABOR  PARTY  26 

tional  unions,  state  federations  of  labor,  city  cen- 
tral bodies,  departments,  directly  affiliated  local 
unions,  and  councils  of  unions  employed  in  overall 
industries.  Its  purpose  is  the  advancement  of  work- 
ers* interests  economically,  politically  and  socially. 
Dues-paying  membership  as  of  August,  1948,  was 
7,220,531,  President,  William  Green;  Secretary 
Treasurer,  George  Meany.  Headquarters:  A.F.  of 
L,  Building,  901  Massachusetts  Ave.,  NW,  Wash- 
ington 1,  B.C. 

AMERICAN  LABOR  PARTY  (ALP).  A  political  party  or- 
ganized in  1936  for  independent  political  action 
in  the  State  of  New  York.  The  ALP  is  the  New 
York  State  arm  of  the  Progressive  Party.  In  the 
1948  elections,  the  ALP  achieved  the  highest  state- 
wide vote  in  its  twelve-year  history  by  getting 
508,000  votes  for  Henry  A,  Wallace.  This  exceeded 
the  previous  record  high  of  496,000  votes  for 
Franklin  D.  Roosevelt  in  1944. 

Major  planks  of  the  ALP  program  included  re- 
sumption of  peace  talks  between  the  United  States 
and  the  Soviet  Union,  repeal  of  the  Taft-Hartley 
Law,  effective  price  and  rent  control,  outlawing  of 
discrimination,  and  extension  of  social  security. 
Chairman,  Vito  Marcantonip;  Secretary,  Douglas  L. 
MacMahon;  Treasurer,  Alvin  Udell;  Executive  Sec- 
retary, Arthur  Schutzer.  Headquarters:  570  Sev- 
enth Ave,,  New  York  18,  N.Y. 

AMERICAN  LEGION,  The.  An  organization  of  Ameri- 
can veterans  of  World  Wars  I  and  II.  The  original 
organization  was  founded  in  Paris,  France,  in  1919. 
On  Oct.  29,  1942,  President  Roosevelt  signed  Pub- 
lic Act  767,  making  honorably  discharged  veterans 
of  World  War  II  eligible  for  membership.  The  or- 
ganization is  nondenominational  and  nonpolitical, 
and  is  active  in  promoting  the  interests  of  veterans, 
particularly  of  disabled  veterans,  and  their  depend- 
ents; and  in  work  for  Americanism,  adequate  na- 
tional defense,  community  service,  child  welfare, 
rehabilitation,  youth  training,  and  other  social 
needs.  The  annual  observance  of  American  Edu- 
cation Week  was  originated  by  the  Legion  in  1921. 
Its  campaign  for  Americanism  involves  a  continual 
fight  against  the  inroads  of  communism  and  other 
alien  "isms/*  The  American  Legion  has  successfully 
championed  many  laws  providing  for  adequate 
care  of  disabled  veterans,  war  widows,  and  or- 
phans. 

The  Legion  has  two  national  publications,  The 
American  Legion  Magazine  and  The  National  Le- 
gionnaire, as  well  as  a  number  of  weekly,  semi- 
monthly, and  monthly  state,  district,  county,  and 
post  news  organs.  In  1947-48  the  membership  was 
3,072,048  in  17,176  posts.  National  Commander 
for  1948-49:  Perry  Brown,  Beaumont,  Texas.  Na- 
tional Adjutant:  Henry  H.  Dudley,  Indianapolis, 
Ind.  Headquarters:  777  North  Meridian  St.,  Indi- 
anapolis 6,  Ind. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  There  was  an  undercurrent 
of  vitality  and  maturity  in  American  literature  of 
1948.  The  best-seller  fists  included  an  increasing 
number  of  distinguished  books  and  very  few  ado- 
lescent daydreams  disguised  as  costume  romance. 
The  war  was  rediscovered  and  came  in  for  full 
treatment  both  by  the  novelists  and  by  the  archi- 
tects of  our  military  victory. 

Biography.  Biographers  continued  to  favor  Ameri- 
can historical  figures.  Douglas  S.  Freeman  pub- 
lished the  first  two  volumes  of  his  monumental 
six-volume  work  on  George  Washington,  Other 
Revolutionary  figures  were  treated  in  Dumas  Ma- 
lone's  Jefferson  The  Virginian;  Karl  Lehmann's 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Thomas  Jefferson:  American  Humanist;  Irving 
Brant's  James  Madison:  The  Nationalist,  the  Con- 
stitution years  only;  and  Herbert  S.  Allen's  John 
Hancock:  Patriot  in  Purple.  Morris^  Bishop  wrote 
a  life  of  Cham/plain;  and  Lincoln's  law  partner 
and  first  biographer  was  studied  in  David  Donald's 
Lincoln's  Herndon.  Biographies  of  more  recent 
figures  were  W.  C.  Richard's  The  Last  Billionaire, 
a  study  of  Henry  Ford;  Frederick  Palmer's  John  J. 
Pershing:  General  of  the  Armies;  Ernest  Samuels' 
The  Young  Henry  Adams;  Basil  Matthew's  Booker 
T.  Washington;  and  Wilson  Whitman's  David 
Lilienthal 

Biographies  and  autobiographies  of  figures  of 
the  Roosevelt  era  continued,  of  which  the  most 
valuable  for  the  historian  were  Robert  Sherwood^s 
Roosevelt  and  Hopkins  and  Henry  L.  Stimson's 
autobiography  On  Active  Service.  Elliot  Roosevelt 
edited  the  second  volume  of  F.  D.  R. :  His  Personal 
Letters.  Any  tendency  to  hero-worship  of  Roosevelt 
was  countered  by  James  A.  Farley's  Jim  Farley's 
Story  and  John  T.  Flynn's  vitriolic  The  Roosevelt 
Myth.  Roosevelt's  Secretary  of  State  published  his 
two  volume  Memoirs  of  Cordell  Hull.  Roosevelt's 
predecessor,  Herbert  Hoover,  was  given  uncritical 
eulogy  in  Eugene  Lyons'  Our  Unknown  Ex-Pres-i- 
dent. 

Autobiographies  of  general  interest  were  A  Man 
Called  White,  the  Negro  leader;  So  Far,  So  Good 
by  Morris  Ernst;  Enjoyment  of  Living  by  Max 
Eastman;  My  Life  as  Teacher  by  John  Erskine; 
All  Our  Years,  by  Robert  Morss  Lovett;  Family 
Circle  by  Cornelia  Otis  Skinner;  and  The  Making 
of  an  Insurgent  by  Fiorello  H.  LaGuardia. 

History  and  Current  Issues.  The  tremendous  events 
of  the  last  two  decades  continued  to  absorb  the 
attention  of  both  the  active  participants  and  pro- 
fessional historians.  The  most  important  book  on 
the  military  aspect  of  the  war  was  Gen.  Dwight  D. 
Eisenhower's  Crusade  in  Europe.  The  deeds  of  the 
three  services  were  recounted:  Fletcher  Pratt  wrote 
The  Marines'  War;  S.  E.  Morison  published  the 
third  volume  of  his  History  of  U.S.  Naval  Opera- 
tions in  World  War  II,  called  The  Rising  Sun  in 
the  Pacific;  and  the  Historical  Division  of  the  Army 
issued  U.S.  Army  in  World  War  II:  The  Army 
Ground  Forces.  Theodore  H.  White  edited  The 
Stilwell  Papers,  our  war  in  the  CBI  theater.  The 

Eeriod  preceding  the  war  was  detailed  by  Frederic 
.  Paxon's  Post-War  Years:  Normalcy  1918-1928; 
Dixon  Wecter's  judicious  The  Age  of  the  Great  De- 
pression; and  Charles  A.  Beard's  President  Roose- 
velt and  the  Coming  of  the  War.  In  Washington 
Witch  Hunt  Bert  Andrews  exposed  the  hysteria 
and  stupidity  of  the  Loyalty  Tests.  Major  books 
about  other  nations  included:  The  United  States 
and  China  by  John  K.  Fairbank;  I  Saw  Poland  Be- 
trayed by  Arthur  Bliss  Lane,  our  ex-ambassador  to 
that  country;  The  Silent  People  Speak  by  Robert 
St.  John,  about  Yugoslavia;  and  A  Russian  Journal 
by  John  Steinbeck. 

New  interpretations  of  earlier  phases  of  Ameri- 
can history  included  Max  Savelle's  Seed  of  Lib- 
erty: The  Genesis  of  the  American  Mind  and 
Louis  B.  Wright's  The  Atlantic  Frontier,  both 
studies  of  Colonial  culture;  and  Carl  Van  Dor  en's 
enthusiastically  received  The  Great  Rehearsal,  the 
story  of  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  The  Civ- 
il War  period  was  treated  in  Roy  F,  Nichols*  The 
Disruption  of  American  Democracy,  the  tragedy 
of  weakness  under  Buchanan;  E.  Merton  Coulter  s 
The  South  During  Reconstruction,  volume  eight  of 
his  History  of  the  South;  E.  S.  Miers  and  R.  A. 
Brown's  Gettysburg,  an  editing  of  ^official  reports 
and  eyewitness  accounts  of  America's  most  glamor- 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


cms  battle.  The  newly  opened  Lincoln  papers  were 
described  in  David  Mearns'  The  Lincoln  Papers; 
and  William  B.  Hasseltine  wrote  the  story  of  Lin- 
coln and  the  War  Governors.  Morris  Cohen's  The 
Meaning  of  History  was  a  profound  study  but  far 
less  metaphysical  than  Toynbee's  famous  work. 

The  American  Scene.  There  was  a  slight  falling  off 
in  the  number  of  appreciative  works  on  the  various 
regions  of  America,  and  a  steady  increase  in  books 
which  take  up  our  unsolved  social  problems.  The 
whole  field  of  minority  groups  was  analyzed  by 
R.  M.  Mclver  in  The  More  Perfect  Union;  the 
story  of  the  Negro  in  American  life  was  effectively 
presented  by  Roi  Ottley  in  Black  Odyssey  and 
Arnold  Ross  in  The  Negro  in  America;  the  case 
against  anti-Semitism  by  Carey  McWilliams  in  A 
Mask  for  Privilege;  and  in  Mordecai  Kaplan's  The 
Future  of  the  American  Jew.  In  a  readable  but 
scholarly  way  John  Collier  wrote  about  The  In- 
dians of  the  Americas;  while  the  Indians  of  the 
American  West  were  treated  in  Stanley  Vestal's 
Warpath  and  Council  Fire.  Sumner  Welles'  We 
Need  Not  Fail  pleaded  for  support  of  the  UN; 
while  Crane  Brinton's  From  Many  One  and  Paul 
McGuire's  Experiment  in  World  Order  went  be- 
yond to  discuss  problems  of  real  world  govern- 
ment. 

Regional  studies  continued.  The  Tennessee  by 
Donald  Davidson  and  The  Mohawk  by  Codman 
Hislop  were  added  to  the  Rivers  of  America  Series. 
Roderick  Peattie  wrote  about  The  Berkshires:  The 
Purple  Hills.  Two  volumes  were  added  to  the  So- 
ciety in  America  Series:  Washington  Cavalcade  by 
Charles  Kurd,  and  Memphis  Down  in  Dixie  by 
Shields  McIIwaine.  Elliot  Paul  recaptured  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  old  West  in  A  Ghost  Town  on  the 
Yellowstone.  Wright  Morris's  The  Home  Place  was 
a  vivid  presentation  in  picture  and  text  of  the  cul- 
ture of  Nebraska. 

Many  books  came  to  grips  with  what  is  called 
the  "Cold  War/'  Three  notable  ones  were  Martin 
Ebon's  World  Communism  Today;  Fritz  Stem- 
berg's  How  to  Stop  the  Russians,  a  plea  for  demo- 
cratic reform;  and  David  Bradley 's  No  Place  to 
Hide,  the  implications  of  Bikini. 

Prose  Fiction.  The  year  opened  auspiciously  with 
Ross  Lockridge's  Raintree  County,  an  epic  novel 
of  the  Middle  West.  Novels  interpreting  the  ten- 
sions of  modem  life  included:  Irwin  Stark's  The 
Invisible  Island,  race  prejudice  in  New  York  City; 
This  Very  Earth  by  Erskine  Caldwell,  the  poor 
white  in  the  South;  Plunder  by  S.  H.  Adams,  cor- 
ruption in  Washington;  and  in  Waldo  Frank's  The 
Invaders  the  A-bomb  explodes  over  New  York. 
Hiram  Haydn's  well  received  The  Time  is  Noon 
treated  youth  in  the  *20's.  Outstanding  war  novels 
were  Norman  Mailer's  The  Naked  and  the  Dead, 
war  in  the  Pacific;  Irwin  Shaw's  The  "Young  Lions, 
centered  in  the  E.T.O.;  John  Cobb's  The  Gesture, 
air  force  men  in  England;  and  J.  G.  Cozzen's 
Guard  of  Honor,  an  army  air  base  in  Florida. 

The  vogue  of  the  historical  novel  continued, 
but  its  quality  was  up  sharply.  Both  Carl  Sand- 
burg's Remembrance  Rock  and  Esther  Forbes'  The 
Running  of  the  Tide  were  widely  acclaimed.  In 
The  Ides  of  March  Thornton  Wilder  rewrote  Ro- 
man history;  Pearl  Buck's  Peony  described  the  as- 
similated Jewish  community  in  China;  and  My 
Glorious  Brothers  by  Howard  Fast,  the  Maccabean 
revolt. 

Novels  based  on  American  history  included  To- 
ward the  Morning,  the  third  of  Hervey  Allen's  se- 
ries about  a  white  child  and  the  Indians;  Eagle  in 
the  Sky  by  Van  Wyck  Mason,  a  novel  of  the  Rev- 
olution; Great  Mischief  by  Josephine  Pinckney, 


27  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

Charleston  before  the  Civil  War;  and  The  Great 
Blizzard  by  Albert  E.  IdaU,  the  famous  blizzard 
of  '88. 

The  Gilded  Hearse  by  Charles  Gorham;  The 
Great  Ones  by  Ralph  Ingersoll;  Important  People 
by  Robert  Van  Gelder;  and  The  Locusts  Have  No 
King  by  Dawn  Powell  all  illustrate  the  moral  bank- 
ruptcy that  comes  with  success.  The  Inheritance 
by  Allan  S  eager;  The  Patchwork  Time  by  Robert 
Gibbons;  The  Moth  by  James  M.  Cain;  and  Other 
Voices,  Other  Rooms  by  Truman  Capote  took  up 
the  frustrations  of  childhood  and  adolescence. 

The  abnormal  was  revealed  in  Gore  VidaFs  The 
City  and  the  Pillar,  homosexuality;  Charles  Jack- 
son's The  Outer  Edges,  normal  people's  reaction 
to  murder;  and  in  William  Faulkner's  first  novel 
in  eight  years,  Intruder  in  the  Dust,  a  brilliant 
study  of  morality  and  murder.  In  The  Wild  Coun- 
try Louis  Bromfield  returned  to  his  earlier  style;  in 
One  Clear  Call  Upton  Sinclair  took  his  Lanny 
Budd  series  through  the  ninth  volume;  while 
George  Stewart  wrote  about  a  forest  Fire.  Two 
first  novels  of  unusual  promise  were  The  Lower 
Part  of  the  Sky  by  Lenard  Kaufman;  and  The 
Golden  Net  by  Ruby  Redinger,  about  university 
faculties. 

Outstanding  collections  of  short  stories  were 
Robert  Perm  Warren's  Circus  in  the  Attic;  Peter 
Taylor's  A  Long  Fourth;  Willa  Gather's  posthu- 
mous The  Old  Beauty  and  Others;  and  Harry  Syl- 
vester's All  Our  Idols. 

Poetry  and  Drama.  The  year  marked  the  advent 
of  no  new  poet  of  magnitude,  although  The  Dis- 
possessed by  John  Berryrnan.,  and  Terror  and  De- 
corum by  P.  Vieneck  marked  the  work  of  two  poets 
of  unquestioned  promise.  Several  of  the  established 
poets  added  both  to  their  canons  and  their  repu- 
tations, notably  Archibald  MacLeish  with  Actfive 
and  Other  Poems. 

Other  prominent  poets  to  publish  during  the 
year  were  Robinson  Jeffers  with  The  Double  Axe 
and  Other  Poems;  Kenneth  Fearing,  Stranger  at 
Coney  Island;  Tneodore  Spencer,  Poems;  Mark 
Van  Doren,  New  Poems;  Muriel  Rukeyser,  The 
Green  Wave;  Allen  Tate,  Poems:  1922-1947; 
Richard  Eberhart,  Burr  Oaks;  Walter  Benton, 
Never  a  Greater  Need;  Randall  Jarrell,  Losses;  The 
Cantos  of  Ezra  Pound,  84  of  the  projected  100 
cantos;  Norman  MacLeod,  A  Man  in  Midpassage; 
and  John  Peale  Bishop,  Collected  Poems,  edited  by 
Allen  Tate.  Wallace  Stevens  published  Three  Aca- 
demic Pieces,  a  critical  essay  and  two  illustrative 
poems.  Waldemar  Hill  edited  The  Peoples  Song 
Book.  American  ballads  were  collected  by  John  A. 
and  Alan  Lomax  in  Folk  Song  U.S.A. 

Two  noteworthy  dramas  were  published:  Anne 
of  the  Thousand  Days  by  Maxwell  Anderson;  and  ' 
A  Streetcar  Named  Desire  by  Tennessee  Williams. 

Literary  Criticism.  Two  landmarks  in  criticism  were 
the  Literary  History  of  the  United  States  in  three 
volumes,  a  collaboration  of  many  scholars;  and  the 
beginning  of  the  American  Men  of  Letters  Series 
with  Joseph  Wood  Krutch's  Henry  David  Thoreau 
and  Emery  Neff's  Edwin  Arlington  Robinson.  The 
year  marked  also  the  appearance  of  The  American 
College  Dictionary  and  the  second  supplement  of 
H.  L.  Mencken's  The  American  Language. 

Criticism  of  individual  authors  included  Na- 
thaniel Hawthorne  by  Randall  Stewart;  and  Haw- 
thorne: The  American  Years  by  Robert  Cantwell, 
both  of  which  received  praise.  Brom  Weber's  Hart 
Crane  was  perceptive;  as  was  W.  G.  Rogers*  When 
You  See  This  Remember  Me,  about  Gertrude 
Stein.  Leonard  Unger  compiled  T.  S.  Eliot:  A  Se- 
lected Critique.  Interpretations  of  foreign  writers 


ANDORRA 

included  Richard  Ellman's  Yeats:  The  Man  and 
the  Mask;  George  Bullet's  George  Eliot:  Her  Life 
and  Her  Books;  Eric  Bentley's  Bernard  Shaw;  and 
Harold  March's  much  praised  The  Two  Worlds  of 
Marcel  Proust. 

Science.  A  much  discussed  and  praised  work  of 
science  that  became  a  best  seller  was  Sexual  Be- 
haviw  in  the  Human  Male  by  Alfred  C.  Kinsey  and 
others.  Conservation  was  eloquently  pleaded  by 
Fairfield  Osborne  in  Our  Plundered  Planet,  and 
by  William  Vogt  in  Road  to  Survival  Two  books 
sought  to  interpret  science  and  human  culture: 
Man  and  His  Works  by  Melville  Herskovits  and 
Science,  Servant  of  Man:  A  Layman's  Primer  for 
the  Age  of  Science  by  I.  Bernard  Cohen.  Race  and 
Nationality  by  Henry  Pratt  Fair  child  was  a  scien- 
tific analysis  of  the  various  racial  groups  in  the 
United  States. 

Philosophy  and  the  Fine  Arts.  The  continued  search 
for  a  non-authoritarian  basis  for  human  values  was 
found  in  Life  and  Morals  by  S.  J.  Holmes  and  in 
the  highly  praised  Man  For  Himself  by  Erich 
Fromm.  Ideas  Have  Consequences  by  Richard 
Weaver  preached  a  return  to  medieval  spirituality; 
Of  Flight  and  Life  by  Charles  A.  Lindbergh  for 
some  modern  spirituality.  The  Proper  Study  of 
Mankind  by  Stuart  Chase  was  completely  secular 
in  its  approach  to  the  social  sciences. 

Two  art  forms  were  interpreted  in  An  Approach 
to  Modern  Painting  by  Morris  Davidson,  and  in 
Sigmund  Spaeth's  History  of  Popular  Music  in 
America.  Eric  White's  Stravinsky  was  an  appre- 
ciative study.  American  Building  by  James  Marston 
Fitch  showed  American  architecture  as  an  expres- 
sion of  social  forces,  ( See  ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  ) 
— ARTHUR  E.  JENSEN 

ANDORRA.  A  small  republic  in  the  Pyrenees  be- 
tween France  and  Spain,  under  the  joint  suzerainty 
of  the  French  chief  executive  and  the  Spanish 
Bishop  of  Urgel.  Area,  191  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion, about  6,000,  Capital  town,  Andorra.  The  lan- 
guage spoken  is  Catalan.  Sheep  rearing  is  the  main 
occupation  of  the  people.  A  governing  body  called 
the  council-general  consists  of  24  members  elected 
for  4  years  ( 12  elected  every  2  years ) .  The  council- 

feneral  nominates  the  First  Syndic  (President)  and 
econd  Syndic  (Vice-President). 

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN  SUDAN.  A  British-Egyptian  con- 
dominium in  northeast  Africa.  Area:  969,600 
square  miles.  Population  (estimated):  7,498,090, 
including  41,760  non-natives,  Chief  towns:  Khar- 
toum (capital),  44,950  inhabitants;  Omdurman, 
116,196;  Khartoum  North,  91,530;  Atbara,  19,757; 
Port  Sudan,  18,554;  and  El  Obied,  17,500. 

Production  and  Trade.  Cotton  (167,201  short  tons 
of  seed  cotton  produced  in  1946-47)  and  gum 
arabic  (30,928  tons  exported  in  1946)  are  the  chief 
export  products.  Great  millet  and  bulrush  millet 
are  the  principal  grain  crops.  Other  products  are 
sesamum,  groundnuts,  dates,  vegetable  ivory,  ma- 
hogany, ghee,  shea  nuts,  salt  (21,101  metric  tons 
in  1946),  and  gold.  Livestock  (1944):  20,000 
horses,  500,000  asses,  3,195,000  cattle,  4,808,000 
sheep,  3,991,000  goats,  and  1,109,000  camels. 
Trade  (1946):  imports  were  valued  at  £  El  1,467,- 
962  and  exports  at  £E9,267,831,  of  which  cotton 
accounted  for  £E4,712,152;  and  gum  arabic  for 
£E1,564,383. 

Transportation.  At  the  end  of  1946  there  were 
14,240  miles  of  roads,  2,001  miles  of  railway  open 
to  traffic,  2,325  route  miles  of  river  transport,  and 
regular  air  service  from  Khartoum  to  various  points 
in  Africa.  There  are  35  wireless  stations. 


28  ANGLO-EGYPTIAN  SUDAN 

Finance.  In  1946  revenue  amounted  to  £E  8,288,- 
985  and  expenditure  to  £E8,207,802.  The  budget 
estimates  for  1947  were  balanced  at  £E9,208,880, 
including  a  prospective  surplus  of  £E60,539.  The 
Egyptian  pound  (  £E)  divisible  into  100  piasters, 
is  exchangeable  at  "97.5  piasters  to  the  pound  ster- 
ling. 

Government.  The  condominium  of  the  Sudan  was 
created  by  the  Anglo-Egyptian  convention  of  Jan. 
19,1899,  and  confirmed  in  the  Anglo-Egyptian 
Treaty  of  1936.  A  governor  general  heads  the  ad- 
ministration, which  in  its  lower  and  middle  levels 
is  largely  staffed  by  Sudanese.  There  are  eight 
provinces,  each  administered  by  a  governor  and 
each  advised  by  local  councils.  For  details  on  the 
changes  introduced  into  the  Constitution  in  1948, 
see  Events.  Governor  General:  Sir  Robert  Howe 
(app.  April,  1947). 

Events,  1948.  The  Sudan  continued  to  be  a  stum- 
bling block  to  the  formulation  of  a  new  Anglo- 
Egyptian  treaty.  Egypt  insisted  on  preserving  "the 
unity  of  the  Nile" — which  meant  ending  the  con- 
dominium with  Great  Britain  and  making  the  Su- 
dan an  integral  part  of  Egypt,  with  certain  rights 
of  autonomy,  The  British  maintained  that  the  exist- 
ing arrangement  should  give  way  only  to  fuller 
self-government  and  eventual  independence  for 
the  Sudan,  if  the  people  of  that  country  should 
choose  it. 

The  Constitution  of  the  Sudan  was  generally 
admitted  to  be  in  need  of  reform.  The  Egyptian 
Government  itself  had  been  aware  oT:  this,  and 
early  in  the  year  a  conference  was  planned  be- 
tween British  and  Egyptian  officials  to  discuss 
these  reforms.  A  British  note  accepting  an  Egyp- 
tian suggestion  for  such  a  conference  was  pub- 
lished on  February  23.  But  Egyptian  public  opin- 
ion, stirred  up  by  the  press,  obliged  the  Govern- 
ment to  reject  this  proposal  early  in  March. 

The  Egyptians  declared  that  the  scheme  was 
aimed  merely  at  perpetuating  British  rule  in  the 
Sudan.  The  full  reasons  for  the  Egyptian  Senate 
Foreign  Affairs  Committee's  rejection  of  the  draft 
agreement  on  the  Sudan,  signed  by  the  British  Am- 
bassador, Sir  Ronald  Campbell,  and  Foreign  Minis- 
ter Khashaba  Pasha,  were  discussed  in  the  Senate 
on  June  7.  A  few  days  later  Khashaba  resigned, 
presumably  on  this  issue. 

Meanwhile,  the  British  Government  had  gone 
ahead  with  its  intention  to  draw  up  a  new  Con- 
stitution, The  draft  was  discussed  by  the  Advisory 
Council  for  the  Northern  Sudan  in  March.  On 
June  14  the  British  announced  that  they  were  going 
ahead  without  the  Egyptians.  Therefore,  five  days 
later,  the  Governor  General,  Sir  Robert  Howe, 
promulgated  the  ordinance  which  provided  for  the 
establishment  of  an  Executive  Council  and  Legis- 
lative Assembly  for  the  entire  Sudan.  The  terms, 
largely  the  result  of  reconciling  the  opinions  of  the 
Sudanese  themselves,  may  best  be  described  in  the 
words  of  an  editorial  in  the  London  Times  of 
July  6: 

"The  pivot  of  the  scheme  is  a  Legislative  Assem- 
bly broadly  representative  of  the  whole  country. 
So  diverse  are  conditions  in  north  and  south,  and 
even  in  different  areas  inside  these  main  divisions, 
that  no  uniform  method  of  election  has  been  found 

Eracticable.  Of  the  65  elected  members,  10  are  to 
e  directly  elected  by  the  more  advanced  parts  of 
the  north,  while  less  developed  areas  will  return 
42  members  by  secret  ballot  through  a  system  of 
electoral  colleges,  in  the  composition  of  which  di- 
rect election,  however,  plays  an  important  part 
In  the  relatively  backward  south,  13  members  are 
to  be  chosen  by  the  councils  of  the  three  provinces 


ANGOLA 

of  Equatoria,  Upper  Nile,  and  Bahr  el  Ghazal.  The 
legislature,  which  will  enjoy  extensive  powers,  is 
linked  to  the  executive  by  its  right  to  elect  a 
Leader,  who  will  himself  be  a  Minister  and  whose 
views  the  Governor  General  will  consider,  in  ap- 
pointing other  Ministers,  all  of  whom  must  be 
non-official  Sudanese. 

"Hie  Ministers,  together  with  under-secretaries 
— also  Sudanese — whom  the  Governor  General 
will  appoint  after  consulting  the  Leader  of  the  As- 
sembly, will  form  the  main  Sudanese  element  on 
the  Executive  Council,  which  is  to  be  collectively 
responsible  to  the  Governor  General  for  the  ad- 
ministration. At  least  half  its  members  must  be 
Sudanese,  but  the  Governor  General  is  empowered 
to  nominate  up  to  3  ordinary  and  up  to  4  ex-officio 
members.  He  retains  certain  powers  in  his  own 
hands,  but  it  is  plainly  intended  that  they  shall  be 
exercised  mainly  to  safeguard  the  working  of  the 
Constitution  and  to  deal  with  such  matters  as  for- 
eign relations  which  are  for  the  present  outside 
the^  competence  of  the  legislature. 

"The  new  scheme  seems  well  fitted  to  give  the 
Sudanese  people  the  opportunity  of  showing  their 
capacity  to  manage  their  own  affairs,  while  pro- 
viding against  any  major  disasters  which  might 
arise  from  administrative  inexperience." 

The  elections  took  place  on  November  15,  not 
without  violence  and  some  loss  of  life.  The  po- 
litical group  favorable  to  union  with  Egypt — the 
Ashigga  Party — boycotted  the  voting  and  its  dem- 
onstrations in  various  towns  resulted  in  the  arrest 
of  several  hundred  persons.  It  also  organized  a 
general  strike,  fairly  effective  at  Port  Sudan. 

In  the  10  urban  constituencies,  only*  7  to  34 
percent  of  the  voters  went  to  the  polls.  The  indi- 
rect system  of  voting  was  used  in  the  28  rural  con- 
stituencies, and  here  from  one  third  to  three 
quarters  of  the  electorate  participated.  Due  to  the 
boycott,  practically  all  of  the  elective  seats  went 
to  the  Independence,  or  Umma  Party,  led  by  El 
Sayed  Sir  Abdel  Rahman  el  Mahdi  Pasha.  There 
still  remained  25  members  to  be  named  by  the 
British  administration.  An  aftermath  of  the  vio- 
lence accompanying  the  elections  was  the  trial  of 
pro-Egyptian  political  leaders  in  the  Sudan.  The 
British  authorities  refused  to  let  them  be  defended 
by  lawyers  from  Egypt.  This  led  to  student  riots 
in  Egyptian  cities  in  which  on  November  28  two 
were  killed.  — ROBERT  GALE  WOOLBERT 

ANGOLA  (Portuguese  West  Africa).  The  largest  colony 
in  the  Portuguese  empire,  extending  for  some  1,000 
miles  along  the  south-west  coast  of  Africa.  Area, 
481,351  square  miles,  Population  (1940  census), 
3,738,010,  of  whom  44,083  were  Europeans  and 
28,305  half-castes.  The  Negro  population  is  pre- 
dominantly of  Bantu  stock  and  tribal  in  character. 
Chief  towns:  Sao  Paulo  de  Loando  (capital,  pop, 
62,000),  Lobito,  Malange,  and  the  future  capital, 
Nova  Lisboa.  Educational  facilities  are  limited  to 
161  primary  schools  with  10,408  pupils  and  12  sec- 
ondary schools  with  1,602  pupils. 

Production.  Principal  crops  in  1946  were  coffee 
(883,100  bags  of  60  kilos),  maize,  sugar,  palm  oil 
and  kernels,  cotton,  wheat,  tobacco,  cocoa,  and 
sisal.  Minerals  include  valuable  diamond  deposits. 
Copper  and  lignite  exist  but  are  not  exploited. 
Chief  exports  are  coffee  (774,751  bags  in  1946), 
diamonds,  sugar,  wax,  and  coconut,  while  imports 
consist  mainly  of  foodstuffs,  textiles,  and  coal, 

Foreign  Trade,  etc.  The  1946  imports  totaled  799,- 
582,000  escudos;  exports  962,251,000  escudos. 
Revenue  for  the  year  1946  was  placed  at  525,827,- 
000  escudos;  expenditure,  482,173,000  escudos. 


29  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Transportation.  A  total  of  1,442  miles  of  railway 
is  open  to  traffic.  The  Benguela  railway  runs  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  border  of  Belgian  Congo 
and  continues  to  the  east  coast.  There  are  21,772 
miles  of  good  roads.  Angola  is  connected  with  the 
Belgian  Congo  and  Equatorial  Africa  by  air.  In 
1946  a  total  of  446  vessels  of  628,067  tons  entered 
Angola  ports. 

Government.  By  a  1946  decree  the  country  is  di- 
vided into  five  provinces  and  sixteen  administrative 
districts.  Administration  of  the  colony  is  headed  by 
a  governor-general  assisted  by  an  advisory  council 
composed  of  appointed  and  elective  representa- 
tives from  among  the  European  inhabitants.  Gover- 
nor-general: Captain  Silva  Carvalho. 

ANTHROPOLOGY.  The  year  1948  marked  the  con- 
tinued growth  of  anthropology  in  all  its  phases  and 
branches,  most  notably  in  the  United  States,  but 
in  significant  degree  elsewhere  as  well.  At  the 
opening  of  the  fall  term  eighty  universities  and 
colleges  in  the  United  States  were  offering  courses 
in  anthropology  leading  to  the  bachelor  of  arts 
degree,  either  as  independent  departments  or  com- 
bined with  one  or  another  of  the  social  sciences. 
Of  these  eighty  institutions,  eighteen  have  staff  and 
other  facilities  that  warrant  the  granting  of  master 
of  arts  and  doctor  of  philosophy  degrees  in  an- 
thropology. This  expansion,  which  represents  an 
over-all  increase  of  several  hundred  percent  during 
the  past  three  years,  answers  an  increased  general 
interest  in  anthropological  concepts  and  methodol- 
ogies and  an  increasing  employment  of  trained 
anthropologists  in  various  social  research  programs, 
in  numerous  state  and  national  government  de- 
partments, bureaus,  and  services,  as  well  as  on 
university  and  college  staffs.  No  comparable  data 
is  available  for  European  nations,  though  it  is 
known  that  systematic  instruction  and  research  has 
been  variously  established,  re-created  or  expanded 
in  universities  and  museums  in  France,  Italy,  Aus- 
tria, Poland,  Germany,  England,  Scotland,  Nor- 
way, and  Sweden.  In  Latin  America  the  same  trend 
is  observable,  most  notably  in  Mexico,  Colombia, 
Peru,  Venezuela,  and  Brazil,  though  on  a  some- 
what more  limited  scale. 

During  1948  a  third  and  much  more  comprehen- 
sive International  Directory  of  Anthropologists  was 
gotten  under  way.  This  enterprise  is  being  carried 
out  under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Research 
Council,  through  its  Committee  on  International 
Cooperation  in  Anthropology,  and  will  probably 
be  completed  and  in  print  by  the  end  of  1949. 

Organizations.  The  Third  International  Congress 
of  Anthropological  and  Ethnological  Sciences  was 
successfully  held  ,in  Brussels,  August  15  to  23, 
inclusive.  About  500  persons  were  in  attendance 
from  most  European  countries,  the  United  States, 
and  a  number  of  nations  and  colonies  in  Latin 
America,  Africa,  the  Near  East,  and  Asia.  The  pro- 
gram consisted  of  special  exhibitions  of  archaeo- 
logical and  ethnological  collections  and  of  about 
150  papers  devoted  to  various  topics  in  all  branch- 
es of  anthropology. 

The  American  Anthropological  Association  has 
continued  to  grow  in  membership  and  in  its  effec- 
tiveness as  a  professional  organization.  Two  new 
classes  of  membership  were  instituted  during  the 
year:  Foreign  Fellows  and  Liaison  Fellows.  The 
former  gives  recognition  to  anthropologists  in  coun- 
tries other  than  Canada  and  the  United  States  who 
are  of  professional  status;  the  latter  gives  recogni- 
tion to  outstanding  scholars  in  other  disciplines 
who  share  interests  with  anthropologists  in  certain 
problems.  A  Western  States  Branch  of  the  Associa- 


ANTHROPOLOGY 

tion  was  formed  during  the  year,  thus  making  a 
total  of  six  local  and  regional  affiliated  and  deriva- 
tive organizations  in  the  Association.  The  annual 
meeting  of  the  Association  was  held  in  Toronto, 
Canada,  Dec.  28  to  30,  1948,  and  had  about  300 
persons  in  attendance.  The  Association  undertook 
to  be  host  organization  to  the  29th  International 
Congress  of  Americanists,  to  be  convened  in  New 
York  in  September,  1949,  an  undertaking  made 
possible  by  a  substantial  grant  from  the  Viking 
Fund. 

Publications.  The  growing  academic  interest  in 
anthropology  is  exemplified  by  the  publication  of 
four  general  textbooks  during  the  year:  C,  S.  Coon, 
A  Reader  in  General  Anthropology  (Holt);  John 
Gillin,  The  Ways  of  Men  (Appleton- Century); 
Melville  J.  Herskovits,  Man  and  His  Works 
(Knopf);  and  A.  L,  Kroeber,  Anthropology  (Har- 
court,  Brace).  Among  the  many  monographs  and 
specialized  studies  to  appear  during  the  year,  of 
special  note  are  volumes  3  and  4  of  the  Handbook 
of  South  American  Indians  (Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology,  Bulletin  143)  to  which  a  large  number 
of  specialists  have  contributed.  The  rapidly  de- 
veloping interdisciplinary  field  of  studies  in  per- 
sonality and  culture  was  graced  with  the  appear- 
ance of  Clyde  Kluckhohn  and  Henry  A.  Murray 
(eds.)  Personality  in  Nature,  Society  and  Culture 
(Knopf).  Other  representative  titles  during  1948 
are:  in  human  paleontology  and  development  of 
races,  R.  Ruggles  Gates,  Human  Ancestry  (Har- 
vard); in  the  field  of  religion  in  nonliterate  soci- 
eties, William  Howells,  Tfie  Heathens:  Primitive 
Man  and  His  Religions  ( Doubleday ) ;  and  in  social 
anthropology,  Robert  H.  Lowie,  Social  Organiza- 
tion (Rinehart). 

Exchanges.  An  increased  number  of  exchanges 
among  students  and  researchers  were  effected  dur- 
ing the  year  under  the  auspices  of  various  universi- 
ties, foundations  and  governments.  Thus,  Drs. 
Hilda  Kuper  and  Audrey  I.  Richards,  respectively 
of  Johannesburg  (S.  Africa)  and  London,  have 
been  visiting  professors  at  the  University  of  North 
Carolina,  Professor  I.  Schapera,  of  Capetown,  S. 
Africa,  was  a  visitor  to  the  University  of  Chicago, 
and  Prof.  Ernilio  Willems,  of  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil, 
was  among  the  participating  faculty  in  the  Institute 
for  Brazilian  Studies  at  Vanderbilt  University  dur- 
ing the  summer  months, 

The  Conference  Board  of  Associated  Research 
Councils,  Washington,  D.C.,  has  undertaken  the 
processing  of  applications  for  the  exchange  of  pro- 
fessors, specialists  and  research  scholars  under  the 
Fulbright  Act.  Similar  exchanges  of  students  are 
being  handled  through  the  Institute  of  Interna- 
tional Education.  At  both  levels,  anthropology  and 
anthropologists  will  benefit  as  more  agreements  are 
made  with  various  nations  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  this  act 

The  Institute  of  Social  Anthropology  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  sponsored  a  visit  to  the 
United  States  of  Senor  Luis  Duque  Gomez,  direc- 
tor of  the  Ethnological  Institute,  Bpgotd,  Colombia, 
with  the  purpose  both  of  stimulating  field  work  in 
Colombia  and  encouraging  a  greater  exchange  of 
museum  specimens. 

D.  B.  Stout,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Viking 
Fund,  spent  the  summer  months  in  Sweden  on  a 
mission  to  increase  the  collaboration  between 
Swedish  and  American  anthropologists  through  ex- 
changes and  the  encouragement  of  joint  research 
projects. 

Though  the  outlook  for  the  international  ex- 
change of  anthropologists  has  improved  during  the 
year,  the  exchange  of  books  and  periodicals  in  the 


30  ANTHROPOLOGY 

field  of  anthropology  is  still  seriously  hampered  by 
controlled  currencies  in  many  nations  and  the  lack 
of  dollar  credits.  To  date  no  entirely  satisfactory 
means  of  overcoming  this  difficulty  has  been  de- 
vised. 

Physical  Anthropology.  Warfare  and  political  un- 
rest have  continued  to  block  further  search  for 
fossil  evidences  of  human  evolution  in  eastern  Asia 
and  Indonesia,  though  the  materials  already  at 
hand  from  these  areas  give  promise  that  important 
discoveries  will  be  made  here  when  conditions  per- 
mit. In  South  Africa  further  information  has  been 
published  by  Professor  Raymond  A.  Dart  concern- 
ing Australopithecus  prometheus,  noted  in  the  pre- 
vious Year  Book,  This  fossil  form  is  now  regarded 
as  having  had  a  brain  capacity  of  about  650  cc., 
though  in  body  size  it  was  of  pygmoid  stature  and 
delicately  proportioned.  The  use  of  fire  seems 
clearly  established  (hence  the  species  name),  and 
as  a  fire-using  proto-human  prometheus  is  inter- 
preted, on  geological  evidence,  as  antedating  the 
previously  known  earliest  user  of  fire  (Sinanthropus 
pekinensis)  by  from  300,000  to  500,000  years.  At 
the  end  of  1948  announcement  was  made  of  the 
discovery,  also  in  South  Africa  near  Johannesburg, 
by  Dr.  Robert  Broom,  of  the  greater  part  of  a 
massive  fossil  jaw  containing  teeth  which  indicate 
a  giant  humanoid  believed  to  be  larger  than  the 
giant  forms  of  Java  man  (Meganthropus  paleo- 
javanicus ) .  This  discovery  has  been  named  "Swart- 
krans  Man,"  and  will,  no  doubt,  be  given  a  bi- 
nomial classification  in  the  near  future. 

The  third  Summer  Seminar  in  Physical  Anthro- 
pology was  held  June  20  to  30  at  the  Viking  Fund, 
with  somewhat  wider  international  representation 
than  previously.  Among  the  outstanding  authorities 
in  attendance  was  Dr.  W.  E.  Le  Gros  Clark,  of 
Oxford  University. 

Archaeology.  The  most  extensive  field  activity  was 
carried  out  in  the  United  States,  mainly  along 
rivers  where  inundation  of  thousands  of  important 
Indian  sites  is  imminent  as  a  result  of  nationwide 
Federal  river  development  programs.  The  scientific 
aspects  of  this  work  are  under  the  direction  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  but  with  assistance  from 
several  other  government  agencies  and  services  and 
in  cooperation  with  various  research  councils,  uni- 
versities, and  museums. 

Other  major  archaeological  expeditions  were  un- 
dertaken during  the  year  by  Harvard  University 
to  the  Aleutians,  by  the  National  Museum,  Den- 
mark, and  the  University  of  Alaska  to  the  Norton 
Sound  area  of  Alaska,  and  by  the  Peabody  Foun- 
dation for  Archaeology,  Andover,  Mass.,  to  the 
Yukon  area.  It  is  noteworthy  in  all  these  archaeo- 
logical investigations  that  the  expedition  personnel 
included  botanists,  geologists,  physical  anthropolo- 
gists and  other  specialists  whose  techniques  enable 
more  precise  archaeological  field  activity. 

Systematic  cooperation  with  physicists  was  be- 
gun during  the  year  by  archaeologists  on  the  matter 
of  possibly  dating  archaeological  specimens  through 
the  measurement  of  the  radioactive  Carbon  14  con- 
tent in  them.  To  date,  results  are  inconclusive  as 
to  extent  of  usefulness  of  this  procedure. 

Cultural  Anthropology.  The  Institute  of  Social  An- 
thropology in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  con- 
tinued its  program  of  field  research  in  Mexico, 
Peru,  and  Brazil  in  collaboration  with  local  eth- 
nologists. The  study  of  acculturation  processes  in 
Negro  communities  in  the  New  World,  mainly  by 
investigators  trained  at  Northwestern  University, 
has  continued  to  grow  during  the  year  and  now 
include  researches  in  Honduras,  Cuba,  Haiti  and 
Brazil.  In  addition,  many  universities,  museums, 


ANTITRUST 


and  foundations  supported  smaller  field  researches 
of  shorter  duration  in  various  places  in  the  New 
World.  Field  expeditions  in  ethnology  of  interna- 
tional scope,  other  than  those  limited  to  American 
nations,  are  still  relatively  few  in  number,  however, 
because  of  political  difficulties  and  the  restrictions 
on  monetary  exchanges.  The  University  of  Cali- 
fornia African  Expedition,  southern  section,  in- 
cluded extensive  field  researches  among  the  tribes 
of  northern  Southwest  Africa,  under  the  direction 
of  Dr.  Edwin  M.  Loeb.  Professor  B.  L.  Sharp,  of 
Cornell  University,  departed  for  extended  com- 
munity researches  in  Siam. 

Interdisciplinary  Developments.  Area  programs, 
noted  in  the  previous  YEAR  BOOK,  EVENTS  OF  1947, 
have  remained  the  most  prominent  development 
wherein  specialists  in  the  various  branches  of  an- 
thropology are  teamed  up  with  other  social  scien- 
tists and  with  natural  scientists  in  the  joint  attack 
on  large-scale  problems  through  field  study  and 
analysis.  Anthropologists  have  played  an  important 
role  in  the  design,  pursuit  and  assessment  of  such 
programs  and  have  been  the  recipients  of  a  number 
of  research  and  travel  grants  from  several  founda- 
tions supporting  area  research.  Further  planning 
was  carried  out  during  the  year  for  the  establish- 
ment of  an  International  Institute  of  the  Hylean 
Amazon,  sponsored  by  UNESCO,  in  which  eth- 
nologists would  be  participants. 

Prizes  and  Awards.  The  Viking  Fund  Medals  and 
Awards  for  1947  (announced  at  the  end  of  1947  and 
early  in  1948)  were  awarded  to  John,  O.  Brew 
(archaeology);  E.  A.  Hooton  (physical  anthropol- 
ogy); and  Robert  H.  Lowie  (cultural  anthropol- 
ogy). The  Loubat  Prize,  awarded  quinquennially 
in  the  United  States  by  Columbia  University  and 
in  Scandinavia  by  the  Swedish  Royal  Academy  of 
Letters,  History  and  Antiquities,  was  granted  in 
1948  to  Dr.  Stig  Ryden,  of  the  Ethnographical 
Museum,  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  for  his  many  con- 
tributions to  South  American  Indian  archaeology. 
Dr.  Manuel  Gamio,  one  of  Mexico's  foremost  an- 
thropologists, was  awarded  an  honorary  Doctor  of 
Letters  degree  by  Columbia  University. 

Necrology.  The  ranks  of  anthropology  were  seri- 
ously depleted  during  1948  through  the  deaths  of 
Ruth  Benedict,  author  of  the  milestone  publication 
Patterns  of  Culture,  of  Sylvanus  G.  Money,  world- 
renowned  specialist  in  Maya  archaeology,  and 
Franz  Weidenreich,  authority  on  human  paleontol- 
ogy and  proponent  of  the  hypothesis  that  human 
evolution  included  giant  forms.  —  D.  B.  STOUT 

ANTITRUST  DIVISION.  A  Division  of  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Justice  charged  with  the  enforcement 
of  the  antitrust  and  30  kindred  acts.  The  Division 
receives  complaints  and,  in  cooperation  with  the 
Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation,  conducts  investi- 
gations which,  where  appropriate,  lead  to  criminal 
prosecutions  or  suits  in  equity  designed  to  break 
up  monopolies,  and  attempts  to  monopolize,  re- 
straints of  trade,  such  as  conspiracies  to  fix  prices, 
allocate  territories,  engage  in  exclusive  dealing  ar- 
rangements and  other  illegal  practices  including 
unlawful  cartel  agreements  with  foreign  corpora- 
tions, and  restrictive  patent  arrangements. 

The  Division  has,  as  a  result  of  increased  appro- 
priation, expanded  its  stafE,  including  its  offices 
located  at  Boston,  Chicago,  Denver,  Los  Angeles, 
New  York  City,  San  Francisco,  and  Seattle.  It  has 
opened  new  offices  at  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Jackson- 
ville, Philadelphia,  and  Kansas  City,  Kans.  These 
offices  receive  complaints  from  the  public,  institute 
investigations,  and  prosecute  antitrust  cases.  The 
Small  Business  Section  of  the  Division  receives 


31  AQUEDUCTS 

complaints  and  appeals  for  help  from  small  busi- 
ness concerns  throughout  the  country  and,  when 
justified,  represents  their  interests  in  their  dealings 
with  both  larger  private  business  concerns  and 
Government  agencies.  If  the  investigation  indicates 
a  violation  of  the  antitrust  laws,  this  Section  rec- 
ommends appropriate  action  by  the  Division.  As- 
sistant Attorney  General  in  charge;  Herbert  A. 
Bergson. 

AQUEDUCTS.  A  relatively  new  development  in  aque- 
duct construction  is  pre-stressed  reinforced  con- 
crete pipe.  A  78-mile  line,  consisting  of  48  miles 
of  48-inch  pipe,  27  miles  of  36-inch  pipe,  and  3 
miles  of  24-inch  pipe  (all  of  this  special  construc- 
tion), was  completed  this  year.  It  extends  from 
Lake  Huron  to  a  filtration  plant  at  Saginaw,  Mich., 
and  to  one  at  Midland.  The  pipes  were  precast  in 
16-foot  lengths,  shipped  to  the  job  in  trucks  and 
then  lowered  into  the  trench.  The  pipe  consists  of 
an  interior  concrete  core,  a  thin  steel  cylinder  out- 
side of  this  formed  from  flat  sheets  all  welded  on 
the  job,  and  then  outside  of  this,  pre-stressed  high 
tensile  wire  embedded  in  a  rich  covering  of  cement 
mortar.  Vibration  of  the  concrete  and  steam  curing 
of  cement  mortar  are  essential  features  of  the  cast- 
ing operation.  Ten  pipe-laying  crews  worked  si- 
multaneously in  placing  the  pipe.  Joints  were 
sealed  with  solid  rubber  gaskets  inserted  in  grooves 
provided  in  the  galvanized  steel  joint  rings  at  the 
spigot  end  of  the  pipe.  The  project  cost  $12  mil- 
lion. A  2-mile  length  of  66-inch  steel  pipe  extends 
from  the  shore  to  a  crib  out  in  Lake  Huron  to  con- 
stitute the  intake  to  the  pipe  line.  Its  capacity  is 
100  million  gallons  per  day, 

Another  pipe  line  of  the  same  type  of  construc- 
tion has  been  built  this  year  for  Montreal,  Canada. 
It  is  an  84-inch  diameter  intake,  9,500  ft.  long, 
receiving  water  from  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and 
extends  2,000  ft.  out  into  the  river  from  the  shore. 
The  pipes  were  precast  in  18-foot  lengths.  Econ- 
omy in  the  use  of  steel  is  made  possible  by  this 
type  of  construction, 

One  of  the  great  undertakings  for  transporting 
water  now  under  way  in  this  country  is  the  Colo- 
rado-Big Thompson  Project  for  diverting  310,000 
acre  feet  of  water  annually  from  the  western  to  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  continental  divide  through  a 
13-mile  tunnel.  The  water  will  be  pumped  187  feet 
vertically  through  three  conduits  87  inches  in  di- 
ameter. 

Another  noteworthy  water  supply  project  under 
construction  this  year  is  the  Second  Mokelumne 
Aqueduct  in  northern  California  that  will  ulti- 
mately increase  the  system  to  200  million  gallons 
per  day  of  water  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  the 
East  Bay  Municipal  Utility  District,  east  of  San 
Francisco.  The  work  now  under  way  consists  of 
the  installation  of  a  new  steel  pipe  line.  To  finance 
the  work,  $12  million  was  provided  by  a  bond 
issue.  The  total  cost  is  estimated  to  be  $21.7  mil- 
lion. The  new  line  follows  closely  an  earlier  plan 
which  called  for  the  progressive  installation  of 
booster  pumps  or  of  parallel  lines  to  increase  flow 
as  the  demand  for  water  should  increase. 

The  first  step  was  the  installation  of  6,100  ft.  of 
60-inch  steel  pipe,  %-inch  thick,  which  was  war 
surplus  material  originally  intended  for  Manila. 
The  remaining  portion  of  the  line  will  be  of  67- 
and  68-inch  diameter  steel  pipe.  All  joints  on  the 
new  line  are  to  be  welded;  in  the  old  line  the  field 
joints  were  riveted.  Bids  showed  steel  to  be  cheaper 
than  concrete.  The  shell  varies  in  thickness  from 
%  to  %  inch.  It  is  lined  with  spun-cement  mortar 
and  covered  with  %-inch  pre-stressed  wire  which 


ARABIA 


32 


ARAB  LEAGUE  AFFAIRS 


in  turn  is  sprayed  with  a  mortar  coating  %-inch 
thick. 

Preliminary  work  has  been  begun  on  a  $5  mil- 
lion tunnel  project  in  the  Pacific  Gas  Company's 
$61  million  Feather  River  hydroelectric  develop- 
ment. It  will  be  of  a  26-foot  horseshoe  section  17,- 
800  ft,  length,  to  be  driven  through  solid  granite, 
and  will  be  completed  in  1949. 

The  San  Diego  Aqueduct,  built  by  the  Bureau  of 
Reclamation,  was  completed  just  before  the  be- 
ginning of  1948  and  has  been  operated  success- 
fully. Minor  difficulties  with  small  fish  interfering 
with  air  relief  valves  have  been  experienced  and 
corrected.  The  7  tunnels  along  the  line  were  de- 
signed to  carry  100  million  gallons  per  day,  which 
is  the  full  allocation  of  water  to  the  city  from  the 
Colorado  River  supply.  The  aqueduct  consists  of 
149,142  feet  of  48-inch  reinforced  concrete  pipe; 
115,088  feet  of  54-inch;  64,028  feet  of  72-inch; 
and  9,840  feet  of  96-inch  reinforced  concrete  pipe. 
The  tunnels  vary  in  length  from  500  feet  to  over  a 
mile. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  wood  pipe  is  still 
being  used.  A  contract  has  been  let  for  3,600  feet 
of  36-inch  pipe  for  St.  John,  N.B.  This  year,  the 
40-ft.  diameter  diversion  tunnel,  which  is  2,150  ft. 
long,  at  Downsville  Dam  on  the  Delaware  Water 
Supply  System  for  New  York  City  was  holed 
through. 

Among  the  other  aqueducts  under  construction 
in  1948,  the  following  are  of  interest:  The  Central 
Valley  Project  in  California,  by  the  Bureau  of  Rec- 
lamation, for  which  $41.4  million  has  been  ap- 
propriated by  Congress,  included  the  Friant-Kern 
and  Delta-Mendota  canals,  construction  of  which 
was  to  be  pushed  this  year.  The  total  length  of  the 
former  wiU  be  153  miles,  and  of  the  latter,  120 
miles.  Also  the  Bureau  has  under  consideration  the 
Santa  Barbara  project,  to  include  a  6-mile  tunnel 
and  a  20-mile  conduit.  The  city  of  Baltimore  has 
advertised  for  bids  for  a  10-foot  diameter  water 
tunnel,  10  miles  long. 

A  $1.62  million  contract  for  completion  of  the 
Salt  Lake  Aqueduct  has  been  let  for  the  Metropoli- 
tan Water  Board  of  Salt  Lake  City.  It  calls  for  the 
installation  of  7%  miles  of  69-inch  concrete  pipe. 
The  fully  completed  line  will  be  40  miles  long  and 
will  carry  water  from  a  pumping  station  in  Provo 
Canyon  to  Salt  Lake  City.  — W.  E.  HOWLAND 

ARABIA.  A  large  peninsula  in  southwestern  Asia, 
Area,  approximately  1,000,000  sq.  mi.;  population, 
upwards  of  10,000,000.  The  pofitical  subdivisions 
are  Aden,  Aden  Protectorate,  Bahrein  (Bahrain), 
Kuwait  (Koweit),  Muscat  and  Oman,  Qatar,  Saudi 
Arabia,  Trucial  Oman,  and  Yemen,  (See  the  sep- 
arate article  on  each  country.)  Other  countries  in 
the  Middle  East  with  Arab-speaking^  populations, 
but  not  included  under  the  heading  "Arabia,"  are 
Egypt,  Iraq,  Lebanon,  Palestine,  Syria  and  Trans- 
jordan.  The  various  parts  of  Arabia  may  be  divided 
into  two  broad  political  categories:  independent 
states,  and  territories  under  British  sovereignty, 
protection  or  influence. 

They  are  all  inhabited  by  almost  solidly  Moslem 
populations,  though  of  diverse  sects.  The  ancient 
Arab  stock,  still  overwhelmingly  predominant  in 
the  interior,  has  been  diluted  with  African,  Indian, 
Iranian  and  other  elements  along  the  coasts.  Edu- 
cation is  still  largely  religious  in  nature  and  con- 
fined to  males,  except  where  British  or  missionary 
influence  has  been  felt.  Economically  the  region  is 
probably  on  the  threshold  of  a  renaissance  due  to 
the  billions  of  barrels  of  oil  in  its  subsoil,  now  in 
process  of  exploitation. 


ARAB  LEAGUE  AFFAIRS.  The  Arab  League,  represent- 
ing Egypt,  Syria,  Lebanon,  Iraq,  Trans jordon, 
Saudi  Arabia,  and  Yemen,  was  organized  in  1945, 
In  the  face  of  expanding  Zionist  ambitions,  the 
League  aimed  to  strengthen  relations  between 
member  states,  coordinate  their  policies,  and  safe- 
guard their  independence.  At  first  the  Palestine 
war  inspired  coordinated  League  action,  distinctly 
raising  its  prestige  in  the  Arab  world,  thanks  to 
genuine  Arab  fear  not  only  of  a  limited  Zionist 
state,  but  also  of  further -Zionist  expansionist  pres- 
sure. The  latter  fear  was  fanned  by  large-scale 
Jewish  immigration  and  the  belligerent  statements 
of  Zionist  supporters. 

The  League's  legal  argument  for  armed  inter- 
vention was:  United  Nations  jurisdiction  was  lim- 
ited to  helping  transfer  government  from  the 
departing  British  mandate  to  a  state  based  on  the 
wishes  of  the  majority  in  Palestine.  The  Arabs 
could  not  accept  as  binding  the  two-thirds  As- 
sembly vote  for  partition  which  to  them  was  UN 
tyranny.  The  League  considered  that  since  parti- 
tion and  the  resulting  creation  of  a  Zionist  state 
were  unlawful,  its  members  had  to  defend  the 
right  of  Palestine's  majority  to  establish  a  unified 
democratic  state, 

As  ire  mounted  against  the  United  States  and 
the  Soviet  Union,  both  of  which  had  actively 
campaigned  for  partition,  demonstrations  broke 
out  in  the  Arab  countries.  Particularly  difficult  was 
the  position  of  those  Arabs  who  had  supported  the 
United  States;  for  them  the  American  support  of 
what  all  Arabs  considered  another  form  of  Western 
imperialism  was  incredible,  particularly  in  the 
light  of  American  unwillingness  to  accept  refugees 
itself.  Moderates  were  forced  to  agree  with  ex- 
tremists that  no  compromise  was  possible. 

A  secret  League  Council  meeting  to  discuss 
action  was  followed  by  a  series  of  conferences 
both  of  League  representatives  as  a  whole  and 
various  leaders  separately.  Stern  statements  were 
issued  and  fighting  flared  up  in  Palestine  in  spite 
of  British  efforts  to  maintain  peace.  Yet,  the 
League  Secretary  General,  Azzam  Pasha,  com- 
menting on  a  March  switch  in  the  American  posi- 
tion toward  trusteeship,  said  that  the  Arabs  would 
accept  a  truce  if  the  Jews  did  likewise,  A  Beirut 
meeting  in  March  ended  with  a  decision  to  insist 
on  British  proposals  for  a  temporary  trusteeship, 
a  democratic  government  guaranteeing  minority 
rights  to  Jews  and  acceptance  into  Arab  countries 
of  Jews  then  detained  in  Cyprus. 

But  military  events  and  UN  debates  ground  on. 
The  American  return  to  support  of  partition  and 
President  Truman's  precipitate  recognition  of  Is- 
rael while  the  American  delegation  was  discussing 
a  UN  truce  proposal  confirmed  earlier  Arab  sus- 
picions of  American  foreign  policy  aims. 

Even  while  attempts  were  being  made  to  present 
a  unified  front,  undercurrents  of  conflict  devel- 
oped, both  between  Arab  countries  and  within 
them.  A  May  report  indicated  King  Abdullah  of 
Transjordan  and  Syrian  President  Shukri  al-Kuwatli 
met  to  relieve  the  strain  in  their  relations  caused 
by  Abdullah's  espousal  of  the  "Greater  Syria"  plan 
envisaging  a  combination  of  Syria,  Lebanon,  Iraq, 
Transjordan,  and  Palestine,  presumably  under  Ab- 
dullah. With  the  establishment  of  Israel  in  May 
the  Arab  League,  and  government  representatives 
in  it,  faced  a  loss  of  prestige  among  their  own 
people,  which  meant  a  setback  for  the  moderate, 
Western-educated  leadership,  thereby  contributing 
to  the  size  and  influence  of  the  extremist  pan- 
Islamic  Moslem  Brotherhood. 

Meanwhile  the  various  countries  took  economic 


•  |  ,     ,}    ,¥L.       f  n 

•.'-;^siiif'> 


by  W.  C.  Runder 

JEFFERSON  MEMORIAL  IN  ST.  LOUIS.  Saarinen,  Saarinen  and  Associates  were  awarded  the  first  prize  of 
$40,000  for  their  design  (shown  above)  in  the  Jefferson  National  Expansion  Memorial  Competition.  The  out- 
standing feature  is  a  proposed  55-ft.  high  arch  of  stainless  steel,  symbolizing  the  "gateway  to  the  West." 


EXTERIOR  of  the  Terrace  Plaza  Hotel,  Cincinnati  (Repro- 
duced from  the  October  1948  issue  of  Fortune  magazine 
by  special  permission  of  the  Editors;  Copyright  Time,  Inc.). 


MINISTRY  OF  EDUCATION  BUILDING  in  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Brazil.    An    excellent    example    of    the    modern    style    of 

architecture. 

European 


LIVING  ROOM  interior  of  a  house  in  the  Berkshire*,  near  Williamstown,  Mass.,  for  an  outdoors-loving  couple,  designed 
by  Marcel  Breuer  (Photo  by  Damora  from  House  and  Garden,  Copyright  1949,  The  Conde  Hast  Publications,  Inc.). 


INTERIOR  view  of  the  dining  room  in  the  Terrace  Plaza  Hotel  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  showing  the  Steinberg  mural  (Re- 
produced from  the  October  1948  issue  of  Fortune  magazine  by  special  permission  of  the  Editors;  Copyright  Time,  Inc.). 


OFFICE  BUILDING  at  Thorn- 
liebank,  near  Glasgow/  Scot- 
land. Glass  bricks  are  used 
right  up  the  side  of  the 
building  to  admit  light  to 
the  length  of  the  staircase. 


RIVERSIDE   APARTMENTS   in 

Hammersmith,  London,  Eng- 
land. Photograph  shows  the 
rear  view  of  the  new  all- 
electric  apartment  building. 

British  Information  Services 


British  Information  Services 


GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY  is  to  have  a  new  home  beside  Hurstmonceau  Castle  in  Sussex,  England.  The  world-recog- 
nized Greenwich  mean  time  will  still  be  based  on  the  zero  meridian  on  which  the  old  observatory  has  been  situated. 


British  Information  Services 

AFRICAN  COLONIAL  CONFERENCE,  attended  by  about 
60  African  Chiefs,  opened  at  the  Conference  Hall  in  Lon- 
don, England.  The  Chiefs  planned  to  stay  for  two  months. 


European  Photo 

PARADOGS  AID  IN  ALASKA  RESCUE.  Eskimo  huskies  are 
trained  to  bring  help  to  isolated  airmen.  The  paradog  has 
just  been  dropped  frpm  the  cpbin  of  the  rescue  plane, 


ARAB  LEAGUE  AffAIRS  S3 

steps  on  their  own.  Egypt  warned  all  shipping  to 
stay  out  o£  territorial  waters  along  a  20-mile  coastal 
strip  of  southern  Palestine.  Iraq  cut  off  oil  through 
the  pipeline  encLug  at  Haifa  (under  Zionist  con- 
trol); its  Director  General  of  Economics  said  Iraq 
would  only  resume  pumping  if  the  refinery  were 
placed  under  international  control.  An  Anglo- 
American-French  request  to  reopen  was  refused 
on  December  27  until  "the  Arabs*  just  demands  are 
met."  Shortly  after  the  UN  partition  resolution,  the 
Arabian-American  Oil  Company  had  announced 
that  work  on  its  pipeline  from  Saudi  Arabia  had 
been  temporarily  stopped  because  of  the  attitude 
in  Transjordan,  Syria,  and  Lebanon  on  the  UN 
vote. 


THE  AKAB  LEAGUE  AND  ITS   NEIGHBORS 

In  January,  Syria's  President  said  Arab  League 
policy  would  determine  whether  the  pipeline's 
right  of  way  through  Syria  would  be  granted.  After 
the  League's  decision  that  no  American  companies 
should  be  permitted  to  lay  pipelines  across  member 
states  until  the  United  States  had  changed  its  Pal- 
estine policy,  Syria  refused.  But  by  year's  end  the 
wavering  front  was  reflected  in  two  developments: 
( 1 )  the  report  that  a  special  committee  of  experts 
from  Egypt's  Ministry  of  Commerce  and  Industry 
had  recommended  establishing  a  Suez  oil  refinery 
in  cooperation  with  American  oil  companies,  and 
the  resumption  of  talks  for  terminating  the  Saudi 
Arabian  pipeline  at  an  Egyptian  port;  and  (2)  a 
November  meeting  of  Syrian  and  Lebanese  leaders 
to  reconsider  the  earlier  pipeline  decision. 

The  latent  conflicts  crystallized  with  the  League 
announcement  on  September  20  of  the  formation 
of  an  Arab  Government  for  Palestine  with  head- 
quarters at  Gaza.  Transjordan's  King  Abdullah  in- 
formed the  League  he  would  not  recognize  the 
formation  of  a  government  "within  the  security 
zone  of  the  Transjordan  Government,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  Egyptian  kingdom's  frontiers  to 
the  frontiers  of  Syria  and  Lebanon/'  Nevertheless, 


ARAB  LEAGUE  AFFAIRS 

the  Gaza  Government's  Prime  Minister  telegraphed 
the  League  that  "the  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  in 
the  exercise  of  their  right  to  determine  their  own 
fate  and  in  accordance  with  the  decisions  of  the 
Arab  League  Political  Committee,  have  decided  to 
declare  all  Palestine  ...  an  independent  state 
.  .  .  based  on  democratic  principles." 

An  11-man  Cabinet  was  announced  and  an  Oc- 
tober 1  meeting  of  the  Assembly  elected  the  Mufti, 
Haj  Amin  al-Husseini,  its  President.  By  the  middle 
of  October  Syria,  Lebanon,  Iraq,  and  Egypt  had 
recognized  the  Gaza  Government.  But  not  Trans- 
Jordan.  Abdullah  appointed  Omar  Mattar  Gover- 
nor ^  General  of  Palestine  areas  held  by  Transjor- 
dan's effective  Arab  Legion,  and  demanded  disso- 
lution of  the  Government  at  Gaza.  He  said  he  was 
"determined  to  bring  peace  to  the  Arabs  of  Pales- 
tine and  to  avoid  .  .  .  disagreement  among  the 
Arab  nations."  A  week  later  the  head  of  Transjor- 
dan's delegation  to  the  League  meeting  in  Cairo 
denied  a  rumor  that  Transjordan  would  make  a 
separate  peace  with  Israel. 

A  December  1  meeting  in  Jericho,  of  mayors  of 
nearly  all  Arab-held  towns,  resolved  to  declare 
Palestine  and  Transjordan  "an  indivisible  whole" 
with  Abdullah  as  king.  An  electoral  law  was  also 
drafted.  Although  the  Transjordan  Cabinet  con- 
sented to  Abdullah's  accepting  the  crown,  he  did 
not  commit  himself.  Nevertheless  the  verbal  storm 
descended  on  him  and  the  League  warned  that  it 
would  take  "serious  action"  against  him  unless  he 
abandoned  the  plan. 

Iraq  remained  neutral  in  the  debate,  possibly 
because  of  close  ties  with  Transjordan  through  the 
common  Hashimite  family  rule.  Abdullah's  Pales- 
tine supporters,  taunting  the  others  with  failure  to 
support  the  Palestine  Arab  cause  effectively  on  the 
battle  field,  said  that  the  Gaza  Government  repre- 
sented 80  people  and  their  group  %Q  of  the  Pal- 
estine Arabs.  While  the  original  Mufti,  Haj  Amin 
al-Husseini,  continued  to  guide  Gaza  affairs  Ab- 
dullah took  it  upon  himself  to  appoint  another 
Mufti. 

Although  Britain's  Foreign  Minister  Ernest  Bev- 
in  had  supported  plans  for  unifying  Transjordan 
and  Arab  Palestine  (as  originally  proposed  by  UN 
Mediator  Count  Bernadotte),  the  League  split  was 
embarrassing  to  Britain  since  her  relations  with 
neighboring  Iraq  and  Egypt  were  equally  impor- 
tant and  delicate.  While  heated  Arab  words  were 
exchanged,  popular  dissatisfaction  with  the  Pales- 
tine outcome  exploded  in  a  succession  of  serious 
demonstrations  in  the  various  countries. 

The  Palestine  conflagration  pushed  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  League's  agenda,  matters  of  concern 
such  as  the  status  of  Arab  North  Africa,  the  future 
of  Libya,  and  the  Dutch  invasion  of  Indonesia. 
But  League  policies  were  supported  in  varying 
degrees  at  meetings  of  the  UN  and  its  constituent 
organizations  by  sympathetic  Moslem  states  in- 
cluding Iran,  Afghanistan,  and  Pakistan, 

The  various  measures  of  coordination  in  com- 
mercial exchange  proposed  by  the  League's  Eco- 
nomic Committee  contributed  to  the  growth  of 
interregional  trade,  The  League  supported  in  prin- 
ciple the  formation  of  a  UN  Middle  East  Economic 
Commission;  a  UN  Economic  Affairs  Department 
report  having  included  a  Middle  East  survey  stress- 
ing the  awakening  interest  of  those  nations  in  eco- 
nomic advancement.  The  agricultural  officials 
from  all  Arab  states  participated  in  UN  Food  and 
Agriculture  Organization  conferences,  considering 
unified  programs  for  increasing  Middle  East  food 
production  (see  also  PALESTINE  and  individual 
countries).  — DOROTHEA  SEELYE  FRANCE: 


ARCHAEOLOGY  34 

ARCHAEOLOGY.  During  1948  archaeological  activ- 
ities were  continued  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  Ex- 
cavations were  conducted  largely  by  local  authori- 
ties, but  there  were  a  number  of  foreign  expedi- 
tions, on  a  less  lavish  scale  than  before  the  war. 
The  effect  of  the  past  war  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  discoveries  in  Europe  are  a  direct 
result  of  repairs  being  made  following  wartime 
damage. 

India.  Commercial  relations  between  the  east 
coast  of  India  and  the  Mediterranean  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era  are  suggested  by  recent 
discoveries  at  Sisupalgarh  2  miles  east  of  Bhuba- 
neshwar.  A  fortified  site,  which  may  be  the  ancient 
Kalinganagara,  capital  of  the  emperor  Kharvela, 
has  yielded  one  type  of  pottery  showing  Roman 
motives  and  clay  bullae  reminiscent  of  Roman 
coinage  of  ancient  times.  (Archaeological  News- 
letter, No.  10.) 

Iraq.  Discoveries  of  revolutionary  importance  for 
our  knowledge  of  Mesopotamian  prehistory  con- 
tinue to  be  made  at  Eridu  where  a  second  cam- 
paign took  place  last  winter.  The  site  of  the  seven 
successive  predynastic  temples  reported  last  year 
was  excavated  down  to  bedrock,  and  a  shrine 
located  for  each  of  its  sixteen  strata,  In  the  lowest 
appeared  a  miniature  shrine  about  4  m.  square 
already  incorporating  all  the  main  features  of  later 
Sumerian  temples,  such  as  a  niche-recessed  altar 
and  a  central  offering  table  with  traces  of  burnt 
offerings.  Associated  with  this  temple  of  the  5th 
millennium  B.C.  and  the  lower  strata  is  a  new  type 
of  pottery,  slightly  resembling  the  Tell  Halaf  and 
Samarra  pottery  of  northern  Mesopotamia.  This 
proves  that  the  Ubaid  people  were  not  the  ear- 
liest arrivals  in  southern  Iraq,  as  was  previously 
thought,  but  so  far  no  traces  of  this  new  culture 
have  been  found  on  any  other  Sumerian  sites,  and 
thus  Eridu's  claim  to  high  antiquity  seems  con- 
firmed. In  addition  to  the  temple  site,  a  cemetery 
containing  over  1,000  graves  of  the  AFUbaid 
period  was  partially  excavated.  These  early  4th- 
millennium  graves  are  rectangular,  constructed  of 
sun-dried  bricks,  and  contain  the  usual  pottery, 
as  well  as  such  unique  offerings  as  a  clay  model 
of  a  sailing  boat,  a  6-inch  fringe  of  black  and 
white  beads  adorning  a  woman's  skirt,  and  the 
skeleton  of  a  pet  dog  buried  with  his  youthful 
owner  and  provided  with  a  meat-bone  for  the 
afterworld.  (Illustrated  London  News,  Sept.  11, 
1948.) 

The  remnants  of  a  new  law  code  about  200 
years  older  than  the  famed  Hammurabi  code  have 
been  discovered  this  past  winter  among  the  2,500- 
3,000  cuneiform  tablets  from  Tell  Harmal,  a  for- 
tified site  near  Baghdad,  being  excavated  by  the 
Department  of  Antiquities.  This  new  code  of  ca. 
1900  B.C.  is  in  Old  Babylonian;  another,  in  Sume- 
rian, of  ca.  1800  B.C.  has  recently  been  reported 
by  Kramer  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  We 
thus  now  have  valuable  information  as  to  two 
probable  sources  for  the  codification  of  Hammu- 
rabi. 

Egypf.  At  Helwan,  the  Early  Dynastic  cemetery 
across  the  Nile  from  Sakkarah,  the  6th  campaign 
financed  by  King  Farouk  I,  was  undertaken  last 
winter.  More  than  5,000  tombs  have  already  been 
opened,  containing  the  usual  inventory  of  stone 
vases,  jewelry,  flint  knives,  and  ivory  statuettes 
comparable  to  those  from  Abydos,  including  a  par- 
ticularly fine  one  of  a  kneeling  hunchback,  Exact 
chronology  is  furnished  by  mud  jar-stoppers  with 
impressions  of  royal  seals,  one  being  that  of  Den, 
fifth  king  of  the  1st  Dynasty.  This  site  has  neces- 
sitated a  revision  of  the  opinion  that  stone  archi- 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


tecture  did  not  originate  until  the  3rd  Dynasty, 
for  several  tombs  use  cut  stone  for  the  facing  and 
flooring  of  underground  chambers.  The  remarkable 
preservation  of  flax  cloth  and  human  hair,  of  as- 
sorted colors,  is  noteworthy.  ( ILN.  June  5,  1948. ) 

Work  was  resumed  last  winter  at  Amarah  in  the 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.  This  seat  of  the  deputy  of 
Kush  in  Ramesside  times  is  unique  among  the 
towns  of  Pharaonic  Egypt  because  of  its  excellent 
preservation,  buried  under  sand.  In  addition  to  the 
temple  of  Rameses  II  discovered  before  the  war, 
the  town  itself  is  being  excavated  and  its  history 
recovered  from  inscriptions  in  the  governor's  pal- 
ace. The  site  was  relatively  short-lived  (from  ca. 
1306-1080  B.C.)  and  shows  three  building  periods 
with  a  later  reoccupation  as  a  poor  fishing  village. 
Its  importance  was  due  partly  to  its  strategic  lo- 
cation on  an  island  where  it  could  control  both 
river  and  land  travel,  and  partly  to  the  exploita- 
tion of  gold  mines  in  the  desert.  The  abrupt  aban- 
donment of  the  site  was  apparently  caused  by  the 
silting  up  of  the  river  channel  which  made  Amarah 
part  of  the  mainland  and  subject  to  violent  north 
winds  and  sandstorms.  (ILN.  April  17,  1948.) 

Palestine.  The  Christmas  issue  of  Life  (Dec.  22, 
1947 )  reported  pictorially  what  may  be  the  earliest 
evidence  for  Christianity.  A  chamber  tomb  of  the 
1st  century  B.C.  to  the  1st  century  A.D.  was  dis- 
covered in  1945  close  to  the  Jerusalem-Bethlehem 
road,  and  its  14  ossuaries  have  since  been  the 
object  of  study  by  E.  L.  Sukenik.  Ten  of  them  are 
conventional,  but  four  suggest  a  family  with  Chris- 
tian affiliations:  one  has  a  Greek  cross  in  charcoal 
on  each  side;  two  are  inscribed  in  Greek  with 
the  Jewish  name  "Jesus;"  and  one  in  Hebrew  with 
a  name  deciphered  as  "Simeon  Barsaba,"  sugges- 
tive of  the  disciples  Joseph  Barsabas  and  Judas 
Barsabas  mentioned  in  Acts.  If  Prof.  Sukenik's 
readings  and  interpretations  are  accepted,  this  find 
is  one  of  paramount  importance,  evidence  for 
Christianity  perhaps  contemporary  with  Christ 
himself.  (See  also  American  Journal  of  Archaeol- 
ogy 1947,  pp.  351  E) 

Manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testament  are  part  of 
the  most  important  manuscript  find  in  recent  years, 
a  deposit  of  vellum  scrolls  discovered  by  Beduin 
smugglers  in  a  cave  near  the  Dead  Sea.  These  in- 
clude an  almost  complete  Hebrew  copy  of  Isaiah 
not  later  than  100  B.C.  and  a  Hebrew  commentary 
on  Habakkuk,  and  are  about  1,000  years  older 
than  any  previously  known  Old  Testament  manu- 
scripts. (Newsletter  No.  9.) 

Turkey.  Discoveries  of  great  epigraphical  impor- 
tance are  perhaps  the  most  significant  result  of 
current  excavations.  At  Karatepe,  a  late  Hittite 
castle  in  the  mountainous  region  northeast  of 
Adana,  the  University  of  Istanbul  has  discovered 
on  one  of  the  three  gateways  with  flanking  lions 
and  sphinxes  bilingual  inscriptions,  in  Hittite  hi- 
eroglyphs and  an  old  Semitic  script.  The  latter 
thus  furnish  an  important  clue  to  the  decipher- 
ment of  the  hitherto  mysterious  hieroglyphic  script. 
At  Labranda,  mountain-sanctuary  of  Zeus,  where 
a  Swedish  expedition  has  just  begun  work,  two 
fairly  extensive  inscriptions  in  Carian  have  been 
found  and  should  greatly  increase  our  scant  knowl- 
edge of  this  language. 

The  year  1947  saw  the  concluding  season  of 
Sir  Leonard  Woolley's  important  excavations  at 
Tell  Atchana  (Alalakh)  near  Antioch.  The  dis- 
coveries are  too  numerous  to  be  reported  in  full, 
but  attention  may  be  called  to  the  elaborate  funer- 
ary ritual  of  a  Hittite  king  reconstructed  from 
evidence  beneath  the  funerary  chapel  of  the  18th- 
century  B.C.  monarch,  Yarim-Lim.  Although  the 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


35 


excavations  had  to  be  cut  short,  due  to  mechanical 
difficulties,  before  the  actual  cremation  urn  and 
funeral  offerings  were  reached,  they  did  reveal 
within  a  great  pit  an  amazing  ritual  of  superim- 
posed mud-brick  chapels  and  purification  through 
burning  and  strewing  of  earth. 

Cyprus.  This  island  was  the  scene  of  excavations 
by  the  local  department  as  well  as  French,  Swed- 
ish, and  American  expeditions  during  the  1947-48 
season.  Mention  may  be  made  of  Dikaios'  dis- 
covery of  a  new  Neolithic  site  at  Sotira,  a  few 
miles  inland  from  Kourion;  of  the  continued 
French  excavations  at  the  Late  Bronze  Age  site 
of  Enkomi  which  confirmed  and  made  more  pre- 
cise the  important  discoveries  reported  last  year; 
and  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania's  clearing 
of  the  Sacred  Way  leading  to  the  Temple  of 
Apollo  Hylates  at  Kourion,  Important  new  evi- 
dence for  the  Greek  colonization  of  Cyprus  comes 
from  a  Swedish  excavation  last  spring  at  Sinda 
about  20  miles  east  of  Nicosia,  where  a  Late 
Bronze  Age  citadel  with  massive  walls  and  gate- 
ways was  explored.  Mycenaean  pottery  of  a  late 
type  hitherto  almost  non-existent  on  the  island  was 
found  in  abundance  in  a  stratum  preceding  de- 
struction by  fire  in  the  early  12th  century  B.C. 
This  pottery,  apparently  locally  made,  has  no  direct 
antecedents  in  Cyprus  and  points  to  the  arrival  of 
new  Greek  settlers  in  the  general  period  of  the 
Trojan  War. 

Greece.  Gratifying  word  has  come  that  the  mu- 
seums of  Athens  are  being  reopened.  The  most 
ambitious  excavation  was  the  13th  American  cam- 
paign in  the  Athenian  Agora  last  spring.  Concerned 
mainly  with  clearing  and  study  of  known  monu- 
ments prior  to  the  erection  of  a  museum,  the  ex- 
cavation did  make  several  significant  new  finds: 
a  large  building  of  the  5th  century  at  the  west 
foot  of  the  Areopagus,  tentatively  identified  as  one 
of  the  law-courts  or  dikasteria;  a  richly  furnished 
cremation  grave  of  the  early  Geometric  period  ( ca. 
900  B.C.)  containing  among  other  offerings  two 
pairs  of  miniature  terracotta  shoes;  and  a  superb 
marble  torso  of  a  youth,  a  Greek  original  of  the 
Classical  period  belonging  stylistically  with  the 
Parthenon  frieze  and  other  works  of  the  third 
quarter  of  the  5th  century.  Its  scale  and  preserva- 
tion suggest  its  attribution  to  the  lost  pedimental 
composition  of  the  Hephaisteion  (Theseion). 

Although  on  a  small  scale  this  past  year,  the 
American  excavations  at  Corinth  had  the  good  for- 
tune to  reveal  long-awaited  evidence  for  a  Myce- 
naean settlement.  Over  50  years  of  excavation  had 
uncovered  no  traces  of  habitation  in  the  2nd  mil- 
lennium, despite  Homeric  testimony  that  Corinth 
was  a  wealthy  and  powerful  city.  This  mystery  is 
now  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  Late  Bronze  * 
Age  city  is  to  be  sought  to  the  east  of  the  later 
Agora  in  a  region  hitherto  undug,  commanding 
Peirene  and  other  springs.  The  evidence  comes 
from  three  rough-hewn  pits  near  the  Julian  Basil- 
ica, which,  although  reused  in  later  periods,  were 
evidently  cut  in  the  Mycenaean  period,  probably 
as  storage  rooms  under  a  large  building.  The  south- 
ern pit  contained  at  the  bottom  a  deposit  of  Myce- 
naean pottery,  including  a  fine  early  13th-century 
krater  decorated  with  chariot  scenes.  (ILN.  Aug. 
28,  1948.) 

New  York  University's  Institute  of  Fine  Arts 
reopened  excavations,  under  the  direction  of  Karl 
Lehmann,  at  Samothrace  this  summer.  Their  main 
task  was  the  installation  of  their  prewar  finds  in 
a  new  museum. 

Italy.  Most  of  the  digging  was  in  the  hands  of 
local  regional  departments,  but  a  French  excava- 


ARCHAEOLOGY 

tion  was  active  at  the  Etruscan  site  of  Volsinii,  and 
the  American  Academy  in  Rome  began  excavations 
at  another  Etruscan  settlement,  Cosa,  in  the  spring. 

From  Rome  it  is  reported  that  one  of  the  horses" 
heads  from  the  West  Pediment  of  the  Parthenon 
has  come  to  light  in  the  basement  of  the  Belvedere 
Museum,  and  that  traces  of  the  Republican  city- 
wall  have  been  revealed  in  the  construction  of  a 
new  underground  station. 

The  repair  of  bomb  damage  at  Palestrina  has 
disclosed  a  monumental  architectural  ensemble  de- 
signed by  Sulla's  architects  to  connect  the  new  city 
in  the  plain  with  the  citadel  which  was  redesigned 
as  a  grandiose  sanctuary  of  Fortune. 

Recent  excavations  of  the  archaic  cemetery  of 
Montelusa  at  Agrigento  have  produced  evidence 
for  the  presence  of  strong  bodies  of  Greek  settlers 
before  the  official  founding  of  the  city  in  582  B.C. 

The  year  1948  marked  the  bicentennial  of  ex- 
cavations at  Pompeii,  commemorated  with  a  special 
program.  Ground  is  being  cleared  for  a  new  mu- 
seum to  replace  the  one  which  was  destroyed  dur- 
ing the  war. 

France.  Excavations  at  Marseilles,  France,  oc- 
casioned German  dynamiting  of  the  "quartier  du 
Vieux-Port,"  have  laid  bare  the  ancient  city, 
founded  as  Massalia  by  Phocaean  Greeks  ca.  600 
B.C.  Remains  of  a  Greek  theater,  the  first  uncovered 
in  France,  the  pavement  _of  the  Agora,  the  Greek 
beach  and  Roman  docks  "are  among  the  most  im- 
portant discoveries. 

The  remains  of  a  2nd  or  3rd-century  A.D.  Ro- 
man bath  have  been  recovered  during  excavations 
this  spring  beneath  the  gardens  of  the  Cluny  Mu- 
seum in  Paris.  ( Newsletter  No.  8. ) 

Holland.  Two  Roman  temples,  among  the  first 
pagan  religious  buildings  discovered  in  this  coun- 
try, were  revealed  in  the  summer  of  1947  in  the 
course  of  repair  to  the  war-damaged  Reformed 
Church  at  Elst.  The  earlier  temple  belongs  to  the 
beginning  of  our  era,  the  second  which  had  a 
Corinthian  peristyle  is  probably  2nd  century. 

British  Isles.  Medieval  frescoes,  which  had  been 
whitewashed  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  have 
recently  been  uncovered  in  the  Church  of  St.  An- 
drew, Pickworth,  Lincolnshire.  Their  presence  be- 
came suspected  during  the  war  when  bomb  con- 
cussions knocked  loose  some  of  the  whitewash.  In 
addition  to  a  Last  Judgment  over  the  chancel  arch, 
the  paintings  consist  of  an  Ascension  and  a  French 
Morality  of  the  Three  Living  and  Three  Dead,  and 
can  be  dated  ca.  1380.  (ILN.  Jan.  3,  1948.) 

A  Celtic  farmstead  of  the  8th  to  10th  centuries 
was  excavated  at  Lissue  near  Lisburn  in  North 
Ireland.  In  its  later  period  it  consisted  of  one  large 
circular  building  120  feet  in  diameter  with  central 
hearth  and  concentric  rows  of  wooden  posts  sup- 
porting a  flat  sod  roof.  Among  the  most  interest- 
ing finds  are  an  oak  swinging  churn  2  feet  high 
mounted  with  iron  bands,  a  slate  slab  with  22  in- 
cised ornamental  patterns,  probably  used  by  an 
itinerant  metal-worker  for  tracing  his  designs,  and 
a  number  of  fragments  of  leather  boots  of  a  type 
previously  unknown.  (ILN.  Jan.  10,  1948.) 

Mexico.  Excavations  by  Mexican  archaeologists 
have  been  continued  at  Xochicalco,  the  city  of  the 
Toltec  predecessors  of  the  Aztecs  in  central  Mex- 
ico, and  at  Monte  Alban  the  center  of  the  Zapotec 
civilization  which  lasted  from  ca.  400  B.C.  to  1400 
A.D.  The  former  site,  shows  interesting  Mayan 
connections  in  the  lltH  century,  and  the  latter  site 
is  distinguished  by  a  series  of  reliefs  of  dancers 
carved  in  a  vigorous  realistic  manner  and  dating 
to  the  first  period.  (ILN.  Jan.  17  and  Apr.  10, 
1948.) 


ARCHERY 


36 


ARCHITECTURE 


United  States.  Considerable  activity  took  place  in 
this  country  during  the  past  year,  mainly  under 
the  auspices  of  State  universities  and  the  Federal 
government.  No  less  than  seven  universities  had 
summer  field  sessions  for  graduate  and  undergrad- 
uate credit.  The  River  Basins  Survey  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  con- 
ducted large-scale  reconnaisance  and  surface  sur- 
veys in  the  Great  Plains  and  Missouri  River  Basin, 
in  areas  to  be  flooded  by  the  construction  of 
projected  dams. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  new  popular  periodical 
Archaeology,  uublished  by  the  Archaeological  In- 
stitute of  America,  and  to  the  new  section,  Ar- 
chaeological News,  in  the  American  Journal  of 
Archaeology,  which  presents  in  its  four  issues  a 
complete  coverage  of  current  discoveries  in  the 
Near  East,  Classical  Lands,  Europe,  and  America. 
See  ANTHROPOLOGY,  — SARA  A.  IMMERWAHR 

ARCHERY.  Larry  Hughes  of  Burbank,  CaL,  won  the 
national  target  title,  the  women's  championship  be- 
ing won  by  Jean  Lee  of  Greenfield,  Mass.  The 
men's  team  laurels  went  to  the  Ozark  Archery  Club 
of  Springfield,  Mo.,  and  the  women's  crown  to  the 
Golden  Gate  Archers  of  San  Francisco,  Cal.  E.  H. 
Perkins  of  Oakland,  CaL,  took  honors  with  the 
crossbow. 

Other  national  champions  were  Jack  Stuart,  Aus- 
tin, Tex.,  flight,  regular  style;  Verne  Trittin,  Salt 
Lake  City,  Utah,  women's  flight,  regular  style; 
Paul  Berry,  Middletown,  Ohio,  flight,  free  style; 
Ruth  Diffendal,  Osborn,  Ohio,  women's  flight,  free 
style;  Russ  Reynolds,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  clout,  180 
yards;  Ann  Weber,  Bloomfield,  N.J.,  women's  clout, 
140  yards;  Verne  Trittin,  women's  clout,  120  yards; 
Roy  Dill,  San  Diego,  CaL,  field,  and  Mrs.  Henry 
Bitzenburger,  Los  Angeles,  CaL,  women's  field. 
— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

ARCHITECTURE.  Wars  bring  an  aftermath  of  archi- 
tectural change.  After  World  War  I,  there  was  a 
drawing  together;  after  World  War  II,  apparently 
a  drawing  apart  of  different  major  regions,  despite 
the  basic  similarities  that  distinguish  an  age.  In 
Europe,  during  1948,  the  functional  emphasis  was 
weakened.  Some  architects,  although  they  still 
built  on  the  earlier  functional  forms,  sought  for 
more  spontaneity  rather  than  logic  in  arrangement, 
more  refinement  and  invention  in  detail  rather 
than  the  former  restraint.  Others  interrupted  the 
modern  movement  altogether,  by  a  return  to  clas- 
sicism influenced,  knowingly  or  not,  by  Hitler's 
style  evolved  under  Albert  Speer;  in  both  cases 
the  deviation  was  explained  on  grounds  of  "hu~ 
manness"  contrasted  with  an  imputed  superhuman, 
or  inhuman,  austerity.  In  the  Soviet  Union,  an- 
other sphere  of  influence,  the  earlier  tenets  of 
Marxism  were  being  stood  on  their  head;  archi- 
tecture was  officially  promoted  that  should  be  na- 
tionalistic (especially  in  Russia  itself,  where  the 
tradition  was  discovered"  to  have  been  influenced 
much  less  by  Europe  than  had  been  previously 
supposed)  and  regional,  and  subject  to  popular 
taste,?  and  based  definitely  on  the  cultural  "inherit- 
ance" as  opposed  to  Western  architecture  which 
propaganda  associated  entirely  with  the  "deca- 
dence" of  "constructivism"  and  "mechanization" 
rather  than  to  "the  human  soul."  In  Latin  America, 
by  contrast,  there  was  continued  brilliant  develop- 
ment on  lines  laid  down  originally  by  Le  Corbu- 
sier,  romantically  modern,  ever  more  richly  plastic 
and  colorful;  a  trend  with  some  echoes  in  France 
and  Italy.  In  the  U.S.  the  trend  was  setting  in  ever 
more  strongly  toward  "modern"  architecture,  with 


some  voices  raised  in  favor  of  more  "humanism" 
(but  the  practice  modified,  as  it  was  not  in  Eu- 
rope, by  the  strongly  coherent  creativeness  of 
Frank  Lloyd  Wright)  and  again  with  other  archi- 
tects deliberately  practicing  the  restraint  of  more 
honest  and  straightforward  form,  and  yet  another 
group,  strongly  technological  in  bent,  carrying  the 
earlier  functionalism  forward  into  a  rounded  "en- 
vironmental" development  for  which  both  Europe 
and  Russia  lacked  the  technical  means. 

A  good  deal  of  this  architectural  practice  and 
discussion  was  rather  narrowly  confined  in  its  bear- 
ing on  building  as  a  whole.  For  reconstruction,  in 
Europe,  materials  were  badly  limited;  England, 
where  such  material  was  stringently  rationed  in 
favor  of  residential,  school,  and  hospital  building, 
was  doing  better  than  countries  such  as  Italy  with 
no  controls.  The  French  Minister  of  Reconstruc- 
tion developed  interesting  regional  plans,  along 
Le  Corbusier  lines,  of  which  acceptance  by  the 
arch-conservative  population  was  dubious;  Ger- 
many's efforts,  under  hydra-headed  occupation, 
were  pitifully  distorted  and  meager.  In  countries 
within  the  Soviet  sphere,  some,  like  Poland,  made 
rather  rapid  progress,  especially  in  the  advanced 
replanning  and  slow  rebuilding  of  Warsaw.  Others, 
such  as  Czechoslovakia,  which  had  been  in  the 
advance  guard  of  European  technology,  suffered 
badly  by  being  coupled  with  technically  retarded 
Russia. 

United  States  Architecture.  By  conservative  calcu- 
lations, building  construction  activity  for  1948  rep- 

.  resented  approximately  16,000  million  dollars  (F. 
W.  Dodge  figures  for  37  Eastern  states,  plus  allow- 
ance for  Western  states).  The  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  reported  construction  of  approximately 
950,000  dwelling  units. 

Architectural  events  of  major  significance  in- 
cluded the  conclusion  in  February  of  the  "Jefferson 
National  Expansion  Memorial  Competition"  for  St. 
Louis,  on  which  an  Association  of  the  same  name 
expended  $100,000.  First  prize  ($50,000  in  all) 
went  to  a  team  composed  of  Saarinen,  Saarinen 
and  Associates,  Architects,  and  others  ( Eero  Saari- 
nen, designer;  J.  Henderson  Barr,  associate  design- 
er; Alexander  Girard,  painter;  Lily  Saarinen,  sculp- 
tor; Dan  Kiley,  landscape  architect).  The  out- 
standing feature  of  the  design,  a  proposed  550-ft. 
high  parabolic  arch  of  stainless  steel,  symbolizing 
the  "gateway  to  the  West,"  was  placed  as  to  frame 
a  vista,  from  across  the  Mississippi,  to  the  Old 
Court  House;  the  waterfront  area  as  a  whole  being 
treated  as  an  informal  park  which  with  artful  sim- 
plicity and  spaciousness  accommodated  a  beauti- 
fully organized  grouping  of  the  requisite  cultural 
and  recreational  buildings  and  facilities.  The  jury, 

'  headed  by  W.  W.  Wurster,  hailed  this  design^  as  a 
"work  of  architectural  genius"  promising  to  "rank 
among  the  nation's  greatest  monuments."  Depend- 
ent on  Congressional  appropriations  for  execution, 
the  design  was  still  a  paper  concept  at  year's  end. 
If  direct  observation  of  finished  buildings  is 
substituted  for  abstract  discussion  among  different 
schools  of  thought,  there  can  be  discovered  a  rich 
variety  irrespective  of  label.  Mature  accomplish- 
ment prevailed  in  1948,  especially  among  houses. 
The  house  of  Hugh  Stubbins,  Jr.,  for  himself,  at 
Lexington,  Mass.,  was  exhibited  by  the  Museum  of 
Modern  Art  along  with  a  new  house  for  himself 
by  Marcel  Breuer  at  New  Canaan,  Conn,  (with 
a  compact  plan  and  a  remarkable  "floating"  qual- 
ity due  to  sophisticated  use  of  carpenter-built  ex- 
pedients for  cantilevering  out  the  house  beyond 
its  basement),  and  a  house  in  Chicago  by  Ralph 
Rapson,  all  of  them  selected  as  outstanding  post- 


ARCHITECTURE  37 

war  houses.  Breuer  achieved  a  larger  house  outside 
Williamstown,  Mass.,  that  might  be  considered  his 
masterpiece  to  date.  Its  long  raking  "butterfly" 
roof  fit  it  handsomely  to  the  Berkshire  hills,  and 
was  carried  out  as  a  dramatic  visor  shading  the 
outdoor  terrace;  stone  fences  running  out  from  the 
glass  walls  served  to  anchor  the  house  sculpturally 
to  the  ground;  spatial  sequences  were  woven  know- 
ingly in  and  out  of  rooms,  courts,  passages,  and 
even  through  high  roof  openings  of  a  plan  splen- 
didly adapted  to  an  active  sports-loving  life. 

In  Florida,  Twitchell  and  Rudolph  were  creating 
a  series  of  strongly  architectural  houses;  very  dif- 
ferent again  was  the  very  spontaneous,  easy,  un- 
forced character  of  the  M.  P.  Davison  house  at 
Fresno  by  Wurster,  Bernardi  &  Emmons,  and  a 
group  of  houses  by  Henry  Hill  remarkably  blend- 
ing the  architectural  discipline  of  a  Harvard  train- 
ing with  the  naturalness  of  the  West.  Republica- 
tion  of  Walter  Gropius'  house  for  himself  at  Lin- 
coln, Mass.,  in  House  6-  Garden  after  ten  years  of 
use  showed  how  wide  of  the  mark  those  critics  had 
been  who  accused  him  of  mere  mechanization.  Un- 
der full  planting  development  and  continued  oc- 
cupancy the  strong  geometry  had  taken  on  a  noble 
full-blooded  grace  and  dignity. 

On  a  far  wider  base,  the  year  witnessed  a  cou- 
ple of  milestones  with  the  marketing  of  the  Lustron 
prefabricated  house  of  porcelain  enamel  at  a  fairly 
large  scale,  an  unusually  acceptable  product  for 
"ordinary  people";  on  the  other  hand  the  Harmon 
Corporation  wound  up  an  operation  that  once 
looked  promising,  by  setting  up  its  full  remaining 
stock  of  prefabricated  houses  on  a  Long  Island 
site.  For  Bemis  Foundation,  Carl  Koch  developed 
a  highly  attractive  little  house,  the  "Acorn,"  to  be 
transported  folded  on  a  truck,  and  literally  to  un- 
fold its  story  on  the  site. 

In  the  apartment  house  field,  too,  a  log  jam  was 
broken  when  New  England  Mutual  Life  Insurance 
Company  and  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy jointly  began  construction  of  a  12-story,  1,000- 
room,  261-apartment  building  facing  the  Charles 
River  Basin  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  on  a  building 
plan  hitherto  unique  in  the  United  States,  and 
highly  attractive  in  its  consequences.  It  was  the 
so-called  "skipfloor  corridor"  plan,  meaning  that 
elevators  stop  at  corridors  on  only  every  third  floor, 
so  that  apartments  on  intermediate  floors  (reached 
by  short  stairs )  go  transversely  through  the  build- 
ing, from  wall  to  wall,  and  consequently  have 
through-ventilation.  Also,  the  nature  of  this  plan 
type  made  it  possible  to  give  every  apartment, 
without  exception,  a  living  room  (with  living  bal- 
cony) faced  both  to  the  view  and  the  sun.  The 
fact  that  the  architects  had  put  the  building 
through  the  Cambridge  building  code  gave  cour- 
age to  architects  elsewhere,  doing  apartments  for 
insurance  investors  or  public  housing  authorities, 
that  they  might  escape  the  boredom  of  planning 
all  large  apartments  as  crosses,  or  double  crosses, 
or  modified  crosses  in  their  layout.  The  new  type 
can  be  made  up  of  building  elements  in  the  form 
of  long,  thin,  up-ended  slabs.  (Architects  were 
M.LT.  staff  members  Wm.  Hoskins  Brown,  Carl 
Koch,  Robert  Kennedy,  Vernon  DeMars,  Ralph 
Rapson;  engineers,  Thomas  Worcester,  Inc.) 

Among  commercial  buildings,  a  major  opus  was 
the  Cincinnati  Terrace  Plaza  Hotel,  by  Sfidmore, 
Owings  &  Merrill,  with  its  base  raised  eight  stories 
above  the  ground  (two  large  stores  underneath),  a 
spacious  roof  terrace  taking  all  the  setback  re- 
quirements in  a  single  step.  The  hotel  was  distin- 
guished not  only  by  carefully  redesigned  guest 
rooms  (more  like  living  lounges  than  the  custorn- 


ARCHITECWRE 

ary  bedrooms)  but  by  the  use  of  modern  murals 
and  sculpture  in  public  rooms  (the  gay  bright- 
colored  Miro  mural  occupying  the  only  solid-wall 
segment  of  an  intimate,  glass-encircled  roof  res- 
taurant; the  more  successful  Steinberg  mural  in 
the  large  dining  room  at  terrace  level,  with  witty 
calligraphic  things  and  creatures  more  nearly  afloat 
against  the  background  and  thus  continuing  the 
"sky"  effect  of  the  contiguous  glass ) . 

Another  ambitious  commercial  building  was 
Harris  Armstrong's  headquarters  building  for 
American  Stove  Company  at  St.  Louis,  a  colorful 
cubic  composition  (though  not  in  best  propor- 
tions )  on  a  glass  base,  with  careful  daylighting  for 
offices  and  a  striking  lobby  enhanced  by  Noguchf  s 
sculptured  ceiling  abstractly  suggesting  foundry 
processes  and  forms.  Large  numbers  of  stores  were 
finished  in  the  familiar  modern  streamlined  ba- 
roque ( e.g.^  Wurdeman  &  Beckett's  Pasadena  store 
for  Bullock's ) ;  much  rarer  was  the  rich  simplicity 
of  the  Knoll  furniture  showroom  in  New  York,  en- 
hanced by  Herbert  Matter's  spatial  fancies  in  in- 
expensive string;  the^y ear's  masterpiece  might  have 
been  Rafael  Soriano's  seed  store  in  San  Francisco 
for  Hallowell,  its  impact  being  that  of  nothing  but 
an  extremely  pleasant  seed  store,  and  the  extremely 
subtle  architectural  devices  being  apparent  to  none 
but  the  close  student 

Educational  buildings  made  rapid  strides,  par- 
ticularly the  University  of  Miami,  with  its  splendid 
master  plan  by  Marion  Manley,  university  archi- 
tect, and  Robert  Law  Weed  &  Associates.  The  first 
classroom  and  dormitory  buildings,  finished  dur- 
ing the  year,  were  brilliant  solutions  for  a  sub- 
tropical climate,  and  with  clean  and  more  than 
satisfactory  contemporary  form.  Public  schools 
continued  to  be  in  the  architectural  vanguard; 
probably  the  most  satisfactory  solution  of  the  year 
was  Bamberger  &  Reid's  little  addition  to  the  Fair- 
fax school  near  San  Francisco,  producing  a  happy 
and  euphoric  environment  without  that  patroniz- 
ing attitude  toward  children  by  adults. 

Among  hospitals,  in  which  there  was  enormous 
activity,  an  outstanding  completion  was  that  of  the 
Sloan-Kettering  Institute  for  Cancer  Research  in 
New  York,  again  by  Skidmore,  Owings  &  Merrill, 
immediately  adjoining  the  Memorial  Hospital. 
Church  work  lagged  in  quality,  since  it  was  in- 
creasingly difficult  to  obtain  either  funds  or  skilled 
hands,  in  drafting  room  or  on  site,  to  execute  the 
archaic  models  considered  suitable  for  religious 
purposes,  while  there  was  reluctance  on  the  part 
of  church  boards  to  accept  the  interpretation  of 
divinity  as  ever-new  creation.  An  outstanding 
little  church  was  the  Episcopal  chapel,  the  Church 
of  St.  Clement,  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  by  Joseph  H. 
Saunders,  Jr.  It  was  based  upon  an  entirely  win- 
dowless  and  air-conditioned  interior,  with  congre- 
gation of  400  divided  so  as  to  face  the  center,  not 
the  end,  of  the  hall;  at  this  center  was  the  altar 
and  above  it  a  plain,  oak  cross  hung  from  the  ceil- 
ing. In  an  interior  otherwise  as  dark  as  a  motion 
picture  house,  the  altar,  cross,  and  pulpit  were 
spotlighted  in  such  manner  as  to  suggest  being 
self-luminous,  and  an  atmosphere  was  created  con- 
ducive to  quiet  meditation. 

Industrial  buildings  remained  in  the  same  trends 
as  before.  Architecturally,  a  distinguished  though 
not  exciting  result  was  obtained  by  Gropius  in  tne 
Greensboro,  N.C.,  plant  of  the  Container  Corpora- 
tion of  America.  Had  there  been  the  same  degree 
of  happy  skill  in  the  Johnson  &  Johnson  program 
of  humanized  factories  in  rural  setting,  they  might 
have  raised  themselves  to  a  very  high  rank  of 
architectural  achievement. — DOUGLAS  HASKELL 


ARGENTINA 

ARGENTINA.  A  Federal  Republic  of  South  America. 
The  Andean  highlands  occupy  approximately  one- 
third  of  the  country;  the  remainder  consists  of 
plains.  In  the  lower  plateaus  of  the  northwest,  the 
climate  is  subtropical  and  dry  in  the  winter.  In 
the  eastern  part,  the  climate  is  wet  and  temperate, 
and  in  the  high  Andean  Plateaus  and  the  southern 
steppes,  it  is  cold  and  arid. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  1,079,965  square 
miles.  Population,  16,107,876  (1947).  Principal 
cities:  Buenos  Aires  (capital),  Rpsario,  Cordoba, 
Tucuman,  La  Plata  and  Santa  Fe. 

Education  and  Religion.  Over  85  percent  of  the 
population  are  literate.  Primary  education  is  free 
and  compulsory.  In  1946,  there  were  a  total  of 
14,759  elementary  schools  with  an  enrollment  of 
2,081,521  students;  459  public  secondary  schools 
with  148,568  students;  584  private  secondary 
schools  of  various  kinds,  with  an  enrollment  of  49,- 
515,  and  six  large  universities.  According  to  the 
Constitution,  the  government  supports  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  to  be  President  of  the  Re- 
public, it  is  necessary  to  belong  to  that  faith,  al- 
though the  Constitution  also  provides  for  freedom 
of  worship. 

Production.  Agriculture,  stock  raising,  and  manu- 
facturing are  the  principal  occupations.  Estimated 
yields  of  the  principal  agricultural  crops  in  1947 
were  (metric  tons) :  wheat,  5,615,000;  corn,  5,815,- 
000;  barley,  1,235,000;  flaxseed,  1,034,000;  oats, 
831,000;  sugar  cane,  7,444,600;  sunflower  seed, 
688,000.  Pastoral  products:  number  of  cattle 
slaughtered  in  1946,  7,140,000;  sheep,  11,820,000; 
pigs,  2,550,000.  Packinghouse  output  in  1946 
(metric  tons):  beef,  592,000;  lamb,  175,000;  pork, 
114,000;  wool,  238,000.  Monthly  averages  of 
industrial  products  in  1947  ( metric  tons )  included 
cotton  yarn,  5,490;  butter,  4,300;  cheese,  6,900. 
The  production  of  crude  petroleum  during  the  year 
1948  was  estimated  at  23,248,000  barrels,  as  com- 
pared with  the  production  for  the  year  1947  of 
21,847,000  barrels  (in  1948  the  daily  average 
totaled  63,500  barrels).  In  1946  the  production 
of  wine  was  894,000,000  liters,  and  beer  252,- 
000,000  liters.  Mineral  production  in  1946  in- 
cluded 76,000  metric  tons  of  metallic  ores  and 
14,987,000  of  non-metallic  ores. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  exports  in  1947  amounted  to 
$1,587,900,000;  imports  to  $1,308,300,000.  Exports 
in  the  previous  year  totaled  3,973,100,000  pesos 
(one  peso  is  equivalent  to  0.24  U.S.  dollars);  im- 
ports 2,331,700,000  pesos.  The  United  Kingdom 
continued  to  be  the  leading  market  for  exports  in 
that  year,  followed  by  the  United  States,  France, 
Belgium,  and  Brazil.  The  United  States  was  the 
chief  supplier  of  imports,  followed  by  Brazil,  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  Sweden.  Argentina's  trade 
in  1948  continued  to  increase  and  during  the  first 
three  months,  exports  totaled  approximately  1,740,- 
000,000  pesos,  imports  1,577,000,000  pesos. 

Transportation.  Argentina  has  the  largest  rail- 
transportation  system  in  Latin  America,  covering 
43,252  km.  which  in  1947  transported  751,000,000 
passenger-kilometers,  and  1,301,000,000  net  ton- 
kilometers  of  freight.  There  are  important  national 
airlines,  in  addition  to  numerous  foreign-owned 
lines  that  link  the  country  with  the  rest  of  the 
world.  In  1946,  there  were  approximately  300 
vessels  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  354,000.  On 
Mar.  16,  1948,  a  decree  was  issued  by  the  govern- 
ment requiring  that  all  imports  and  exports  be 
handled  on  Argentine  rather  than  on  foreign  ships. 
Argentina  has  253,115  miles  of  highway;  nearly 
half  a  million  motor  vehicles;  1,336,000  radio  sets, 
and  460,857  telephones. 


38  ARGENTINA 

Finance.  The  budget  for  1947  was  2,523,700,000 
pesos.  Internal  public  debt  in  1946  amounted  to 
10,721,200,000  pesos  and  the  external  debt  to  109,- 
100,000,000  pesos.  Gold  exchange  holdings  at  the 
end  of  1947  amounted  to  $1,071,100,000  indicat- 
ing a  decline  of  about  38  percent  over  the  previous 
year.  Currency  in  circulation  on  the  same  date 
amounted  to  4,674,000,000  pesos  and  deposits  to 
6,247,000,000  pesos.  A  severe  exchange  control 
has  been  established.  Cost  of  living  in  December, 
1947,  was  192,  taking  1937  as  the  base  year. 

Government.  Argentina  is  a  federal  republic,  com- 
posed of  14  provinces,  9  territories  and  a  federal 
district.  The  constitution  of  May  1,  1853  is  still 
in  force,  with  several  amendments.  Legislative 
power  corresponds  to  a  Congress  formed  by  a 
Chamber  of  Deputies  and  a  Senate.  There  are  two 
Senators  for  each  province  and  two  for  the  Federal 
District,  elected  for  nine  years.  Deputies  are 
elected  for  four  years,  in  the  proportion  of  one  for 
each  33,000  inhabitants  or  a  fraction  no  smaller 
than  16,500.  The  President  and  Vice  President  are 
chosen  by  an  electoral  college  for  a  term  of  six 
years.  Juan  Domingo  Peron  was  elected  President 
on  Feb.  24,  1946,  and  took  office  on  June  4,  1946. 

Events,  1948.  Early  in  January,  the  political  cli- 
mate of  Argentina  was  affected  by  the  partial 
elections  to  be  held  in  March,  and  by  the  efforts 
of  the  five-year  plan.  International  attention  was 
focused  on  the  development  of  effective  commer- 
cial agreements  with  European  countries  and  with 
neighboring  Latin  American  states. 

Partial  elections.  Elections  were  held  early  in 
March  and  helped  restore  a  legal  status  to  the 
province  of  Buenos  Aires,  which  had  been  under 
an  unconstitutional  situation  since  the  de  facto 
government  of  1943.  Of  more  importance  to  the 
nation  as  a  whole  were  the  elections  to  fill  83 
vacancies  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  Pe- 
ronista  Party  played  up  the  success  of  their  policy 
of  economic  nationalism,  notably  the  acquisition 
of  the  British-owned  railroad,  which  was  cele- 
brated with  due  pomp.  The  elections  gave  the 
Peronistas  a  total  of  446,307  votes  with  109  seats 
in  the  new  Congress,  against  247,474,  or  49  seats, 
for  the  opposition.  The  victory  encouraged  the 
Peronistas  to  plan  a  constitutional  amendment,  un- 
der which  Peron  may  be  reelected  when  his  term 
expires  in  1952. 

Commercial  internationalism.  Due  to  her  advan- 
tageous economic  position  with  regard  to  her 
neighbors,  Argentina  succeeded  in  signing  supple- 
mentary agreements  with  Bolivia  to  acquire  8,000,- 
000  tons  of  tin  annually  for  five  years,  as  well  as 
other  merchandise;  Argentina  to  contribute  2,000,- 
000  pesos  for  the  establishment  of  a  development 
corporation  in  Bolivia.  On  April  3,  a  commercial 
treaty  was  signed  with  Spain,  allowing  a  credit 
of  1,750,000  pesos  to  be  used  in  the  purchase  of 
foodstuffs  in  Argentina;  Franco's  government  to 
construct  ships  for  Argentina  in  Spanish  shipyards, 
and  a  general  warehouse  in  a  free  zone  of  the  Port 
of  Cddiz  to  serve  commerce  between  the  two  coun- 
tries. This  credit  covers  a  four-year  period,  expir- 
ing in  1951.  Democratic  groups  opposed  the  treaty 
on  the  grounds  that  it  would  serve  to  bolster  the 
difficult  economic  situation  of  Spain. 

On  Tune  12th,  economist  Miguel  Miranda,  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  influential  men  in  Argen- 
tina today,  stated  that  his  country  would  not  vary 
its  policy  with  regard  to  prices  on  export  foodstuffs, 
in  view  of  the  high  prices  Argentina  is  forced  to 
pay  abroad  for  manufactured  articles.  He  added 
that  the  agreement  regulating  the  price  of  wheat 
was  directly  intended  to  affect  Argentina,  since 


ARGENTINA 


the  signatory  nations,  notably  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  did  not  adhere  to  its  principles 
with  regard  to  their  own  export  goods. 

Inter-American  Cooperation.  At  the  end  of  March, 
a  political  rapprochement  with  Mexico  was  seen. 
The  Presidents  of  both  countries  made  radio 
speeches,  in  which  they  underlined  their  feelings 
as  to  the  importance  of  maintaining  world  peace, 
and  against  imperialism.  A  few  days  later,  Presi- 
dent Peron  spoke  again  for  world  peace  and  in 
favor  of  social  justice  and  economic  independence. 
This  was  interpreted  as  an  effort  to  prepare  a  solid 
inter-American  front  for  the  coming  Bogota  Con- 
ference (see  below  International  Events.) 

Parliamentary  Crisis.  In  June,  a  serious  parliamen- 
tary crisis  affected  the  country.  Opposition  deputy 
Ernesto  Sanmartino  commented  in  Congress,  in 
strong  terms,  on  the  suppression  of  political  free- 
dom established  by  the  Peronista  government.  The 
Peronista  deputies  considered  the  remarks  offen- 
sive to  the  President,  and  entertained  a  motion  ask- 
ing for  the  expulsion  of  Deputy  Sanmartino,  which 
was  approved  by  Congress.  The  42  deputies  of 
Sanmartino's  Radical  Party  resigned  from  Con- 
gress, thus  removing  one  of  the  few  remaining 
active  opposition  forces,  which  lent  Peron's  govern- 
ment a  semblance  of  democracy.  Before  the  inci- 
dent, the  Radical  deputies  had  strongly  opposed  the 
Peronista  proposal  for  a  workers*  university,  be- 
cause of  the  partisan  ideology  behind  the  project 
They  also  attacked  the  absolute  control  over  edu- 
cation in  institutions  of  higher  learning. 

Attempt  on  Peron's  life.  On  September  24,  the 
government  announced  that  a  serious  plot  to  assas- 
sinate President  Peron  and  his  wife  had  been  dis- 
covered. According  to  the  police,  the  attempt  was 
to  have  been  carried  out  on  October  12,  Columbus 
Day.  Many  arrests  were  made,  among  them  two 
naval  chaplains,  other  members  of  the  navy,  a 
Catholic  priest,  and  labor  leaders.  The  sensational 
aspect  of  the  plot  was  the  official  accusation  made 
by  the  government  against  John  F.  Griffith,  former 
Cultural  Attache  of  the  U.S.  embassy  in  Buenos 
Aires,  who  was  removed  from  his  post  last  spring, 
charged  with  participation  in  a  bank  employees' 
strike.  From  Montevideo,  where  Griffith  resided,  he 
energetically  denied  the  accusations,  stating  that 
he  had  had  no  contact  with  Argentina  for  several 
months.  President  Per6n  himself  singled  out  and 
accused  Mr.  Griffith  in  a  public  speech. 

The  announcement  of  the  plot  caused  a  number 
of  pro-government  rallies,  and  the  General  Con- 
federation of  Workers  declared  a  14-hour  sympathy 
strike.  The  Peronista  press  took  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  to  express  their  nationalism,  and  vio- 
lently attacked  "Yankee  imperialism."  The  plot  had 
one  serious  political  effect  in  the  resignation  of 
Minister  of  the  Navy,  Admiral  Fidel  Anad6n, 
who  also  held  the  portfolio  of  Foreign  Affairs,  due 
to  the  absence  of  Juan  Atilio  Bramuglia,  at  that 
time  representing  the  government  at  the  UN  meet- 
ings in  Paris.  It  was  rumored  that  his  resignation 
was  due  to  the  Navy  chaplains'  complicity  in  the 
affair.  The  chaplains  were  suspended  by  a  decision 
adopted  by  all  the  bishops  of  the  nation.  The 
investigation  of  Griffith's  participation  was  still 
under  way  in  December,  1948,  when  the  Argen- 
tine Chief  of  Police  went  to  Montevideo  for  an 
interview  with  President  Batlle  of  Uruguay.  The 
parties  of  the  opposition  denied  all  association 
with  the  plot  and  several  deputies  demanded  a 
congressional  investigation. 

International  Front.  In  the  world  affairs  of  the 
year,  Argentina  took  an  active  part.  Most  important 
events  were  her  claims  to  Antarctic  lands,  her  ener- 


39  ARIZONA 

getic  intervention  at  the  Bogota  Conference,  and 
the  preeminent  role  played  by  Prime  Minister 
Bramuglia  in  the  UN  Security  Council. 

Early  in  the  year,  President  Gonzalez  Videla  of 
Chile  started  a  campaign  to  claim  part  of  the  Ant- 
arctic territories  for  his  country,  he  found  warm 
support  in  Argentina,  whose  important  interest  in 
that  region  does  not  conflict  with  Chile's.  Argen- 
tina's traditional  policy  has  always  been  non-rec- 
ognition of  Great  Britain's  sovereignty  over  the 
Falkland  Islands,  in  spite  of  the  good  political  and 
economic  relations  maintained  with  the  United 
Kingdom.  Her  support  of  Chilean  claims  was  in- 
terpreted as  a  plan  to  reopen  the  issue  of  the  Falk- 
land Islands  and  an  effort  to  reach  a  compromise 
with  regard  to  Argentina's  claims.  The  Buenos 
Aires  press  stressed  the  importance  of  bringing  the 
case  before  the  Bogota  Conference  and  of  reaching 
a  decision  on  all  European  possessions  in  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere,  thereby  backing  Guatemala's 
claim  to  Belize. 

At  the  Ninth  Inter-American  Conference  of 
American  States,  held  at  Bogotd  in  April,  Argen- 
tina played  an  important  role.  In  the  economic 
discussions,  she  fought  for  the  creation  of  an  inter- 
American  bank  to  help  the  countries  suffering  from 
shortage  of  dollar  exchange  and  to  facilitate  a  more 
efficient  hemisphere  economic  cooperation.  This 
proposal  met  with  a  cold  reception  from  the  Unit- 
ed States  delegates,  and  was  referred  to  a  future 
economic  conference. 

In  the  political  field,  she  endorsed  the  condem- 
nation of  communism  and  all  forms  of  totalitarian- 
ism, and  became  signatory  to  the  Charter  of  the 
Americas,  which  gave  a  new  institutional  and  ju- 
ridical structure  to  the  inter-American  system.  Ar- 
gentina tried  to  reach  a  solution  with  regard  to  the 
European  colonial  possessions,  but  the  matter  was 
referred  to  a  committee.  The  Argentine  delegation 
unanimously  backed  the  proposal  to  continue  the 
sessions  when  they  were  interrupted  by  the  April  9 
revolt  (see  COLOMBIA,  1948). 

On  the  European  front,  Argentina  from  her  po- 
sition in  the  Security  Council,  fought  gallantly  for 
world  peace.  Foreign  Minister  Bramuglia  headed 
the  group  of  nations  that  insisted  on  a  solution  of 
the  Berlin  issue  (see  UNITED  NATIONS). 

Political  finale.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  political 
tension  was  focused  on  the  elections  for  the  Con- 
stitutional Assembly  scheduled  for  December  5. 
Admiral  Teisaire,  speaking  for  the  Peronista  Party, 
summarized  its  program  in  the  following  way:  Na- 
tionalization of  public  services  and  organization  of 
the  wealth  of  the 'country  in  hands  of  the  Argenti- 
nians; respect  for  the  principle  of  free  enterprise, 
but  state  control  over  imports  and  exports;  legal 
and  social  equality  of  all  citizens;  outlawing  of  the 
exploitation  of  man  by  man;  definition  of  property 
as  a  social  function;  agrarian  reform  and  division 
of  latifundia.  On  the  political-domestic  front,^the 
most  important  change  sponsored  by  the  Peronistas 
was  the  constitutional  amendment  doing  away  with 
the  ban  on  reelection  of  the  President.  They 
stressed  that  the  ban  was  undemocratic,  since  it 
prevented  the  people  from  reelecting  a  President 
if  they  so  wished. 

The  results  of  the  December  election  showed 
that  tiie  Peronistas  had  received  63.1  percent  of 
the  total  vote,  and  obtained  the  election  of  109 
delegates  in  the  Convention.  Forty-nine  seats  were 
won  by  the  Radical  Party.  — MIGUEL  JORRIN 

ARIZONA.  A  mountain  State.  Area:  113,956  sq.  mi. 
Population  (July  1,  1948):  664,000,  compared 
with  (1940  census)  499,261.  Chief  city:  Phoenix 


ARKANSAS 

(capital),  65,414  inhabitants  in  1940.  See  AGBI- 
CULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINEKALS  AND  METALS, 
SCHOOLS,  UNIVERISITIES  AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL 
STATISTICS,  etc. 

Legislation.  Several  special  sessions  were  called 
in  1948,  dealing  principally  with  urgent  require- 
ments for  additional  water  resources.  In  addition, 
the  state  public  health  department  was  reorganized; 
a  hospital  survey  act  was  adopted;  and  limitations 
on  municipal  budget  increases  were  relaxed  for 
one  year. 

Important  changes  were  ratified  by  the  voters 
in  November.  Provision  was  made  for  succession 
to  the  Governorship;  for  a  State  merit  system  with 
job  and  salary  classifications;  for  a  public  employ- 
ees' retirement  system;  for  special  sessions  of  the 
legislature  called  by  the  legislators;  and  for  a 
right-to-work  labor  law. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $56,263,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $54,573,000. 

Elections.  The  4  electoral  votes  of  Arizona  went 
to  Trurnan  whose  popular  majority  over  Dewey 
was  somewhat  less  than  that  of  Roosevelt  in  1944. 
Arizona's  2  House  seats  remained  Democratic,  In 
State  races,  Dan  E.  Garvey,  Democrat,  was  re- 
elected  to  a  full  term  as  Governor.  Other  success- 
ful candidates  included:  Secretary  of  State — Wes- 
ley Bolin;  Attorney  General — Fred  O.  Wilson; 
Auditor — Ana  Frohmiller;  Treasurer — J.  W.  Kel- 
ly; Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction — M.  L. 
Brooks. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Sidney  P.  Osborn;  Lieut. 
Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  Dan  E.  Gar- 
vey; Attorney  General,  John  L.  Sullivan;  State 
Treasurer,  Mit  Sims;  State  Auditor,  Ana  Froh- 
miller. 

ARKANSAS.  A  west  south  central  State.  Area:  53,- 
335  sq.  mi.  Population  (July  1,  1948):  1,925,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  1,949,387.  Chief 
city:  Little  Rock  (capital),  88,039  inhabitants  in 
1940.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS 
AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COL- 
LEGES., VITAL  STATISTICS,  etc. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30S  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $94,218,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $93,057,000. 

Elections.  Truman  won  a  popular  majority  and 
captured  the  9  electoral  votes  in  the  race  against 
Dewey  and  Thurmond.  Senator  John  L,  McClel- 
lan,  Democrat,  was  reelected,  and  all  7  House  seats 
remained  Democratic.  In  the  contest  for  Gover- 
nor, 36-year  old  Sidney  S.  McMath,  World  War 
II  veteran  and  supporter  of  the  regular  Democratic 
ticket,  was  successful.  Also  elected  to  State  office 
were  the  following,  all  Democrats:  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor— Nathan  G.  Gordon;  Secretary  of  State— 
C  G.  Hall;  Attorney  General — Ike  Murry;  Treas- 
urer— J.  Vance  Clayton;  Auditor — J.  Oscar  Hum- 
phrey. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Benjamin  T.  Laney; 
Lieut.  Governor,  Nathan  Gordon;  Secretary  or 
State,  C.  G.  Hall;  Attorney  General,  Guy  E,  Wil- 
liams; State  Treasurer,  J.  Vance  Clayton;  State 
Auditor,  J.  Oscar  Humphrey;  Land  Commissioner, 
Claud  A.  Rankin. 

ARMY,  Department  of  the.  The  Department  of  the 
United  States  government  which  is  charged  with 
the  responsibility  of  organizing,  training,  and  main- 
taining the  Army,  and  with  certain  non-military 
activities;  created  by  the  National  Security  Act  of 
1947  (effective  midnight  Sept.  17,  1947)  as  one  of 
the  three  armed  components  of  the  National  Mill- 


40  ARMY 

tary  Establishment  to  succeed  the  War  Depart- 
ment, which  in  turn  was  created  in  1789  to  succeed 
a  similar  department  established  prior  to  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Constitution. 

The  Department  of  the  Army,  administered  as 
an  individual  executive  department  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Army,  is  the  headquarters  in  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  for  planning  and  administration.  Head- 
quarters for  Army  Field  Forces  is  at  Fort  Monroe, 
Virginia.  Secretary  of  the  Army,  Kenneth  C.  Roy  all 
(named  die  first  Secretary  of  the  Army  in  July, 
1947,  having  earlier  succeeded  Robert  P.  Patterson 
as  Secretary  of  War);  Under  Secretary  of  the 
Army,  William  H.  Draper,  Jr.  (appointed  August, 
1947:  charged  with  the  supervision  of  occupied 
territories);  Assistant  Secretaries  of  the  Army,  Gor- 
don Gray  (appointed  September,  1947:  exercises 
supervision  over  procurement  and  related  matters ) 
and  Tracy  S.  Voorhees  (appointed  June,  1948: 
acts  as  Food  Administrator  for  the  Occupied 
Areas ) . 

Events,  1948.  Shortly  after  Gen.  Omar  N,  Bradley 
was  sworn  in  as  Chief  of  Staff  on  Feb,  7,  1948 
(succeeding  Gen.  of  the  Army  Dwight  D.  Eisen- 
hower), he  announced  the  Army's  plan  for  an  18- 
to  25-division  striking  force,  to  be  built  up  gradu- 
ally by  1952.  The  objective  for  the  fiscal  year 
1948-1949  was  announced  as  18  divisions — 12  of 
which  would  be  Regular  Army  and  6  National 
Guard — organized,  manned,  equipped,  and  trained. 
The  plan  calls  for  additional  divisions  to  be  added 
yearly  until  the  final  objective  of  25  divisions  is 
attained,  with  the  National  Guard  providing  13  of 
these  divisions  and  the  Reserve  Corps  organized 
with  service  and  combat  units  to  support  all  25 
divisions. 

Courts-Martial.  Under  amended  Articles  of  War 
( as  provided  in  the  Selective  Service  Act  of  1948 
and  a  new  Manual  for  Courts-Martial — U.S.  Army, 
1949),  enlisted  personnel  are  eligible  to  sit  as 
members  of  general  and  special  courts-martial 
when  such  request  is  made  by  an  accused  enlisted 
man.  The  use  of  coercion  or  unlawful  influence  in 
obtaining  a  confession  is  now  made  a  criminal 
offense,  and  procedures  are  changed  to  emphasize 
the  presumption  of  innocence  in  trial  by  courts- 
martial.  A  guarantee  of  proper  enforcement  of  the 
new  law  is  provided  by  two  key  changes — the  re- 
quirement that  the  law  member,  the  trial  judge, 
be  a  qualified  military  lawyer;  and  the  provision 
for  a  final  appellate  court  of  review,  to  consist  of 
military  legal  specialists  of  long  experience  in  that 
field. 

Changes  for  Enlisted  Men.  As  of  Aug.  1,  1948,  the 
enlisted  grade  structure  of  the  Army  was  changed. 
The  following  table  gives  the  grade,  the  former 
title,  and  the  present  title  for  each  grade,  together 
with  the  changes  in  monthly  base  pay. 


Former 

Present 

Monthly 

Grade 

Title 

Title 

Base  Pay  * 

let 

Master  Sgt. 

Master  Sgt, 

$165—1247,50 

2nd 

Tech.  Sgt. 

Sgt.  1st  CL 

135  202.50 

3rd 

Staff  Sgt. 

Sgt. 

115  172.50 

4th 

Sergeant 

Corporal 

100—  -150.00 

5th 

Corporal 

Pvt.  1st  Cl. 

90—  -135.00 

6th 

Pvt.  1st  Cl. 

Private 

80  120.00 

7th 

Private 

Recruit 

75  112.50 

*  With  a  5  percent  increase  in  base  pay  for  each  3  years  of 
service  up  to  50  percent. 

The  new  promotion  system  places  the  enlisted 
soldier  in  recruit  status  for  the  first  four  months  of 
his  service,  with  automatic  advancement  to  the 
6th  pay  grade  assured  on  completion  of  basic  train- 
ing. 

The  sleeve  insignia  of  the  grades  were  changed 


ART 

as  follows:  3  arcs  under  the  chevrons  for  a  Master 
Sergeant;  2  arcs  under  the  chevrons  for  a  Sergeant 
1st  Class;  1  arc  under  the  chevrons  for  a  Sergeant; 
2  chevrons  for  a  Corporal;  and  1  chevron  for  a 
Private  1st  Class.  No  sleeve  Insignia  are  worn  in 
the  6th  and  7th  grades;  Private  and  Recruit,  re- 
spectively. In  addition,  sleeve  chevrons  are  to  be 
changed  to  approximately  two-thirds  their  present 
size,  and  will  differentiate  by  color  combat  and 
non-combat  personnel. 

Women's  Army  Corps.  Passage  of  the  Women's 
Armed  Services  Integration  Act  on  June  12,  1948, 
marked  the  first  time  that  women  outside  the  medi- 
cal services  had  become  a  part  of  the  Regular 
Army.  Initially,  a  build-up  by  the  end  of  two  years 
after  passage  of  the  act  authorizes  the  'Women's 
Army  Corps  a  strength  of  500  officers,  75  warrant 
officers,  and  7,500  enlisted  women.  A  training  cen- 
ter for  the  Women's  Army  Corps  has  been  estab- 
lished at  Camp  Lee,  Petersburg,  Va.  Director  of 
the  WAC:  Col.  Mary  A.  Hallaren  (sworn  in  Dec. 
8,  1948). 

Reorganized/on.  A  high-echelon  reorganization  of 
Headquarters  of  the  Department  of  the  Army,  to 
place  that  service  on  a  functional  "peace-or-war" 
footing,  became  effective  on  Nov.  15,  1948.  The 
new  organization,  incorporating  many  of  the  fea- 
tures of  the  World  War  II  set-up,  is  designed  to 
obviate  the  necessity  for  sudden  or  drastic  change 
in  the  event  of  a  national  emergency.  See  MILI- 
TARY PROGRESS,  NATIONAL  MILITARY  ESTABLISH- 
MENT. 


ART.  The  breaking  of  the  engagement  of  the  Whit- 
ney and  Metropolitan  Museums  (with  the  latter 
establishing  a  new  department  of  contemporary 
American  painting);  a  brief,  if  negative,  revival  of 
Federal  interest  in  art;  the  decline  of  industry  as  a 
patron;  and  the  accelerated  criticism  of  "modern" 
art  were  the  outstanding  developments  of  1948. 

Museums.  When  the  merger  of  New  York's  Met- 
ropolitan and  Whitney  Museums  was  announced 
in  1943,  there  were  many  who  deplored  the  move 
and  wishfully  predicted  that  it  would  never  actu- 
ally come  about.  In  October,  1948,  their  prediction 
came  true.  The  Metropolitan  announced  that  "The  * 
trustees  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  have  con- 
sistently indicated  their  willingness  to  carry  out 
the  proposed  coalition,  and  greatly  regret  the  deci- 
sion of  the  trustees  of  the  Whitney  Museum  to 
abandon  this  plan  which  would  have  made  avail- 
able to  the  public  a  comprehensive  exhibition  of 
American  art  by  combining  the  artistic  resources  of 
both  museums." 

Two  months  later  the  Metropolitan  announced 
the  establishment  of  a  new  department  of  Con- 
temporary American  Art  and  the  appointment  of 
Robert  Beverly  Hale,  Art  Students  League  instruc- 
tor, as  its  associate  curator.  Mr.  Hale's  duties  were 
not  clearly  defined  as  the  year  ended,  but  it  was 
generally  understood  that  he  will  supervise  pur- 
chases from  the  more  than  $100,000  Hearn  Fund, 
which  is  earmarked  for  the  work  of  contemporary 
American  artists.  He  will  continue  his  classes  in 
anatomical  drawing  at  the  Art  Students  League. 

Simultaneously  with  the  Metropolitan's  October 
announcement,  the  Whitney  Museum  of  American 
Art  issued  a  statement  calling  attention  to  the  fact 
that  it  "has  always  aimed  impartially  to  represent 
the  many  diverse  tendencies  of  the  art  of  our  time. 
In  the  years  of  contact  between  the  staffs  of  the 
Whitney  Museum  and  Metropolitan  Museum,  it 
has  become  increasingly  apparent  that  there  were 
serious  divergences  in  the  attitude  toward  con- 
temporary art  of  the  two  institutions,  especially 


41  AKT 

with  respect  to  the  showing  of  advanced  trends  in 
the  art  of  today. 

"This  disagreement  in  fundamental  principles 
raised  grave  doubts,  whether  the  Whitney  Mu- 
seum's liberal  tradition  could  be  preserved  after 
coalition.  This  consideration  outweighed  the  many 
advantages  to  coalition.  The  Whitney  will  be  con- 
tinued as  an  independent  institution,  carrying  on 
the  liberal  purposes  on  which  it  was  founded.  * 

With  the  opening  of  its  "Annual  Exhibition  of 
American  Painting"  on  November  13,  the  Whitney 
also  announced  that  Hermon  More,  former  curator, 
had  been  appointed  director  and  Lloyd  Goodrich, 
former  research  curator,  appointed  associate  direc- 
tor, following  the  death  in  August  of  Juliana  R. 
Force,  director  of  the  Whitney  for  many  years  and 
staunch  champion  of  living  American  artists.  The 
Whitney  annual  (see  below)  amply  illustrated  the 
continuance  of  the  Museum's  stated  policy. 

The^  growing  concern  during  1948  over  "radi- 
calism" in  art  ( as  in  politics )  which  brought  about 
the  Whitney-Metropolitan  dissolution  caused  re- 
organization of  two  other  American  museums.  In 
Boston  the  Institute  of  Modern  Art  abruptly 
changed  its  name  to  the  Institute  of  Contemporary 
Art^  because  it  had  decided  that  the  word  "mod- 
em" gave  opportunity  for  "double  talk,  opportun- 
ism, and  chicanery  at  the  public  expense."  In  New 
York  a  group  of  artists  immediately  met  at  the 
Museum  of  Modern  Art  to  protest  what  they  called 
"Boston's  reactionary  attitude."  In  answer  to  such 
protests,  the  new  Boston  "Institute"  opened  an  ex- 
hibition of  the  work  of  Oskar  Kokoschka,  leading 
European  expressionist,  whose  works  had  never 
before  been  assembled  for  an  American  exhibition. 

In  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  the  director  of  the  Art 
Center,  Paul  Parker,  resigned  only  a  few  weeks 
after  the  June  2  opening  of  the  new  building  de- 
signed by  the  famous  modern  architect  Eliel  Saari- 
nen.  His  stated  reason  was  "complete  disagreement 
between  the  Edmunston  Trustees  [custodians  of 
the  foundation  which  operates  the  Center]  and  my- 
self regarding  the  acquisition  policies."  The  nature 
of  this  disagreement  was  defined  by  a  writer  in  the 
Des  Moines  Register  as  being  similar  to  the  Boston 
and  New  York  difficulties — Mr,  Parker's  champion- 
ship of  "advanced  trends"  in  art.  To  succeed  Mr, 
Parker  the  trustees  appointed  Richard  Foster  How- 
ard, former  director  of  the  Dallas  Art  Museum. 

Iowa's  neighbor  State,  Illinois,  revealed  ^a  less 
excited  attitude  toward  "advanced  trends."  The 
University  of  Illinois'  recently  inaugurated  annual 
exhibition  of  contemporary  American  painting^ 
aimed  at  presenting  a  cross  section,  awarded  $7,- 
500  in  purchase  prizes  to  artists  representing  just 
that.  One  went  to  Eugene  Berman  for  his  almost 
surrealist  Portrait  of  Rico  LeErun,  another  to  Karl 
Knaths  for  an  abstraction,  and  still  others  to  more 
representational  painters  Julian  Levi,  Raymond 
Brienen,  Joseph  de  Martini,  Lester  Schwartz,  and 
Hazel  Teyral,  The  catalog  of  the  exhibition  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  nearly  100  colleges  and 
universities  in  the  United  States  now  have  art 
museums  and  regular  exhibitions,  and  that  25  of 
them  have  separate  museum  buildings. 

Also  unplagued  by  disagreement  over  modern 
art  was  the  San  Diego  Fine  Arts  Gallery,  which 
reopened  its  building  after  5  years  of  service  as  a 
naval  hospital.  Forty-eight  new  paintings  had  been 
added  to  the  collection  in  the  meantime,  including 
Mantegna's  Virgin  at  Prayer  and  Memling's  Young 
Man  with  Folded  Hands.  But  most  dramatic  ac- 
quisition was  the  diorite  carving  Rest  on  the  Flight 
into  Egypt  by  the  contemporary  sculptor,  Donald 
Hord.  It  had  been  delivered  to  the  Gallery  on 


ART 

Pearl  Harbor  day,  only  to  be  returned  to  the  artist's 
studio  for  the  duration.  It  occupied  a  place  of 
honor  at  the  Gallery's  reopening. 

The  Worcester  Museum  celebrated  its  50th  an- 
niversary with  an  exhibition  of  its  own  and  bor- 
rowed works  during  May.  The  wealth  of  its  own 
collection  recalled  the  days  around  the  turn  of  the 
century  when  Stephen  Salisbury,  a  leading  citizen, 
casually  left  a  $25,000  check  after  each  visit.  To 
supplement  this  collection  for  the  exhibition,  Wor- 
cester borrowed  from  the  Metropolitan  (whose  di- 
rector, Francis  Henry  Taylor,  left  Worcester  for 
his  present  position)  its  Adoration  of  the  Shep- 
herds by  El  Greco  and  Venus  and  the  Flute  Player 
by  Titian.  Other  famous  paintings  were  also  loaned 
by  the  museums  of  St.  Louis,  Minneapolis,  Chi- 
cago, Kansas  City,  Cleveland,  and  Detroit. 

The  Museum  of  Modern  Art  in  New  York  held 
the  first  of  a  series  of  exhibitions  planned  to  com- 
memorate its  20th  anniversary  in  1949.  Called 
"The  Timeless  Aspects  of  Modern  Art,"  the  exhi- 
bition brought  together  such  objects  as  a  cast  of  the 
25,000-year-old  Venus  of  Villendorf  and  sculpture 
by  the  late  Gaston  Lachaise  in  an  attempt  to  show 
that  there  is  nothing  especially  radical  or  strange 
in  the  forms  that  20th  century  artists  use  to  express 
their  ideas. 

Exhibitions.  Most  visited  exhibition  of  the  year 
was  that  of  the  German-owned  paintings  found  in 
a  salt  mine  by  U.S.  Army  Engineers  and  brought 
to  this  country  in  1945  for  "safe-keeping"  over  the 
protest  of  the  American  Federation  of  Arts,  the 
College  Art  Association,  and  numerous  other  or- 
ganizations and  individuals.  Shown  at  the  National 
Gallery  during  the  first  weeks  of  the  year,  the  ma- 
jority of  the  202  paintings  were  then  sent  on  tour 
by  the  Army  for  the  benefit  of  German  children 
in  the  American  zone. 

Nearly  a  million  visitors  thronged  the  National 
Gallery  to  see  the  famous  Rembrandts,  Bellinis, 
Brueghels,  and  other  masterpieces  from  the  Kaiser 
Friearich  Museum,  and  millions  more  saw  them  in 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  Boston,  Detroit, 
Cleveland,  Minneapolis,  and  San  Francisco  during 
1948.  In  1949  they  will  tour  St.  Louis  and  Pitts- 
burgh, and  will  be  packed  up  for  return  to  Germany 
after  the  final  showing  ends  in  Toledo  on  March  31. 

On  the  same  day  (May  17)  that  the  Metropoli- 
tan Museum  opened  its  exhibition  of  the  German 
paintings,  another  controversial  exhibition  opened 
at  the  Whitney,  whose  director,  Juliana  R.  Force, 
had  led  a  movement  to  have  the  German  paintings 
sent  back  to  Germany  in  1946.  This  was  the  col- 
lection of  79  oils  and  38  watercolors  which  the 
State  Department  had  purchased  in  1946  for  $66,- 
000  to  circulate  abroad  as  examples  of  "Advancing 
American  Art." 

They  were  recalled  the  following  year  because 
the  Congress  and  the  American  public  had  found 
them  too  "advanced,"  and  on  May  17  were  put 
up  for  auction  at  the  Whitney  Museum  by  the  War 
Assets  Administration.  The  art  world  waited  anx- 
iously to  see  if  the  bids  would  prove  its  contention 
that  the  State  Department  had  made  a  good  invest- 
ment instead  or  "throwing  away  the  "taxpayers 
money  on  junk"  as  was  charged. 

When  the  bids  were  opened,  it  was  found  that 
the  collection  had  increased  in  value  by  more  than 
$13,000.  Tax-supported  institutions  and  veterans 
had  priority  with  a  generous  discount,  and  as  a 
result  the  University  of  Oklahoma  and  Alabama 
Polytechnic  Institute  each  got  36  paintings.  The 
University  of  Georgia  got  10;  University  of  Wash- 
ington, 6;  Rutgers  University,  4;  Texas  A.  and  M., 
2;  the  Honolulu  Department  of  Public  Instruction, 


42  ART 

5;  Oswego  (N.Y.)  Public  Schools,  3;  New  Trier 
Township  High  School  (Winnetka,  III),  2;  Dallas 
Museum,  1;  Lancaster  (Pa.)  Public  Library,  1; 
New  York  City  Board  of  Education,  1. 

Three  veterans  bid  successfully:  Charles  Fried- 
man of  New  Rochelle,  N.Y.,  got  3  paintings;  Ernest 
Apfelschutt  of  Brooklyn,  1;  and  Russell  Reinke  of 
Cleveland,  1.  Highest  bid  was  that  of  the  St.  Louis 
Museum  for  an  oil  by  John  Marin — $10,000. 

The  year  witnessed  a  number  of  less  spectacular 
but  equally  important  exhibitions  in  various  cities. 
In  April  the  Philadelphia  Museum  of  Art  held  the 
largest  showing  of  the  work  of  France's  dean  of 
the  modern  movement,  Henri  Matisse,  at  which 
271  paintings,  prints,  and  drawings  were  exhibited, 
dating  from  1893  to  1948.  Most  interesting  aspect 
of  the  exhibition  to  American  viewers  was  proof 
(in  the  realistic  Copy  of  Still  Life  by  de  Heem) 
that  Matisse,  one  of  they"wild  men"  of  modern  art 
is  also  one  of  the  world's  greatest  living  draughts- 
men. 

Harvard's  Fogg  Museum  held  an  exhibition  of 
drawings  in  honor  of  its  retired  director,  Paul 
Sachs,  which  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  assem- 
blage of  old-master  drawings  ever  to  be  shown  in 
America.  Yasuo  Kuniyoshi,  instructor  at  the  Art 
Students  League,  was  honored  in  April  by  the 
Whitney  Museum  with  the  first  one-man  exhibi- 
tion of  a  living  painter  it  has  held,  Kuniyoshi  was 
also  honored  at  a  banquet  sponsored  by  Artists 
Equity  Association,  of  which  he  is  president. 

John  Sloan  was  honored  by  a  retrospective  ex- 
hibition at  the  Kraushaar  Gallery  in  which  one  of 
his  famous  "Ash  Can  School"  paintings  was  exhib- 
ited, South  Beach  Bathers,  of  1908.  At  the  New 
York  Historical  Society  300  years  of  American  chil- 
dren's portraits  were  exhibited  beginning  in  No- 
vember, entitled  "Up  From  the  Cradle."  Most  im- 
portant exhibition  held  at  New  York's  Museum  of 
Modern  Art  was  a  great  collection  of  oils  by  the 
French  modern  master,  Pierre  Bonnard. 

California's  growing  interest  in  painting  mani- 
fested itself  in  art  exhibitions  at  two  State  fairs 
and  a  huge  regional  exhibition  at  Los  Angeles.  At 
Sacramento  prizes  totaling  several  thousand  dollars 
were  divided  between  "modern"  and  "conserva- 
tive" artists,  with  $1,000  going  to  Richard  Haines 
for  his  expressionist  Grunion  Hunt  and  another 
$1,000  to  Ejnar  Hansen  for  his  academic  portrait, 
Sadakichi.  The  Los  Angeles  County  Fair  staged 
a  national  exhibition  in  September,  and  awarded 
a  $700  purchase  prize  to  the  New  York  artist  Louis 
Bosa  for  one  of  his  characteristic  city  scenes,  Never 
Again. 

The  Los  Angeles  County  Museum  held  perhaps 
the  largest  regional  exhibition  of  the  year  under 
the  direction  of  William  R.  Valentiner  and  James 
H.  Breasted.  Total  number  of  works  submitted  by 
1,021  local  artists  amounted  to  2,102.  Of  these  236 
were  admitted  for  exhibition,  and  a  first  prize  of 
$500  was  awarded  to  Howard  Warshaw. 

Most  sensational  regional  of  the  year  was  held 
at  the  Corcoran  Gallery  for  "Artists  of  Washington 
(D.C. )  and  Vicinity."  A  jury  consisting  of  Dorothy 
Grafly,  Walter  Stumpfeig,  and  Willis  F.  Woods 
selected  only  20  out  of  1,000  works  submitted,  and 
found  only  one  of  these  worthy  of  a  prize.  They 
explained  their  unprecedented  action  in  the  fol- 
lowing statement: 

"The  business  of  being  an  artist  is  a  serious  one. 
Thousands  of  people  in  the  United  States  are  paint- 
ing. Only  a  few  of  them  are  artists.  These  few  are 
scattered  all  over  the  country.  Within  the  past  10 
or  15  years,  there  has  been  such  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  amateurs  that  their  work  confuses  the 


ART 


43 


art  issue  both  for  the  public  and  the  art  juryman 
who  must  sift  from  innumerable  paintings  of  little 
merit,  a  handful  that  will  stand  a  rudimentary 
test  of  craftsmanship. 

"If  the  Washington  and  Vicinity  Exhibition  indi- 
cates a  trend,  it  points  up  the  existence  of  two 
poles  in  American  art  today — the  art  of  the  ama- 
teur, which  occasionally  has  flashes  of  intentive 
originality,  and  the  art  of  the  skilled  professional. 
Between  the  two  poles  lies  a  vast  waste  of  medi- 
ocrity and  imitation.  If  a  regional  exhibition  is  to 
be  judged  on  the  basis  of  quality,  the  accepted 
works  will  be  found  in  the  first  two  categories. 

"The  overbalance  of  the  mediocre,  however,  is 
becoming  so  alarming  and  is  so  detrimental  to  art 
and  artists  in  their  relation  to  the  public,  that  the 
jury  feels  its  duty  is  to  throw  its  weight  on  the 
side  of  honesty  and  knowledge." 

The  action  brought  about  a  Salon  des  Refuses, 
also  at  the  Corcoran. 

Painting.  The  disparity  of  opinion  about  modern 
art  in  America  was  well  demonstrated  in  1948 
when,  early  in  the  year,  Look  magazine  published 
the  results  of  a  survey  it  had  made  of  leading  mu- 
seum directors,  critics,  and  editors,  asking  them 
to  name  America's  10  foremost  living  artists.  In 
order  of  majority  choice,  the  following  were 
named:  John  Marin,  Max  Weber,  Yasuo  Kuniyoshi, 
Stuart  Davis,  Ben  Shahn,  George  Grosz,  Franklin 
Watkins,  Lyonel  Feininger,  and  Jack  Levine. 

Yet  only  two  of  these  artists,  Davis  and  Levine, 
won  prizes  at  any  of  the  important  annual  exhibi- 
tions. Davis  won  a  prize  at  tie  59th  annual  water- 
color  exhibition  held  by  the  Art  Institute  of  Chi- 
cago for  his  abstraction,  Ana,  and  Levine  won  the 
Jennie  Sesman  Medal  at  the  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy's 143rd  annual  for  his  Apteka,  a  characteristic 
city  street-scene  which  had  won  a  top  prize  at  the 
Corcoran  Biennial  the  year  before. 

The  Carnegie  Institute  annual,  formerly  interna- 
tional ^and  now  limited  to  "Painting  in  the  United 
States"  chose  a  conservative  jury  to  award  prizes 
from  the  300  paintings  chosen  by  director  Homer 
St.  Gaudens.  John  Carroll,  Alexander  Brook,  and 
Luigi  Lucioni  awarded  the  $1,500  top  prize  to 
comparatively  unknown  Raphael  Gleitsmann  for 
his  richly  painted  Medieval  Shadows.  Second  prize 
($1,000)  went  to  Andrew  Wyeth  for  his  Christina 
Olsen,  a  meticulously  detailed  portrait,  and  third 
prize  ($700)  went  to  Carl  Zerbe  for  Actors,  a 
highly  subjective  painting  by  Boston's  leading  ex- 
pressionist. The  exhibition  itself,  however,  ranged 
all  the  way  from  abstraction  to  illustration  as  is 
proper  in  a  democratic  country. 

The  National  Academy's  122nd  annual  exhibi- 
tion revealed  a  courageous  effort  to  present  all 
sides  of  the  modern  art  question  that  vexed  other 
institutions  during  the  year.  The  top  award  Altaian 
Prize  of  $1,200  went  to  John  Carroll  for  his  por- 
trait of  Claire  Luce  as  Camille,  but  the  Obrig  Prize 
went  to  John  Heliker  for  an  abstraction  entitled 
Perilous  Night.  Other  prize-winners  were  Raphael 
Soyer  for  Seamstress,  Zsissly  for  Yakuirna  Boy, 
Martin  Johnson  for  his  metropolitan  scene  Tintype, 
Jacob  Arkush  for  a  solidly  executed  figure  study 
called  Leona,  and  Ruth  Ray  for  Navajo  Land,  a 
western  still  life  in  the  manner  of  Georgia  O'Keeffe. 

The  Whitney  annual  once  more  illustrated  its 
published  intent  of  representing  "the  many  diverse 
tendencies  of  the  art  of  our  times."  As  in  former 
years,  two  galleries  were  set  aside  for  completely 
abstract  paintings  by  George  L.  K.  Morris,  Ralston 
Crawford,  and  others,  while  the  other  rooms  were 
filled  with  paintings  ranging  from  academician 
Kenneth  Hayes  Miller's  Waiting  for  the  Bus  to 


ART 

left  wing  Ben  Shahn's  Allegory,  a  violent  red  wolf 
suckling  the  20th  century  descendants  of  Romulus 
and  Remus. 

Prize-winners  at  Chicago's  59th  annual  water- 
color  exhibition  reflected  that  Institute's  deter- 
mined recognition  of  "advanced  trends"  in  art 
which  it  demonstrated  by  its  wholly  abstract  ex- 
hibition of  1947.  Top  awards  were  given  to  native 
son  Iven  Le  Lorraine  Albright  for  his  highly  sub- 
jective painting,  Roaring  Fork,  to  Jacob  Lawrence 
for  one  of  his  Negro  Migration  series,  Karl  Priebe 
for  his  expressionist  Lady  with  Bird,  Stuart  Davis 
for  an  abstraction  entitled  Ana,  Nicola  Zirola  for 
a  two-dimensional  portrait  of  Man  with  Razor,  and 
an  entire  room  was  devoted  to  16  watercolors  and 
gouaches  by  Morris  Graves,  the  West  Coast  painter 
whose  sensitive  pictures  of  shore  birds  were  first 
shown  at  the  Museum  of  Modern  Art  in  1942. 

The  Pennsylvania  Academy's  143rd  annual  ex- 
hibition revealed  the  catholicity  that  is  generally 
associated  with  this  oldest  of  American  annuals. 
As  already  noted,  one  prize  went  to  Jack  Levine, 
one  of  America's  leading  young  expressionists,  and 
another  to  Steve  Raffo  for  a  representational  land- 
scape, La  Cos  de  Dios.  Serving  on  the  jury  were 
Peppipino  Mangravite,  Louis  Bouche,  Bernard 
Karfiol,  Richard  Lahey,  and  Walter  Stumpfeig. 

The  Virginia  6th  Biennial  of  Contemporary 
American  Paintings  also  presented  a  cross  section 
of  talent,  and  purchased  paintings  by  Lamar  Dodd, 
Henry  Varnum  Poor,  and  comparatively  unknown 
Charles  Augustus  Smith.  The  Att  Digest  said  of 
it,  "Conservative  painting  is  becoming  less  tradi- 
tional, while  the  artists  who  have  been  exploring 
the  modern  trail  have  found  their  directions,  and 
now  are  more  concerned  with  refining  their  meth- 
ods than  with  experimentation." 

This  gradual  softening  of  the  line  between  mod- 
ern and  academic  was  also  highlighted  by  the 
National  Academy's  announcement  in  April  of  its 
newly  elected  members.  Among  the  following 
names  are  bedfellows  which  a  few  years  ago  would 
have  seemed  strange  indeed: 
Painters:  Alex  Brook,  Peter  Blume,  Louis  Bouche, 
John  Carroll,  Edwin  Dickinson,  Ernest  Fiene, 
Henry  Mattson,  Henry  McFee,  Henry  V.  Poor, 
Zsissly. 

Graphic  Artists:  Fiske  Boyd,  Howard  Cook,  Lewis 
Daniel,  Helen  W.  Heller,  Rockwell  Kent,  John 
Menthan,  Hans  Mueller,  Benton  Spruance,  Prentiss 
Taylor. 

Watercolorists:   Henry  Gasser,   Hardie  Gramatly, 
Dong  Kingman,  Emo  Kosa,  Jr. 
Sculptors:   Jose  De  Creeft,  Sylvia  Shaw  Judson, 
Henry  Kreis,  Ivan  Mestrovic,  Eleanor  Platt,  Carl 
Schmitz. 

Sculpture.  The  Worcester  Museum's  exhibition, 
"Sculpture  at  the  Crossroads"  was  the  only  notable 
sculptural  event  of  the  year.  Opening  in  March,  it 
revealed  a  carefully  chosen  group  of  work  ranging 
from  bronzes  by  Despiau  to  the^  stone  carvings  of 
Charles  Cutler,  one  of  America's  most  promising 
young  sculptors.  Its  theme  was  more  or  less  the 
same  as  implied  in  the  criticism  of  the  Virginia  Bi- 
ennial— that  our  younger  sculptors  have  now  as- 
similated the  innovations  that  began  with  Rodin, 
and  are  now  more  concerned  with  content  than 
style. 

At  the  annual  Whitney  watercolor  and  sculpture 
exhibition,  however,  were  many  examples  of  ex- 
perimental work.  Seymour  Lipton,  Theodore  Ro- 
sak,  David  Hare,  and  Herbert  Ferber  all  showed 
a  more  than  willingness  to  experiment  in  linear 
forms  and  unusual  materials,  making  the  modern- 
ism of  Worcester  exhibition  appear  academic. 


ART 


44 


ASTRONOMY 


The  Sculptor's  Guild  staged  a  highly  successful 
outdoor  exhibition  on  Washington  Square,  exhibit- 
ing 60  pieces  including  Aspiration  by  Gwen  Lux, 
which  was  commissioned  by  the  Los  Angeles  Gal- 
lery of  Associated  American  Artists.  Others  who 
exhibited  included  Harold  Ambellan,  O'Connor 
Barrettj  Mark  Friedman.,  John  Hovannes,  Margaret 
Bassler  Kane,  Warren  Wheelock,  Seymour  Lipton, 
Mitzi  Solomon,  Jose  DeCreeft,  Louis  Slobodkin, 
and  William  Zorach.  An  admission  fee  of  25  cents 
was  charged. 

Prints.  The  National  Serigraph  Society's  9th  an- 
nual exhibition  was  this  year  thrown  open  to  both 
members  and  non-members,  and  a  distinguished 
jury  of  museum  print  curators  was  invited  to  make 
awards.  Jurymen  A.  Hyatt  Mayor  (Metropolitan 
Museum),  Una  Johnson  (Brooklyn  Museum),  and 
Carl  Zigrosser  (Philadelphia  Museum)  awarded 
first  prize  to  Dorr  Bothwell  for  a  surrealist  Memory 
Machine.  Second  prize  went  to  Henry  Mark  for 
a  semiabstract  print  entitled  Birds,  third  prize  to 
Frank  Davidson  for  his  linear  Oh  Willie,  Come  Sell 
Jour  Fiddle,  fourth  to  Hulda  Robinson  for  Beacon, 
and  fifth  to  Marion  Cunningham  for  his  technically 
interesting  Scientific  Expedition. 

The  Library  of  Congress  continued  its  policy  of 
acquiring  work  from  its  "Prints  of  the  Year"  ex- 
hibition, purchasing  33  of  the  exhibited  prints.  In- 
cluded among  the  artists  whose  works  entered  the 
Library  collection  were  Benton  Spruance,  Arthur 
M.  Capps,  Lynd  Ward,  Ivan  Le  Lorraine  Albright, 
Federico  Castellon,  Francis  Chapin,  Fritz  Eichen- 
berg,  Ernest  Fiene,  Douglas  Gorsline,  Maurice  La- 
sansky,  and  Zsissly.  Arthur  W.  Heintzelman,  well- 
known  etcher  and  keeper  of  prints  at  the  Boston 
Public  Library  was  honored  by  the  French  Gov- 
ernment, which  awarded  him  the  medal  of  the 
Chevalier  de  la  Legion  d'Honneur. 

Most  extensive,  and  in  many  ways  the  most  in- 
teresting print  exhibition  of  the  year  was  the  his- 
tory of  lithography  exhibition  arranged  by  A.  Hyatt 
Mayor,  new  curator  of  prints  at  the  Metropolitan, 
who  succeeded  William  Ivins.  Well-written  cap- 
tions and  tastefully  hung  exhibits  made  what  might 
have  been  a  tiresome  list  of  dates  and  methods  into 
a  fascinating  show. 

Acquisitions.  The  ancient  complaint  of  contempo- 
rary artists  that  the  museums  buy  only  the  work  of 
their  dead  (and  non-eating)  predecessors  was  inter- 
estingly illuminated  by  an  exhibition  at  the  Colo- 
rado Springs  Fine  Arts  Center  under  the  direction 
of  Fred  Bartlett.  Called  "New  Accessions  U.S.A.," 
it  opened  on  July  12  as  the  result  of  a  questionnaire 
sent  to  American  museum  directors  in  an  effort  to 
discover  the  facts  underlying  their  acquisition  poli- 
cies. Following  are  the  questions  and  answers: 

How  many  contemporary  paintings  purchased 
(or  received  as  gifts)  and  how  many  were  consid- 
ered between  June,  1947,  and  June,  1948?  Answer: 
An  average  of  14  or  a  total  of  420  out  of  75,000 
considered. 

Of  total  funds  available  for  all  acquisitions,  what 
percentage  was  spent  for  contemporary  American 
painting?  Answer:  5  to  41  percent. 

What  major  obstacles  toward  the  purchase  of 
contemporary  American  painting  have  had  to  be 
overcome?  Answer:  Lack  of  funds. 

Who  made  the  decisions?  Answer:  Director  and 
staff;  only  three  complained  of  trustee  antagonism. 

Most  spectacular  acquisition  of  the  year  was 
that  of  the  Boston  Museum  which  acquired  the 
entire  Spaulding  collection  of  modern  masters,  in- 
cluding Cezanne's  Turn  in  the  Road,  Degas'  Degas' 
Father  Listening  to  Pagans,  and  Toulouse  Lautrec's 
Woman  in  a  Studio.  In  die  collection  are  also  40 


American  paintings,  including  10  by  Winslow  Ho- 
mer. Boston  also  acquired  in  December  what  the 
Art  News  called  the  most  important  acquisition  of 
the  year,  Titian's  S*.  Catherine  of  Alexandria,  for- 
merly in  the  Escorial. 

Art  and  industry.  Both  La  Tausca  Pearls  and  the 
Pepsi-Cola  Company  suddenly  announced  the  ter- 
mination of  their  art  competitions  after  completing 
highly  successful  exhibitions.  La  Tausca  distrib- 
uted $6,750  in  prizes  to  Nicholas  Vasilieff,  Stuart 
Davis,  Charles  Howard,  Everett  Spruce,  and  Yasuo 
Kuniyoshi.  Pepsi-Cola  was  more  generous  in  1948 
than  ever  before,  awarding  $41,500  in  prizes.  Top 
winners  were  Michael  Jamieson  for  a  detailed  land- 
scape ($2,500),  Nan  Lurie  for  her  semiabstract 
Blue  Table  Still  Life  ($2,000),  Margaret  Thomp- 
son for  The  Assemblage  ( $1,500),  and  John  Taylor 
for  his  landscape,  The  Gulf  ($1,000).  Other  paint- 
ings were  purchased  for  the  annual  calendar,  and 
each  of  die  competing  artists  was  given  $100  as  a 
rental  fee  for  his  picture  during  the  period  it  would 
tour  on  exhibition,  an  agreement  reached  the  year 
before  between  the  company  and  Artists  Equity  As- 
sociation. Predictions  of  cynics  that  industry  would 
stop  buying  art  and  awarding  prizes  as  soon  as  the 
excess  profits  tax  was  abolished  proved  true. 

Sales.  The  decreasing  gulf  between  the  very  rich 
and  the  very  poor  that  characterizes  our  economy 
was  manifest  in  the  year's  record  of  art  sales,  which  • 
totaled  $5,228,218  at  Parke  Rernet,  the  leading 
auction  house.  This  was  $1.5  million  below  the 
record  total  of  1945-46.  Although  some  individual 
prices  remained  high,  the  increased  number  of 
middle-income  buyers  brought  down  the  medium 
prices. 

Gainsborough's  Portrait  of  a  Young  Girl  brought 
$13,500,  Constable's  Malvern  Hall,  Warwickshire, 
$8,700;  Greuze's  L'Amoureux  Desir,  $8,000;  Mu- 
rillo's  Saint  Jtista,  $8,000;  Degas's  Trois  Danseuses, 
$8,000;  Jacob  Van  RuisdaeFs  Wooded  Landscape 
with  a  Stream,  $4,000;  and  a  Gilbert  Stuart  Wash- 
ington, $4,000. 

Prices  of  modern  art  were  reflected  in  Crownin- 
shield  and  Whittemore  sales  with  $5,080  being 
paid  for  Monet's  Isles  on  the  Seine  at  Port  Villers; 
$5,000  for  Mary  Cassatt  au  Louvre  by  Degas;  $4,- 
900  for  Le  Bouquet  d: 'Anemones  by  Matisse;  $4,- 
750  for  Mother  and  Child  Before  a  Window  by 
Mary  Cassatt,  and  $4,200  for  a  landscape  by  Pis- 
sarro.  — JOHN  D.  MORSE 

ASIA.  The  continent  of  Asia,  including  the  Asiatic 
part  of  the  U.S.S.R.,  has  an  area  of  about  16,752,- 
600  square  miles  and  a  population  estimated  at 
1,200,000,000.  See  separate  articles  on  ARABIA, 
CHINA,  INDIA,  JAPAN,  and  the  other  Asiatic  states. 

ASSEMBLIES  OF  GOD,  General  Council  of  the.  Incor- 
porated in  Arkansas  in  1914  by  a  group  of  inde- 
pendent pastors  devoted  to  evangelistic  mission 
work.  There  are  6,000  churches,  6,200  pastors,  and 
253,016  enrolled  members.  The  church  maintains 
12  Bible  Institutes  and  Colleges,  1  home  for  retired 
ministers  and  missionaries,  and  3  children's  homes. 
Foreign  missions  have  about  200,000  members  in 
more  than  50  mission  fields  served  by  about  650 
missionaries.  Income  from  contributions  for  home 
and  foreign  missions:  $2,219,700.  Headquarters: 
434  W.  Pacific  St.,  Springfield,  Mo, 

ASTRONOMY.  The  world's  largest  and  most  powerful 
telescope,  the  200-inch  Hale  reflector  on  Palomar 
Mountain  in  California,  was  dedicated  on  June  3 
in  the  presence  of  Mrs.  George  Ellery  Hale  and 
more  than  800  scientists  and  invited  guests.  The 


ASTRONOMY 


late  Dr.  Hale,  whose  vision  and  genius  were  largely 
responsible  for  the  project,  was  also  the  founder 
of  the  Yerkes  Observatory  with  its  40-inch  refrac- 
tor and  the  Mt.  Wilson  Observatory  with  a  100- 
inch  reflector. 

At  the  dedication,  in  an  address  entitled  "The 
Challenge  of  Knowledge,"  Dr.  Raymond  B.  Fos- 
dick,  President  of  the  Rockefeller  Foundation, 
stated  "We  need  in  this  sick  world  the  perspective 
of  the  astronomer.  We  need  the  detachment,  the 
objectivity,  the  sense  of  proportion  which  this  great 
instrument  can  bring  to  mankind.  This  telescope 
is  the  lengthened  shadow  of  man  at  his  best.  It  is 
man  on  tiptoe,  reaching  for  relevancy  and  mean- 
ing, tracing  with  eager  finger  the  outlines  of  order 
and  law  by  which  his  little  life  is  everywhere  sur- 
rounded. There  is  nothing  which  so  glorifies  the 
human  race,  or  lends  it  such  dignity  and  nobility 
as  the  gallant  and  inextinguishable  urge  to  bring 
this  vast,  illimitable  complexity  within  the  range 
of  human  understanding.  In  the  last  analysis,  the 
mind  which  encompasses  the  universe  is  more 
marvelous  than  the  universe  which  encompasses 
the  mind.  ...  So  we  dedicate  this  instrument 
today  in  humbleness  of  spirit,  but  in  the  firm  belief 
that  among  all  the  activities  and  aspirations  of  man 
there  is  no  higher  peak  than  this/' 

Addresses  were  also  made  by  Dr.  Vannevai 
Bush,  President  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  of 
Washington,  Dr.  Max  Mason,  Chairman  of  the  Ob- 
servatory Council,  Dr.  L.  A.  DuBridge,  President 
of  California  Institute  of  Technology,  and  Dr.  Ira 
S.  Bowen,  Director  of  the  Palomar  Mountain  and 
Mt.  Wilson  observatories.  In  commemoration  of 
the  dedication,  the  United  States  Government  is- 
sued a  3$  postage  stamp  showing  the  observatory 
building. 

The  construction  of  this  mighty  tool  of  science 
was  truly  a  masterpiece  of  modern  engineering, 
from  the  casting  and  grinding  of  the  200-inch  di- 
ameter, 25-inch  thick,  15-ton  reflecting  mirror,  to 
the  fabrication  of  the  60-ft.-long,  500-ton  mount- 
ing driven  by  only  a  %2th  h.p.  motor,  and  the  erec- 
tion of  the  housing,  165-ft.  high  and  138-ft  in 
diameter,  with  its  1,000-ton  rotating  dome.  No 
part  of  tibe  instrument  deflects  more  than  %6th  of 
an  inch. 

The  focal  length  of  the  mirror  is  666  inches, 
relative  aperture  f/3.3.  The  paraboloidal  curve  of 
its  surface  is  within  a  few  millionths  of  an  inch  of 
absolute  perfection.  Its  optical  range  is  1,000  mil- 
lion light-years  (the  distance  light  travels  during 
1,000  million  years  at  a  speed  of  186,000  m.p.s.), 
enabling  astronomers  to  photograph  stars  of  22nd 
magnitude  with  an  accuracy  of  .001  magnitude. 
This  increase  in  telescopic  power  in  the  last  40 
years  is  represented  by  a  factor  of  more  than  one 
million  in  brightness  and  20  in  accuracy.  With  its 
surface  area  four  times  that  of  the  100-inch  at 
Mt,  Wilson,  it  will  penetrate  twice  the  distance  and 
eight  times  the  volume  of  space  previously  ex- 
plored. 

There  remain  yet  several  months  of  critical  test- 
ing, and  also  adjusting  of  auxiliary  apparatus,  but 
it  is  expected  that  some  time  late  in  1949  the 
world's  greatest  eye  will  be  pronounced  ready  for 
the  venture  into  realms  beyond  our  present  known 
universe. 

What  are  some  of  the  questions  to  which  astron- 
omers will  seek  answers  with  the  200-inch  reflector? 
Dr.  Edwin  P.  Hubble  has  given  the  following  rep- 
resentative examples  of  the  types  of  problems  to 
be  solved,  which  he  states  would  alone  justify  the 
construction  of  the  Hale  telescope.  The  new  in- 
strument has  greater  power  in  three  respects: 


45  ASTROMOMY 

1.  RESOLUTION.  The  so-called  canals  on  the  plan- 
et Mars  could  be  photographed,  if  they  exist,  thus 
settling  finally  the  question  of  whether  there  are, 
or  have  been,  intelligent  beings  on  that  planet. 
Such  photography  will  be  possible  because  of  the 
great  "speed"  of  the  mirror  which  will  permit  in- 
stantaneous exposures  during  the  few  brief  mo- 
ments of  the  extremely  good  visibility  required. 

2.  DISPEKSION.  The  relative  distribution  of  chem- 
ical elements  in  the  stars  and  throughout  the  uni- 
verse is  determined  from  spectra.  The  200-inch  re- 
flector will  obtain  spectra  of  higher  dispersion  and 
resolution   than    ever   before   possible,    revealing 
much  new  data  concerning  the  sources  of  stellar 
energy,  the  origin  of  the  elements,  and  the  history 
and  future  evolution  of  the  universe. 

3.  DEPTH  PENETRATION.  The  200-inch  reflector 
will  probe  the  depths  of  space  to  check  on  the  dis- 
tribution of  galaxies  and  their  apparent  recession 
from  our  own  position  in  space.  It  is  not  yet  firmly 
established  that  this  motion  is  a  real  one  and  in- 
dicates an  expanding  universe.  Perhaps  there  is 
some  unknown  behavior  of  light  itself  which  makes 
it  appear  more  red  when  coming  to  us  from  these 
remote  universes. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Skilling  points  out  that  the  200-inch 
reflector  will  not  be  used  for  anything  that  a  small- 
er telescope  can  do.  Its  time  will  be  jealously 
guarded  for  hunting  big  game  of  the  universe.  Its 
work  will  be  largely  recorded  on  photographic 
plates  to  be  studied  later  by  research  specialists. 
The  Hale  telescope  will  bring  into  view  about  eight 
times  as  many  stars,  nebulae,  and  other  celestial 
objects  as  can  the  100-inch  reflector.  In  addition, 
such  objects  as  are  already  known  rnay  be  studied 
in  much  greater  detail  because  of  the  additional 
light  collected  from  them.  Previous  long-time  pho- 
tographic exposures  may  now  be  considerably 
shortened,  and  in  many  cases  instantaneous  expo- 
sures made;  the  latter  are  not  so  much  subject  to 
the  distortions  due  to  atmospheric  turbulence. 

It  is  of  course  possible,  perhaps  likely,  that  the 
Hale  telescope  will  raise  more  questions  and  prob- 
lems than  it  solves,  but  man's  thirst  for  knowledge 
cannot  be  quenched.  With  the  200-inch  telescope 
astronomers  will  reach  much  farther  for  the  clues 
hidden  throughout  our  physical  universe. 

A  fifth  satellite  of  Uranus  was  discovered  on 
February  15  by  Dr.  G.  P.  Kuiper  of  McDonald 
Observatory.  This  moon  was  detected  on  a  photo- 
graphic plate  made  with  the  82-inch  reflector.  Its 
magnitude  is  17,  period  of  revolution  about  30 
hours,  and  distance  from  the  planet  about  .64  that 
of  Ariel,  previously  the  innermost  known  moon  of 
Uranus. 

On  February  18  a  "daylight"  bolide  or  exploding 
meteor  was  seen  over  Norton,  Kans.  Reports  from 
persons  in  Colorado,  Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  Okla- 
homa, and  Texas  stated  that  the  occurrence  was 
ground-shaking  and  was  followed  by  a  terrific  roar 
lasting  ten  seconds.  A  streak  of  blue-gray  vapor 
remained  visible  for  more  than  an  hour.  Many  frag- 
ments of  the  meteorite,  classified  as  an  achondrite, 
were  recovered.  The  largest  piece,  weighing  about 
one  ton,  was  acquired  by  tie  University  of  Ne- 
braska and  the  Institute  of  Meteoritics  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  New  Mexico. 

Two  comets  of  special  brilliance  were  seen  this 
year.  Comet  Honda-Bernasconi  (1948g)  was  dis- 
covered on  June  2  in  the  constellation  of  Perseus. 
Between  June  and  September  its  brightness  dimin- 
ished from  3rd  to  about  12th  magnitude.  It  was 
closest  to  the  sun  on  May  15,  passing  it  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  18  million  miles. 

The  Great  Comet  of  1948  was  first  seen  on  No- 


.ASTRONOMY 

vember  6  by  a  number  of  observers  in  Australia. 
It  was  visible  to  the  Baked  eye  and  situated  in  the 
constellation  of  Hydra.  Its  tail  was  reported  as 
about  25°  long,  the  brightness  of  its  head  about 
2nd  magnitude.  This  was  the  brightest  comet  seen 
in  the  northern  hemisphere  since  Skjellerup's  com- 
et in  1927.  The  comet  was  rather  favorably  placed 
for  observers  in  the  southern  United  States,  but 
was  photographed  from  as  far  north  as  Troy,  N.Y. 
It  passed  the  sun  on  October  27  at  a  distance  of 
12  million  miles. 

Dr.  H.  W.  Babcock  of  Mt.  Wilson  Observatory 
has  discovered  a  strong  magnetic  field  in  certain 
stars  of  spectral  class  A.  It  is  believed  that  this  is 
the  missing  factor  long  sought  in  the  explanation 
of  the  production  of  this  type  spectrum.  Still  un- 
solved are  the  questions  of  the  variation  in  the 
magnetism,  as  well  as  the  source  of  the  field  itself. 

On  February  26  the  moon  was  televised  with 
equipment  at  the  Franklin  Institute  in  Philadel- 
phia. A  7-inch  reflector  telescope,  f/10,  was  em- 
ployed to  deliver  the  image  to  the  television  cam- 
era. Astronomical  phenomena  had  previously  been 
successfully  televised  on  Apr.  7,  1940,  when  the 
annular  eclipse  of  the  sun  was  transmitted  from 
the  RCA  building  in  New  York  City  using  a  4-inch 
rich-field  reflector  made  in  the  workshop  of  the 
New  York  Amateur  Astronomers  Association  at  the 
Hayden  Planetarium. 

New  observations  by  Drs.  Joel  Stebbins  and 
A.  E.  Whitford  at  Mt.  Wilson  show  that  distant 
galaxies  are  much  redder  than  nearby  ones,  this 
reddening  being  in  addition  to  the  well-known  red 
shift  in  spectrum  lines  due  to  recessional  velocities. 
It  has  been  tentatively  suggested  that  the  new  ef- 
fect might  be  due  to  absorption  influences  of  ma- 
terial in  the  vast  open  spaces  between  the  galaxies. 
In  this  research,  use  was  made  of  the  newly  devel- 
oped electronic  photo-multiplier  tube. 

Recent  additions  or  improvements  in  instruments 
include  the  following: 

(1)  A  photo-electronic  telescope  employing  a 
surface  of  ( e.g. )  cadmium  which,  under  the  effect 
of  light,  emits  electrons.  These  electrons  may  be 
accelerated  to  increase  the  intensity  of  the  desired 
light-signals  while  the  sky  background  light  and 
other  unwanted  turbulence  may  be  scanned  away. 
The  telescope  may  be  automatically  guided  and  its 
images  also  televised  for  mass-production  study. 

(2)  A  new  camera  capable  of  taking  11  million 
pictures  per  second  has  been  constructed  at  the 
University  of  Rochester  by  Dr.  Brian  O'Brien  and 
Gordon  G.  Milne.  While  some  definition  is  sacri- 
ficed for  speed,  the  camera  should  be  of  especial 
help  to  solar  physicists  and  others  in  recording 
transient  phenomena  of  very  short  duration. 

(3)  Photo-electric  guiding  now  in  use  on  the 
100-inch  at  Mt.  Wilson  operates  on  the  principle 
of  the  rotating  knife-edge,  employing  a  1P21  photo- 
multiplier  tube.  A  part  of  the  light  from  a  star  is 
reflected  across  a  rotating  half-disc  at  the  focal 
plane.  A  photocell  picks  up  the  modulated  light 
and  activates  a  compensating  mechanism  to  re- 
orient the  telescope. 

( 4 )  Research  work  has  been  reported  by  scien- 
tists at  the  General  Electric  Company  on  the  appli- 
cation of  infra-red  image  tubes  (Farnsworth  1P25) 
to  astronomical  telescopes.  The  tubes  are  made  to 
change  infra-red  images  into  visible  light.  When 
such  a  tube  is  placed  at  the  prime  focus,  it  is 
claimed  that  planetary  and  moon  images  are  seen 
with  more  steadiness  since  infra-red  light  is  dis- 
turbed by  the  atmosphere  less  than  visible  light 

In  contrast  to  Dr.  R.  A.  Millikan's  belief  that 
cosmic  rays  originate  in  interstellar  space  and  re- 


46  ATOMIC  ENERGY  COMMISSION. 

suit  from  annihilation  of  atoms  in  collision,  Dr. 
D.  H.  Menzel  of  Harvard  Observatory  suggests  a 
new  theory  which  places  their  origin  in  the  local 
ion  clouds  near  the  earth.  The  ions  receive  long- 
wave radiation  energy  from  the  sun  and  in  turn 
release  showers  of  cosmic  rays. 

Following  a  recommendation  of  a  committee  of 
the  American  Astronomical  Society,  the  U.S.  Office 
of  Naval  Research  has  allotted  $50,000  for  the 
support  of  some  20  projects  in  basic  astronomical 
research,  at  17  institutions,  involving  the  work  of 
about  30  astronomers. 

A  new  model  of  the  universe  was  proposed  by 
Dr.  G.  C.  Omer,  Jr.  of  the  California  Institute  of 
Technology.  Dr.  Orner  assumes  a  non-homogeneous1 
distribution  of  matter  which  has,  however,  a  spher- 
ical symmetry.  He  accepts  the  red  shift  in  the 
spectra  of  galaxies  as  indicative  of  a  recessional 
motion,  but  cautions  that  the  shifts  for  the  more 
distant  galaxies  have  not  been  actually  measured 
but  merely  extrapolated.  The  complete  validity  of 
the  expanding  universe  has  still  to  be  established. 

After  an  interruption  of  ten  years,  the  Interna- 
tional Astronomical  Union  again  had  a  full  session 
in  Zurich,  Switzerland,  with  nearly  40  commissions 
activated.  The  meetings,  attended  by  more  than 
400  astronomers,  were  arranged  by  the  Swiss  Fed- 
eral Observatory.  Dr.  Bertil  Lindblad  of  Stockholm 
Observatory,  Sweden,  was  elected  President,  and 
Dr.  Bengt  Stroemgren,  University  of  Copenhagen 
Observatory,  Denmark,  Secretary.  Commission  39 
reported  the  completion  of  specifications  for  the 
location  and  equipment  of  an  international  observ- 
atory and  efforts  to  obtain  a  grant  of  $50,000  from 
UNESCO  to  conduct  a  site  survey. 

Bibliography.  Popular  Astronomy,  Journal  of  the 
American  Astronomical  Society,  Sky  &•  Telescope, 
Science,  Publications  of  Astronomical  Society  of 
the  Pacific.  — GEORGE  V.  PLACHY 

ATOMIC  ENERGY.  See  NUCLEAR  ENERGY. 

ATOMIC  ENERGY  COMMISSION,  The  U.S.  An  adminis- 
trative agency  of  the  Federal  Government,  that 
continued  during  1948,  under  the  direction  of  the 
five  original  Commissioners,  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Truman  in  1946  and  approved  by  the  Senate 
in  April,  1947.  They  were:  David  E.  Lilienthal 
(Chairman),  Robert  F.  Bacher,  Sumner  T.  Pike, 
Lewis  L.  Strauss,  and  W.  W.  Waymack.  Public 
Law  898,  80th  Congress,  approved  July  3,  1948,  as 
an  amendment  to  the  Atomic  Energy  Act  of  1946, 
extended  the  terms  of  office  of  the  Commissioners 
through  June  30,  1950.  [Commissioner  Waymack 
resigned  on  Dec.  21,  1948.] 

The  Commission's  principal  areas  of  activity  dur- 
ing the  year  were  the  production  of  the  fissionable 
materials  uranium-235  and  plutonium;  the  devel- 
opment, production  and  testing  of  weapons j  the 
conduct  of  a  comprehensive  program  of  research, 
including  research  directed  toward  the  develop- 
ment of  useful  atomic  power;  and  the  construction 
of  new  research,  production  and  housing  facilities. 
At  the  end  of  the  year,  nearly  1,000  contractors, 
prime  subcontractors  and  consultants  were  engaged 
in  the  work  of  the  Commission. 

During  April  and  May,  the  Commission,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  armed  forces,  conducted  tests 
of  three  atomic  weapons  of  new  and  improved  de- 
sign at  the  AEC  Proving  Ground  at  Eniwetok  Atoll 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  As  a  result  of  the  tests,  which 
were  executed  under  the  technical  direction  of  sci- 
entific personnel  from  the  atomic  weapons  center 
at  Los  Alamos,  New  Mexico,  it  was  announced  that 
the  position  of  the  United  States  in  the  field  of 


AUSTRALIA 


atomic  weapons  had  been  substantially  improved. 

In  the  field  of  atomic  power  research,  the  Com- 
mission announced  in  September  that  two  nuclear 
reactors  for  the  study  of  atomic  power  production 
were  under  design,  one  for  construction  at  the  Ar- 
gonne  National  Laboratory,  Chicago,  Illinois,  and 
the  other  at  the  Knolls  Atomic  Power  Laboratory, 
Schenectady,  New  York.  A  third  reactor  for  general 
research  use,  scheduled  for  completion  in  1949, 
was  under  construction  at  the  Brookhaven  National 
Laboratory,  Patchogue,  Long  Island.  Construction 
was  also  begun  during  the  year  on  two  new  multi- 
billion-volt  atom  splitting  machines,  the  largest  in 
the  world,  to  be  located  at  the  Berkeley  Radiation 
Laboratory  of  the  University  of  California  and  at 
the  Brookhaven  National  Laboratory.  They  will  be 
completed  in  from  three  to  five  years. 

During  1948  the  distribution  of  radioactive  and 
stable  isotopes  from  the  Oak  Ridge  National  Lab- 
oratory, Oak  Ridge,  Tennessee,  was  steadily  in- 
creased. At  the  end  of  the  year  more  than  180 
varieties  of  Commission-produced  isotopes  were 
being  used  in  1,000  different  medical  and  research 
projects  at  over  300  laboratories  and  hospitals  in 
the  United  States  and  abroad.  By  December,  25 
foreign  nations  had  qualified  to  receive  U.S.-pro- 
duced  isotopes  under  the  Commission's  program  to 
share  the  benefits  of  nondestructive  atomic  energy 
with  the  rest  of  the  world. 

The  Commission  in  1948  continued  to  support 
a  comprehensive  research  program  in  the  atomic 
energy  aspects  of  medicine,  biology,  agriculture 
and  the  physical  sciences  through  contractual  ar- 
rangements with  private  and  governmental  agen- 
cies, and  established  a  fellowship  program  in  co- 
operation with  the  National  Research  Council  and 
a  large  number  of  universities  and  research  institu- 
tions throughout  the  country.  Under  this  program, 
more  than  240  AEC  fellowships  had  been  awarded 
by  December  31. 

Production  of  fissionable  materials  continued 
during  the  year  on  a  maximum-capacity  basis  at 
the  plutonium  plants  of  the  Hanford  Works,  Rich- 
land,  Washington,  and  the  uranium-235  plants  at 
Oak  Ridge,  Tennessee.  To  stimulate  domestic  dis- 
covery and  production  of  uranium,  the  Commis- 
sion in  April  established  a  program  comprising  a 
guaranteed  10-year  minimum  price  for  domestic 
refined  uranium,  a  bonus  of  $10,000  for  the  dis- 
covery and  production  of  high-grade  ores,  and  a 
guaranteed  minimum  price  for  Tow-grade  ores  of 
the  Colorado  Plateau. 

Extensive  new  construction  of  housing  and  com- 
munity facilities  was  started  during  1948  at  the 
Commission's  townsites  at  Richland,  Los  Alamos 
and  Oak  Ridge,  and  major  construction  of  techni- 
cal facilities  was  carried  on  at  the  Mound  Labora- 
tory, Miamisburg,  Ohio,  the  Hanford  Works,  and 
the  Argonne,  Brookhaven,  Knolls,  Los  Alamos,  and 
Radiation  Laboratories.  — MORSE  SALISBURY 

AUSTRALIA.  A  self-governing  dominion  of  the  Brit- 
ish Commonwealth  of  Nations,  consisting  of  6 
states  and  two  territories.  The  Commonwealth  of 
Australia  also  has  administrative  control  of  Papua, 
Norfolk  Island,  the  Ashmore  and  Cartier  Islands, 
the  uninhabited  Australian  Antartic  Territory,  the 
Territory  of  New  Guinea  (UN  Trust  Territory) 
and  Nauru  (UN  Trust  Territory).  Capital,  Can- 
berra. 

Area  and  Population.  Australia  proper  has  a  total 
area  of  2,974,581  square  miles  and  a  population 
(census  June  30,  1947)  of  7,580,820.  On  the  same 
date  the  population  of  states  and  territories  was  as 
follows:  New  South  Wales,  2,985,464;  Victoria, 


47  AUSTRALIA 

2,055,252;  Queensland,  1,106,269;  South ,  Aus- 
tralia, 646,216;  Western  Australia,  502,731;  Tas- 
mania, 257,117;  Northern  Territory,  10,866;  Aus- 
tralia Capital  Territory,  16,905.  Chief  cities:  Syd- 
ney, 1,484,434;  Melbourne,  1,226,923;  Brisbane, 
402,172;  Adelaide,  382,604;  Perth,  272,586. 

Education  and  Religion.  Elementary  education  in 
Australia  is  free  and  compulsory  from  6  to  15  years 
of  age.  State  school  systems  are  supplemented  by 
denominational  and  undenominational  private 
schools.  Each  of  the  6  states  has  a  university  in  its 
capital  city,  with  affiliated  residential  colleges  con- 
ducted for  the  most  part  by  the  chief  religious  de- 
nominations. 

The  chief  religious  denominations  at  the  census 
of  1933  were:  Church  of  England,  1,143,493;  Ro- 
man Catholic,  556,106;  Presbyterian,  257,522; 
Methodist,  203,042. 

Production.  Australia  is  the  world's  largest  pro- 
ducer of  wool  and  accounts  for  approximately  25 
percent  of  world  production.  Wheat  and  meat  are 
the  other  important  products  of  the  land  and,  with 
wool,  make  up  the  country's  chief  exports.  The 
1947-48  harvest  of  wheat  totaled  228,390,000 
bushels,  exceeding  the  record  crop  of  1932-33  by 
6.3  percent.The  average  yield  per  acre  was  16.30 
bushels.  Meat  produced  amounted  to  906,000  met- 
ric tons  in  1947.  Dairy  products  are  also  important. 
The  1947  wool  clip  was  valued  at  $480,000,000. 

Manufacturing  was  stimulated  by  World  War  II 
to  the  extent  that  the  country  has  recently  been 
able  to  meet  many  of  its  domestic  requirements. 
Value  of  output  in  1945-46,  £A886,004,777.  Coal 
and  gold  are  the  most  valuable  mineral  products. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  the  year  1947-48  Australia  had 
a  favorable  commodity  trade  balance,  with  exports 
at  £A406,218,000  and  imports  at  £A338,241,000. 
With  the  dollar  areas  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  there  was  a  deficit  of  £A41,937,000. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  sales  to  the  United  States 
and  one-half  of  those  to  Canada  were  wool.  Brit- 
ain remained  Australia's  best  customer  and  largest 
source  of  supply.  Australian  butter  and  meat  went 
almost  entirely  to  Great  Britain.  Principal  imports 
from  the  United  States  were  textiles,  metals  and 
metal  manufactures,  machinery,  and  petroleum 
products. 

Finance.  The  financial  year  ended  June  30,  1948 
showed  record  revenue  of  £A466,000,000,,with  a 
small  surplus  of  about  £A1,000,000  instead  of  the 
anticipated  deficit  of  £A30,000,000.  This  was  the 
first  surplus  since  1939-40.  National  income  in 
1947-48  was  £A1,571,000,000,  an  increase  of  24 
percent  over  the  preceding  year. 

Transportation.  At  the  end  of  1946  Australia  had 
more  than  27,000  miles  of  government-owned  rail- 
ways and  a  few  miles  of  privately-owned  lines  open 
for  general  traffic.  An  act  passed  in  1946  provides 
for  the  opening  of  a  north-south  railway  and  the 
conversion  of  the  various  gauges  used  by  the  sep- 
arate states  to  standard-gauge  track.  There  were 
33,719  miles  of  regular  air  services.  Net  tonnage  of 
registered  shipping  was  311,931. 

Government.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  a  Gov- 
ernor General  appointed  by  the  Crown  and  in  a 
ministry  responsible  to  the  Federal  Parliament. 
Both  Houses  of  Parliament  were  enlarged  by  1948 
legislation:  the  Senate  from  36  to  60  members  and 
the  House  of  Representatives  from  75  to  121  mem- 
bers. The  method  of  electing  Senators,  10  from  each 
state,  was  changed  to  proportional  representation. 
Governor  General,  William  J.  McKell;  Prime  Min- 
ister, Joseph  B.  Chifley,  Majority  party,  Labor. 

Events,  1948.  Australia's  Minister  for  External  Af- 
fairs, Dr.  Herbert  V.  Evatt,  was  abroad  for  a  con- 


48 


AUSTRALIA 


siderable  part  of  the  year,  acting  in  behalf  of  Ms 
government  in  international  discussions.  Evatt  was 
elected  President  of  the  United  Nations  General 
Assembly  in  Paris  on  September  21.  In  that  capac- 
ity he  appealed  directly  to  the  heads  of  the  United 
States,  British,  French  and  Soviet  Governments  on 
November  13  to  undertake  direct  conversations  to 
end  the  disputes  over  Berlin.  In  this  and  related 
appeals  he  acted  jointly  with  Trygve  Lie,  Secretary 
General  of  the  UN.  Prime  Minister  Chifley,  speak- 
ing in  Canberra  November  15,  supported  Evatt's 
methods,  but  American  representatives  took  other 
positions.  On  November  22  Australia  offered  a  res- 
olution asking  for  reconsideration  by  the  Security 
Council  of  the  applications  of  five  countries,  in- 
cluding Eire,  for  membership.  All  five  applications 
had  been  vetoed  by  Soviet  Russia. 

In  October  Australia  gave  the  United  Nations 
$1,127,000  as  part  of  that  country's  contribution  to 
the  UN  Appeal  for  Children,  with  the  promise  that 
the  campaign  in  Australia  would  be  continued.  An 
agreement  by  which  Australia  would  supply  Po- 
land with  raw  wool  to  the  value  of  £A350,000 
was  signed  at  Lake  Success  on  June^  3.  Poland  was 
the  first  country  to  accept  Australia's  offer  to  sup- 
ply wool  to  European  countries  under  the  United 
Nations  General  Assembly's  post-UNRRA  program. 

Earlier  Evatt  opened  the  first  meeting  of  the 
South  Pacific  Commission  in  Sydney  in  May,  and 
headed  his  country's  delegation  to  the  meeting  of 
Commonwealth  Prime  Ministers  in  London  No- 
vember 11-22.  Prime  Minister  Chifley,  who  was  in 
London  for  a  few  days  in  July,  conferring  with 
Prime  Minister  Attlee  and  other  ministers,  was  not 
able  to  return  at  that  time. 

In  August  Australia  was  requested  by  the  UN 
Trusteeship  Council  to  give  the  people  of  the  trust 
territory  of  New  Guinea  more  chance  at  self-gov- 
ernment and  a  larger  share  of  economic  and  social 
benefits.  It  was  also  suggested  that  Australia's 
much-debated  proposal  to  combine  New  Guinea 
with  Papua  in  an  administrative  union  might  be  re- 
ferred to  the  International  Court  of  Justice.  In  Aus- 
tralia the  United  States'  proposal  for  the  inter- 
national control  of  Antartica  produced  conflicting 
views.  Evatt  opposed  it,  but  Minister  of  Finance 
Dedman  preferred  control  by  a  condominium  pro- 
vided that  the  United  States  took  a  major  part. 

Commonwealth  Relations.  The  calling  of  the  con- 
ference of  the  Commonwealth  Prime  Ministers  in 
London  on  October  11  was  a  matter  of  deep  satis- 
faction to  the  Australian  Government.  The  Gov- 
ernment for  some  time  had  been  urging  a  stronger 
Commonwealth.  Evatt  insisted  in  speeches  and 
broadcasts  that  with  the  addition  of  India, 
Pakistan,  and  Ceylon  the  Commonwealth  was  in  a 
new  stage  of  development  and  that  a  review  of  the 
whole  machinery  of  cooperation  was  desirable. 

Evatt  took  an  active  part  in  the  conference.  With 
St.  Laurent  of  Canada  and  Fraser  of  New  Zealand, 
he  brought  to  Chequers  two  Irish  Ministers  to  dis- 
cuss with  the  old  Dominions  and  with  Britain  in 
the  person  of  Prime  Minister  Attlee  the  implica- 
tions for  Commonwealth  trade  preferences  of 
Eire's  proposed  severance  of  all  links  with  Great 
Britain.  Again  in  the  middle  of  November  the  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Eire  Government  were  per- 
suaded to  go  to  Paris  for  conferences  with  Evatt 
(Deputy  Prime  Minister  of  Australia)  and  the 
others. 

Australia's  deep  reliance  on  Commonwealth  ties 
showed  itself  again  when  it  was  observed  that  the 
final  statement  of  the  Conference  of  Common- 
wealth Prime  Ministers  failed  to  contain  the  word 
"British."  Press  and  public  gave  signs  of  shock  and 


disappointment;  and  it  was  reported  that  some 
Australians  were  saying  openly  that  they  would 
rather  have  a  small,  closely-knit  Commonwealth  to 
which  the  word  "British"  was  applicable  than  an 
amorphous  group  including  hundreds  of  millions 
of  Asiatics  to  whom  the  word  and  its  associations 
were  alien. 

It  was  significant  that  Prime  Minister  Chifley 
soon  made  two  public  statements  on  the  issue. 
One  was  on  October  29,  when  he  said  that  Australia 
itself  was  unlikely  to  drop  the  word  "British"  from 
its  references  to  the  Commonwealth.  Another  was 
a  broadcast  on  November  7,  in  which  Chifley  urged 
his  countrymen  not  to  get  "worked  up"  about  pro- 
posed changes  in  the  Commonwealth.  The  Prime 
Minister  argued  that  the  reality  behind  the  chang- 
ing forms  was  the  willingness  of  purely  British 
units  to  work  closely  with  the  others. 

The  conference  as  a  whole  was  a  disappointment 
to  Australians,  for  it  produced  no  signs  of  closer 
ties.  However,  the  announcement  on  November  8 
of  an  agreement  between  five  Commonwealth 
countries  (including  Australia  and  New  Zealand) 
with  Japan  for  exchanges  of  $220,000,000  worth  of 
trade  in  1948-49  was  expected  to  ease  the  anx- 
ieties of  those  who  had  not  known  of  the  negotia- 
tions. 

The  cancellation  of  the  Royal  Family's  proposed 
visit  to  Australia  in  1949  because  of  King  George's 
illness  was  a  deep  disappointment  to  Australia,  for 
the  visit  had  promised  to  cement  the  bond  so 
highly  valued  in  the  Dominion.  Chifley,  in  tele- 
graphing his  sympathy,  urged  the  King  to  give 
first  consideration  to  his  health. 

Aid  to  Britain.  The  first  conspicuous  gift  of  the 
year  came  from  the  tiny  island  of  Nauru  (8%  sq. 
mi.)  a  trust  territory  inhabited  by  1,400  people. 
The  head  chief  of  Nauru  sent  Prime  Minister  Chif- 
ley £A700  for  the  purchase  of  food  for  Britain. 
Chifley,  in  announcing  the  gift  on  January  20,  de- 
scribed it  as  "magnificent." 

Australia  continued  to  ration  butter  and  to  pro- 
hibit the  consumption  of  cream  in  order  to  main- 
tain exports  of  those  commodities,  90  percent  of 
which  went  to  Britain  and  10  percent  to  destina- 
tions named  by  Britain.  In  January  a  British  food 
mission  went  to  Canberra  to  plan  for  future  food 
contracts.  An  egg  export  agreement  was  soon  an- 
nounced, and  in  September  a  British  contract  to 
buy  all  Australia's  butter  and  cheese  for  the  7  years 
ending  June  30,  1955,  was  made  public.  Increased 
prices  were  to  be  paid,  and  shortly  afterwards  the 
prices  of  frozen  meats  were  also  raised. 

In  September  the  House  of  Representatives 
voted  a  grant  of  £A10,000,000  to  Britain,  in  view 
of  Australia's  fortunate  sterling  position.  The  grant 
was  praised  by  EGA  Administrator  Hoffman  as 
helpful  for  the  recovery  of  Europe. 

Dollar  Shortage.  Australia  continued  in  1948  the 
steps  to  reduce  dollar  imports  begun  in  1947.  After 
June  30  imports  of  clothing,  sheeting,  and  rayon 
dress  materials  were  banned,  except  industrial 
cloths  used  in  Australian  manufacture.  Only  the 
cheapest  types  of  American  automobiles  were  per- 
mitted to  enter,  so  that  the  amount  available  could 
cover  more  cars.  Chifley  told  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  September  that  he  had  had  to  reject 
some  American  companies'  offers  to  invest  capital 
in  Australia  because  Australia  lacked  the  dollars 
necessary  for  plant,  payments  of  royalties  to  parent 
companies,  and  dividends. 

When  New  Zealand  restored  the  pound  to  parity 
with  the  British  pound  in  August,  Australia  de- 
clined to  take  the  corresponding  step  partly  on  the 
ground  that  the  country's  dollar  shortage  did  not 


AUSTRALIA 


permit  the  discouragement  of  exports,  especially  in 
the  primary  production  field,  or  the  encouragement 
of  imports.  The  question  was  raised  repeatedly, 
however,  and  again  on  November  23  Prime  Minis- 
ter Chifley  assured  the  House  of  Representatives 
that  Australia  contemplated  no  change. 

Referendum  Defe0t.  The  Commonwealth  Govern- 
ment was  decisively  defeated  in  the  May  29  ref- 
erendum which  would  have  transferred  from  the 
States  to  the  Commonwealth  the  power  to  control 
prices  and  rents.  The  "No"  vote  of  2,119,818  car- 
ried a  majority  of  579,821,  and  in  all  of  the  six 
states  the  proposal  was  turned  down.  The  vote  was 
"No"  in  Chifiey's  and  Evatfs  constituencies  and 
strongly  so  in  the  states  with  Labor  Governments: 
New  South  Wales,  Queensland  and  Tasmania. 

Prime  Minister  Chiney  had  threatened  to  with- 
draw price-stabilization  subsidies  if  the  Common- 
wealth Government  lost  its  power  of  price  control. 
This  was  soon  done,  and  by  the  end  of  August  all 
federal  subsidies  were  gone  except  those  on  butter, 
tea,  and  superphosphates. 

In  August  the  states  agreed  on  a  list  of  30,000 
items,  representing  60  percent  of  those  controlled 
by  the  Commonwealth,  which  would  be  released 
from  price  control  on  September  20  when  the 
Commonwealth  left  the  field.  Commodities  which 
were  still  controlled  included  meat,  bread,  flour, 
butter,  sugar,  and  a  number  of  other  foods.  Meat 
and  clothing  rationing  was  discontinued  in  June. 
On  the  other  hand  gasoline  rations  were  cut  by 
one-fifth  on  October  1. 

Another  dispute  between  the  Commonwealth 
and  State  Governments  was  that  connected  with 
taxation  powers.  The  Premiers  of  the  State  Govern- 
ments met  with  the  Prime  Minister  on  August  23  to 
request  £A60,000,000  to  help  balance  their  budg- 
ets, and  protested  against  the  Commonwealth's 
monopoly  of  the  income  tax.  On  the  first  issue  they 
were  rebuked  for  not  having  improved  their  reve- 
nues (except  in  New  South  Wales)  by  increasing 
railroad  rates,  and  were  told  that  all  they  could 
have  was  £  A54,000,000.  On  the  second  point  they 
were  informed  that  the  Commonwealth  would 
never  give  up  its  monopoly. 

The  session  of  Parliament  which  opened  on  Sep- 
tember 1  was  given  over  in  large  part  to  the  budg- 
et. The  budget  proposed  by  Chifley,  who  was 
Commonwealth  Treasurer  as  well  as  Prime  Minis- 
ter, lowered  income  taxes,  corporation  taxes,  and 
sales  taxes,  but  increased  the  expenditure  estimates 
for  the  social  services.  Since  the  national  income 
was  rising  and  the  preceding  budget  showed  a 
surplus,  these  changes  were  possible. 

Bank  Nationalization  Dispute.  In  February  the 
High  Court  began  its  hearings  on  the  constitution- 
ality of  the  1947  legislation  nationalizing  the  com- 
mercial banks  (see  YEAH  BOOK  for  1947,  p.  44). 
The  suit  was  brought  by  the  State  Governments  of 
Victoria,  South  Australia,  and  Western  Australia 
and  by  11  private  trading  banks.  The  judgment, 
delivered  on  August  11,  declared  so  much  of  the 
legislation  invalid  as  to  make  it  inoperative  and  an 
injunction  was  issued  restraining  the  Common- 
wealth Government  from  putting  the  legislation 
into  effect* 

Few  recent  issues  had  so  shaken  Australia  as  the 
bank  nationalization  act.  Opposition  Leader  R.  G, 
Menzies  probably  overstated  the  situation,  however 
when  he  said,  commenting  on  the  High  Court's  de- 
cision, "Many  Labor  members  of  Parliament  have 
cursed  the  day  when  bank  nationalization  was  in- 
troduced/* Prime  Minister  Chifley,  who  had  ap- 
peared to  take  a  deep  personal  interest  in  the  bank 
nationalization  act  from  the  moment  of  its  incep- 


49  AV&RALIAN  LITERATURE 

tion,  was  not  willing  to  accept  defeat.  The  Federal 
Government  decided  to  appeal  the  case  to  the 
Privy  Council  in  London,  although  it  was  against 
the  traditional  policy  of  the  Australian  Labor  Party 
to  take  its  problems  outside  Australia. 

The  Government's  action  was  immediate.  A  copy 
of  the  judgment  was  at  once  sent  to  Paris  for  Evatt, 
who  combined  the  duties  of  Attorney  General  with 
those  of  External  Affairs  and  Deputy  Prime  Min- 
ister. Solicitor  General  Bailey  left  for  London  on 
August  19  to  meet  Evatt  and  confer  on  the  details 
of  the  appeal,  the  first  step  of  which  was  to  obtain 
leave  to  appeal.  On  November  11  special  leave  to 
appeal  was  granted  to  the  Commonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia and  the  Commonwealth  Bank  of  Australia 
by  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  in 
London. 

Other  Socialization  Measures.  The  Commonwealth 
Government's  free  medicine  plan  went  into  opera- 
tion on  June  1,  after  a  four-year  boycott  by  the 
Australian  British  Medical  Association,  which  pro- 
tested against  the  limitation  of  the  drugs  and  medi- 
cines that  could  be  prescribed  and  against  the  se- 
vere penalities  for  breaches  of  routine.  On  Novem- 
ber 24  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  Senate  outlining 
national  health  services  but  leaving  the  details  for 
further  legislation. 

Legislation  for  the  establishment  of  a  Common- 
wealth Government  shipping  line  was  being  draft- 
ed at  the  time  of  the  opening  of  Parliament  on 
September  1,  but  the  date  of  its  completion  was 
uncertain.  Chifley  told  New  South  Wales  coal  min- 
ers in  September  that  the  Government  had  neither 
the  power  nor  the  intention  to  nationalize  the  coal 
mines  as  long  as  they  were  giving  good  service  un- 
der private  control,  In  announcing  its  proposal  to 
transfer  broadcasting  to  a  new  board,  Chifley  de- 
nied any  intention  to  socialize  commercial  broad- 
casting. 

immigration.  Australia's  goal  of  70,000  immi- 
grants a  year  was  energetically  pursued  in  1948. 
Minister  of  Immigration  Calwell  worked  with  the 
British  Ministry  of  Transport  and  the  steamship 
lines  until  he  had  a  promise  of  transportation  for 
72,000  persons  in  1949.  In  October  17  vessels,  in- 
cluding four  carrying  migrants  exclusively  and  6 
under  charter  to  the  International  Refuge  Organi- 
zation, were  moving  14,000  immigrants  to  Aus- 
tralia. 

Australian  representatives  were  sent  to  Italy  to 
study  the  situation  there,  with  respect  to  the  Aus- 
tralian plan  of  absorbing  200,000  refugees  over  a 
period  of  years.  Italian  migrants  were  already  on 
their  way  to  Australia  in  the  autumn,  but  a  general 
proportion  of  two  British  migrants  to  one  of  other 
nationalities  was  planned.  In  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  June  Evatt  said  that  no  change  in 
the  "White  Australia"  policy  was  contemplated. 
— ALZADA  COMSTOCK 

AUSTRALIAN  LITERATURE.  Although  the  Australian 
publishers  during  1948  felt  the  pinch  of  high  costs, 
the  year  was  fairly  productive  of  significant,  worth- 
while books.  Writing  of  esthetic  intent  was  perhaps 
not  as  rich  as  it  often  has  been  in  recent  years,  but 
the  number  of  books  dealing  with  politics  and 
social  affairs  was  unusually  large,  Much  energy 
was  put  into  bringing  standard  books  back  into 
print. 

Before  discussing  important  books  of  1948,  a 
few  which  escaped  the  net  in  the  account  of  1947 
should  be  noted:  Aranda  Traditions  by  T.  G.  H. 
Strehlow  was  a  valuable  anthropological  study, 
Lachlan  Macquarie  by  M.  H.  Ellis  was  a  major 
biographical  study,  and  Public  Libraries  in  Aus- 


AUSTRALIAN  LITERATURE  50 

tralia  by  L.  R.  McColvin  was  the  most  important 
critique  since  the  Munn-Pitt  report  of  1935. 

Current  Events.  Several  books  of  1948  dealt  with 
international  affairs  on  a  strikingly  high  level.  Dr. 
Herbert  Vere  Evatt  in  The  United  Nations  (orig. 
pub.  Cambridge,  Mass.)  offered  an  historical  cri- 
tique of  great  importance.  W.  Macmahon  Ball, 
formerly  Commonwealth  representative  on  the  Al- 
lied Council  for  Japan,  in  Japan:  Enemy  or  Ally? 
studied  occupation  policies  and  criticized  some  de- 
velopments severely.  Paul  Hasluck,  formerly  Coun- 
sellor-in-Charge  of  the  Australian  Mission  to  the 
UN,  offered  a  critical  account  of  the  work  of  the 
UN,  particularly  the  Security  Council.  Only  a 
shade  less  notable  was  Near  North:  Australia  and 
a  Thousand  Million  'Neighbors,  edited  by  R.  J.  Gil- 
more  and  Denis  Walker,  a  free-running  account  of 
affairs  in  South  and  Southeast  Asia  by  a  company 
of  journalists.  Closely  related  to  current  interna- 
tional affairs  was  John  M.  Ward's  British  Policy  in 
the  South  Pacific,  1786-1893,  which  serves  ad- 
mirably to  explain  the  background  of  Australia's 
Pacific  islands  policy. 

A  miscellany  of  books  on  domestic  affairs  ap- 
peared. J.  MacDonald  Holmes'  The  Murray  Valley: 
A  Geographical  Reconnaissance  was  a  full-dress 
study  of  the  largest  irrigable  area  in  Australia, 
somewhat  controversial  in  character.  Australian 
Government  Today  by  Geoffrey  Sawyer  admirably 
covered  the  subject  announced  in  the  title.  De- 
centralization, by  various  hands,  examined  a  prob- 
lem which  many  Australians  feel  has  special  ur- 
gency. A.  G.  L.  Shaw  and  G.  R.  Bruns  once  more 
studied  the  coal  problem  in  The  Australian  Coal 
Industry.  J.  S.  Maslin's  Hagley,  the  Story  of  a  Tas- 
manian  Area  School  was  an  important  study  of  an 
educational  experiment.  H.  C.  Trumble's  Blades  of 
Grass  was  the  fascinating  autobiography — note- 
book of  a  grasslands  expert. 

History.  In  the  field  of  history,  in  addition  to 
John  Ward's  outstanding  volume,  there  was  Ed- 
mund Barton  by  John  Reynolds,  a  biographical 
study  of  a  distinguished  father  of  the  Common- 
wealth constitution  and  the  first  Commonwealth 
Prime  Minister,  somewhat  "preliminary"  in  char- 
acter but  nevertheless  valuable;  Malcolm  Uren's 
Land  Looking  West:  The  Story  of  Governor  James 
Sterling,  a  distinguished  contribution  to  the  history 
of  the  founding  of  West  Australia;  A  Century  of 
the  English  Church  in  New  South  Wales  by  E.  C. 
Rowland-  and  Social  Services  in  Australia  1900- 
1910  by  T.  H.  Kewley,  which  provided  the  indis- 
pensable historical  background  of  the  present-day 
services. 

Roy  Bridges*  That  Jesterday  Was  Home  was  a 
reminiscent  volume  built  around  the  story  of  a  Tas- 
manian  family;  C.  E.  W.  Bean's  Gallipoli  Mission 
was  an  account  of  a  close  study  of  the  World 
War  I  battleground  three  years  after  the  fighting 
had  ceased;  and  They  Struck  Opal  by  E.  F.  Murphy 
was  a  reminiscent  volume  about  the  mining  of  the 
beautiful,  semi-precious  stone.  An  outstanding 
compilation  of  historical  documents  was  Geoffrey 
Sawer's  Cases  on  the  Constitution  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia.  Frances  McGuire's  The  Royal 
Australian  Navy  discussed  "its  origin,  development, 
and  organization." 

Wallumetta  by  M.  C.  1  Levy  was  a  notable 
local  history  of  a  New  South  Wales  municipality. 
Professor  George  Mackaness  added  Memoirs  of 
George  Suttor  1774-1859  to  his  growing  series  of 
reprints  "Historical  Monographs.  Much  material 
relating  to  Australia's  part  in  World  War  II  ap- 
peared in  memoirs  of  and  by  American  leaders,  for 
example  Eisenhower  and  Hopkins, 


AUSTRIA 

Fiction.  In  literature,  Katherine  Prichard  con- 
tinued her  notable  trilogy  on  the  West  Australian 
gold  fields  in  Golden  Miles  but  showed  acute  signs 
of  wavering  disastrously  between  fiction,  social  his- 
tory, and  left-wing  politics.  I  Camp  Here  by  Esther 
Roland  was  a  rather  conventional  novel  of  station 
life  that  gained  a  literary  prize.  Joan  Colebrook's 
The  Northerners  (orig.  pub.  N.Y.)  introduced  a 
new  talent  to  the  reading  public.  The  Dupe  by 
Robert  Close  was  another  of  his  vivid  but  brutal 
novels  ^of  the  sea.  The  American  edition  of  Tom 
Collins*  Such  is  Life  (Univ.  of  Chicago),  with  an 
afterword  "About  Tom  Collins"  by  C.  Hartley 
Grattan  introduced  that  formidable  writer  to  the 
American  audience  for  the  first  time.  A  hitherto 
unknown  Collins  manuscript  was  revealed  in  The 
Bulu-Bulu  and  the  Brolga.  The  annual  sampling 
of  short  stories  Coast  to  Coast  held  no  surprises. 

Poetry,  Drama,  Miscellany.  In  poetry  Ernest  Moll 
added  The  Waterhole  to  his  lengthening  list  of 
distinguished  volumes;  Francis  Webb  revealed  a 
robust  talent  for  the  first  time  in  A  Drum  for  Ben 
Boyd;  and  the  annual  poetry  anthology  Australian 
Poetry,  1947  showed  that  the  Australian  Parnassus 
was  still  numerously  inhabited.  Lionel  Shave's  Five 
Proven  One-Act  Plays  further  expanded  the  printed 
drama  available  and  revealed  a  vivid  talent.  Far 
and  away  the  most  important  autobiographical  vol- 
ume by  an  author  was  H.  H.  Richardson's  posthu- 
mous Myself  When  Young  (orig.  pub.  N.Y.).  In 
The  Flesti  and  the  Spirit  Douglas  Stewart  collected 
his  book  reviews  and  occasional  articles  to  form  a 
vigorous  volume  of  literary  criticism. 

Much  writing  of  first-class  importance  in  all 
fields  continued  to  appear  in  the  magazines.  A 
guide  to  all  of  it  relevant  to  the  study  of  public 
affairs  is  to  be  found  in  Australian  Social  Science 
Abstracts  which  reached  No.  5  in  September,  1948. 
— C.  HARTLEY  GRATTAN 

AUSTRIA.  A  republic  in  central  Europe,  under  the 
control  of  the  Allied  Council  (composed  of  the 
four  commanders-in-chief  of  the  occupying  pow- 
ers: General  Ermle-Marie  Bethouart,  representing 
France;  Col.  Gen.  V.  V.  Kurasov,  representing  the 
U.S.S.R.;  Lt.  Gen.  Sir  Alexander  Galloway,  repre- 
senting the  United  Kingdom;  Lt.  Gen.  Geoffrey 
Keyes,  representing  the  United  States).  Area,  32,- 
388  square  miles.  Population  in  1947,  including 
displaced  persons  but  excluding  those  in  camps, 
6,935,000.  Population  in  October,  1947,  of  chief 
cities:  Vienna,  1,667,438;  Graz,  220,100;  Linz, 
173,330;  Salzburg,  106,919;  Innsbruck,  95,365. 

Production.  Preliminary  figures  for  yields  of  chief 
crops  for  1947  in  metric  tons:  potatoes,  1,095,018; 
rye,  216,467;  wheat,  170,141;  oats,  175,337;  bar- 
ley, 95,439.  Livestock  in  the  country  as  of  Nov.  18, 
1947:  cattle,  2,158,000;  pigs,  1,724,000;  sheep, 
474,000;  goats,  310,000;  horses,  283,000.  Austrian 
agricultural  production  has  been  declining  in  re- 
cent years.  The  monthly  average  output  for  1947 
in  thousands  of  metric  tons  of  principal  minerals: 
coal,  14.8;  lignite,  236;  iron  ore,  73,7.  In  1946 
crude  oil  production  was  846,000  tons.  Austrian 
industrial  capacity  is  estimated  to  be  60  percent 
larger  than  in  1937,  thanks  to  the  establishment  in 
Austria  of  various  German  war  industries.  Much 
of  this  increased  capacity,  however,  cannot  be  used 
because  of  lack  of  markets  and  raw  materials.  Aus- 
trian agricultural  production  supplied  75  percent 
of  Austrian  needs  in  1937  and  now  supplies  only 
40  percent,  chiefly  because  price  levels  supply  no 
incentive  for  capacity  production.  The  60  percent 
deficit  in  Austria's  foodstuffs  is  largely  supplied  by 
the  United  States. 


AUSTRIA 


51 


AUSTRIA 


Foreign  Trade.  In  1947  imports  were  valued  at 
99.3  million  schillings  and  exports  at  70.2  million 
schillings.  Import  items  included  fuels,  vegetables, 
cotton,  iron  products,  sugar,  and  seeds.  Included  in 
the  export  items  were  iron  goods,  ores,  glassware, 
firebricks,  chemicals,  and  magnesite.  The  chief 
trading  countries  were  Switzerland,  Czechoslo- 
vakia, Italy,  United  States,  Hungary,  and  France. 

Communications.  Highways  had  a  total  mileage  of 
54,000  in  1946.  There  were  275,139  telephones  in 
1947*  It  is  intended  to  electrify  the  entire  railway 
system  of  the  country;  the  plan  will  take  12  years 
to  complete. 

Finance.  Note  circulation,  Nov.,  1947,  was  6,038 
million  schillings.  Oct.  7,  1946,  die  National  Bank 
of  Austria  showed  assets  and  liabilities  of  12,560.65 
million  schillings.  With  1937  as  100,  the  cost  of 
living  index  figure  of  July,  1948,  was  454.  Occupa- 
tion costs  were  reduced  during  1948  from  33  per- 
cent to  10  percent  of  the  State  budget,  thanks 
largely  to  the  policy  of  the  United  States  which  has 
paid  its  own  occupation  expenses  since  July  1, 
1947. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Dec.  27,  1927, 
is  the  legal  basis  of  the  Austrian  Republic.  The 
President  is  elected  for  a  six-year  term  by  popular 
vote.  His  important  powers  are  limited  to  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  Federal  Chancellor  and  the  Cabi- 
net Ministers,  the  convening  and  closing  of  sessions 
of  the  Lower  Chamber  and  the  issuance  of  ordi- 
nances in  times  of  emergency.  The  Federal  Chan- 
cellor is  the  responsible  head  of  the  Executive  gov- 
ernment. The  Legislature  comprises  the  Nationalrat 
(Lower  Chamber)  of  165  members  elected  for 
four-year  terms  by  proportional  representation,  and 
the  Bundesrat  (Upper  Chamber)  of  50  members 
chosen  by  the  provincial  legislatures  in  proportion 
to  population.  President:  Karl  Renner  (Socialist); 
Chancellor:  Leopold  Figl  (People's  Party);  Vice- 
Chancellor:  Dr.  Adolf  Schaerf  (Socialist). 

Events,  1948.  Austria,  like  Germany,  became  more 
than  ever  during  1948  a  bone  of  contention  and  a 
weapon  of  power  politics  in  the  "cold  war"  be- 
tween East  and  West.  Vienna,  like  Berlin,  was  a 
city  of  ruins,  divided  among  4  Powers.  Like  Ber- 
lin, it  was  surrounded  by  Soviet  occupation  forces 
— with  all  of  its  airfields,  however,  under  Soviet 
control.  Unlike  Berlin,  it  was  not  subjected  to  the 
ordeals  of  "blockade'*  and  "airlift."  Quadripartite 
administration  continued  to  function  after  a  fash- 
ion, since  neither  of  the  major  antagonists  under- 
took to  set  up  a  separate  "government"  in  its  own 
sphere  or  a  rump  municipal  regime  in  its  own  area 
of  the  capital. 

American-Soviet  agreement  on  an  Austrian  treaty 
was  almost,  but  not  quite,  achieved  in  the  spring. 
Thereafter  the  exigencies  of  the  contest  of  the 
giants  condemned  Austria  to  continued  foreign  oc- 
cupation, to  Soviet  pressure,  and  to  the  blessings 
of  American  charity.  Despite  these  unhappy  cir- 
cumstances, Austria's  alien  rulers  abstained  from 
open  conflict  within  her  borders  and  Austria's  peo- 
ple displayed  a  high  capacity  for  patient  endur- 
ance, political  stability,  and  limited  economic  re- 
covery. But  Austrians  had  little  more  hope  at  the 
end  of  the  year  than  at  its  beginning  for  surcease 
from  frustration,  since  no  such  boon  was  possible 
so  long  as  Moscow  and  Washington  were  every- 
where else  at  swords'  points. 

Soldiers  and  Schillings.  Late  in  1947  Minister  Fer- 
dinand Graf,  speaking  in  Salzburg  to  the  Great 
Powers,  voiced  the  ardent  aspirations  of  all  his 
countrymen:  "Go  back  to  the  Volga,  go  back  to 
the  Mississippi,  and  leave  us  on  the  Danube.  Aus- 
tria is  no  football  ground  where  a  game  between 


East  and  West  is  played.  So  play  without  us.  ... 
You  cannot  force  us  into  a  golden  dictatorship  of 
the  West,  nor  into  a  political  dictatorship  of  the 
East.  Austria  will  be  the  fortress  of  the  middle, 
...  In  Communist  States,  it  is  permitted  only  to 
work,  not  to  strike.  In  capitalist  States,  it  is  per- 
mitted only  to  strike  and  not  to  work.  We  want  nei- 
ther .  .  r 

Such  dreams  remained  unfulfilled,  Austria  con- 
tinued to  subsist  on  American  aid.  The  only  no- 
table achievement  of  the  coalition  Cabinet  of  the 
People's  Party  and  Social  Democrats  was  the  avoid- 
ance of  a  galloping  inflation.  A  second  currency 
reform,  promulgated  on  Dec.  9,  1947,  with  the 
assent  of  the  occupying  Powers,  reduced  money 
in  circulation  by  almost  50  percent.  Prices  on  the 
black  market  declined.  Living  costs  increased  but 
slightly  during  the  year.  But  so  long  as  low  food 
prices  discouraged  full  agricultural  production, 
with  the  United  States  supplying  the  deficit,  the 
prospect  of  economic  self-support  remained  dismal. 
Hope  of  a  viable  democratic  socialism  was  even 
more  remote,  with  socialization  postponed  by  the 
American-Soviet  deadlock  and  democracy  surviv- 
ing only  by  virtue  of  the  precarious  equilibrium 
between  conservatives  and  liberals. 

Almost  a  Treaty.  Despite  the  stalemate  registered 
at  the  Moscow  and  London  meetings  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Foreign  Ministers  in  1947,  the  deputies  of 
the  Foreign  Ministers,  gathered  in  London  (^Feb- 
ruary 20  to  May  6,  1948)  to  consider  a  pact  for 
Austria,  made  remarkable  progress  toward  an  ac- 
cord. The  apparently  irreconcilable  positions  of 
Britain  and  America  on  the  one  hand  and  the  So- 
viet Union  on  the  other  regarding  the  vexed  ques- 
tion of  "German  assets'*  in  Austria  seemed  likely 
to  be  settled  through  French  formulas  of  compro- 
mise put  forward  late  in  1947.  On  the  basis  of 
these  proposals,  Moscow  suggested,  in  lieu  of  all 
"German  assets"  in  Eastern  Austria  claimed  by  the 
U.S.S.R.  under  the  Potsdam  agreement,  that  it 
be  granted  a  50-year  claim  to  two-thirds  of  East 
Austrian  oil  production,  the  Balkan  assets  of  the 
Danube  Shipping  Company  plus  25  percent  of  its 
properties  in  Austria,  and  $200,000,000  as  a  settle- 
ment of  all  other  claims,  to  be  paid  within  two 
vears  in  freely  convertible  currency.  After  much 
bargaining  and  sundry  concessions  on  both  sides, 
the  deputies  agreed  that  the  U.S.S.R.  should  re- 
ceive $150,000,000,  to  be  paid  over  six  years,  and 
60  percent  of  oil  production  for  30  years. 

The  Kremlin,  having  consolidated  its  position  in 
Central  Europe  by  the  Czechoslovak  coup  of  late 
February,  was  apparently  willing  to  consider  with- 
drawal from  Austria  through  the  conclusion  of  a 
treaty — the  more  so  as  the  morale  of  its  troops  in 
Vienna  left  much  to  be  desired.  But  the  Western 
Powers,  being  alarmed  by  events  in  Prague,  be- 
came increasingly  reluctant  to  evacuate  Austria. 
An  accord  might  still  have  been  reached  save  for 
Tito's  insistent  claim  for  $150,000,000  in  repara- 
tions from  Austria  and  for  annexation  to  Yugo- 
slavia of- part  of  Southern  Carinthia.  When  the  full 
story  of  these  developments  is.  told,  it  will  almost 
certainly  become  clear  that  Moscow  opposed  Bel- 
grade in  these  matters,  and  also  in  the  matter  of 
Trieste,  but  encountered  inflexible  opposition  from 
the  Yugoslav  Communist  regime.  This  in  turn  led 
to  the  Cominform  denunciation  of  Tito  in  June 
and  to  the  masking  of  Soviet- Yugoslav  diplomatic 
conflicts  behind  a  confusion  of  ideological  and  in- 
stitutional quarrels  having  nothing  to  do  with  the 
actual  sources  of  discord. 

The  consequence,  meanwhile,  was  the  break- 
down of  negotiations  in  London  for  an  Austrian 


-AUSTRIA 

treaty.  This  result  was  not  due  primarily  to  Ameri- 
can-Soviet friction  in  Vienna — e.g.  Soviet  confisca- 
tion in  mid-February  of  the  German  edition  of 
James  F.  Byrnes'  book  Speaking  Frankly,  Kura- 
sov's  denunciation  of  Western  "imperialism"  a 
week  later  (causing  Anglo-American  representa- 
tives to  leave  the  meeting),  and  the  wounding  of 
an  American  military  policeman  (Pfc,  Jack  Gaun- 
den)  by  a  Soviet  guard  on  March  8  in  front  of  Rus- 
sian HQ  in  the  Grand  Hotel.  The  diplomatic  dead- 
lock was  rather  attributable  to  Western  eagerness 
to  avoid  a  settlement,  complicated  by  the  Belgrade- 
Moscow  feud. 

On  May  6  Soviet  Deputy  Nikolai  P.  Koktomov 
felt  obliged  to  support  the  Yugoslav  claims.  On  the 
same  day,  on  the  initiative  of  the  U.S.  representa- 
tive, Samuel  Reber,  discussions  were  temporarily 
suspended,  after  110  meetings  on  an  Austrian 
treaty,  Foreign  Minister  Karl  Gruber  returned  to 
Vienna.  Chancellor  Figl  declared  that  the  suspen- 
sion "destroys  all  our  hopes  for^an  early  conclu- 
sion of  the  independence  treaty." 

Austrian  hopes  were  briefly  revived  by  the  ex- 
change of  communications  in  early  May  between 
Molotov  and  Bedell  Smith.  On  May  24,  however, 
Reber  asserted  that  the  parleys  would  be  postponed 
indefinitely.  Available  evidence  suggests  that  this 
decision  was  due  less  to  Soviet  intransigence  than 
to  extensive  Soviet  concessions  which  threatened 
to  make  an  agreement  unavoidable.  The  Govern- 
ment and  people  of  Austria,  along  with  many  oth- 
ers throughout  the  world,  thus  remained  victims 
of  the  refusal  of  the  U.S.A.  and  the  U.S.S.R.  to 
come  to  terms,  with  each  Super-Power  justifying 
its  obstinacy  in  terms  of  solicitude  for  "saving"  in- 
nocent bystanders  from  the  evil  designs  of  the 
other. 

Menace  from  Muscovy.  If  the  American-Soviet  glo- 
bal struggle  did  not  subsequently  assume  in  Austria 
the  shape  exhibited  in  Germany,  Greece,  China, 
and  Korea,  this  relatively  fortunate  state  of  af- 
fairs was  not  due  to  any  reciprocal  desire  for  ac- 
commodation but  rather  to  a  calculation  on  both 
sides  that  more  was  to  be  lost  than  to  be  gained 
by  converting  the  Ostmark  into  another  arena  of 
battle.  Washington  could  win  no  advantages  by 
splitting  the  Vienna  coalition  of  Socialists  and 
Populists.  Both  groups  favored  extensive  nationali- 
zation of  industry — elsewhere  opposed  in  principle 
by  the  U.S.A.,  and  in  Austria  precluded  in  practise 
by  Soviet  determination  to  keep  control  of  major 
enterprises  in  the  Eastern  zone.  Moscow  could  win 
no  advantages  by  giving  open  support  to  the  Aus- 
trian Communists,  since  they  remained  an  insignifi- 
cant political  force,  with  no  popular  following. 
Their  only  representative  in  the  Cabinet,  Karl  Alt- 
mann,  had  been  forced  to  resign  in  November, 
1947. 

The  ensuing  stalemate  was  nevertheless  charac- 
terized by  continued  Soviet  harassment  of  the 
Vienna  Government  for  its  "pro -Western"  orienta- 
tion. Early  in  June,  while  pro-Communist  Socialists 
met  in  Warsaw,  anti-Communist  Socialists  met  in 
Vienna  and  condemned  the  Soviet  brand  of  "peo- 
ple's democracy"  in  accordance  with  the  views  ex- 
pressed by  Julius  Deutsch  and  Vice-Chancellor 
Adolf  Schaerf.  A  fortnight  later  Gen.  Kurasov  ac- 
cused Minister  of  Power  Alfred  Migsch  (Socialist) 
of  "war-mongering"  and  "slander"  against  the 
U.S.S.R.  On  June  17  Anton  Marek,  a  Chief  Police 
Inspector  in  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  was  ar- 
rested by  Russian  authorities  on  a  charge  of  "es- 
pionage." Gen.  Keyes  declared  that  such  Soviet 
arrests  bv^  "Gestapo  methods"  were  intended  to 
cover  up  "possible  Communist  subversive  activities 


52  AUTOMOBILE  RACING 

or  illegal  armed  formations" — referring  to  the 
Werkschutz  or  "black  brigades"  guarding  Soviet- 
controlled  factories.  Kurasov  rejected  the  allegation 
as  "a  base  insinuation."  Further  "kidnappings"  fol- 
lowed, to  the  tune  of  Soviet  charges  that  the  U.S.A. 
was  hiring  Austrian  "spies"  and  was  enslaving  the 
country  under  the  E.C.A.  agreement  signed  in 
June. 

Mr.  W.  B.  Willcox,  head  of  the  E.C.A.  in  Aus- 
tria and  a  former  partner  of  Dillon,  Reed  and  Com- 
pany, expressed  the  hope  in  August  that  Austrian 
trade  with  the  Eastern  nations  could  be  increased. 
Despite  new  commercial  accords  with  Yugoslavia 
and  Hungary,  no  substantial  trade  materialized. 
In  October  the  Western  Powers  rejected  Soviet 
proposals  for  recognition  of  the  "Democratic 
Union"  as  a  fourth  political  party  in  Austria.  At  the 
same  time  the  Social  Democrats  expelled  Edwin 
Scharf,  a  pro-Soviet  leftwinger.  Consideration  be- 
gan to  be  given  in  Washington  to  arming  Austria 
for  defense  against  the  danger  of  a  Communist 
putsch. 

The  delicately  balanced  relations  among  the  oc- 
cupation authorities  were  exemplified  by  a  murder 
mystery  toward  the  close  of  the  year.  On  the  last 
day  of  October  the  body  of  Irving  Ross,  an  Ameri- 
can E.C.A.  official,  was  found  in  a  wrecked  jeep 
in  the  Russian  sector  of  Vienna.  Near  by  was  a 
badly  beaten  woman,  Anna  Superina,  who  asserted 
that  four  men  in  Russian  uniform  had  slain  Ross 
and  thrown  her  out  of  the  jeep.  Soviet  authorities 
took  over  the  investigation,  amid  dark  hints  of 
espionage — but  with  no  solution  announced  by 
year's  end.  American  and  Austrian  authorities  dealt 
gingerly  with  this  and  other  incidents,  lest  Vienna 
be  converted  into  another  Berlin.  In  December  the 
Austrian  cabinet  proposed  the  resumption  of  ne- 
gotiations for  a  treaty.  Whether  either  Washington 
or  Moscow  was  prepared  to  resume  serious  discus- 
sion over  Austria  was  unclear.  See  GERMANY,  HUN- 
GARY, ITALY,  YUGOSLAVIA,  U.S.S.R.,  and  UNITED 
STATES. 

Consult;  Winifred  N.  Hadsell,  "Austria  Under 
Allied  Occupation,"  Foreign  Policy  Reports,  Nov.  1, 
1948;  U.S.  High  Commissioner,  Military  Govern- 
ment'. Austria,  HQ,  U.S.  Forces  in  Austria,  May, 
1948;  Karl  Renner,  "Austria:  Key  for  War  and 
Peace,"  Foreign  Affairs,  July,  1948;  Department  of 
State,  The  European  Recovery  Program:  Austria9 
1948.  — FREDERICK  L.  SCHUMAN 

AUTOMOBILE  RACING.  The  fastest  and  one  of  the 
safest  500-mile  races  in  history  was  won  by  Mauri 
Rose  on  May  81.  A  crowd  of  175,000  left  the  In- 
dianapolis Speedway  without  having  been  offered 
a  single  major  accident  for  the  entire  4  hours,  10 
minutes,  and  23.38  seconds  of  the  race.  Rose's  av- 
erage speed  for  this  32nd  annual  meeting  was 
119,813  m.p.h.,  an  all-time  record.  Second  place 
went  to  Bill  Holland,  with  an  average  time  of 
119.147  m.p.h.;  third  to  Duke  Nalon,  118.034; 
fourth  to  Ted  Horn,  117.844;  all  four  men  breaking 
the  existing  speed  record  for  the  event.  The  win- 
ning automobile  was  a  Blue  Crown  Special. 

The  35th  Grand  Prix  road  race  of  the  Auto- 
mobile Club  de  France,  500.204  km.  on  the  Reirns- 
Gueux  road,  was  won  on  July  18  by  Jean  Pierre 
Wimille  of  France,  driving  an  Alfa  Romeo  at  an 
average  speed  of  165.699  km.p.h.  Italy's  Mille 
Miglia,  a  1,000-mile  road  race  in  a  huge  figure 
eight  over  most  of  the  Italian  countryside,  was  won 
on  May  3  by  Clemente  Biondetti  of  France,  driv- 
ing a  Ferrari  car  at  an  average  speed  of  75  m.p.h. 
There  was  only  one  fatality  in  the  race  this  year. 

On  May  13  in  London  an  American  syndicate 


AVIATION 


53 


AVIATION 


introduced  midget  auto  racing  to  Britain,  attract- 
ing a  crowd  of  50,000.  On  June  6  in  Milwaukee 
Emil  Andres  won  the  Automobile  Association  of 
America  national  championship  100-mile  big-car 
race.  Mack  Hellings  was  second  and  Ted  Horn 
third.  On  June  20  at  Langhorne,  Pa.,  Walt  Brown 
won  the  AAA-sanctioned  100-mile  dirt-track  cham- 
pionship, with  Mack  Hellings  finishing  second  once 
more  and  Emil  Andres  third.  Rex  Mays,  who  in 
the  Milwaukee  championship  race  drove  his  car 
into  a  brick  wall  to  avoid  running  over  a  fallen 
driver,  this  day  set  a  new  world  mile  dirt-track 
record  of  33.768  seconds  in  the  time  trials  before 
the  race. 

In  Watkins  Glen,  N.Y.,  on  October  2,  Frank  T. 
Griswold,  Jr.,  driving  an  Alfa  Romeo  car,  won  the 
first  American  Grand  Prix,  sponsored  by  the  Sports 
Car  Club  of  America.  Ten  thousand  people 
watched  the  52.8-mile  race  over  a  G^mile  cross- 
country course.  On  the  Langhorne  Speedway  on 
October  10  Neil  Carter  won  the  AAA  national  100- 
mile  midget  car  championship,  with  a  time  of 
1:03:34.17. 

The  longest  race  of  the  year  was  the  6,000-mile 
Buenos  Aires-Caracas  Grand  Prix,  ending  on  No- 
vember 8,  in  which  Domingo  Marimon  of  Argen- 
tina won  the  100,000-peso  ($20,700)  first  prize, 
and  which  cost  7  lives.  The  most  peculiar  race  of 
the  year  was  the  Pike's  Peak  (Colorado)  climb, 
won  on  September  6  by  AI  Rogers,  in  the  time  of 
15  minutes,  49.75  seconds. 

AVIATION,  Civil.  Early  in  1948,  two  high-level  gov- 
ernment reports  regarding  aviation  policy  were  re- 
leased, one  by  the  President's  Air  Policy  Commis- 
sion, the  other  by  the  Congressional  Air  Policy 
Board.  Although  they  differed  slightly  in  detailed 
recommendations  both  reports  recognized  the  ur- 
gent need  for  a  national  air  policy  to  arrest  the 
rapid  deterioration  of  our  air  power  which  had  set 
in  immediately  following  the?close  of  the  war. 

Members  of  the  President's  Air  Policy  Commis- 
sion were  Thomas  K.  Finletter,  Chairman;  George 
P.  Baker,  Vice  Chairman;  Palmer  Hoyt,  John  A. 
McCone  and  Arthur  D.  Whiteside,  Members.  S. 
Paul  Johnston,  Director  of  the  Institute  of  the 
Aeronautical  Sciences,  was  Executive  Director. 

The  Congressional  Board  consisted  of  Senator 
Owen  Brewster,  Chairman;  Representative  Carl 
Hinshaw,  Vice  Chairman;  and  Senators  Albert  W. 
Hawkes,  Homer  E.  Capehart,  Edwin  C,  Johnson 
and  Ernest  W.  McFarland  and  Representatives 
Charles  A.  Wolverton,  Karl  Stefan,  Alfred  L.  Bui- 
winkle,  and  Paul  J.  Kilday.  Merrill  C.  Meigs,  pub- 
lishing executive  in  the  Hearst  Organization,  was 
advisor. 

The  significance  of  air  power  was  not  fully  un- 
derstood until  late  in  the  war  when  its  scope  was 
first  clearly  defined  by  Eugene  E.  Wilson,  then 
Vice  Chairman  of  United  Aircraft  Corporation  and 
President  of  the  Aircraft  Industries  Association,  in 
an  important  book  Air  Power  for  Peace.  Here 
for  the  first  time  air  power  was  recognized  to  rep- 
resent far  more  than  the  combat  air  forces  of  a 
nation  but  a  delicately  balanced  combination  of 
air  force,  aviation  manufacturing  and  commercial 
aviation.  The  latter  includes  not  only  civil  air  trans- 
port but  fixed  base  and  airport  operation  and  per- 
sonal flying. 

In  his  book  Mr.  Wilson  closed  by  advocating  a 
revaluation  of  our  air  power  with  the  purpose  of 
developing  a  national  policy,  but  it  was  not  until 
two  years  later  that  alarm  in  high  places  over  the 
state  of  our  aviation  brought  the  first  official  action 
from  Washington.  The  President's  Air  Policy  Com- 


mission was  hastily  recruited  during  the  summer 
of  1947  and  conducted  hearings  and  visits  to  avia- 
tion centers  during  the  fall.  Its  report  was  released 
on  Jan.  13,  1948. 

Meanwhile  the  Congressional  Air  Policy  Board 
was  organized  and  its  hearings  were  conducted 
early  in  1948.  Its  report  was  released  on  March  1. 
Most  convincing  was  the  broad  area  of  agreement 
of  the  two  reports  developed  by  different  approach- 
es and  techniques. 

The  recommendations  of  the  President's  Com- 
mission concerning  civil  aviation  and  related  gov- 
ernment organization  are  presented  herewith  in 
summarized  form. 

RECOMMENDATIONS  ON  CIVIL  AVIATION 

"The  airlines  are  now  passing  through  one  of 
the  most  serious  crises  of  their  history.  This  situa- 
tion is  significant  for  two  reasons.  If  not  relieved, 
it  will  contribute  to  the  deterioration  of  the  airline 
service  to  the  public.  The  second  reason  is  that  as 
a  potential  military  auxiliary  the  airlines  must  be 
kegt  strong  and  healthy. 

"Although  some  airline  problems  of  1947  may 
differ  from  those  of  the  prewar  period,  the  over-all 
situation  is  the  same:  The  revenue  from  passengers 
and  cargo,  plus  a  revenue  for  the  carriage  of  the 
mail  roughly  equal  to  the  passenger  rate,  will  not 
support  the  operations  of  many  of  the  companies. 
If  they  are  to  continue  in  operation  and  start  again 
up  the  ladder  toward  self-sufficiency,  the  Govern- 
ment will  have  to  increase  the  mail  rates. 

"The  carriage  by  air  of  all  first-class  mail  which 
can  be  expedited  thereby  and  the  inauguration  of 
a  parcel  post  by  air  should  be  given  serious  consid- 
eration by  Congress  when  the  airlines  achieve  a 
satisfactory  regulatory  status. 

"We  have  not  gone  into  the  technical  aspects  of 
safety  because  the  President's  Board  of  Inquiry  on 
Air  Safety  has  been  extensively  studying  the  prob- 
lem. We  recommend,  however,  that  new  types  of 
transport  planes  be  operated  regularly  on  nonpas- 
senger  schedules  for  a  specified  mileage  before  pas- 
sengers are  carried.  We  believe  also  that  CAB  eco- 
nomic control  over  contract  carriers  would  tend  to 
increase  safety. 

"It  is  especially  important  to  increase  the  regu- 
larity of  service.  Airlines  will  not  have  mass  trans- 
portation until  people  are  reasonably  certain  that 
they  can  depart  and  arrive  on  schedule.  For  safety 
and  regularity  a  basic  requirement  is  a  nationwide 
system  of  air-traffic  control,  navigation,  and  land- 
ing aids.  The  Federal  Government  must  accept  the 
financial  burden  of  providing  these  aids  until  those 
who  use  them  are  in  a  financial  position  to  pay 
their  fair  share  of  the  cost.  Agreement  must  be 
reached  as  soon  as  possible  by  the  interested  pri- 
vate groups  and  responsible  Government  agencies 
on  a  common  system  of  landing  aids  for  immediate 
installation  which  will  adequately  serve  both  civil- 
ian and  military  needs.  Government  expenditure 
for  electronic  aids  to  air-traffic  control,  navigation, 
and  landing  will  do  more  than  anything  else  to 
advance  the  airlines  toward  self-sufficiency. 

"We  recommend  that  the  Civil  Aeronautics 
Board  defer  for  a  short  time  decisions  in  new  route 
certification  cases.  This  is  not  to  be  construed  as 
a  freezing  of  the  present  route  pattern,  which 
would  certainly  be  undesirable.  There  is,  however, 
a  widespread  confusion  as  to  the  principles  which 
guide  the  CAB  in  route  determinations.  There  is 
need  for  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  present 
situation.  If  the  CAB  does  not  develop  a  clear-cut 
plan  for  an  over-all  domestic  transport  pattern,  the 
Congress  should  give  serious  thought  to  giving  the 


AVIATION 

over-all  planning  function  of  route  development  to 
the  Secretary  of  Civil  Aviation  recommended  in 
section  V  (Government  Organization). 

"Whether  more  common  carriers  of  property 
should  be  certificated  is  for  the  CAB  to  decide. 
We  believe  that  in  making  its  decision  the  Board 
should  avoid  impairing  the  soundness  of  the  exist- 
ing air  transport  system  by  spreading  the  present 
and  potential  traffic  among  too  many  separate  car- 
riers. If  the  Board  finds  that  the  public  convenience 
and  necessity  does  require  some  additional  com- 
mon carrier  operators,  we  hope  that  it  will  give 
weight  to  the  records  built  up  by  any  of  those 
contract  operators  that  have  proven  their  ability  to 
operate  economically  and  efficiently  and  now  de- 
sire common  carrier  status. 

"We  recommend  that  the  Civil  Aeronautics 
Board  prevent  the  control  by  surface  carriers  of 
the  United  States  air  transport  system  or  any  im- 
portant segment  thereof.  We  believe  that  individ- 
ual progressive  carriers,  desirous  of  developing  air 
transport  as  a  part  of  a  coordinated  service,  should 
not  be  automatically  prevented  from  such  action 
simply  on  the  grounds  that  they  are  surface  car- 
riers. We  recommend  that  the  Congress  enact  leg- 
islation clarifying  these  two  points. 

"We  recommend  that  the  CAB  be  given  eco- 
nomic control  of  all  air  carriers  for  hire. 

"There  is  a  real  need  for  feeder  airlines  in  those 
areas  whose  topographical  features  make  surface 
connection  between  cities  unsatisfactory.  We  rec- 
ommend that  the  present  experimental  period  for 
feeder  airlines  remain  at  3  years.  If  it  becomes  evi- 
dent that  this  period  can  be  extended  without  bur- 
lensome  cost  in  mail  pay,  we  recommend  exten- 
;ions.  We  also  recommend  that  new  certificates,  if 
my,  be  granted  for  5  years. 

"We  agree  with  the  present  CAB  policy  which 
:avors  limited  competition  among  American  opera- 
:ors  on  international  routes.  We  do  not  approve  the 
chosen-instrument  policy. 

"We  regret  the  failure  of  the  International  Civil 
\viation  Conference  in  Geneva  to  agree  on  a  multi- 
ateral  treaty  covering  rights  and  obligations  in  in- 
:ernational  air  operation.  We  feel,  however,  that 
:his  agreement  should  not  be  sought  at  the  cost 
)f  abandoning  the  so-called  Bermuda-type  agree- 
ments in  regard  to  the  right  to  carry  passengers  be- 
rween  any  two  foreign  countries  on  a  route — com- 
nonly  known  as  the  Fifth  Freedom. 

"The  CAB  should  be  given  control  over  interna- 
ional  rates. 

"A  State-local  aviation  panel  advisory  to  the  Air 
Coordinating  Committee  should  be  established  in 
order  to  give  official  recognition  to  State  and  local 
aviation  organizations  at  the  Federal  level. 

"We  recommend  Congress  appropriate  each  year 
the  full  amount  of  Federal  funds  permissible  under 
the  Federal  Airport  Act  of  1946. 

"Where  a  question  arises  as  to  whether,  airport 
facilities  are  constructed  with  the  aid  of  Govern- 
ment funds  or  through  the  use  of  private  capital, 
an  investigation  should  be  made  by  the  CAB.  If 
it  is  found  that  Government  funds  were  used,  steps 
should  be  taken  to  make  these  facilities  available 
to  all  United  States  civil  aircraft  at  reasonable 
rates." 

RECOMMENDATIONS  ON  GOVERNMENT 
ORGANIZATION 

"We  recommend  that  the  Government  executive 
functions  relating  to  civil  aviation  remain  under 
the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  who 
shall  have  immediately  under  him  a  secretary  of 
Civil  Aviation  in  charge  of  a  Department  of  Civil 


54  AVIATION 


Aviation.  The  position  of  Administrator  of  Civil 
Aeronautics  should  be  abolished  and  the  functions, 
activities,  and  duties  of  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Ad- 
ministration transferred  to  the  newly  formed  de- 
partment. We  recommend  that  there  be  set  up  par- 
allel to  the  Secretary  of  Civil  Aviation  a  Secretary 
of  Industry  and  Trade  who  would  supervise  a  De- 
partment of  Industry  and  Trade  within  the  De- 
partment of  Commerce.  This  would  parallel  within 
the  Department  of  Commerce  the  pattern  recently 
set  up  in  the  Military  Establishment. 

"There  should  be  established  an  Aircraft  Devel- 
opment Corporation  authorized  to  pay  all  or  part 
of  the  development  cost  of  cargo  or  other  nonmili- 
tary  planes,  components,  navigational  aids,  and 
safety  appliances.  The  Corporation  should  also 
be  authorized  to  make  loans  to  manufacturers  for 
development  costs  when  it  appears  that  such  fi- 
nancing cannot  be  obtained  from  civilian  sources. 

"There  should  be  established  an  Air  Safety 
Board  within  the  Department  of  Civil  Aviation  to 
consist  of  three  members  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Senate.  The 
Air  Safety  Board  would  be  responsible  for  the  in- 
vestigation and  analysis  of  air  accidents  and  sub- 
mit reports  to  the  Secretary  of  Civil  Aviation  to  be 
made  public  by  him. 

"The  promulgation  of  safety  regulations  should 
be  transferred  from  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Board  to 
the  Department  of  Civil  Aviation,  thereby  combin- 
ing in  that  Department  the  responsibility  for  the 
issuance  and  enforcement  of  safety  regulations. 
This  move  would  permit  the  Board  to  concentrate 
on  its  main  function  of  economic  regulation. 

"The  Civil  Aeronautics  Board  should  continue  to 
be  an  independent  agency,  located  within  the  De- 
partment of  Civil  Aviation  for  housekeeping  pur- 
poses only.  The  membership  of  the  Civil  Aeronau- 
tics Board  should  be  increased  from  five  to  seven 
in  order  that  the  practice  of  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  of  operating  by  divisions  may 
be  adopted.  The  salary  of  Board  members  should 
be  increased  to  $15,000  a  year.  The  staff  of  the 
Civil  Aeronautics  Board  should  be  increased. 

"Sometime  within  the  future,  all  executive  trans- 
portation functions  of  the  Government  should  be 
centered  in  the  Department  of  Commerce  under  a 
Secretary  of  Transportation,  at  which  time  the  Sec- 
retary of  Civil  Aviation  would  be  succeeded  by  a 
Secretary  of  Transportation.  The  independent  semi- 
judicial  bodies  in  the  transportation  field  should 
however  remain  independent,  and  be  brought  into 
the  Department  of  Transportation  for  administra- 
tive housekeeping  purposes  only. 

"The  Secretary  of  Commerce  should  be  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Security  Council. 

"The  Secretary  of  Civil  Aviation  should^be  chair- 
man of  the  Air  Coordinating  Committee." 

The  minor  differences  in  recommendation  of  the 
Presidential  and  Congressional  reports  were  such 
matters  as  the  number  and  salary  of  the  members 
of  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Board  and  its  relationship 
to  the  Department  of  Commerce.  The  Congres- 
sional Board  advocated  that  the  CAB  continue  to 
have  five  members,  that  their  salaries  should  be 
increased  to  $12,000  per  annum,  and  that  the  CAB 
be  freed  of  its  administrative  ties  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce. 

Partly  because  of  a  Congressional  calendar 
crowded  by  legislative  projects  resulting  from  a 
state  of  world  unrest  and  partly  because  of  the  po- 
litical problems  of  a  pre-presidential  election  pe- 
riod, legislation  implementing  the  air  policy  reports 
was  slow  in  evolving  during  the  80th  Congress. 
First  attention  was  given  to  the  urgently  needed 


AVIATION 


upbuilding  of  our  air  forces  and  related  matters. 
Many  of  the  recommendations  relating  to  civil  avi- 
ation must  await  action  by  the  81st  Congress. 

Amid  the  political  uncertainties  inevitable  when 
presidential  appointments  are  made  in  a  pre-presi- 
dential  election  year  and  friction  between  the 
White  House  and  Capitol  Hill,  the  key  vacancies 
in  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Administration  and  Civil 
Aeronautics  Board  were  finally  filled.  The  post  of 
Civil  Aeronautics  Administrator,  vacated  by  the 
resignation  of  Dr.  Theodore  Paul  Wright,  was  con- 
ferred upon  Delos  W.  Rentzel.  The  Chairmanship 
of  the  CAB,  left  open  by  the  resignation  of  Dean 
James  M.  Landis,  was  filled  by  Joseph  J.  O'Con- 
nell,  Jr. 

Airline  Traffic  and  Profits.  In  spite  of  vigorous  ef- 
forts to  curtail  costs,  the  16  domestic  airlines 
showed  a  cumulative  deficit  of  $11,469,487  for 
the  first  eight  months  of  1948  as  compared  with 
$13,838,976  for  the  same  period  of  1947.  Traffic 
for  the  same  periods  was  off  more  than  3  percent 
in  1948,  the  aggregate  revenue  passenger  miles  be- 
ing 3,857,885,000  as  compared  with  3,986,014,000 
for  the  first  eight  months  of  1947. 

Outstanding  exception  among  the  big  four  has 
been  Eastern  Air  Lines  which  not  only  increased 
its  traffic  in  revenue  passenger  miles  from  579,210,- 
000  to  675,228,000  for  the  periods  under  discussion 
but  enhanced  its  already  comfortable  profit  picture 
by  an  increase  from  $2,858,681  for  toe  first  eight 
months  of  1947  to  $3,491,256  for  the  same  period 
of  1948.  On  September  1,  five  of  the  other  domes- 
tic airlines  were  in  the  black:  Chicago  &  Southern 
($414,853);  Colonial  ($1,630);  Delta  ($895,174); 
Continental  ($131,981)  and  Inland  ($57,362). 

Heaviest  loser  was  American  which  more  than 
doubled  its  first  eight-month  deficit  for  1947  dur- 
ing the  same  period  of  1948.  The  latter  figure  was 
$4,369,231,  the  former,  $2,186,865.  Next  in  size 
of  deficit  for  the  first  eight  months  of  the  year  was 
Northwest  ($2,720,691);  followed  by  United  ($2,- 
602,824 ) ;  TWA  ( approximately  $2,097,000 ) ; 
Western  ($1,037,076);  National  ($1,388,732); 
Capital  ($989,330);  Northeast  ($746,479);  Bran- 
iff  ($495,330);  and  Mid-Continent  ($15,050). 

Third  quarter  earnings,  however,  improved  the 
picture  slightly.  In  the  case  of  American,  for  ex- 
ample, they  reduced  the  year's  deficit  to  $3,998,- 
593. 

The  airline  fiscal  situation  resolved  itself  into  a 
charge  voiced  by  W.  A.  Patterson,  President  of 
United  Air  Lines,  that  CAB  "is  principally  respon- 
sible for  airline  difficulties  today/*  He  advocated  an 
investigation  of  the  stewardship  of  CAB  by  out- 
standing transportation  economists.  In  reply,  Chair- 
man O'Connell  indicated  that  the  carriers  were  not 
blameless  for  their  predicament. 

The  financial  condition  of  the  U.S.  overseas  air- 
lines became  more  encouraging  during  the  summer. 
Northwest's  Orient  route  showed  a  net  operating 
profit  of  $318,315  during  the  first  half  of  1948  and 
profits  of  $140,758  in  July  and  $223,394  in  August 
United's  route  to  Hawaii  wiped  out  a  first-half  defi- 
cit of  $119,506  by  profits  of  $73,621  in  July  and 
$92,630  in  August.  American  Overseas  Airlines  lost 
$795,596  during  the  first  six  months  but  made 
$655,960  in  July  and  $628,358  in  August,  Pan 
American  failed  to  profit  sufficiently  during  the 
summer  months  to  wipe  out  the  first-half  deficit. 
TWA's  overseas  divisions  showed  losses  for  both 
the  first  half  and  for  July  and  August. 

The  domestic  airlines  have  reduced  fares 
through  family  plans,  where  wives  and  children 
of  a  paying  passenger  travel  at  half  fare,  as  well  as 
reductions  for  other  traveling  groups.  A  second- 


55  AVIAVON 

class  sky  coach  service  has  been  established  experi- 
mentally between  New  York  and  Chicago  at  a  fare 
of  $29.60  which  compares  with  $27.30  for  rail. 

Air  Parcel  Post.  Air  parcel  post  made  its  debut  in 
1948,  and,  in  September,  first  month  of  operation, 
it  increased  air  mail  volume  7  percent  or  approxi- 
mately 516,500  Ib.  Post  Office  and  Air  transport 
representatives  were  somewhat  disappointed  by 
the  initial  showing  but  expressed  hope  that  the 
ultimate  objective  of  50,000,000  Ib.  per  month 
would  eventually  be  reached.  This  figure  repre- 
sents 10  percent  of  the  surface  parcel  post  volume, 
which  loses  money  for  the  Post  Office  Department. 
The  air  parcel  post  service  is  expected  to  reduce 
this  surface  volume. 

Airline  Equipment  Pool.  Promise  of  an  airline 
equipment  pool  came  with  the  announcement  of 
the  formation  of  the  Convair  Equipment  Corp.,  a 
subsidiary  of  Consolidated  Vultee  Aircraft  Corp. 
Partial  purpose  of  the  idea,  created  by  financier 
Floyd  B.  Odium,  is  to  recover  losses  to  the  manu- 
facturing company  on  its  Convair  Liner  which 
went  into  service  on  several  of  the  airlines  during 
the  year. 

The  equipment  corporation  planned  as  a  first 
step  to  purchase  100  Convair  Liners  from  the  man- 
ufacturing corporation  and  lease  them  to  airlines 
with  options  to  buy.  Later  the  equipment  corpora- 
tion would  buy  planes  from  other  manufacturers 
for  lease  to  airlines,  maintaining  spare  parts  re- 
quired and  doing  major  overhauls  on  the  planes. 
The  corporation  would  also  finance  sales  of  new 
planes  either  through  equipment  trusts  or  by  other 
means  of  financing. 

National  Case.  An  unprecedented  move  by  CAB 
was  an  investigation  to  determine  whether  or  not 
it  was  in  the  public  interest  for  several  airlines  to 
acquire  certain  routes  of  strike-crippled  National 
Airlines.  Pilots  on  this  line  had  been  on  strike  since 
February  3,  with  no  settlement  in  sight.  The  pos- 
sibility of  dismemberment  of  the  line  as  a  result  of 
CAB  action  brought  widespread  discussion  since 
it  could  establish  a  precedent  for  similar  action 
with  respect  to  other  airlines  having  economic  dif- 
ficulties. 

In  its  Caribbean  area  decision  the  CAB  made 
it  clear  that  it  possessed  legal  power  to  withdraw 
previously  granted  operating  authority. 

Although  National  has  been  operating  all  of  its 
routes  with  non-union  pilots,  traffic  has  fallen  off 
seriously.  During  July  and  August  the  load  factors 
for  the  system  fell  to  31.9  and  32.1  percent  re- 
spectively as  compared  with  43.3  and  47.7  percent 
in  the  same  months  of  1947.  Passengers  carried 
dropped  from  165,605  for  the  first  half  of  1947 
to  66,556  for  the  first  half  of  1948. 

Major  airline  crashes.  As  a  result  of  the  crash  of  a 
Northwest  Airlines  Martin  2-0-2  transport  plane 
at  Winona,  Minn.,  August  29,  the  airline's  fleet 
of  24  of  these  planes  was  grounded,  seriously  im- 
pairing the  income  of  this  carrier.  The  accident 
was  later  attributed  to  structural  failure  of  the  left 
wing.  Modifications  were  made  in  the  aircraft  and 
by  Fall  the  planes  were  being  returned  to  service. 

Earlier  in  the  year  United  Air  Lines  lost  a  Doug- 
las DC-6  in  Pennsylvania  due  to  the  effects  of  fire 
extinguishing  gases  upon  the  pilots.  Studies  made 
of  the  effects  of  such  gases  upon  human  beings 
within  pressurized  structures  made  it  possible  to 
apply  preventive  measures  against  this  unique  type 
of  accident. 

Late  in  October  a  Lockheed  L49  Constellation 
operated  by  KLM  Royal  Dutch  Airlines  crashed 
while  landing  by  GCA  ( Ground  Control  Approach 
radar)  at  Prestwick,  Scotland.  Thirty-nine  of  the 


AVIATION 


56 


AVIATION 


forty  persons  aboard  died.  Among  them  were  three 
of  the  most  able  aviation  executives  in  Europe; 
Hendrich  Veenendaal,  vice  president  and  techni- 
cal managing  director  of  KLM;  Austen  E.  F.  Mac- 
Inerny,  European  sales  representative  for  Lockheed; 
and  the  famous  pilot,  Captain  K.  D.  Parmentier, 
chief  pilot  of  KLM.  The  plane  made  a  normal  GCA 
approach  to  the  runway  under  an  800  ft.  overcast. 
Pilot  Parmentier  encountered  a  20  mile  per  hour 
cross  wind  and  decided  to  use  another  runway.  In 
pulling  up  the  plane  he  hit  a  high  tension  wire 
about  1200  ft.  off  the  end  of  the  runway.  A  fuel 
tank  was  torn  open  and  fire  resulted.  Since  the 
power  line  supplied  current  for  the  field  all  lights 
were  extinguished  and  the  plane  crash-landed  two 
miles  away. 

Feeder  lines.  As  some  of  the  three-year  experi- 
mental certificates  issued  by  the  CAB  to  feeder 
lines  approached  expiration,  concern  was  felt  by 
some  operators  whose  economic  position  had  failed 
to  improve  during  the  experimental  period.  In  the 
case  of  Florida  Airways  there  was  a  denial  of  ex- 
tension of  the  certificate  but  Florida  requested  re- 
consideration of  this  decision. 

It  appeared,  however,  that  stockholders  would 
not  have  to  sustain  the  losses  incurred  during  the 
experimental  period.  A  tentative  decision  by  CAB 
would  provide  Florida  Airways  with  mail  pay 
amounting  to  $859,960  (83.35  cents  per  plane 
mile)  for  the  period  from  Jan.  10,  1947,  when  op- 
eration started,  to  May  31,  1948.  This  amount 
would  be  $348,000  above  the  amount  received  by 
Florida  Airways  under  its  temporary  rate  and 
would  yield  a  7  percent  profit  on  the  investment 
during  the  17-month  period.  In  addition,  the  feed- 
er line  would  receive  mail  pay  of  $528,000  (79.35 
cents  per  plane  mile)  for  the  period  from  June  1, 

1948,  to  the  expiration  of  the  certificate,  Mar.  28, 

1949.  This  would  represent  about  8  percent  profit. 
It  is  significant  that  the  Board  stated  that  the 

decision  not  to  prolong  the  life  of  the  feeder  line 
"does  not  affect  our  statutory  duty  to  fix^fair  mail 
rates  for  the  duration  of  the  certificate," 

Cargo  lines.  During  all  of  1948  the  old  battle 
raged  between  the  scheduled  airlines  and  their 
cargo-carrying  competitors.  The  CAB  decision  to 
determine  whether  or  not  it  is  in  the  public  interest 
to  certificate  all-cargo  carriers  will  be  deferred  until 
1949. 

The  current  phase  of  the  conflict  is  concerned 
with  the  financial  fitness  of  the  cargo  operators  who 
actually  demonstrated  to  the  scheduled  airlines 
that  there  was  a  substantial  potential  volume  of 
air  freight  untapped.  During  the  spring  of  1948 
the  certificated  carriers  alleged  that  the  all-cargo 
operators  were  no  longer  "fit  and  able"  to  perform 
their  proposed  services  even  if  they  were  certifi- 
cated. They  were  also  accused  by  the  older  air- 
lines of  lacking  financial  stability  and  of  making 
optimistic  traffic  predictions  which  had  not  been 
realized. 

Operating  reports  of  both  certificated  and  non- 
certificated  carriers  will  be  placed  in  the  reopened 
record  for  examination. 

In  spite  of  several  mortalities  among  the  all- 
cargo  group,  two  of  them  carried  large  volumes  of 
cargo  during  the  first  half  of  1948.  During  this 
period  Slick  Airways  transported  13,539,714  ton 
miles,  a  38  percent  gain  over  the  same  period  in 
1947.  The  Flying  Tigers  flew  more  than  6,000,000 
ton-miles,  a  400  percent  gain,  during  the  same  pe- 
riods of  comparison.  These  two  carriers  and  Cali- 
fornia Eastern,  Willis  Air  Service  and  U.S.  Airlines 
were  recommended  for  certification  in  a  report  by 
CAB  examiners  issued  in  March,  1948. 


Despite  their  hostility  toward  the  newcomers, 
the  older  airlines  have  gained  traffic  by  this  com- 
petitive race.  During  the  first  half  of  1948  the  16 
certificated  domestic  carriers  flew  29,888,742 
freight  ton-miles  compared  with  12,286,966  ton 
miles  during  the  same  period  in  1947.  American 
and  United  reached  record  peaks  in  freight  carried 
in  September,  1948. 

In  general  the  all-cargo  operators  are  showing 
financial  losses  but  they  contend  that  the  certifi- 
cated lines  have  also  lost  substantially  on  their 
freight  business  but  have  not  broken  down-  their 
operational  reports  sufficiently  to  show  that  part 
of  their  losses  attributable  to  freight. 

Persona!  Flying.  The  report  of  the  President's  Air 
Policy  Commission  blasted  the  hopes  of  those  who 
sought  new  forms  of  subsidy  for  personal  aviation. 

The  following  quotation  is  significant. 

"This  Commission,  trying  to  judge  personal  avi- 
ation impartially,  believes  that  a  healthy  personal 
plane  industry  is  of  value  to  the  Nation.  We  be- 
lieve that  it  should  be  encouraged  by  the  continua- 
tion of  funds  for  airports,  for  navigation  and  land- 
ing facilities,  and  for  basic  improvement  in  per- 
sonal plane  design  (by  N.A.C.A.).  We  believe  that 
the  appropriations  to  personal  aviation  for  these 
purposes,  plus  the  very  substantial  financial  assist- 
ance provided  for  veterans'  flight  training,  are  suffi- 
cient" 

Although  vast  sums  of  federal  monies  have  been 
spent  for  flight  training  under  the  G.L  Bill  of 
Rights,  there  are  many  aviation  people  who  accuse 
the  Veterans  Administration  of  attempting  to  scut- 
tle the  flight  training  program  by  discouraging 
large  numbers  of  applicants  by  long  deferments  in 
the  approval  of  their  applications.  In  support  of 
this  view  the  contenders  quote  the  following  fig- 
ures from  a  VA  report  on  the  subject  during  the 
summer  of  1948: 

In  July,  617  applications  approved;  52  rejected; 
1,551  referred  to  guidance  and  advisement  divi- 
sion. In  August,  2,427  applications  approved;  144 
rejected;  3,772  referred  to  guidance  and  advise- 
ment. 

Regardless  of  the  underlying  reasons,  there  has 
been  a  steady  reduction  in  the  number  of  veterans 
receiving  flight  training  under  the  G.L  Bill.  Many 
observers  question  the  value  of  flight  training  for 
veterans  from  the  standpoint  of  building  up  a 
further  reserve  of  pilots  for  future  military  purpose. 
They  believe  that  the  funds  would  be  more  effec- 
tively spent  on  the  training  of  younger  men  through 
a  plan  like  the  Civilian  Pilot  Training  Program. 

In  any  case  there  appears  to  be  no  widespread 
federal  program  for  civilian  flying  training  of  the 
younger  generation  in  this  country,  while  most 
other  nations  provide  partial  subsidy  for  this  train- 
ing through  some  degree  of  government  sponsor- 
ship of  flying  clubs. 

Personal  aircraft  production  during  1948  fell 
back  to  an  estimated  8-9,000  units  for  the  year  or 
about  one-half  of  the  figure  for  the  previous  year 
and  a  level  approximating  that  of  the  last  prewar 
year.  During  the  first  7  months  of  1948,  4,817  units 
valued  at  $20,043,953  were  reported  produced.  In 
the  same  period  141  transport  planes  valued  at 
$52,057,160  were  manufactured.  Civil  engine  pro- 
duction for  that  period  was  7,246  units  at  $37,408,- 
179. 

During  the  month  of  August,  when  700  personal 
planes  valued  at  $2,849,000  were  reported,  Cessna 
led  the  field  with  a  production  of  179  units  valued 
at  $798,000.  Piper  was  second,  in  units  produced 
(120)  and  Beech  in  dollar  volume  ($442,000). 

At  mid  year  the  number  of  civil  aircraft  in  the 


AVtATtQN 


U.S.  had  increased  to  96,330  from  83,000  on  July 
1,  1947.  Approved  certificates  for  student  and  pri- 
vate pilots,  however,  appeared  to  be  lower  in  the 
spring  than  on  that  date  of  the  previous  year. 

CAA  Reorganization.  With  personal  aircraft  sales 
down  to  prewar  volume,  the  slump  has  been  re- 
flected in  the  reorganization  of  the  Civil  Aero- 
nautics Administration  which  followed  the  advent 
of  the  new  Administrator.  Apart  from  the  reshuf- 
fling of  several  individuals  who  bad  spent  long 
careers  fostering  personal  flying,  the  most  serious 
change  is  the  subordination  of  the  Nonscheduled 
Flying  Advisory  Committee  to  the  cognizance  of  an 
assistant  rather  than  to  the  Administrator.  This 
committee  was  created  by  Former  Administrator 
T.  P.  Wright  and  afforded  an  opportunity  for  re- 
sponsible representatives  of  personal  flying  activi- 
ties to  have  direct  advisory  contact  with  the  Ad- 
ministrator. It  filled  a  serious  gap  in  the  relations 
of  the  industry,  operators  and  owners  of  personal 
planes  with  the  Administrator.  It  ironed  out  many 
misunderstandings  inevitable  in  this  relationship. 
Whether  or  not  the  progress  of  personal  flying  will 
be  as  well  served  under  the  new  arrangement  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  personalities  on  both  sides 
of  the  conference  table. 

School  Regulations.  Possibility  of  more  rigid  re- 
quirements for  aviation  training  facilities  were  seen 
in  a  revised  draft  of  CAA  Manual  50  which  was 
circulated  to  those  interested  for  comment  during 
the  fall  of  1948,  The  new  regulations  specify  the 
required  classroom,  hangar  and  field  facilities  in 
great  detail  and  include  requirements  for  helicopter 
and  glider  schools  as  well  as  basic  and  advanced 
ground  schools  and  flight  schools  giving  pri- 
mary commerical,  instrument  and  flight  instructor 
courses. 

Opposition  to  the  new  regulations  may  be  ex- 
pected because  conformance  would  require  ex- 
penditures by  school  operators  whose  business  in 
many  cases  could  not  withstand  the  additional 
costs.  Adoption  of  the  new  regulations  at  this  time 
could  result  in  a  situation  where  some  schools 
would  elect  to  suspend  operations  and  others  would 
continue  as  sub-standard  institutions  without  CAA 
approval. 

Airport  Program.  During  the  period  June  15— 
July  15,  58  local  sponsors  under  the  Federal  Air 
Airport  Program  received  $9,016,861  in  federal 
funds,  bringing  the  total  number  of  grants  to  389 
airports  and  $45,229,007,  Of  the  389  airport  grants, 
108  were  for  construction  or  improvement  of  Class 
I  airports;  95  for  Class  II;  110  for  Class  III;  and 
76  for  the  construction  or  development  of  Class 
IV,  the  large  air  terminals. 

Largest  grant  during  that  period  was  $817,549 
to  Baltimore,  Md.,  for  construction  work  on  Friend- 
ship Airport.  Other  large  sums  went  to  Rochester, 
NT.,  Airport  ($780,000);  Lovell  Field,  Chatta- 
nooga, Tenn.  (714,580);  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Municipal 
Airport  ($706,994). 

Over-all  progress  in  the  program,  reported  by 
C.A.A.  at  that  time,  was  29  projects  100  percent 
completed,  50  projects  66-99  percent  completed. 

Internationa!  Records.  The  unofficial  world  Speed 
record  made  by  Major  Richard  L.  Johnson, 
U.S.A.F.,  during  the  National  Air  Races,  was  ex- 
ceeded officially  on  Sept  15,  1948,  by  the  same 
pilot  flying  the  same  plane,  a  North  American 
F-86A,  for  four  runs  over  a  speed  course  at  Muroc 
Air  Force  Base,  at  an  average  speed  of  670.981 
mph,  more  than  20  mph  faster  than  the  previous 
record  of  650.796  mph  held  by  Major  Marion  E. 
Carl,  U.S.M.C.,  flying  a  Douglas  D-558-1  research 
airplane, 


57  AVIATION 

Two  official  speed  records  were  established  in 
North  American  Mustang  planes  during  the  year, 
In  the  1,000  km.  (621.369  mi.)  class,  Miss  Jac- 
queline Cochran  flew  from  Palrn  Springs,  Calif., 
to  Flagstaff,  ArizonaT  and  return,  at  a  maximum 
speed  of  431.094  mph  on  May  24.  In  the  2,000 
km.  ( 1,242.739  mi. )  class  the  same  pilot  flew  from 
Palm  Springs  to  Santa  Fe,  N.M.,  and  return,  at 
a  maximum  speed  of  447.470  mph  on  May  22. 

On  March  23,  Pilot  John  Cunningham  estab- 
lished an  altitude  record  of  59,492  ft.  in  a  Vampire 
Jet  fighter. 

A  British  Helicopter,  the  Fairey  Gyrodyne 
reached  a  record  speed  of  124.3  mph  on  June  28. 
The  pilot  was  Squadron  Leader  Basil  Arkell, 

Soaring  and  Sailplanes.  Bird  flight  and  the  ulti- 
mate performance  of  sailplanes  were  among  the 
subjects  discussed  at  the  first  postwar  joint  meet- 
ing of  the  Institute  of  the  Aeronautical  Sciences 
and  the  Soaring  Society  of  America  held  at  Elmira, 
N.Y.,  July  1,  1948.  Structural  and  production  prob- 
lems were  also  considered  in  a  symposium  in  which 
leading  aeronautical  engineers  participated. 

The  symposium  clearly  indicated  the  desirability 
of  the  analytic  approach  to  sailplane  design  and 
revealed  that  a  substantial  gap  exists  between  ad- 
vanced theory  and  present  designs.  The  useful- 
ness of  gliders  for  large-scale  tests  in  the  field  of 
low-speed  aerodynamics  was  also  apparent  from 
the  discussions. 

The  technical  meetings  were  a  part  of  the  pro- 
gram of  the  Fifteenth  National  Soaring  Contest 
of  the  Soaring  Society  of  America.  During  the 
period  of  die  meet,  held  June  30  to  July  11,  good 
soaring  weather  prevailed.  The  prize  fund  of  $12?- 
500  was  the  largest  in  history.  Winner  of  the 
Fifteenth  National  Soaring  Championship  was  Paul 
B.  MacCready,  of  Connecticut  and  California,  who 
accumulated  1,042  points  flying  his  Orlik  sailplane. 
A  close  second  was  Johnny  Robinson  of  California 
who  scored  943  points  with  his  Zanonia  machine. 
Third  place  went  to  Don  Pollard  flying  the  Air-100. 

Rocketry  and  Jet  Propulsion.  Rapid  progress  in  im- 
provement of  gas  turbine  engine  design  was  made 
during  1948.  Present  engines  of  this  type  reached 
a  general  efficiency  approximately  30  percent 
higher  than  those  built  only  a  few  years  ago.  It 
is  reasonable  to  expect  another  increase  of  20  per- 
cent in  efficiency  of  the  simple-cycle  turbojet  in 
the  near  future.  Afterburning  and  water  injection 
contributed  substantially  to  mis  progress. 

The  period  between  overhauls,  which  was  quite 
short  in  early  designs,  also  has  increased  greatly. 
One  example  is  the  General  Electric  J-33  engine. 
Within  three  years  its  time  between  overhauls  has 
increased  from  10  to  300  hours. 

Rocket  research  has  gone  forward  at  a  steady 
pace.  The  flight  tests  of  the  Bell  XS-1  Supersonic 
airplane  have  proved  the  value  of  rocket  power 
plants  for  supersonic  aircraft.  Next  step  is  the 
combination  of  rockets  with  turbojets  to  enable 
supersonic  aircraft  to  take  off  under  their  own  jet 
power  and  use  their  rockets  to  furnish  the  excess 
power  required  for  passage  through  the  transonic 
speed  range.  Rockets  also  are  being  used  for  take- 
off boost  of  aircraft  powered  by  either  reciprocat- 
ing or  turbine  engines.  In  the  fields  of  guided 
missiles  and  upper-air  research,  rocket  power  plants 
have  become  increasingly  useful. 

The  ram-jet  type  of  power  plant  has  found 
several  valuable  applications.  Among  the  most  in- 
teresting is  its  use  in  the  tips  of  helicopter  rotors. 
The  difficult  design  problems  of  such  installations 
have  been  partially  solved.  The  full  solution  is 
well  worth  additional  research  because  helicopters 


AVIATION 

of  this  type  would  have  many  fundamental  ad- 
vantages over  those  utilizing  complex  and  expen- 
sive drive  systems  to  transmit  power  from  engine 
to  rotor. 

Compound  engines.  Two  new  compound  engines 
were  announced  during  1948,  the  28  cylinder  Pratt 
&  Whitney  R-4360-VDT  and  the  Wright  Turbo 
Cyclone  18.  These  engines  embody  the  Addition  of 
turbines  to  existing  reciprocating  engines  in  the 
higher  output  category.  The  advantages  of  the 
hybrid  combinations  are  increases  in  power  output 
of  20  percent  or  more  and  reduced  fuel  consump- 
tion. 

In  the  R-4360-VDT,  a  single  turbine  is  added 
with  a  variable-discharge  nozzle  at  the  turbo  out- 
let. The  basic  reciprocating  engine  design  is  the 
R-4360  Wasp  Major  engine.  The  Turbo  Cyclone 
18  is  a  compound  development  of  the  R-3350. 
Three  turbines  are  added  and  their  output  geared 
back  to  the  crankshaft. 

TG-190.  During  the  Annual  Convention  of  the 
Aviation  Writers  Association  some  of  the  details 
of  the  General  Electric  TG-190  (Air  Force  J-47A) 
were  revealed  by  the  Air  Forces.  In  appearance  the 
later  model  resembles  the  earlier  TG-180  (J-35) 
which  has  been  installed  in  several  high-speed 
military  planes.  Frame  size  and  weight  of  both 
engines  are  nearly  the  same  but  the  Air  Force 
states  that  the  new  engine  develops  25  percent 
more- power.  It  may  therefore  be  assumed  that  the 
TG-190  would  have  a  dry  thrust  of  5,000  Ib.  With 
afterburning  it  should  be  possible  to  obtain  6,000 
Ib.  thrust  or  more. 

Installed  in  the  North  American  F-86A  the 
TG-190  should  furnish  the  thrust  equivalent  of 
8,650  hp  at  the  650  mph  top  speed  of  this  fighter. 

Nene.  Rigorous  tests  were  conducted  over  a  pe- 
riod of  several  months  on  the  American  version 
of  the  British  Rolls-Royce  Nene.  As  built  by  Pratt 
&  Whitney  under  license  the  Nene  is  designated 
Pratt  &  Whitney  J42-P-8.  Under  the  thorough  test 
program  for  this  engine,  its  major  components  were 
tested  individually  in  addition  to  the  tests  of  com- 
pleted units.  Production  facilities  at  the  East  Hart- 
ford plant  have  been  modified  to  provide  for  the 
new  turbojet  and  deliveries  for  installation  in  the 
Grumman  Panther  (XF9F-2)  were  scheduled  for 
fall. 

With  water-alcohol  injection  the  Rolls  Royce 
Nene's  take-off  thrust  is  approximately  6,000  Ib. 
Addition  of  afterburning  to  the  Pratt  &  Whitney 
version  is  expected  to  increase  this  output  to  6,500 
Ib.  Installations  in  transport  aircraft  are  under 
study. 

British  Engines.  Further  British  progress  in  turbine 
engine  development  was  made  in  the  official  ap- 
proval by  the  Air  Regulation  Board  of  the  de 
Havilland  Ghost,  a  development  of  the  wartime 
Goblin.  The  Ghost  has  been  licensed  for  3,600  Ib. 
thrust  but  in  its  final  version  is  expected  to  deliver 
8,000  Ib.  It  is  the  power  plant  selected  for  the  new 
de  Havilland  Comet,  500  mph  transatlantic  trans- 
port airliner.  Four  Ghosts  will  power  the  Comet, 
which  is  scheduled  to  make  its  first  flight  from 
London  to  New  York  non-stop  in  5%  hours,  some- 
time in  1950. 

The  1,200  hp  Armstrong-Siddeley  Mamba  turbo- 
prop with  its  10  stage  axial  flow  compressor  and 
two  turbines  also  passed  its  type  test  early  in  1948. 
It  is  soon  to  be  installed  in  four  aircraft,  the  twin- 
engined  Avro  Athena  and  Boulton  Paul  Balliol 
trainers  and  Miles  Marathon  II  Transport  and  in 
the  four-engined  Armstrong-Whitworth  Apollo 
transport. 

Two  other  turboprops,  the  Bristol  Theseus  (2,- 


58  AVIATION 

400  hp)  and  Rolls-Royce  Clyde  (3,600  hp),  were 
among  those  power  plants  which  passed  their 
tests. 

The  British  program  for  installation  and  test  of 
many  different  turbine  power  plants  in  various 
types  of  aircraft  has  made  steady  progress  during 
1948. 

First  Jet  Transport.  Scheduled  for  flight  tests  early 
in  1949  was  the  first  aircraft  designed  from  scratch 
as  a  jet-propelled  transport.  It  is  the  Avro  XC-102, 
designed  and  built  by  Avro  Canada  of  Toronto  in 
collaboration  with  engineers  of  Trans-Canada  Air- 
lines. Costs  of  this  project  are  shared  by  the  Cana- 
dian government  and  the  manufacturer. 

The  XC-102  is  a  low- wing,  all  metal  monoplane 
with  pressurized  cabin  and  tricycle  landing  gear. 
It  is  designed  to  accommodate  40  passengers  and 
a  crew  of  three  and  is  expected  to  cruise  at  430 
mph  at  35,000  ft.  Gross  weight  is  52,500  Ib. 

Power  plant  consists  of  four  Rolls-Royce  Der- 
went  II  turbojets  providing  14,000  Ib.  static  thrust 
output.  The  engines  are  grouped  in  pairs  on  either 
wing  panel.  — LESLIE  E.  NEVILLE 

AVIATION,  Military.  The  vote  of  confidence  accorded 
the  United  States  Air  Force  by  the  80th  U.S.  Con- 
gress provided  military  aviation  with  an  energetic 
boost  at  the  start  of  1948.  The  questionable  peace 
existing  during  the  year  served  only  to  augment 
the  growing  interest  throughout  the  world  in  mat- 
ters aeronautical.  Decided  improvements  were 
evinced  in  many  phases  of  aviation's  development, 
but  official  opinion  was  unanimous  in  declaring 
that  it  would  require  several  years  and  a  great  ex- 
penditure of  energy  to  convert  into  a  reality  the 
futuristic  eversions  pre-viewed  or  presaged  during 
the  war  years.  Discussions  of  jet-propelled  super- 
sonic aircraft,  guided  missiles  which  attained  as- 
tounding rates  of  speed,  and  the  possibilities  of 
atomic-powered  planes  and  rockets  gave  evidence 
of  intensive  research  programs.  Scattered  reports 
from  foreign  countries  showed  that,  while  many 
were  hampered  in  the  development  of  military 
aviation  by  pressing  economic  and  political  internal 
problems,  several  were  able  to  equal  the  achieve- 
ments announced  by  the  United  States. 

United  States.  Progress  in  the  United  States  was 
marked  by  continual  competition  among  the  three 
services,  Army,  Navy  and  Air  Force,  and  among 
their  supporters  in  the  government.  The  Navy, 
reluctant  to  relinquish  its  proud  position  as  the  first 
line  of  defense,  argued  that  the  new  Air  Force  had 
its  place  as  a  supporting  arm  but  that  it  could 
never  match  the  Navy  with  its  carriers  and  carrier- 
based  aircraft  as  the  best  offensive  and  defensive 
weapon  of  the  United  States.  The  Air  Force,  feel- 
ing its  greatly  increased  importance  as  an  inde- 
pendent unit,  was  pressing  its  demands  for  the 
70-group  Air  Force  which  had  been  approved  by 
the  80th  Congress. 

The  Congressional  Air  Policy  Board  which  offi- 
cially expired  on  Mar.  1,  1948,  presented  its  final 
report  to  Congress.  This  report  condemned  the 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  for  being  unable  to  propose 
an  over-all  strategic  plan  for  the  defense  of  the 
United  States.  The  rivalry  between  the  USAF  and 
the  Navy  was,  moreover,  held  responsible  for  pre- 
venting the  development  of  a  basic  program  for  the 
formation  of  a  postwar  air  force. 

This  report  also  proposed,  without  specific  ap- 
proval, two  5-year  programs  for  air  power  to  be 
supported  by  the  combined  strength  of  the  USAF 
and  the  Navy.  The  first  of  these  "was  an  offensive 
plan  which  would  permit  the  United  States  "to 
mount  promptly  an  effective,  continuing  and  sue- 


AVIATION 


59 


cessful  air  offensive  against  a  major  enemy."  This 
plan  would  require  a  70-group  Air  Force  with  20,- 
541  aircraft  and  a  Navy  with  14,500  aircraft.  The 
defensive  plan  would  provide  a  force  of  essentially 
the  same  strength  as  that  required  for  the  offensive 
plan  with  the  exception  of  provisions  for  reserve 
aircraft.  This  defensive  force  would  provide  for 
sufficient  strength  to  withstand  a  potentially  crip- 
pling attack,  form  the  groundwork  for  a  strong  de- 
fense, and  furnish  effective  retaliation.  Since  the 
Federal  budget  would  be  increased  to  a  total  of 
over  $45,000  million  annually  by  institution  of  the 
offensive  plan  and  to  over  $41,000  million  for  the 
defensive  plan,  it  was  evident  that  this  country's 
economy  would  not  be  able  to  withstand  such  a 
burden  and  that  something  would  have  to  be  sacri- 
ficed. 

The  report  of  the  Congressional  Air  Policy  Board, 
along  with  the  Finletter  Report  and  the  report  of 
the  Aircraft  Industries  Association  (see  YEAR  BOOK, 
Events  of  1947,  p.  307-308),  provided  the  Con- 
gressional supporters  with  strong  ammunition  in 
their  bitter  fight  with  the  Administration  to  obtain 
sufficient  funds  for  the  support  of  a  70-group  Air 
Force.  The  greatest  opposition  to  these  Air  Force 
supporters  came  from  President  Truman,  Secretary 
of  State  George  C.  Marshall,  and  Secretary  of  De- 
fense James  ForrestaL  Secretary  of  State  Marshall, 
an  ex-infantry  officer,  said,  in  a  statement  before 
the  Senate  Armed  Forces  Committee,  "I  think  how- 
ever much  any  future  war  starts  in  the  air,  as  in 
the  past,  it  will  end  in  the  mud  on  the  ground.  I 
think  one  of  the  great  difficulties  in  regard  to  air 
power  and  the  American  people's  attitude  toward 
life  is  that  application  of  air  power  involves  so 
much  loss  of  fife  of  non-military  civilians  and  chil- 
dren as  well  as  grown  people."  Secretary  of  De- 
fense Forrestal  opposed  an  increase  from  the  exist- 
ing 55  groups  with  the  contention  that  a  70-group 
Air  Force  would  necessitate  a  dollar-for-dollar  ex- 
penditure for  the  Army  and  the  Navy.  In  fact, 
Secretary  Forrestal  felt  obliged  to  substantiate  this 
point  of  view  with  a  10-page  explanation  contained 
in  his  report  to  Congress  in  the  Spring  of  the  year. 
President  Truman  expressed  his  opposition  by 
pointedly  avoiding  any  reference  to  air  power  in 
his  special  message  to  Congress  in  March  and  by 
repeatedly  opposing  additional  appropriations  for 
the  maintenance  of  an  augmented  Air  Force. 

An  admirable  and  practical  demonstration  of  the 
value  and  necessity  of  military  aviation  was  pro- 
vided by  the  Air  Force  in  its  "Operation  Vitues" 
which  started  on  July  26,  1948,  and  which  was 
carried  on  with  the  cooperation  of  the  Navy  and 
the  RAF.  This  airlift  of  food  and  supplies  was  ne- 
cessitated by  Russia's  land  blockade  of  Berlin.  In 
5  months  of  operation,  409,256  tons  of  food,  fuel, 
and  other  vital  supplies  had  been  delivered  to  Ber- 
lin by  50,898  flights,  averaging  8  tons  per  trip. 
This  provided  an  insight  into  the  prospective  prob- 
lems which  the  United  States  might  face  in  the 
event  of  another  war;  and  the  difficulties  experi- 
enced, shortages  of  personnel  and  planes  involved, 
and  the  inadequacy  of  maintenance  facilities  had 
a  sobering  effect  on  the  thoughts  of  men  responsi- 
ble for  our  military  future. 

Prospects  of  increasing  air  power  were  not  bright 
as  the  year  1948  drew  to  a  close.  With  the  election 
of  a  Democratic  Congress  in  November  to  support 
a  Democratic  President  it  appeared  likely  that 
President  Truman's  policy  of  moderation  in  mili- 
tary expenditures  would  find  greater  support  than 
it  received  from  the  80th  Congress.  The  fact  that 
President  Truman  declared,  in  a  speech  on  Dec. 
27,  1948,  that  there  were  certain  Russian  leaders 


AVIATION 

"who  are  exceedingly  anxious  to  have  an  under- 
standing with  us*'  and  that  peace  could  be  achieved 
within  the  four  years  of  his  administration  gave 
further  evidence  that  the  Air  Force  and  Naval 
aviation  would  experience  strong  opposition  to 
their  attempts  at  expansion.  Those  Democrats  who 
found  courage  to  oppose  the  recommendations  of 
the  President  while  the  Republicans  were  in  the 
majority  are  expected  to  adhere  more  closely  to 
party  lines  and  uphold  the  Presidential  proposals 
which  are  more  in  accord  with  the  contention  that 
the  Army  and  Navy  should  share  equally  in  mili- 
tary appropriations. 

Budget  and  Appropriations.  The  recommendations 
of  the  various  advisory  boards  on  aviation  brought 
about  substantial  increases  in  appropriations  for 
the  fiscal  year  1949.  Whereas  the  budget  for  the 
fiscal  year  1948  provided  a  total  of  $1,686  million 
for  the  combined  Air  Force  and  Navy  Bureau  of 
Aeronautics,  Congress  approved  expenditures  of 
$3,200  million  for  the  fiscal  year  1949.  The  greatest 
increase  was  in  the  amount  provided  for  the  pur- 
chase of  aircraft  by  the  Air  Force.  This  figure  was 
raised  from  $588  million  for  the  purchase  of  1,157 
planes  in  the  fiscal  year  1948  to  $2,295  million  for 
the  purchase  of  2,727  planes  in  1949.  Navy  funds 
were  also  augmented  by  $570  million,  with  an  ap- 
propriation of  $333  miflion  for  921  planes  in  1948 
being  raised  to  $903  million  for  the  purchase  of 
1,535  planes  in  fiscal  1949.  A  total  of  $75  million 
was  added  to  the  appropriations  for  research  and 
development  by  both  services,  with  the  Air  Force 
receiving  $149  million  in  the  fiscal  year  1949  and 
the  Navy  $110  million.  An  item  of  $1,178  million 
was  also  included  for  the  support  of  the  various 
services  of  the  Navy  and  Air  Force  which  perform 
the  miscellaneous  duties  connected  with  aircraft 
production  and  use. 

With  the  funds  received  for  aircraft  procure- 
ment, the  Air  Force  planned  to  buy  1,575  jet  fight- 
ers, 243  bombers  and  909  miscellaneous  types,  in- 
cluding trainers,  transport  and  cargo,  photo-recon- 
naissance, rescue,  and  liaison  planes.  The  Navy's 
plans  included  the  purchase  of  807  fighters,  80 
helicopters,  and  20  transports,  with  the  remaining 
628  to  consist  of  experimental  and  miscellaneous 
types.  The  1949  budget  also  provided  $517  million 
for  the  purchase  of  aircraft  engines  for  both  serv- 
ices. More  than  two-thirds  of  the  planes  to  be 
bought  out  of  fiscal  year  1949  funds  were  to  be 
jet-propelled.  This,  compared  with  the  fact  that 
approximately  55  percent  of  the  Air  Force  procure- 
ment in  the  fiscal  year  1948  was  for  jet-propelled 
aircraft  and  only  five  percent  of  Navy  production 
was  jet  equipped,  shows  the  definite  trend  away 
from  standard  reciprocating  engines  except  for 
heavy  bombers  and  transports. 

Estimates  for  fiscal  1950  require  a  total  procure- 
ment appropriation  of  approximately  $4,500  mil- 
lion, two-thirds  of  which  would  go  to  the  Air 
Force.  These  figures  are  based  upon  the  needs  for 
implementation  of  the  70-group  Air  Force  and  the 
Navy's  proposed  14,500-plane  program.  The  so- 
called  70-group  plan  of  the  Air  Force  is,  in  actu- 
ality, a  131-group  Air  Force.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  Air  Reserve  and  the  Air  National  Guard 
are  integral  parts  of  the  air-power  expansion  pro- 
gram. The  goal  under  this  over-all  plan  is  to  have 
an  Air  Force  with  70  groups  and  6,689  planes,  an 
Air  Reserve  with  34  groups  and  2,360  planes,  and 
the  Air  National  Guard  with  27  groups  and  3,212 
planes.  A  total  of  8,100  planes  would  be  required 
for  a  reserve  force. 

The  Air  Force,  during  1948,  was  able  to  expand 
from  the  55  groups  existing  on  Jan.  1,  1948,  to  66 


AV/ATJQW 


AVIATION 


groups  on  Jan.  1,  1949.  This,  however,  was  accom- 
plished mainly  by  the  use  of  World  War  II  planes 
which  had  been  in  storage,  leaving  only  about 
2,000  planes  of  the  required  8,100  in  storage,  The 
Navy  requires  an  additional  3,500  planes  to  reach 
its  proposed  strength  of  14,500  by  July  1,  1949. 
Some  of  these  will  have  to  come  from  storage,  with 
the  remainder  being  new  planes  from  production. 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  John  L.  Sullivan  has  esti- 
mated that  an  annual  production  rate  of  3,300 
planes  will  be  required  to  maintain  that  level  after 
it  has  been  reached.  This  full  complement  of  Naval 
aircraft  will  be  sufficient  to  equip  24  carrier  groups, 
one  active  and  one  reserve  group  for  each  of  the 
12  carriers  in  operation  plus  one  reserve  group  on 
each  coast.  The  fact  that  President  Truman  set  a 
$15,000  million  ceiling  on  the  1950  defense  budget 
makes  it  unlikely  that  either  the  Air  Force  or  the 
Navy  will  be  able  to  maintain  its  schedule  of  ex- 
pansion. The  funds  necessary  to  carry  out  the  pro- 
gram for  expanded  defense  forces  through  the 
fiscal  year  1950  at  the  levels  authorized  by  Con- 
gress would  require  an  additional  $1,000  million. 

The  National  Advisory  Committee  for  Aeronau- 
tics was  allotted  $41  million  for  the  continuation 
of  its  scientific  research  through  the  fiscal  year 
1949.  This  was  an  increase  of  almost  $17  million 
over  its  appropriation  for  the  fiscal  year  1948.  The 
NACA  operates  three  research  laboratories;  the 
Langley  Memorial  Aeronautical  Laboratory  at 
Langley  Field,  Virginia,  the  Ames  Aeronautical 
Laboratory  at  Moffett  Field  in  California,  and  a 
third  located  at  the  Cleveland  Airport  in  Ohio, 
These  laboratories  conduct  research  in  basic  and 
high-speed  aerodynamics  and  in  flight  propulsion. 

Procurement  and  Production.  Procurement  for  the 
fiscal  year  1949  will  be  4,262  military  aircraft  as 
compared  with  2,078  for  1948.  Air  Force  procure- 
ment was  concentrated  on  fighter  types,  including 
the  F-80,  F-82,  F-84  and  F-86,  with  only  one 
bomber,  the  B-50,  being  produced  in  quantity.  The 
Navy  also  placed  its  procurement  emphasis  on 
fighter  aircraft,  mainly  the  F4U-5  Corsair,  the 
F8F-1  Bearcat,  the  F9F-2  Panther,  the  AD-1  Sky- 
raider  and  the  AM-1  Mauler.  Aircraft  procurement 
for  1949  showed  a  definite  trend  toward  jet  pro- 
pulsion. This  was  especially  true  of  the  fighter 
planes,  the  transports  and  heavy  bombers  retain- 
ing the  conventional  reciprocating  engines. 

Among  current  production  aircraft  for  the  Air 
Force  were  the  North  American  F-82  with  a  top 
speed  of  over  475  m.p.h.  and  range  of  2,500  miles, 
the  Republic  F-84B  Thunder  jet  with  a  top  speed 
of  590  m.p.h.,  service  ceiling  of  40,000  feet  and 
range  of  1,000  miles,  the  North  American  F-86  A 
which  has  exceeded  the  speed  of  sound,  and  the 
F-93A,  a  modified  F-86  using  a  turbojet  engine 
rated  at  a  6,000-pound  static  thrust.  Bomber  pro- 
duction included  the  Convair  B-36A  and  B-36B, 
the  eight-jet  B-49,  the  Boeing  B-50  with  a  top 
speed  rated  at  over  400  m.p.h.,  and  the  North 
American  B-54A,  a  four-jet  type.  Prominent  among 
troop  and  cargo  carriers  were  the  C-119A,  an  im- 
proved C-82  Packet  designed  to  carry  nine  tons 
of  cargo  over  a  range  of  2,000  miles,  and  the  Doug- 
las C-124A,  a  strategic  transport,  two  and  one-half 
times  the  size  of  a  C-54,  capable  of  carrying  a  50,- 
000-pound  payload  over  a  2,400-mile  range.  Sev- 
eral miscellaneous  types  were  also  included  in  the 
procurement  program,  such  as  photo-reconnais- 
sance, liaison,  trainers,  and  helicopters. 

Navy  procurement  also  emphasized  fighter  air- 
craft with  the  Douglas  F3D  Skynight,  a  twin-jet 
night  fighter  rated  at  over  500  m.p.h.,  the  Grum- 
man F9F-2  and  F9F-3,  the  former  using  a  Nene 


power  plant  and  the  latter  a  J-33  engine,  the  North 
American  FJ-1  with  an  axial-flow  turbojet,  and  the 
McDonnell  FH-1  Phantom  and  F2H-1  Banshee 
being  the  most  prominent.  Other  important  types 
with  production  contracts  were  the  Martin  PBM- 
5A  Mariner,  supposedly  the  world's  largest  am- 
phibian patrol  bomber,  the  P5Y,  giant  turboprop- 
powered  flying  boat  with  both  bomber  and  trans- 
port versions,  and  the  Martin  JRM-2  Mars,  which 
is  capable  of  carrying  twice  the  payload  of  the 
original  Mars.  A  contract  was  also  let  by  the  Navy 
to  the  Goodyear  Aircraft  Corporation  for  the  de- 
sign of  the  largest  non-rigid,  fighter-than-air  craft 
ever  planned.  The  new  type  **N"  blimp  was  to  be 
nearly  twice  the  size  of  the  Navy  blimps  used  for 
anti-submarine  patrol  in  World  War  II  and  would 
be  capable  of  long-range  patrol  over  open  ocean 
areas. 

Of  major  concern  to  aircraft  manufacturers  and 
to  military  aviation  procurement  was  the  "master 
plan"  of  the  Western  Union  Military  Committee, 
showing  the  size  and  organization  of  the  future 
combined  land,  sea,  and  air  forces  which  are  the 
goal  of  that  European  alliance.  It  was  felt  that  a 
front-line  air  force  of  1,500  jet  fighters  with  3,000 
in  reserve  and  a  fewer  number  of  jet  bombers 
would  be  the  minimum  air  power  necessary  for 
protection  against  possible  aggression.  This  plan 
was  submitted  to  Washington  and  it  is  believed 
that  a  major  proportion  of  the  required  aircraft 
would  be  procured  in  the  United  States. 

Congress  passed  several  acts  during  the  year 
1948  affecting  the  procurement  of  aircraft  by  the 
services.  One  of  these  was  the  Armed  Services  Pro- 
curement Act,  which  made  the  requirements  for 
competitive-bid  contracting  less  stringent  and 
opened  the  way  for  negotiating  aircraft  contracts. 
New  rules  were  also  provided  for  the  protection 
of  manufacturers'  investments  by  permitting  the 
services  to  pay  tooling  costs  for  a  contract  as  soon 
as  approval  is  given  for  the  machinery  required. 
In  return  for  this  concession  the  services  required 
stricter  cost  accounting,  more  careful  scrutiny  of 
costs  by  inspectors,  periodic  price  negotiation,  and 
elimination  of  all  charges  not  specifically  involved 
in  the  production  of  military  equipment.  An 
amendment  to  the  1948  Supplemental  National 
Defense  Act  passed  by  Congress  on  May  21,  1948, 
provided  for  the  renegotiation  of  all  aircraft  pro- 
curement contracts  made  under  the  1949  fiscal  pro- 
gram. This  power  of  renegotiation  was  delegated 
to  two  5-man  boards,  one  for  the  Navy  and  one 
for  the  Air  Force.  Any  contract  or  subcontract  for ' 
more  than  $1,000  became  subject  to  renegotiation 
if  the  contracting  firm  had  a  gross  business  of  over 
$100,000  under  such  contracts. 

Research  and  Development.  The  year  1948  saw  ad- 
mirable progress  in  practically  all  fields  of  aviation 
development.  Not  only  did  tie  Navy  and  the  Air 
Force  produce  radically-designed  fighters  and 
bombers  of  astounding  speed  capabilities,  but  in 
guided  missiles,  pilotless  aircraft,  very  high-pow- 
ered conventional  and  jet  engines,  and  in  the  in- 
numerable contributing  sciences  they  made  great 
strides  forward.  Statements  by  several  high  United 
States  officials  gave  the  impression  that  the  United 
States  was  on  the  threshold  of  a  "Buck  Rogers" 
civilization. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  year,  Lieut.  Gen.  George 
E.  Stratemeyer  stated  that  'Tmman  flight  at  1,000 
miles  per  hour  is  no  longer  a  hangar  day-dream"; 
and  Secretary  of  Defense  James  Forrestal,  in  his 
first  annual  report  since  assuming  direction  of  the 
National  Military  Establishment,  announced  the 
existence  of  an  "earth  satellite  program."  However, 


AVIATION 


there  was  little  evidence  of  these  fantastic  projects 
in  ordinary  life.  The  only  public  display  of  avia- 
tion's great  advancement  was  the  sight  of  an  occa- 
sional plane  which  seemed  to  be  flying  faster  than 
did  the  older  models.  How  close  the  military  ex- 
perts had  come  to  those  dreams  which  they  had 
intimated  could  only  be  conjectured  on  the  part  of 
the  layman. 

The  Navy?  having  experienced  considerable  suc- 
cess in  the  launching  and  landing  of  Jet-propelled 
aircraft  on  carriers,  devoted  more  of  its  energies 
and  finances  to  their  development  in  1948  than  in 
1947.  Several  new  aircraft  were  evidence  of  the 
progress  in  this  direction.  Among  these  were  the 
North  American  XFJ-1  and  Grurnman  XF10F, 
both  jet  fighters,  the  XF7U-1  "flying  wing"  fighter, 
and  the  XAJ-1  search  plane  for  anti-submarine 
work.  The  Chance  Vought  swept-wing  XF7U-1 
was  a  tailless  jet  fighter  designed  for  shipboard 
operation  and  rated  at  well  over  600  m.p.h.  The 
"Hying  wing"  characteristics  gave  it  certain  advan- 
tages over  conventional  types  of  aircraft,  particu- 
larly in  the  high  speed  range.  The  XF7U-1  power 
plant  consists  of  two  J-34  turbojet  engines  and, 
for  combat  performance,  high  bursts  of  speed  are 
obtainable  through  the  use  of  after-burners  which 
are  able  to  produce  large  increases  in  thrust  for 
short  periods. 

The  North  American  XAJ-1  is  powered  by  two 
Wasp  Major  reciprocating  engines  located  under 
the  wings,  with  one  GE-Allison  turbojet  engine  in 
the  tail  of  the  fuselage.  The  plane  will  use  its 
conventional  engines  for  normal  operation  while 
the  pilot  will  be  able  to  "cut  in"  the  jet  for  added 
speed  under  combat  or  emergency  conditions.  The 
XAJ-1  will  be  able  to  carry  a  heavier  bomb  load 
and  will  be  considerably  faster  than  the  present 
carrier  types.  The  Douglas  D-558-1  Skystreak 
which  set  a  world  speed  record  of  650.7  m.p.h., 
has  been  clocked  in  test  flights  at  702  m.p.h.  at 
sea  level  With  a  temperature  of  90  degrees  this 
would  be  the  equivalent  of  a  Mach  rating  of  0.896. 
The  Douglas  D-558-2  Skyrocket,  which  is  still 
undergoing  tests,  was  designed  for  a  Mach  rating 
of  2.5.  The  Lockheed  XP3V-1,  designed  for  use 
aboard  the  new  65,000-ton  carrier,  is  powered  by 
both  turbojet  and  conventional  propeller  power. 
This  aircraft  is  also  equipped  with  advanced  elec- 
tronic equipment  for  use  in  anti-submarine  war- 
fare. The  Navy  also  carried  on  research  for  the 
development  of  a  supersonic  target  plane  with 
which  they  could  train  gunners  for  defense  against 
supersonic  aircraft. 

The  Air  Force  completed  much  research  and  de- 
velopment of  high-speed  fighters  and  long-range 
bombers  during  1948.  The  XF-87,  XF-88,  XF-89, 
XF-90,  and  XF-92  were  all  developed  as  high  sub- 
sonic or  supersonic  fighters.  The  XF-87,  a  four-jet 
night  fighter,  was  tested  at  over  600  m.p.h.  The 
XF-88,  a  swept-wing  penetration  fighter,  is  pow- 
ered by  two  J-34  jet  engines  and  is  said  to  be 
capable  of  speeds  over  720  m.p.h.  The  XF-89  is 
a  twin-jet  all-weather  fighter  with  straight  wings 
and  powered  by  two  J-35  engines.  The  XF-90  is 
also  a  straight-wing  all-weather  fighter.  The  XF-92 
is  under  development  and  is  being  designed  as  a 
supersonic  fighter. 

The  XB-47  and  XB-48  were  among  the  latest 
bombers  to  be  developed.  Both  are  six-jet  aircraft, 
and  the  XB-47,  which  has  dived  at  720  m.p.h.  and 
approached  level  flight  of  650  m.p.h.,  has  also  sur- 
passed the  F-80  fighter  in  some  of  its  tests.  It  was 
reported  that  the  Air  Force  was  in  the  process  of 
developing  a  new  four-turboprop  bomber  which 
would  be  heavier  and  have  a  longer  range  than 


61  AVIATION 

the  XB-47,  although  no  information  had  been  pub- 
lished at  the  close  of  the  year. 

The  Air  Force  was  also  continuing  its  line  of  re- 
search planes  which  had  started  in  1947  with  the 
X-l,  the  first  plane  admitted  to  have  exceeded  the 
speed  of  sound  in  level  flight.  The  X-2,  second  of 
this  series,  was  supposed  to  have  a  rocket  engine 
for  power  and,  unlike  its  predecessor,  swept  wings. 
The  X-3  research  plane  was  designed  for  a  super- 
sonic speed  of  Mach  3.0  and  altitudes  from  200,- 
000  to  300,000  feet  The  latest  of  this  line,  the  X-4, 
was  designed  primarily  for  the  study  of  flying-wing 
characteristics  at  high  subsonic  speeds. 

In  the  development  of  trainers  the  Air  Force 
outdid  itself.  The  TF-80-C,  which  was  designed 
for  training  jet  pilots,  gave  better  performance  than 
did  the  original  F-80. 

One  offshoot  of  the  development  of  supersonic 
fighters  was  research  to  produce  strong  plastic 
materials  to  be  used  in  wing  structure  for  the 
purpose  of  containing  radar  and  communications 
equipment,  since  it  is  not  feasible  to  use  antennas 
at  supersonic  speeds.  Another  achievement  was  the 
development  of  a  honeycombed  metal  sandwich 
material  for  the  construction  of  wings  to  eliminate 
internal  structures  and  allow  more  space  for  fuel 
storage. 

Both  the  Navy  and  the  Air  Force  showed  in- 
creased interest  in  helicopter  research  and  develop- 
ment. The  Navy  went  so  far  as  to  discard  its  obser- 
vation and  scouting  plane  program  in  favor  of  the 
helicopter.  Most  notable  of  the  Navy's  new  helicop- 
ters was  the  XHJS-1,  designed  for  utility,  rescue, 
and  observation  work  aboard  aircraft  carriers,  bat- 
tleships, and  cruisers.  Normally  it  carries  a  crew  of 
three  and  has  a  top  speed  of  110  m.p.h.  The  Air 
Force  had  several  types  which  were  being  consid- 
ered for  future  production.  Prominent  among  these 
were  the  XH-10,  XH-15,  XH-16,  and  XH-17.  The 
Bell  XH-15,  a  two-place  liaison  helicopter,  was  the 
smallest  of  the  four,  the  others  having  been  consid- 
ered for  their  load-carrying  capabilities.  The  XH-10 
was  designed  to  carry  12  passengers  and  was  pow- 
ered by  two  engines.  The  PiasecM  XH-16  was  ap- 
proximately the  size  of  a  C-54  cargo  plane.  The 
Kellett-GE  XH-17  was  a  radically  designed,  jet- 
propelled  "flying  crane"  helicopter,  capable  o£ 
carrying  a  load  of  24,700  pounds  a  distance  of  65 
miles.  In  order  to  overcome  the  handicap  of  short 
range  possessed  by  the  helicopter,  experiments 
were  conducted  to  study  the  practicability  of  tow- 
ing them  to  the  scene  of  action. 

Rockets  and  guided  missiles  also  found  their 
place  in  the  research  and  development  programs  of 
both  services.  The  Navy's  Aerobee  research  rocket, 
which  reached  a  speed  of  3,000  m.p.h.  and  an  alti- 
tude of  78  miles  in  its  first  firing  at  White  Sands 
Proving  Grounds,  New  Mexico,  was  equipped  with 
a  sequence  camera  and  used  to  photograph  a  1, 400- 
mile  area  of  the  United  States.  The  scientific  pur- 
pose of  this  project  was  threefold:  to  obtain  me- 
teorological information;  to  obtain  missile  orienta- 
tion required  for  the  interpretation  of  cosmic  ray 
data;  and  to  investigate  the  use  of  rockets  in  aerial 
photographic  reconnaissance. 

The  longest  sustained  flights  ever  made  by  pilot- 
less  aircraft  powered  by  ramjet  engines  were  ac- 
complished by  almost  wingless  missiles  tested  by 
the  Navy  at  Point  Mugu,  Cal.  These  missiles, 
PTV-N-2a  (Propulsion  Test  Vehicle),  made  sev- 
eral sustained  controlled  flights  of  more  than  10 
minutes.  They  were  piloted  by  remote  control  and 
tracked  by  radar.  Free-flight  information  was  ob- 
tained by  launching  from  a  mother  airplane,  and 
flight  information  was  telemetered  back  to  a  ground 


AVIATION 

receiving  station  by  an  electronic  'TDrain."  This 
missile,  designated  the  Gorgon  IV,  was  powered 
by  an  engine  which  had  been  designed  purposely 
to  fly  at  subsonic  velocities. 

The  first  Navy  ship  to  be  equipped  specifically 
for  the  primary  function  of  firing  large  rockets, 
the  USS  Norton  Sound,  had  her  initial  voyage  as 
a  seagoing  platform  for  upper  atmosphere  research 
through  rocket-firing  experiments  far  out  at  sea. 
This  floating  laboratory  was  also  intended  for  use 
by  the  Army  and  Air  Force.  The  Air  Force  an- 
nounced a  radically  new  rocket  engine  using  a 
secret  oxygen-based  fuel.  Experiments  were  made 
with  this  engine  mounted  in  a  "WAG  Sergeant" 
test  rocket  Another  Air  Force  rocket,  the  REX 
(Rocket,  Escape,  Experimental),  was  designed  to 
go  beyond  the  gravitational  pull  of  the  earth  and 
was  probably  part  of  the  research  involved  in  the 
satellite  program  mentioned  by  Forrestal.  It  had 
a  five-step  construction,  each  step  consisting  of  a 
rocket  motor  which  drops  from  the  rocket  when 
its  fuel  is  exhausted.  When  one  rocket  engine  drops 
off  fie  next  starts  to  run  and  augments  the  speed 
already  attained.  By  the  time  the  fifth  step  is 
reached  it  is  believed  that  the  desired  escape  ve- 
locity will  have  been  reached.  The  Air  Force  and 
the  Navy  combined  their  efforts  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  jet  target  missile,  the  XQ-2,  which  was 
half  the  size  of  a  normal  fighter  plane  with  a  top 
speed  of  approximately  600  m.p.h. 

In  their  quest  for  greater  speed  and  greater 
load-carrying  capabilities,  both  the  Air  Force  and 
the  Navy  spent  large  amounts  of  their  appropria- 
tions on  the  development  of  new  and  improved  en- 
gine types  for  use  in  aircraft.  An  extensive  program 
was  undertaken  for  the  development  of  turboprop 
engines.  It  was  felt  that  these  engines  were  ideal 
for  medium  speed,  long-range  aircraft,  and  pro- 
vided high  power  with  low  installation  weight.  An 
improved  version  of  the  R-4360  Wasp  Major  was 
the  R-4360- VDT  (Variable  Discharge  Turbine) 
which  provided  a  3,200-pound  thrust.  The  R-2180 
Twin  Wasp  was  a  new  development  in  piston  en- 
gines and  was  designed  for  installation  in  a  modi- 
fied C-54.  This  14~cylinder  engine  was  capable  of 
providing  1,800  horsepower  with  water  injection. 
The  Navy  announced  the  Turbo-Cyclone  18  en- 
gine, a  conventional  reciprocating  type  with  an 
added  compounding  system.  When  installed  in 
Navy  aircraft  it  is  expected  to  increase  substan- 
tially the  power  and  speed,  as  well  as  the  range, 
of  these  planes. 

Another  development  which  was  expected  to 
increase  the  speed  of  aircraft  already  in  production 
was  the  Navy's  after-burner.  This  after-burner  is 
an  auxiliary  jet  unit  which  steps  up  the  power  of 
a  jet  turbine  engine  for  short  periods.  Fuel  is  in- 
jected into  the  gas  flows  of  the  turbojet  engine  tail 
pipe  and  burned  in  the  excess  oxygen  at  extremely 
high  temperatures.  The  added  heat  energy  thus 
created  provides  the  extra  thrust  which  increases 
proportionately  with  die  speed  of  the  aircraft  and 
is  currently  limited  only  by  available  materials. 
For  use  at  supersonic  speeds  it  was  felt  that  the 
ramjet  engine  offered  the  greatest  possibilities  since 
it  provides  increasing  power  with  increasing  speed. 
The  greatest  power  potentialities  of  any  type  of 
engine  were  possessed  by  the  Northrop  Turbodyne 
II.  This  turboprop  engine,  capable  of  producing 
10,000  horsepower,  could  not  be  installed  in  any 
existing  airframe  because  of  the  excessive  power 
generated. 

Activities  in  supersonic  research  involved  much 
more  than  a  study  of  aircraft  configurations  and 
engine  design.  Aeronautical  engineers  were  enter- 


62  AVIATION 

ing  upon  a  field  for  which  there  was  little  or  no 
basic  knowledge.  Many  strange  facts  exist  beyond 
the  borders  of  sonic  speed.  One  of  the  minor  prob- 
lems, showing  the  wide  range  of  activities  entered 
into,  was  the  testing  of  the  adhesive  qualities  of 
paint  at  high  speeds.  To  determine  this,  the  Navy 
utilized  an  "ultra-centrifuge"  which  spins  a  small 
steel  ball  at  a  speed  of  approximately  1,800  miles 
per  hour.  A  dot  of  paint  is  placed  on  the  steel  ball 
and  speed  is  increased  until  the  centrifugal  force 
is  great  enough  to  cause  the  paint  to  fly  off.  The 
speed  of  the  ball  and  the  weight  of  the  paint,  along 
with  its  area,  are  used  to  compute  the  adhesive 
qualities  of  the  paint.  The  problem  of  paint  for 
high-speed  aircraft  is  very  important  in  research 
at  supersonic  speeds.  When  spread  over  an  entire 
airplane,  paint  adds  considerable  weight,  so  its 
thickness  has  to  be  limited  to  about  0.001  of  an 
inch.  At  high  speeds  this  thin  coating  tends  to 
come  off,  causing  a  dangerous  disruption  of  the 
airflow.  One  major  problem  encountered  in  super- 
sonic flight  is  the  dissipation  of  the  excessive  heat 
generated  by  air  friction.  This  involved  research  on 
the  development  of  various  cooling  methods  to 
avoid  the  use  of  such  materials  as  titanium  and 
cobalt  which  are  strategically  critical  and  in  dan- 
ger of  severe  curtailment. 

Much  discussion  was  caused  in  the  early  part  of 
1948  by  the  fact  that  the  X-l,  which  had  exceeded 
the  speed  of  sound,  was  a  straight-wing  aircraft, 
while  most  of  the  research  had,  up  to  that  time, 
been  concentrated  on  the  development  of  swept- 
wing  types  for  supersonic  speeds.  Tests  conducted 
at  the  Ames  Memorial  Laboratory  of  the  National 
Advisory  Committee  for  Aeronautics  revealed  that, 
while  swept-wing  versions  were  most  practical  in 
the  transonic  range  from  Mach  0.8  to  Mach  1.8, 
the  straight  wing  was  best  for  ultrasonic  speeds. 

Several  supersonic  wind  tunnels  were  either  put 
into  operation  or  were  being  built  during  1948. 
The  NAG  A  Langley  Memorial  Laboratory  had  a 
supersonic  tunnel  which  was  capable  of  attaining 
a  speed  of  Mach  2.2  under  continuous  operating 
conditions  and  reputed  to  be  the  fastest  in  opera- 
tion. The  largest  of  these  wind  tunnels  was  located 
at  the  NACA  Ames  Laboratory.  This  tunnel  was 
capable  of  speeds  up  to  Mach  1.6.  Another  at  the 
same  location,  which  was  not  yet  in  operation,  was 
larger  and  would  attain  speeds  up  to  Mach  2.  A 
wind  tunnel  captured  at  Kochel,  Bavaria,  and  op- 
erated by  the  Naval  Ordnance  Laboratory  at  White 
Oak,  Maryland,  was  said  to  have  reached  speeds 
of  Mach  5.8  in  tests.  This  tunnel  had  been  used 
by  German  scientists  in  their  preliminary  research 
on  the  V-2  rockets. 

Operafions.  With  the  advent  of  the  new  year 
1948,  the  Air  Force  was  still  in  the  infancy  of  its 
independence.  It  soon  became  evident,  however, 
that  this  was  not  an  independence  to  be  retained 
without  a  struggle.  The  claim  that  the  Air  Force 
had  become  our  first  line  of  defense  was  not  ac- 
cepted unanimously  by  all  government  officials. 
Advocates  of  powerful  sea  and  land  forces  were 
quick  to  come  to  the  defense  of  the  Army  and  the 
Navy  in  the  battle  for  appropriations.  Although  in 
theory  the  80th  Congress  had  given  the  Air  Force 
its  approval  by  supporting  the  70-group  program, 
in  reality  it  was  a  weak  indorsement  since  there 
was  included  no  authorization  for  the  funds  neces- 
sary to  maintain  such  a  force.  Secretary  of  Defense 
Forrestal  further  handicapped  the  attainment  of 
the  70-group  goal  by  the  Air^  Force  with  his  an- 
nouncement of  a  program  of  "balanced"  expendi- 
tures, with  equal  amounts  being  spent  for  all  three 
services.  Satisfying  all  three  services  under  this 


AVIATION 


63 


program  would  necessitate  appropriation  of  such 
excessive  amounts  of  money  that  it  would  soon 
bankrupt  the  country. 

The  supporters  of  the  Navy,  while  they  were 
willing  to  agree  that  air  power  was  a  necessity, 
felt  that  it  should  supplement,  rather  than  replace, 
the  existing  facilities  on  land  and  sea.  Moreover, 
with  the  Navy's  newly  developed  strategy  of  using 
submarines  as  refueling  bases  for  its  flying  boats, 
they  felt  that  the  Navy  was  in  a  much  better  posi- 
tion to  carry  out  long-range  missions  than  was  the 
Air  Force  with  its  land-based  aircraft  Throughout 
the  year,  Secretary  of  the  Navy  John  L.  Sullivan 
waged  a  vigorous  fight  for  new  aircraft  carriers 
and  increased  Naval  air  power.  It  was  only  natural, 
in  the  face  of  all  this  discussion  of  air  power,  that 
adherents  of  the  Army  should  come  to  the  fore 
with  the  affirmation  that  manpower  would  be  the 
deciding  factor  in  any  war  which  might  be  waged. 
It  was  their  contention  that  numerical  superiority 
of  troops  was  the  basic  factor  in  deterring  other 
counties  from  an  attack  upon  our  shores. 

This  competition  between  the  services  made  it 
clear  that  the  81st  Congress,  when  it  convened  in 
January  of  1949,  would  be  faced  with  the  problem 
of  determining  the  best  course  to  follow,  the  one 
which  would  afford  the  United  States  the  greatest 
amount  of  protection  in  an  emergency,  and  concen- 
trating their  efforts  on  an  attempt  to  achieve  that 
goal.  Secretary  of  Defense  Forrestal,  in  his  first  an- 
nual report  on  the  National  Military  Establish- 
ment made  on  Dec.  29,  1948,  expressed  the  follow- 
ing sentiment  on  unification:  "True  unification  of 
the  armed  might  of  the  United  States  cannot  spring 
from  legislation  alone.  The  spark  generated  by  the 
unification  act  must  be  fanned  into  flame  by  the 
thoughts  and  actions  of  generals  and  admirals,  en- 
signs and  lieutenants,  soldiers  and  airmen  and 
civilians.  We  must  all  learn  that  we  are  working 
together  for  a  common  cause — the  security  of  the 
country — and  that  the  good  of  all  transcends  that 
of  the  few." 

In  January,  1948,  the  Air  Force  had  a  total 
strength  of  55  groups  with  22,800  planes,  more 
than  half  of  which  were  in  storage,  and  the  Navy 
had  14  carrier  groups  with  approximately  10,000 
planes  in  service.  By  the  end  of  1948  the  Air  Force 
had  increased  its  over-all  strength  to  66  groups, 
while  the  Navy  felt  confident  of  achieving  its  14,- 
500-plane  goal  by  July  1,  1949.  These  facts  gave 
evidence  of  the  increasing  interest  which  was  dis- 
played in  military  aviation  during  1948  and  showed 
a  healthy  improvement  in  the  defensive  power  of 
the  United  States.  However,  indications  were  that 
neither  service  would  attain  its  full  growth,  includ- 
ing reserve  strength,  within  the  next  5  years  unless 
an  emergency  bordering  on  a  virtual  state  of  war 
should  arise,  calling  for  all-out  effort  in  behalf  of 
the  country's  defense.  Faced  by  the  more  intensely 
personal  problems  of  housing  and  rising  prices, 
the  Congress  will  not  be  ^likely  to  increase  military 
expenditures  by  too  great  a  margin  in  1949* 

Better  than  all  speeches  in  favor  of  air  power 
was  the  achievement  of  the  Berlin  airlif  t  mentioned 
above.  The  sustained  supply  of  the  essentials  of 
life  to  the  people  of  Berlin  despite  all  obstacles  of 
weather  and  politics  gave  proof  of  the  efficacy  and 
importance  of  air  power  under  present-day  condi- 
tions. It  must  be  noted  that  the  Navy,  too,  is  to 
be  credited  with  much  praise  for  the  splendid  work 
which  it  accomplished  in  supplying  the  tremen- 
dous amounts  of  fuel  required  for  the  successful 
completion  of  those  many  missions. 

Another  step  in  the  direction  of  unification  was 
the  consolidation  of  the  Air  Transport  Command 


AVIATION 

of  the  Air  Force  with  the  Naval  Air  Transport 
Service.  This  group,  designated  as  the  Military  Air 
Transport  Service,  was  established  on  Mar.  1, 
1948,  and  began  its  operations  on  June  1.  Admin- 
istration of  MATS  came  under  the  Air  Force  and 
Maj.  Gen*  Laurence  S.  Kuter  was  appointed  to 
direct  its  activities.  MATS  was  charged  with  the 
responsibility  for  operating  all  scheduled  air  trans- 
port service  for  the  Air  Force,  Army,  and  Navy  as 
well  as  for  other  government  agencies,  for  provid- 
ing weather  information,  communications,  and  air- 
sea  rescue  and  for  maintaining  all  primary  facilities 
required  in  furnishing  these  services.  Administra- 
tively, MATS  was  appointed  to  act  as  liaison  with 
all  civil  transport  facilities  to  prepare  for  their  utili- 
zation in  time  of  war. 

In  the  early  part  of  1948  the  Munitions  Board 
established  a  committee  on  aircraft  and  appointed 
Rear  Adm.  A.  M.  Pride,  Chief  of  the  Navy  Bureau 
of  Aeronautics,  as  chairman.  Admiral  Pride,  along 
with  several  USAF  representatives,  was  to  coordi- 
nate and  standardize  the  services  and  equipment 
of  the  Air  Force  and  the  Navy,  insofar  as  practi- 
cable. Besides  an  attempt  at  coordinating  the  ma- 
terial aspects  of  the  services,  a  method  was  pro- 
posed for  eliminating  or  reducing  the  wide  diver- 
gences of  opinion  existing  between  the  services. 
Maj.  Gen.  Wilton  Persons  of  the  Army  was  ap- 
pointed to  fill  a  position  as  mediator  in  the  Na- 
tional Military  Establishment.  It  was  felt  that  re- 
lationships between  the  services  would  be  im- 
proved if  all  problems  which  arose  were  routed 
through  such  a  mediator  for  compromise  before 
they  reached  Congress  and  became  matters  of  pub- 
lic discussion. 

The  only  major  change  in  personnel  within  the 
Air  Force  was  the  appointment  of  Gen.  Hoyt  S. 
Vandenberg  to  succeed  Gen.  Carl  Spaatz  as  Chief 
of  Staff,  effective  July  1,  1948.  On  that  same  date 
the  Air  Defense  Command  reduced  the  number 
of  its  Air  Forces  from  six  to  four.  The  llth  Air 
Force  was  consolidated  with  the  1st  and  the  2nd 
was  absorbed  by  the  10th.  As  a  result  of  this  re- 
trenchment for  economy's  sake,  the  spheres  of  de- 
fense were  rearranged  as  follows:  the  northeast 
coast  was  placed  under  the  1st  Air  Force,  the 
southeast,  south  and  southwest  under  the  14th,  the 
middle  states  under  the  10th  and  the  Pacific  coast 
under  the  4th.  The  Air  Proving  Ground  was  also 
consolidated  with  the  Air  Materiel  Command  dur- 
ing early  1948  as  a  part  of  this  over-all  economy 
move. 

Type  designations  of  aircraft  were  changed  by 
the  Air  Force.  A  comparison  of  the  new  and  old 
systems  is  as  follows:  fighter  changed  from  *'P"  to 
"F;"  reconnaissance  from  "F"  to  "R;M  trainers 
from  "AT,"  "BT"  or  "PT"  to  "T;"  research  from 
"XS"  to  "X;"  amphibian  from  "OA"  to  "A;"  heli- 
copter from  "B"  to  "H,"  and  search  and  rescue 
planes  which  had  no  designation  were  assigned 
the  letter  "S."  Description  of  all  other  types  re- 
mained the  same. 

The  Air  Navigation  Development  Board 
(ANDB)  was  established  for  the  purpose  of  co- 
ordinating the  military  and  civil  all-weather  air- 
ways and  giving  the  final  recommendations  for  all 
types  of  equipment  to  be  used.  The  all-weather 
program  was  divided  into  two  distinct  phases.  The 
first  of  these  was  an  interim  program  aimed  at  the 
utilization  of  equipment  already  available  or  likely 
to  become  available  in  the  immediate  future.  Com- 
pletion of  this  program  was  expected  within  the 
following  6  years  and  would  require  expenditures 
of  approximately  $5,700,000  for  research  and  de- 
velopment and  $369,500,000  for  production. 


AWAT/ON 

Foreign  Developments.  Due  to  the  ever-present 
threat  of  war  in  an  unsettled  world,  no  country 
published  detailed  accounts  of  its  activities  in  the 
field  of  military  aviation.  Most  information  had  to 
be  gathered  from  scattered  sources,  pieced  to- 
gether and  conclusions  drawn  from  the  material 
obtained.  Great  Britain  appears  to  have  attained 
approximately  the  same  developmental  status  as 
exists  in  the  United  States.  Russia  shows  evidence 
of  having  planes  which  rival  the  performance  of 
those  in  America,  and  the  possibility  exists  that 
her  research  has  surpassed  that  of  the  Western 
powers.  However,  aviation  authorities  believe  that 
Russia  does  not  yet  have  the  facilities  for  pro- 
ducing jet-powered  aircraft  in  the  same  quantity 
or  of  the  same  quality  as  those  being  manufactured 
in  the  United  States. 

Great  Britain.  Despite  the  fact  that  Britain  has 
shown  a  great  deal  of  progress  in  the  development 
of  jet  engines  and  aircraft,  her  actual  strength,  in- 
sofar as  military  aircraft  are  concerned,  is  at  a  dan- 
ferously  low  ebb.  Vampires,  Meteors,  Fireflies  and 
eafires  are  the  only  jet  planes  which  would  be 
available  in  sufficient  numbers  to  form  a  fighting 
force  for  emergency  use.  The  British  have  not  yet 
recovered  from  the  effects  of  World  War  II.  Pro- 
duction, retooling,  and  manpower  shortages  are  the 
chief  problems  which  they  face  and  to  which  they 
must  devote  the  major  part  of  their  energies.  The 
budget  of  £140  million  for  the  fiscal  year 
1946-47  was  sharply  reduced  in  1947-48.  A  total 
of  approximately  £60  million  was  allotted  for  the 
year  ending  March  31,  1948,  to  be  used  for  the 
purchase  of  aircraft  engines  and  spares.  Most  of 
the  money  appropriated  for  military  aviation  is 
being  used  in  research  and  development,  according 
to  statements  made  by  the  Minister  of  Defense  and 
Sir  Henry  Tizard,  Chairman  of  the  Defense  Re- 
search Policy  Committee. 

Britain  is  counting  on  at  least  5  years  of  peace, 
during  which  time  new  and  improved  aircraft  can 
be  developed  and  readied  for  production  with  the 
least  amount  of  effort  and  money,  and  the  country's 
major  attention  devoted  to  domestic  problems. 
After  this  period,  if  an  emergency  should  arise,  the 
British  feel  that  sufficient  preparations  will  have 
been  made  to  permit  the  rapid  quantity  produc- 
tion of  modern  aircraft,  comparable  to  those  in  use 
by  any  prospective  enemy.  Of  those  planes  which 
are  in  production,  many  are  being  sold  to  various 
countries  in  Western  Europe  and  in  the  British 
Empire. 

The  greatest  activity  in  Britain  was  found  in 
the  development  and  manufacture  of  jet  fighters. 
Among  the  latest  types  are  the  Saro  SR/45  and 
SRA.l  flying  boats  (the  latter  being  powered  by 
a  turbojet  engine  and  having  a  rated  speed  of  over 
500  m.p.h.),  the  Supermarine  Attacker,  the 
Hawker  N.7/46  Navy  fighter  and  its  RAF  counter- 
part P.1040  (both  powered  by  the  Rolls-Royce 
Nene  turbojet  engine  and  having  a  speed  rating 
estimated  at  over  650  m.p.h.),  the  E.38/46,  a  new 
swept- wing  version  of  the  N.7/46  and  reported  to 
have  a  top  speed  of  over  600  m.p.h.,  the  deHavi- 
land  Sea  Hornet  XXI,  an  all-weather  fighter  with  a 
special  nose  structure  to  accommodate  radar  search 
equipment,  and,  finally,  the  DH-108  Swallow, 
powered  by  a  modified  Goblin  turbojet  engine 
and  reported  to  have  exceeded  the  speed  of  sound 
in  a  dive  at  a  Mach  number  of  1.0.  Gloster  was 
designing  a  swept-wing  replacement  for  its  twin- 
jet  Meteor  which  is,  at  present,  one  of  the  main- 
stays of  the  RAF, 

Although  no  new  bombers  were  introduced,  it 
was  believed  that  the  British  are  developing  two 


64  AVIATION 

new  types,  one  an  eight-jet  flying  wing  and  the 
other  a  four-jet,  swept-wing  tailless  bomber.  The 
trainers  in  use  had  already  been  introduced  in 
1947,  with  the  fastest  being  the  Gloster  Meteor 
VII  which  has  a  top  speed  of  585  m.p.h.  Among 
the  latest  engines  to  be  developed  were  the  Napier 
Naiad,  the  Bristol  Theseus,  the  Bristol  Proteus, 
and  the  high-rated  Armstrong-Siddeley  Python 
which  produces  3,670  horsepower.  Rolls-Royce 
introduced  a  new  axial-flow  turbojet  engine  with  a 
record  7,500-pound  static  thrust, 

U.S.S.R.  No  details  concerning  Russian  air  power 
were  available,  other  than  those  which  that  gov- 
ernment chose  to  supply.  Scanty  as  those  reports 
were,  however,  certain  conclusions  may  be  drawn. 
Secretary  of  the  Air  Force  Symington  made  note 
of  a  report  that  Russian  aircraft  production  was 
approximately  12  times  that  of  the  United  States. 
This  report,  if  true,  would  mean  that  Russia  is 
capable  of  putting  into  the  air  a  formidable  fight- 
ing weapon.  While  a  great  deal  of  Russia's  output 
appears  to  be  almost  direct  copy  of  certain  Ameri- 
can plane  types,  it  is  evident  that  a  great  deal  of 
original  research  is  under  way.  The  Russians 
gained  much  knowledge  and  saved  years  of  re- 
search by  the  capture  of  Nazi  laboratories  and  by 
the  assistance  of  German  scientists. 

The  Russians  have  three  jet  fighters  and  two 
bombers  which  have  been  observed  in  flight.  The 
fighters  are  the  600  m.p.h.  "Mig"  (powered  by  a 
single  turbojet  engine),  a  swept-wing  supersonic 
version  of  the  German  DFS  346,  and  the  "Yak," 
which  is  believed  to"  have  a  Rolls-Royce  Nene  en- 
gine and  a  speed  of  between  630  and  660  m.p.h. 
It  is  reported  that  these  fighters  are  already  in  serv- 
ice with  several  tactical  fighting  units.  The  two 
bombers  are  jet-powered,  one  being  a  twin-jet 
type  and  the  other  having  four  jet  engines,  Con- 
sensus of  estimates  places  the  Russian  front-line 
aircraft  strength  at  approximately  15,000  planes* 

Russia  is  also  active  in  guided  missile  research, 
as  evidenced  by  reports  from  Scandinavia  of  ob- 
jects passing  over  those  countries  at  supersonic 
speeds.  One  report  has  it  that  the  Russians  have 
solved  the  problem  of  causing  their  missiles  to 
follow  the  curvature  of  the  earth  rather  than  fol- 
lowing a  straight  course  and  attaining  great  heights 
with  limited  range.  This  was  one  of  the  major 
difficulties  experienced  by  the  Germans  in  their 
research  on  the  V-2  rockets. 

France.  Unable  to  carry  on  normal  development 
and  production  during  the  war,  France  has  not 
yet  established  an  air  force  of  any  magnitude.  It 
is  reported  that  the  French  Air  Force  has  approx- 
imately 3,500  front-line  planes,  practically  all  of 
which  are  war-time  British  and  American  models. 
Research  and  development  of  jet  models  are  only 
in  their  preliminary  stages.  The  few  jet-powered 
aircraft  which  are  now  in  use  were  bought  from 
the  United  States  or  Britain,  Proposed  plans  for 
production  which  will  carry  through  1951  call  for 
a  total  of  1,467  military  aircraft  to  include  the  fol- 
lowing types:  the  SE-2400,  SO-6020,  and  SO- 
8000  jet  fighters;  the  SO-4000  or  NC-270,  medium 
jet  bombers;  the  NC-211,  N-2500  or  BR-890,  and 
BR-761  freight  carriers;  the  MO-315  overseas  liai- 
son; the  SO-3OR  and  N-30  transports;  the  N-1400 
exploration  hydroplane;  and  the  SO-6000  jet 
trainer. 

In  1947  the  French  produced  a  total  of  1,445 
planes,  which  included  both  civilian  and  military 
types.  Among  the  latest  planes  developed  and  pro- 
duced in  France  were  the  Dassault  450a  a  combat 
fighter  powered  by  a  Rolls-Royce  Nene  engine  and 
rated  at  a  top  speed  of  578  m.p.h.,  which  resem- 


PRIZE  MONiY  of  $41,500  made  the 
Pepsi-Cola  competition  the  nation's 
richest  until  it  was  abruptly  closed 
after  the  exhibition  in  1948,  a  year 
which  also  saw  repeal  of  the  excess- 
profits  tax.  Mitchell  Jamieson's  paint- 
ing Landscape  (below)  won  first  prize 
($2,500).  The  artist  conceived  his  pic- 
ture "as  a  statement  in  mood  .  .  . 
The  intent  was  to  retain  realism  of 
atmosphere  .  .  .  while  using  some- 
what abstract,  space-filling  forms." 
The  picture  was  selected  as  the  No- 
vember subject  for  the  company's 
1949  calendar.  The  Assemblage  (left), 
by  Margaret  Tomkins,  won  third  prize, 
and  a  $1,500  award.  The  artist  here 
was  concerned  with  "the  static  mo- 
ment of  being  in  the  life  cycle—a 
phenomenon  of  man  and  nature  as- 
sembled as  one." 


Acme  Photos 


BLUE  TABLE  STILL  LIFE  is  the 

title  of  the  Pepsi-Cola  contest's 
second  prize  winner,  painted 
by  Nan  Lurie  of  Greenwich 
Village  in  New  York  City. 
The  prize  Miss  Lurie  received 
amounted  to  $2,000.  V 


PERILOUS  NIGHT,  painted  by 
John  Heliker,  is  shown  at 
the  left.  It  was  awarded  the 
Obrig  Prize  by  the  National 
Academy  in  its  122nd  annual 
exhibition,  held  in  New  York 
City.  The  National  Academy's 
competition,  in  which  the  first 
prize  went  to  a  safely  aca- 
demic work  and  other  prizes 
to  works  of  the  nature  of  Mr. 
Heliker's,  was  characteristic  of 
most  public  competitions  dur- 
ing the  year,  in  that  it  essayed 
to  present,  bravely,  all  sides 
of  the  modern-art  controversy, 
recurrent  in  1948  with  no  less 
vigor  than  in  previous  years. 


MEDIEVAL   SHADOWS,    is   the 

title  of  this  painting  (below) 
by  Raphael  Gleitsmann,  win- 
ner of  the  $1,500  first  prize 
in  the  Carnegie  Institute  ex- 
hibition, "Painting  in  the  Unit- 
ed States,  1948."  The  annual 
awards,  formerly  international, 
were  given  this  year  to  a  se- 
lection of  300  artists  on  a 
100%  American  basis.  The 
paintings  ranged  from  ab- 
straction to  illustration.  T 

Photos  courtesy  Kraushaar  Gal- 
leries,   Carnegie   Institute 


Courtesy  The  Downtown  Gallery 

APTEKA.  A  street  scene  painted  by  Jack  Levine— this  picture  won  a  medal  in  the  Pennsylvania  Academy's 
competition.  Earlier  in  the  year  Look  magazine  published  a  list  of  the  ten  foremost  living  American  artists: 
Mr.  Levine  was  the  only  one  of  these  to  win  an  Academy  medal.  He  came  in  tenth  on  Look's  list/  however. 


Courtesy  Frank  Rehn  Gallery 

CLAIRE  LUCE  AS  CAMILLE,  characteristically  wistful,  was  painted  by  John  Carroll.  The  picture  won  first  prize 
of  $1,200  in  the  National  Academy's  annual  exhibition,  in  which  prizes  went  also  to  Raphael  Soyer  for  Seam- 
stress,  Zsissly  for  YaJcuima  Boy,  Martin  Johnson  for  his  metropolitan  scene  T/nfype,  Jacob  Arkush  for  a  solidly  exe- 
cuted figure  study  called  leona,  and  Ruth  Ray  for  Havajo  land,  a  western  still  life  in  the  manner  of  Georgia  O'Keeffe. 


REST  ON  THE  FLIGHT  INTO  £GYPT  (left), 
carved  directly  in  black  diorite  by  the  Amer- 
ican Donald  Hord.  Completed  in  1941,  this 
work  was  delivered  to  the  San  Diego  Fine 
Arts  Gallery  on  Pearl  Harbor  day,  and  im- 
mediately returned  to  the  sculptor  for  the 
duration,  the  gallery  being  converted  to  a 
naval  hospital.  The  piece  was  brought  back 
in  the  year  1948  for  the  gallery's  reopening. 

Courtesy  Homer  Dana 


TEAKWOOD  SCULPTURE  entitled  Woman 
with  B/rc/s,  carved  by  Milton  Hebald  and 
now  in  the  collection  of  the  Whitney  Museum 
of  American  Art,  in  New  York  City,  is  shown 
at  the  lower  left.  In  1948,  plans  for  the 
fusion  of  the  Whitney  and  Metropolitan  mu- 
seums were  abandoned,  the  Whitney  Museum 
fearing  for  the  safety  of  its  liberal  tradition. 


THORN-BLOSSOM  (below),  done  in  steel 
and  brazed  nickel  by  the  Sculptor  Theo- 
dore J.  Roszak,  was  exhibited  in  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Whitney  Museum.  It  is  one  ex- 
ample of  the  emancipated  attitude  of  that 
museum  on  the  matter  of  contemporary  art 
trends,  an  attitude  which  contrasted  incom- 
patibly with  that  of  the  Metropolitan,  and 
occasioned  the  formal  split  in  October  1948. 


AZORES  65 

bles  the  Douglas  D-558  in  appearance,  and  the 
Arsenal  VG-70-01,  a  jet  research  plane  which  is 
powered  by  a  German  Junkers  Jumo  004B-2  turbo- 
jet engine  and  has  a  top  speed  of  550  m.p.h.  Or- 
ders have  been  placed  with  Britain  for  the  delivery 
of  a  number  of  deHaviland  Vampires  and  Vickers- 
Armstrong  Attackers.  The  United  States  approved 
the  sale  of  15  P-51  Mustangs  to  France  for  a  total 
of  $157,467. 

Norway  and  Sweden.  Concentration  on  the  devel- 
opment of  jet-propelled  fighters  marked  the  char- 
acter of  military  aviation  in  Scandinavia.  With 
the  realization  that  they  are  in  a  difficult  position 
to  wage  an  offensive  war,  these  countries  are  de- 
voting their  energies  to  building  up  a  fast,  hard- 
hitting force  of  fighters  with  which  they  could 
ward  off  a  powerful  attacker.  Their  hope  is  that 
they  will  be  able  to  carry  on  a  delaying  action  long 
enough  to  permit  a  more  powerful  ally  to  arrive 
with  reinforcements.  Both  Norway  and  Sweden 
are  placing  orders  with  Britain  for  delivery  of  de- 
Haviland Vampires,  especially  the  Mark  III  version 
which  has  a  greater  fuel  capacity  and  wing  rocket 
launchers.  Sweden  is  producing  its  own  jet  fighter, 
the  J.29,  reportedly  capable  of  sonic  speeds. 

Canada.  The  Canadian  government  was  sched- 
uled to  spend  $6  million  for  jet  engine  research 
and  experimental  construction  and  $3  million  for 
the  purchase  of  military  aircraft  from  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain.  Vampires  which  were 

Eurchased  from  Britain  were  delivered  unassem- 
led  for  construction  in  Canada.  Canada  itself  was 
producing  the  XC-100,  an  all-weather  fighter  pow- 
ered by  two  Rolls-Royce  Avon  engines  and  capable 
of  attaining  speeds  over  675  m.p.h. 

— MATTHIAS  HOLLANDER 

AZORES.  A  Portuguese  archipelago  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  about  800  miles  west  of  Portugal  and  2,100 
miles  east  of  New  York.  Area:  889  square  miles; 
population  (1940  census),  286,885.  The  eastern 
group  comprises  Santa  Maria  and  Sao  Miguel  (297 
sq.  mi.)  islands;  the  central  group  the  islands  of 
Terceira,  Graciosa,  Sao  Jorge,  Pico,  and  Fayal;  and 
the  western  group  the  islands  of  Flores  and  Corvo. 
Capitals  of  the  three  districts,  each  of  which  sends 
representatives  to  the  Chamber  in  Lisbon,  are: 
Ponta  Delgada  on  Sao  Miguel  (pop.  21,048); 
Horta  on  Fayal  (pop.  8,407);  and  Angra  do  Her- 
oismo  on  Terceira  (pop.  11,706). 

Production,  etc.  Agriculture,  dairying,  fishing,  and 
needlework  are  the  chief  occupations.  The  prin- 
cipal crops  are  corn,  hothouse  pineapples,  fruits, 
sugar  beets,  wheat,  and  tobacco.  Imports  come 
mainly  from  Portugal.  The  Azores  is  an  important 
center  of  world  communication  and  has  15  Atlantic 
cables.  Air  bases  in  the  islands  are  strategically 
important  to  transatlantic  aviation.  An  inter-island 
air  service  was  opened  in  June  1947.- 

BADMINTON.  Dr.  David  Freeman  of  Pasadena, 
Calif.,  won  the  American  Badminton  Association 
championship  for  the  sixth  time  by  defeating 
Martin  Mendez  of  Pasadena  in  the  final  of  the 
national  tournament  at  Waco,  Tex.,  in  April.  Free- 
man also  retained  a  share  in  the  doubles  title  when 
he  teamed  with  Wynn  Rogers  of  Arcadia,  Calif., 
to  triumph. 

Ethel  Marshall,  defending  champion  from  Buf- 
falo, N.Y.,  repeated  in  the  women's  singles  by  con- 
quering Mrs.  Thelma  Scovil  of  Pasadena.  Mrs. 
Scovil  later  paired  with  Janet  Wright  to  capture 
the  doubles  laurels,  while  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Clinton 
Stephens  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  took  the  mixed  dou- 
bles trophy.  fc  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 


BAKER  ISLAND 

BAHA'l  FAITH.  Religion  founded  by  BahaVllah 
(1817-1892),  now  spread  to  91  countries  of  the 
East  and  West.  It  teaches  that  divine  revelation  is 
progressive  and  that  each  revealed  Faith  is  one 
stage  in  the  evolution  of  one  universal  religion. 
It  stresses  also  the  principle  of  the  oneness  of  man- 
kind as  the  basis  for  a  new  world  order.  In  the 
United  States  there  are  179  organized  local  com- 
munities, f  our  summer  schools,  a  House  of  Worship 
(Wilmette,  111.)  and  an  extensive  publications  ac- 
tivity. Nine  National  Assemblies  exist,  in  the  Unit- 
ed States,  Canada,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Egypt, 
Iran,  Iraq,  India  (with  Burma  and  Pakistan),  and 
Australia  (with  New  Zealand).  World  headquar- 
ters: Haifa,  Israel;  American  headquarters:  Wil- 
mette,  111. 

BAHAMAS.  A  British  West  Indian  colony  comprising 
20  inhabited  and  many  uninhabited  islands  and 
rocks.  The  chief  islands  are  New  Providence, 
Abaco,  Harbour,  Grand  Bahama,  Cat,  Long,  Maya- 
guana,  Eleuthera,  Exuma,  San  Salvador  (or  Wat- 
ling's  Island),  Acklin's,  Crooked,  Great  Ina- 
gua,  Andros.  Total  land  area:  4,404  square  miles. 
Population  (1944  est.):  69,991  (85  percent  col- 
ored). Capital:  Nassau  (on  New  Providence). 
Finance  (1948  est):  revenue  £967,170;  expendi- 
ture £1,270,870;  public  debt  (Dec.  31,  1945) 
£245,000.  Foreign  trade  (1946):  imports 
£2,840,576;  exports  £399,819.  Sisal,  sponges, 
fruits,  and  tomatoes  are  the  chief  products.  A  site 
for  a  naval  base  on  the  island  of  Mayaguana  was 
leased  to  the  United  States  in  1940.  See  BBITISH 
WEST  INDIES. 

The  Governor  (Sir  William  L.  Murphy,  Apr. 
30,  1945)  is  assisted  by  an  executive  council.  A 
legislature  consisting  of  a  legislative  council  and 
a  representative  assembly  is  elected  by  voters,  who 
must  meet  a  small  property  qualification. 

BAHREIN  (Bahrain).  The  important  islands  of  this 
Arab  state  in  the  Persian  Gulf  are  Bahrein, 
Muharraq,  Nabi  Saleh,  and  Sitra.  Total  area:  213 
square  miles.  Population:  100,000,  of  whom  about 
one  half  belong  to  the  Shia  sect  and  one  half  to  the 
Sunnis.  Capital:  Manama  (30,000  inhabitants)  on 
the  island  of  Bahrein;  Muharraq  is  the  other  im- 
portant town. 

Production  and  Trade.  Bahrein  is  the  center  of  im- 
portant pearl  fisheries  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Oil  was 
discovered  in  1932  and  is  being  exploited  by  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  of  California  and  the  Texas 
Corporation  through  the  Bahrein  Petroleum  Com- 
pany. Other  products  are  sailcloth,  boats,  reed 
mats,  and  dates.  White  donkeys  are  raised. 

In  1946-47,  the  chief  exports  were  pearls 
(Rs676,290);  sugar  (Rs931,020);  tea  (Rsl,310s- 
890);  rice  (Rs374,440);  wheat  ( Rs2,276,390 ) ; 
cotton  piece  goods  (Rs9 10,970).  Cnief  sources  of 
revenue  are  oil  royalties  and  customs  duties.  The 
1946  revenue  totaled  Rs7,040,010  ( Rupee  = 
$U,S.0.3016;  average  for  year).  Ruler:  Sheik  Sir 
Salman  bin  Hamad  al  Khalifa  (in  treaty  relations 
with  the  United  Kingdom). 

BAKER  ISLAND.  An  island  in  the  Pacific  (just  north 
of  the  equator;  176°  31' W.);  discovered  by  Mi- 
chael Baker,  of  New  Bedford,  Mass,  in  1832.  A 
possession  of  the  United  States,  it  was  colonized  by 
American  citizens  in  1935.  The  island  is  less  than 
a  mile  in  diameter.  By  an  Executive  Order  issued 
May  13,  1936,  the  island  was  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior. 
Its  strategic  importance  lies  in  its  position  between 
Hawaii  and  Pago  Pago,  American  Samoa,  and  in 


BALEARIC  ISLANDS 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


its  use  as  a  refueling  station  for  air  and  water 
traffic  on  the  route  between  Hawaii  and  New 
Zealand. 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  four  islands— Mal- 
lorca  (Majorca),  Menorca  (Minorca),  Ibiza 
(Iviza),  and  Fprmentera — and  11  islets  (Cabrera 
is  the  largest ) ,  in  the  western  Mediterranean.  They 
constitute  a  province  of  Spain.  Area:  1,936  square 
miles.  Population  (1947  est.):  437,339.  Capital: 
Palma  (on  Mallorca),  135,419  inhabitants. 

BALKAN  STATES.  The  countries  of  the  peninsula 
south  of  the  Danube,  and  bounded  by  the  Adri- 
atic, Aegean,  and  Black  seas.  See  ALBANIA,  BUL- 
GARIA, GREECE,  RUMANIA,  TURKEY,  YUGOSLAVIA. 

BANKS  AND  BANKING.  Banking  operations  in  1948 
continued  to  be  greatly  influenced  by  the  strong 
inflationary  pressures  prevailing  in  the  economy, 
and  in  turn  they  played  an  important  part  in  con- 
tributing to  the  forces  of  inflation.  Business  out- 
lays for  plant  and  equipment,  and  consumer  ex- 


and  the  rising  price  level.  After  a  slight  seasonal 
decline  in  business  loans  during  the  first  half  o£ 
1948,  they  resumed  their  increase  in  the  second 
half,  although  at  a  slower  tempo  than  in  1947. 
Farmers  continued  to  borrow  large  amounts  from 
the  banks  to  finance  increased  operations  and  pur- 
chases of  farm  equipment  and  other  supplies.  In 
the  15  months  ending  September,  1948,  short- 
term  agricultural  credit  increased  by  more  than 
25  percent.  Similarly,  commercial  banks  continued 
to  expand  consumer  loans  made  largely  for  the 
purpose  of  buying  automobiles,  household  ap- 
pliances, and  other  durable  goods.  They  accounted 
for  about  a  half  of  the  total  increase  in  short-term 
consumer  credit  during  the  year,  totaling  3,000 
million  dollars.  With  the  reimposition  of  consumer 
credit  controls  in  September,  the  growth  of  con- 
sumer instalment  credit  began  to  slow  down. 

Increased  expenditures  for  housing  construction, 
stimulated  by  liberalized  insurance  of  mortgages 
by  the  Federal  government,  as  well  as  higher  turn- 
over on  existing  homes,  resulted  in  a  large  expan- 
sion of  real  estate  loans  by  commercial  banks. 


INVESTMENTS,  LOANS  AND  DEPOSITS  OF  WEEKLY  REPORTING  BANKS  IN  94  LEADING  CITIES 
(Monthly  data  are  averages  of  weekly  figures.  In  millions  of  dollars.) 


Months 
of 
1948 

JadiUjiry 

U.S. 
government 
obligations 
.    .     37,610 

Other 
securities 
4,253 
4,191 
4,294 
4,321 
4,227 
4,213 
4,304 
4,376 
4,443 
4,352 
4,196 
4,167 

Commercial, 
industrial 
and  agricul- 
tural loans 
14,704 
14,636 
14,522 
14,258 
14,218 
14,223 
14,469 
14,790 
15,088 
15,388 
15,528 
15,551 

Loans  to         Other  loans 
brokers  and  for  purchasing         All 
dealers  in      -or  carrying           other 
securities         securities            loans 
651                835                7,125 
767                787                7,270 
852                761                7,337 
833                 754                7,466 
903                 758                7,542 
1,046                 775                7,650 
1,036                 775                7,879 
758                751                7,956 
848                 725                8,055 
678                 705                8,081 
814                 689                8,156 
1,157                 679                 8,196 

Demand 
deposits 
adjusted 
48,843 
47,709 
46,724 
46,394 
46,550 
46,792 
46,559 
46,822 
46,987 
46,864 
46,936 
47,787 

Time 
deposits 
(except 
interbank} 

14,606 
14,717 
14,784 
14,799 
14,816 
14,927 
14,967 
14,920 
14,926 
14,949 
14,915 
14,909 

February  

36,754 

35,600 

April 

35  398 

May  

35,560 

June  

35,134 

July  

34,709 

August  

34,822 

September  

34,118 

October  

33,300 

November  

33,296 

December  

.  .      .     33,227 

penditures  for  housing  and  durable  goods,  brought 
about  a  considerable  expansion  of  loans.  In  ad- 
dition, the  increasingly  large  expenditures  of  the 
Federal  Government  for  armaments  and  foreign 
aid  and  the  expanded  public  works  expenditures 
of  State  and  local  governments  generated  strong 
business  activity  making  necessary  increased  use 
of  bank  accommodations. 

The  policy  of  restraining  expansion  of  bank 
credit  by  using  Treasury  surplus  funds  to  retire 
government  obligations  held  by  the  Federal  Re- 
serve Banks  was  continued,  Supplementing  this 
means  of  credit  control,  interest  rates  were  in- 
creased on  short-term  government  securities,  while 
further  restriction  on  bank  credit  was  achieved  by 
increasing  the  reserve  requirements  of  member 
banks,  thus  curtailing  their  power  to  lend  and  in- 
vest funds. 

Commercial  Banking.  In  the  twelve  months  ending 
June  30,  1948,  total  loans  by  all  commercial  banks 
increased  by  more  than  $6,000  million,  while  bank 
investments  in  other  than  U.S.  Government  se- 
curities were  expanded  by  an  additional  $700  mil- 
lion, With  the  exception  of  the  preceding  year, 
this  was  the  largest  expansion  of  bank  credit  ever 
recorded  in  a  similiar  period.  The  increase  was 
noted  throughout  the  country,  but  was  particularly 
large  in  rural  areas  and  small  cities.  In  the  second 
half  of  1948,  bank  credit  continued  to  show  a 
marked  upward  trend.  Investments,  loans,  and  de- 
posits of  reporting  member  banks  in  94  leading 
cities  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 

The  principal  factor  in  the  expansion  of  loans 
was  the  big  demand  for  bank  credit  by  business 
enterprises,  due  to  the  high  rate  of  operations 


Savings  and  loan  associations,  savings  banks,  and 
insurance  companies  also  substantially  increased 
their  investment  in  real  estate  mortgages.  Of  the 
principal  classes  of  bank  loans,  only  those  for  pur- 
chasing or  carrying  securities  failed  to  show  a 
significant  increase. 

An  outstanding  feature  of  the  year  was  the  slow- 
ing up  in  the  rate  of  increase  of  bank  loans  as 
compared  with  1947.  Thus,  in  the  first  eleven 


BILLIONS  OF  DOLLAHS 
18 


BILLIONS   OF   DOLLARS 
13 


1941         I94E         1343         1944         1945         1946        1947 


1948 


LOANS  AT  MEMBER  BANKS   IN   LEADING   CITIES 

(Excludes  loans  to  banks;  Wednesday  figures.   *  Revised 

series  July  2,  1946) 

months  of  1948  the  expansion  in  the  total  loans 
of  weekly  reporting  member  banks,  which  con- 
stitute about  60  percent  of  loans  of  all  commercial 
banks,  was  only  $1,800  million  as  against  a  rise 
of  $3,800  million  in  the  same  period  of  1947.  This 


BANKS  AND  BANKING  67 

trend  was  due  to  the  more  cautious  lending  policy 
of  commercial  banks,  in  line  with  the  policy  urged 
by  the  monetary  authorities,  to  the  ability  of  busi- 
nesses to  finance  a  large  part  of  their  capital  ex- 
pansion programs  out  of  their  record  profits,  and 
to  increased  lending  by  insurance  companies  and 
other  financial  institutions. 

In  the  year  ending  October,  1948,  loans  ex- 
tended to  private  borrowers  by  life  insurance  com- 
panies, mutual  savings  banks,  and  savings  and 
loan  associations  increased  by  about  $9,000  mil- 
lion. Almost  half  of  these  funds  were  obtained  by 
the  sale  of  long-term  government  securities  largely 
acquired  during  the  war.  Through  liquidation  of 
these  securities  the  insurance  companies  were  en- 
abled to  supply  more  than  half  the  funds  loaned 


BILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 
30 


BILLIONS  OF   DOLLAHS 

30 


1941         1942        1943        1944        1945        194S         1947         1948 


MEMBER  BANK  RESEBVES   AND  RELATED  ITEMS 
(Wednesday  figures;  latest  shown  are  for  November  17) 

to  commercial  firms  and  real  estate  buyers  during 
the  year. 

Commercial  banks  also  absorbed  a  large  volume 
of  new  securities  issued  by  State  and  local  gov- 
ernments to  finance  public  works  and  to  provide 
funds  for  State  bonus  payments  to  veterans.  Of 
the  total  increase  in  the  debt  of  State  and  local 
governments,  amounting  to  about  $1,500  million 
from  June,  1947,  to  September,  1948,  the  com- 
mercial banks  took  about  half.  In  the  year  ending 
October,  1948,  the  banks  reduced  their  holdings 
of  government  securities  by  about  $7,000  million, 
mainly  in  order  to  replenish  the  reserve  funds  lost 
as  a  result  of  the  Treasury's  use  of  its  cash  surplus 
to  retire  government  debt  held  by  the  Reserve 
Banks. 

Deposits  and  Money  Supply.  In  1948,  the  expan- 
sion in  privately  owned  deposits  and  currency  was 
considerably  smaller  than  during  the  preceding 
year.  Total  time  and  demand  deposits,  excluding 
government  and  interbank  deposits,  increased  by 
$2,300  million  in  the  twelve  months  ending  June, 
1948,  as  compared  with  $6,500  million  in  the  pre- 
ceding year.  After  declining  in  the  first  half  of 
1948,  deposits  again  began  to  rise  during  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  year.  To  a  considerable  extent 
this  increase  was  due  to  support  of  the  government 
bond  market  by  the  Federal  Reserve  Banks,  which 
purchased  large  amounts  of  long-term  government 
securities  sold  by  insurance  companies  and  other 
non-bank  owners. 

In  part  the  increase  in  deposits  was  due  to  the 
expansion  of  bank  loans.  Another  factor  was  the 
continued  inflow  of  gold  from  abroad,  at  the  rate 
of  about  $1,500  million  a  year.  These  factors,  how- 
ever, were  counteracted  by  the  use  of  the  Treasury 
excess  of  receipts  over  expenditures  to  retire  gov- 
ernment securities  held  by  the  Reserve  Banks  arid 


BANKS  AN0  BANKING 

the  commercial  banks  and  to  increase  Treasury  de- 
posits. As  a  result,  the  private  money  supply,  that 
is,  demand  deposits  plus  currency  outside  banks, 
was  contracted  by  almost  $3,000  million  during  the 
first  10  months  of  the  year. 

The  contraction  in  the  money  supply  was  offset 
by  the  more  rapid  turnover  of  demand  deposits, 
which  contributed  to  the  inflationary  pressures. 
In  banks  in  leading  cities  outside  New  York,  the 
turnover  of  demand  deposits,  which  was  on  a  low 
level  from  1943  to  1947,  increased  to  about  the 
average  of  the  few  years  before  the  war. 

Strong  Liquid  Position.  The  year  found  the  com- 
mercial banks  in  a  strong  liquid  position,  assuring 
them  of  the  ability  to  meet  any  prospective  de- 
mand for  bank  credit.  While  excess  reserves  of 
banks  were  only  moderate,  the  banks  held  (as  of 
June  30)  $65,000  million  of  U.S.  government  se- 
curities, more  than  40  percent  of  their  total  assets. 
Of  these  obligations,  about  $20,000  million  ma- 
tured or  were  callable  in  less  than  one  year  and 
over  $50,000  million  in  less  than  five  years..  Since 
the  maturing  securities  may  be  turned  in  for  cash 
while  the  others  may  be  sold  in  the  open  market 
or  to  the  Federal  Reserve  Banks,  the  banks  were  in 
a  position  to  obtain  ample  funds  with  which  to 
make  further  large  increases  in  loans.  In  fact,  the 
purchases  made  by  the  Federal  Reserve  System 
to  maintain  an  orderly  market  for  government  se- 
curities provided  the  basis  for  expansion  of  bank 
credit  by  several  times  the  amount  of  such  pur- 
chases. 

The  policy  of  supporting  the  government  bond 
market,  while  at  the  same  time  attempting  to  curb 
credit  expansion,  continued  to  present  specially 
difficult  problems  to  the  monetary  authorities.  To 
keep  up  the  price  of  government  securities  the 
Federal  Reserve  System  made  large  purchases  of 
obligations  offered  both  by  banks  and  non-bank 
holders.  These  purchases,  in  turn,,  resulted  in  a 
continuation  of  low  interest  rates  and  in  the  crea- 
tion of  abundant  reserves  to  support  credit  ex- 
pansion by  banks. 

Particularly  important  in  easing  the  reserve  posi- 
tion of  banks  were  the  large  sales  of  long-term 
U.S.  government  bonds  by  insurance  companies, 
mutual  savings  banks,  and  savings  and  loan  as- 
sociations in  order  to  put  the  proceeds  into  private 
loans  and  investments  yielding  a  higher  return. 
Most  of  these  securities  were  purchased  by  the 
Federal  Reserve  System,  thereby  supplying  a  cor- 
responding amount  of  reserves  to  the  commercial 
banks  as  the  funds  were  deposited. 

Credit  Policies.  The  credit  policies  of  the  Federal 
Reserve  System  and  the  debt  management  and 
fiscal  program  of  the  Treasury  continued  to  be 
directed  to  the  curbing  of  monetary  and  credit  ex- 
pansion, insofar  as  this  could  be  accomplished 
while  maintaining  a  stable  market  for  government 
securities.  To  this  end,  bank  reserves  were  reduced 
by  using  the  surplus  funds  of  the  Treasury  pri- 
marily for  retiring  government  debt  held  by  the 
Reserve  Banks.  Cash  receipts  by  the  Treasury  in 
the  first  three-quarters  of  1948  exceeded  expendi- 
tures by  about  $9,000  million.  This  surplus  was 
supplemented  by  net  sales  of  nonmarketable  and 
investment  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $1,300  million. 
The  bulk  of  these  surplus  funds  were  used  to  re- 
tire securities  held  by  the  Federal  Reserve  or  to 
build  up  Treasury  deposits  at  the  Reserve  Banks, 
and  these  operations  resulted  in  a  contraction  of 
bank  reserves  of  almost  $6,000  million  in  the  pe- 
riod from  January  to  September.  Most  of  this  re- 
duction took  place  in  the  first  quarter. 

Other  measures  adopted  to  restrict  credit  ex- 


BANKS  AND  BANKING  C 

pansion  included  a  moderate  increase  in  the  in- 
terest rates  on  short-term  government  securities  and 
in  the  Federal  Reserve  discount  rate;  lowering  of 
the  support  prices  for  medium  and  long-term  gov- 
ernment bonds;  increase  in  reserve  requirements 
of  member  banks,  and  reimposition  of  controls 
over  consumer  instalment  credit. 

The  increases  in  rates  on  short-term  securities 
were  started  in  the  middle  of  1947  to  raise  the 
cost  to  banks  of  selling  these  securities  to  obtain 
additional  reserves  and  also  to  increase  their  at- 
tractiveness to  banks  and  non-bank  investors.  The 
yield  on  Treasury  bills  went  from  %  percent  to 
one  percent  early  in  1948,  while  12-month  certifi- 
cates rose  from  %  percent  to  1%  percent.  In 
January,  1948,  the  discount  rates  charged  by  the 
Federal  Reserve  Banks  were  increased  from  1  to 
1%  percent.  The  yields  on  other  short-term  paper 
in  the  market  went  up  along  with  the  Treasury 
issues,  and  this  trend  was  also  reflected  in  higher 
yields  and  declining  prices  for  longer  term  bonds. 

Large-scale  selling  of  medium  and  long-term 
government  securities,  principally  by  non-bank  in- 
vestors, started  in  the  fall  of  1947,  and  to  cushion 
the  drop  the  Federal  Reserve  System  entered  the 
market.  In  order  that  these  sales  should  not  be 
made  at  the  premium  prices  that  had  previously 
prevailed,  however,  the  support  prices  were  low- 
ered, on  Dec.  24,  1947,  to  a  level  permitting  a  2% 
percent  yield  on  the  longest  term  issues. 

In  August,  1948,  the  Treasury  announced  the 
offering  of  la/4  percent  one-year  certificates  in  ex- 
change for  those  maturing  on  October  1,  and  of 
1%  percent  18-month  notes  for  those  maturing  on 
September  15.  Shortly  afterwards,  the  Federal 
Reserve  Bank  rediscount  rates  were  increased 
from  1%  to  1^6  percent.  By  the  end  of  November, 
rates  on  90-day  Treasury  bills  had  increased  to 
1.15  percent,  while  other  short-term  rates,  as  well 
as  the  yields  on  medium-term  government  bonds, 
also  advanced  somewhat.  Yields  on  long-term  gov- 
ernment securities  remained  at  the  support  level 
established  at  the  end  of  1947. 

As  other  money  rates  went  up  the  banks  in- 
creased the  interest  rates  charged  on  their  loans 
to  customers.  The  average  rate  on  business  loans 
at  banks  in  19  selected  financial  centers  increased 
from  about  2.1  percent  in  December,  1947,  to  2.6 
percent  in  September,  1948.  Rates  on  mortgage 
loans  also  went  up  about  %  percent  during  the 
year. 

In  February  and  June  the  Board  of  Governors 
of  the  Federal  Reserve  System  increased  the  re- 
serve requirements  against  demand  deposits  of 
banks  in  New  York  and  Chicago  by  2  percentage 
points,  thus  increasing  the  required  reserves  by 
about  $1,000  million.  Reserve,  requirements  of  the 
other  banks  were  already  at  the  rnaximums  per- 
mitted by  law.  In  August,  however,  Congress 
granted  temporary  authority  to  the  Board  to  raise 
reserve  requirements  by  4  percentage  points  for 
net  demand  deposits  and  1%  percentage  points 
for  time  deposits.  As  of  September  16  for  banks 
outside  reserve  cities  and  September  24  for  the 
other  banks,  the  requirements  were  raised  2  per- 
cent on  demand  deposits  and  1%  percent  on  time 
deposits.  This  moderate  measure  of  credit  restric- 
tion increased  required  reserves  by  about  $2,000 
million,  an  amount  approximately  equal  to  the 
reserves  supplied  to  banks  in  the  preceding  three 
months  through  Federal  Reserve  purchases  of  gov- 
ernment securities  from  non-bank  investors  and  the 
continued  inflow  of  gold. 

Other  Developments.  The  special  session  of  Con- 
gress in  August  also  gave  the  Board  temporary 


J  BAPTIST  CHURCHES 

authority  to  reinstitute  the  controls  on  consumer 
instalment  credit  that  were  first  imposed  in  1941 
as  an  anti-inflationary  measure  and  allowed  to 
expire  in. November,  1947.  The  Board's  restric- 
tions on  down  payments  and  maturity  terms  in 
connection  with  instalment  purchases  of  automo- 
biles and  other  durable  consumer  goods  were  re- 
stored on  Sept.  20,  1948,  thus  placing  some 
restraint  on  the  further  expansion  of  consumer 
credit  by  banks,  finance  companies  and  other 
institutions. 

In  requesting  Congress  in  August  to  give  the 
Federal  Reserve  Board  authority  to  increase  the 
reserve  requirements,  Thomas  B.  McCabe,  Chair- 
man of  the  Board  of  Governors,  urged  that  the 
proposed  legislation  be  made  applicable  to  non- 
member  banks  as  well.  It  would  be  unfair,  he  as- 
serted, to  single  out  member  banks  to  carry  the 
additional  reserves  to  combat  the  forces  of  infla- 
tion. This  was  particularly  true,  he  stated,  of  those 
districts  where  there  were  large  numbers  of  non- 
member  banks  which  would  be  given  a  competi- 
tive advantage  as  against  member  banks.  Such  a 
situation,  he  contended,  might  result  in  a  serious 
loss  of  membership  in  the  Federal  Reserve  system 
and  weaken  the  effectiveness  of  its  policies. 

Earlier  in  the  year  Governor  Eccles  had  again 
referred  to  the  possibility  that  the  Federal  Reserve 
Board,  in  order  to  be  in  a  position  to  curb  credit 
expansion  effectively,  might  have  to  be  given  the 

Eower  to  require  the  banks  to  hold  special  reserves, 
a  a  statement  in  April  before  the  Joint  Committee 
on  the  Economic  Report,  he  said: 

"In  case  banks  should  persistently  follow  the 
practice  of  selling  Government  securities  to  the 
Federal  Reserve  in  order  to  expand  private  cred- 
its, notwithstanding  higher  short-term  interest 
rates  and  increased  primary  reserve  requirements, 
then  the  System  should  be  granted  supplementary 
authority  to  impose  a  special  reserve  requirement 
along  the  lines  proposed  by  the  Board  last  No- 
vember. This  ....  could  be  held,  at  the  option 
of  the  individual  bank,  in  specified  cash  assets  or 
in  short-term  Government  securities.  The  maxi- 
mum requirement  under  this  plan  could  properly 
be  limited  to  25  percent  of  aggregate  demand  de- 
posits and  10  percent  of  time  deposits.  To  be  ef- 
fective and  equitable,  it  should  apply  to  all  com- 
mercial banks." 

Net  profits  of  member  banks  in  the  first  half  of 
1948,  amounting  to  $292  million,  were  about  on  a 
level  with  those  of  the  preceding  six  months  but 
somewhat  below  those  for  the  first  half  of  1947. 
This  decline  was  accounted  for  principally  by  the 
fact  that  a  recent  ruling  of  the  Bureau  of  Internal 
Revenue  permitted  banks  to  set  aside  from  current 
earnings  substantial  amounts  as  reserves  for  bad 
debts.  — SAMUEL  S.  SHOPMAN 

BAPTIST  CHURCHES.  Congregational  in  character, 
without  a  general  authoritative  head,  the  23  Baptist 
groups  in  the  United  States  have  a  total  member- 
ship of  15,093,530,  of  which  the  four  major  con- 
ventions account  for  14,369,588  members. 

Northern  Baptist  Convention.  Organized  in  1907,  it 
represents  the  cooperative  interests  of  7,243  church- 
es with  1,541,991  members  in  the  North  and  West. 
Its  home  and  foreign  missions,  social,  relief,  and 
hospital  activities  are  carried  on  by  7  national 
boards  and  societies,  33  state  conventions  and  14 
city  missions.  Headquarters:  152  Madison  Ave., 
New  York  16,  N.Y.  . 

Southern  Baptist  Convention.  Formed  in  1845  upon 
the  withdrawal  from  the  General  Missionary  Con- 
vention over  the  issue  of  slavery.  The  largest  Bap- 


BAWJST  FEDERATION  OF  CANADA 

fist  group  in  the  world  it  has  26,401  churches,  24,- 
791  ordained  ministers  and  6,270,819  members  in 
the  United  States,  and  565  foreign  missionaries.  In 
1947  the  Convention  maintained  59  schools  and 
colleges  with  nearly  50,000  students  enrolled.  Total 
contributions  for  the  same  period  was  $115,226,- 
949;  church  property  was  valued  at  $313,053,779. 
Headquarters,  127  Ninth  Ave.  North,  Nashville, 
Tenn. 

Notional  Baptist  Convention  of  America.  Organized 
in  1880,  the  so-called  "unincorporated"  Convention 
held  its  68th  Annual  Session  in  the  Municipal  Audi- 
torium at  Oakland,  CaL,  Sept.  8-12,  1948.  The  rep- 
resentation was  22,820  churches,  the  ordained  min- 
isters were  19,850,  the  numerical  strength  reported 
by  the  Statistician  was  3,721,850  in  the  United 
States  with  380,000  members  from  Canada,  West 
Indies,  Republic  of  Panama,  Canal  Zone,  Liberia, 
and  West  Coast  of  Africa.  These  are  regarded  as  in 
the  Foreign  Mission  Field  and  are  supervised  by 
161  Missionaries.  The  Convention  maintains  8  col- 
leges and  Theological  Seminaries.  The  total  income 
for  this  past  Convention  Year  was  $686,925.  Of- 
ficers: Rev.  C.  L.  Prince,  Galveston,  Tex.,  Presi- 
dent; Rev.  G.  Goings  Daniels,  Georgetown,  S.C., 
Secretary;  Rev.  A.  A.  Lucas,  Houston,  Tex.,  Treas- 
urer. Headquarters;  523  Second  Ave.  North,  Nash- 
ville, Tenn. 

Other  Baptist  Conventions.  Generally  considered 
the  older  and  parent  body  of  Negro  Baptists,  the 
National  Baptist  Convention,  U.S.A.,  Inc.,  has  a 
total  of  25,000  churches  and  4,122,315  members 
in  the  United  States.  This  "incorporated"  Conven- 
tion was  separated  from  the  above  Convention  in 
1916. 

Centering  in  North  Carolina  where  it  was  or- 
ganized in  1727,  the  Free  Will  Baptists  have  3,768 
churches,  3,559  ministers,  and  255,127  members 
in  the  United  States.  There  were  11,228  baptisms 
in  1947  and  90,627  attendants  in  Sunday  and  Bible 
schools.  Income  from  contributions  totaled  $860,- 
264  and  church  property  was  valued  at  $3,825,637. 

BAPTIST  FEDERATION  OF  CANADA,  The.  This  federa- 
tion comprises  the  Maritime  and  the  Ontario  and 
Quebec  Conventions  and  the  Baptist  Union  of 
Western  Canada.  It  has  a  total  of  1,224  churches, 
732  ministers,  and  140,787  members  in  Canada. 
There  were  4,260  baptisms  in  1948,  and  70,537 
students  attended  Sunday  and  Bible  schools.  For- 
eign missionaries  totaled  103  and  served  35,000 
members  of  mission  churches.  Income  from  con- 
tributions $3,472,864.  Headquarters,  8  Market 
Square,  Saint  John,  New  Brunswick. 

BARBADOS.  An  island  colony  of  the  British  West 
Indies.  Area:  166  square  miles.  Population  (Dec. 
31,  1946):  195,398.  Capital,  Bridgetown.  Sugar 
is  the  most  important  agricultural  product;  the 
1947  yield  was  111,232  tons  from  40,486  acres. 
A  total  of  1,821,853  gallons  of  rum  were  produced 
in  1946.  Other  products  are  molasses,  tamarinds, 
cotton,  and  margarine.  Trade  (1946):  imports 
£4,992,492;  exports  £3,142,164.  -  Finance 
(1948-49  est):  revenue  £1,728,355;  expenditure 
£2,109,068.  The  deficit  will  be  met  from  the  sur- 
plus balance  of  £1,213,901  (on  Apr.  1,  1948). 
The  governor,  Sir  H.  R.  R.  Blood  (appointed 
February,  1947),  is  assisted  by  an  executive  coun- 
cil, an  executive  committee,  and  a  legislative  coun- 
cil of  9  members.  There  is  also  an  elective  House  of 
Assembly  of  24  members. 

BARLEY.  The  world  production  of  barley  for  1948, 
according  to  the  Foreign  Agriculture  Circular  (Dec. 


69  BASEBALL 

13,  1948)  of  the  Office  of  Foreign  Agricultural  Re- 
lations, U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  was  estimated 
at  2,425  million  bushels.  Yields  of  the  chief  pro- 
ducing countries  during  1948  (in  bushels)  were: 
China  353,565,000,  United  States  317,240,000, 
U.S.S.R.  310,000,000  (in  1947),  Canada  154,643,- 
000,  India  (including  Pakistan)  102,000,000  (1948- 
49  forecast),  Great  Britain  93,987,000,  Turkey  90,- 
000,000,  Spain  80,000,000,  Denmark  62,004,000, 
French  Morocco  58,500,000,  France  57,500,000, 
Algeria  41,000,000,  Iran  40,000,000,  Argentina  30,- 
000,000  (1948-49  forecast),  Lebanon  23,000,000, 
Australia  16,000,000  (1948-49  forecast). 

United  States.  Barley  production  in  the  United 
States  totaled  317,037,000  bushels  in  1948  (Crop 
Report,  December,  1948;  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agricul- 
ture). The  crops  of  the  major  producing  States 
(in  bushels)  were:  North  Dakota  55,440,000,  Cali- 
fornia 49,471,000,  South  Dakota  34,914,000,  Min- 
nesota 34,132,000,  Montana  24,304,000,  Colorado 
15,275,000,  Oregon  13,420,000,  Idaho  12,276,000, 
Nebraska  9,204,000,  and  Wisconsin  7,752,000.  The 
season  average  price  (preliminary  for  the  United 
States)  received  by  farmers  was  $1.21  per  bushel. 

BASEBALL.  America's  national  pastime  put  on  two  of 
its  best  shows  of  all  time  in  1948,  with  spirited 
pennant  races  in  both  major  leagues,  and  the  result 
was  that  attendance  soared  to  a  record  high  of 
more  than  20  million. 

Boston's  Braves,  the  St.  Louis  Cardinals,  and 
Brooklyn's  Dodgers  battled  most  of  the  season  for 
the  top  spot  in  the  National  League,  the  Cards  and 
Dodgers  wilting  in  the  stretch.  Led  by  a  great 
pitching  duo  of  Johnny  Sain  and  Warren  Spahn, 
Billy  Southworth's  Braves  held  together  to  give 
Boston  its  first  National  League  flag  since  1914. 

While  Boston  was  wrapping  up  its  champion- 
ship, strange  things  were  taking  place  in  the  Ameri- 
can League,  where  perhaps  the  tightest  race  in  the 
annals  of  the  sport  was  being  waged. 

As  late  as  August,  Cleveland's  Indians,  Boston's 
Red  Sox,  New  York's  Yankees,  and  Philadelphia's 
Athletics  were  virtually  locked  in  a  first-place  tie, 
only  a  few  percentage  points  separating  them.  The 
Athletics  cracked  first,  less  than  two  weeks  before 
•  the  regular  campaign  ended,  but  the  other  three 
teams  fought  on.  The  day  before  the  schedule 
closed  the  Yankees  were  eliminated,  but  the  sun 
set  on  the  final  day  of  the  season  with  the  Indians 
and  Red  Sox  still  deadlocked  for  first  place.  This 
brought  about  the  first  play-off  in  American  League 
history  the  next  day.  Playing  in  Boston,  the  Indians 
gained  an  8-3  victory  over  the  Red  Sox  to  give 
Cleveland  its  first  pennant  since  1920.  Rookie  Gene 
Bearden  was  the  winning  pitcher. 

Cleveland's  playing-manager,  Lou  Boudreau, 
then  guided  his  men  through  a  stirring  World  Series 
to  triumph  by  four  games  to  two.  Bob  Feller,  ful- 
filling his  ambition  to  pitch  in  a  World  Series,  lost 
a  heart-breaking  two-hitter  in  the  first  game,  which 
the  Braves  won  by  1-0.  Cleveland  then  came  back 
to  capture  three  games,  4r-l,  2-0,  and  2-1,  but 
Boston  kept  its  hopes  alive  by  routing  Feller  and 
winning  the  fifth  battle,  11-5.  The  Indians  pinned 
down  the  world  championship  in  their  next  start, 
triumphing  4r-3,  as  rookie  Bearden  checked  a  Bos- 
ton rally  in  the  eighth  inning. 

The  series  victory  capped  a  great  year  for  Amer- 
ican Leaguers,  for  the  same  circuit  had  won  the 
Ail-Star  game  from  the  National  Leaguers,  5-2,  in 
midseason.  Cleveland  also  smashed  two  attendance 
records,  one  in  the  fifth  game  of  the  series  when 
86,288,  largest  crowd  to  ever  see  a  ball  game, 
jammed  Municipal  Stadium  on  the  shores  of  Lake 


BASKHBALL 

Erie.  The  Indians  also  set  a  new  season  high  of 
2,620,627  for  attendance.  The  over-all  total  of  11,- 
150,099  for  the  American  League  was  a  record. 
National  League  crowds  fell  off  slightly,  the  total 
being  9,770,743. 

Boudreau's  great  play  afield,  managerial  ability, 
and  a  batting  average  second  only  to  that  of  Ted 
Williams,  the  league's  leader,  earned  for  him  the 
American  League's  most  valuable  player  award. 
Stan  Musial,  brilliant  outfielder  of  the  Cardinals, 
not  only  paced  the  National  League  in  batting,  but 
was  voted  that  circuit's  most  valuable  man.  Alvin 
Dark,  young  shortstop  of  the  Braves,  was  named 
the  majors'  best  rookie. 

The  season  saw  more  than  the  usual  number  of 
managerial  changes,  the  most  startling  of  which 
involved  the  New  York  clubs.  Leo  Durocher,  under 
suspension  in  1947,  took  over  the  reins  of  the 
Dodgers  from  Burt  Shottpn,  who  had  guided 
Brooklyn  to  the  pennant  in  1947.  But  in  July, 
Durocher  was  dropped  by  Brooklyn  at  the  same 
time  the  Giants  announced  the  retirement  of  Mel 
Ott,  and  Durocher  wound  up  as  the  new  pilot  of 
the  Giants  while  Shotton  returned  to  manage  the 
Dodgers.  Bucky  Harris,  who  in  his  first  year  with 
fiie  Yankees  in  1947  had  led  them  to  the  world 
championship,  was  ousted  in  a  surprise  move  after 
the  season  ended.  Casey  Stengel,  one-time  mana- 
ger of  the  Dodgers  and  Braves,  was  signed  for  the 
job.  Red  Rolfe,  former  Yankee  star,  returned  to 
baseball  to  replace  Steve  O'Neill,  deposed  manager 
of  the  Detroit  Tigers,  and  Jack  Onslow  replaced 
Ted  Lyons  as  skipper  of  the  Chicago  White  Sox. 

Montreal  won  the  International  League  pennant, 
the  Governors'  Cup  playoffs,  and  the  Little  World 
Series.  Other  champions  were  Indianapolis,  Ameri- 
can Association;  Oakland,  Pacific  Coast  League; 
Birmingham,  Dixie  Series;  Nashville,  Southern  As- 
sociation; Fort  Worth,  Texas  League;  Scranton, 
Eastern  League;  Homestead  Grays,  Washington, 
Negro  World  Series  and  Negro  National  League; 
Birmingham  Black  Barons,  Negro  American 
League,  and  Fort  Wayne  General  Electrics,  na- 
tional semi-pro. 

Southern  California  carried  off  the  championship 
of  the  National  Collegiate  Athletic  Association, 
while  Dartmouth's  nine  captured  the  Eastern  In- 
tercollegiate League  laurels.  Metropolitan  Confer- 
ence honors  were  won  by  New  York  University. 
— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

BASKETBALL.  The  1947-48  court  season  was  marked 
by  the  fine  caliber  of  competition  within  inter- 
collegiate ranks  and  the  continued  upswing  of 
crowds  attending  both  amateur  and  professional 
contests.  New  York's  Madison  Square  Garden,  with 
the  Olympic  trials  added  to  its  calendar,  enjoyed 
a  banner  campaign,  the  double-headers  in  that 
arena  averaging  crowds  of  more  than  17,000. 

Generally  considered  the  top  college  five  in  the 
nation  was  that  from  the  University  of  Kentucky, 
the  Wildcats  winning  the  Southeastern  Conference 
crown  again  and  adding  the  National  Collegiate 
Athletic  Association  title  to  its  long  list  of  con- 
quests. Kentucky  took  the  N.C.A.A.  diadem  by 
routing  Baylor,  the  Southwest  Conference  king, 
58-42,  on  the  Garden  court.  Alex  Groza  led  the 
attack  with  14  points,  with  Ralph  Beard,  another 
sharpshooter,  accounting  for  12.  Kentucky  gained 
the  title  round  by  elimininating  Holy  Cross,  de- 
fending champion,  -  in  the  Eastern  regional  final 
while  Baylor  reached  the  last  round  by  upsetting 
Kansas  State  in  the  Western  play-offs. 

Kentucky  met  a  stumbling  block  in  the  final  of 
the  Olympic  trials  at  the  Garden,  bowing  to  the 


70  BASUTOLAND 

Phillips  66  Oilers  of  Bartlesville,  Okla.,  Amateur 
Athletic  Union  rulers,  53-49,  in  a  thriller.  Only 
their  tremendous  height  advantage  enabled  the 
Oilers  to  win,  for  the  Wildcats  matched  point  for 
point  most  of  the  way,  Beard  alone  accounting  for 
23  tallies.  Bob  Kurland,  7-foot  star,  scored  20  for 
the  victors,  contributing  three  field  goals  in  the 
last  six  minutes  and  gaining  control  of  the  rebounds 
at  crucial  times  throughout  the  game. 

Among  other  outstanding  quintets  was  St.  Louis 
University,  the  Billikens  turning  in  their  best  per- 
formances of  the  year  in  the  Garden  to  annex  the 
annual  invitation  tournament.  A  crowd  of  18,491 
saw  the  Missouri  five  conquer  New  York  Univer- 
sity, 65-52,  in  the  final  round.  The  victory  gave 
St.  Louis  a  bid  to  the  Olympic  tryouts,  but  the 
invitation  was  rejected  when  officials  of  the  univer- 
sity said  the  team  had  missed  too  much  classwork 
to  permit  additional  tournament  competition. 

The  Olympic  team,  coached  by  Omar  Brown- 
ing of  the  Oilers,  included  the  following  players: 
Bob  Kurland,  Jesse  Renick,  Gordon  Carpenter,  R. 
C.  Pitts  and  Lew  Beck  of  the  Oilers;  Alex  Groza, 
Wallace  Jones,  Cliff  Barker,  Ken  Rollins  and  Ralph 
Beard  of  Kentucky;  Vince  Boryla  of  the  Denver 
Nuggets,  Don  Barksdale  of  the  Oakland  Bittners, 
Jack  Robinson  of  Baylor  and  Ray  Lumpp  of  N.Y.U. 
The  squad  compiled  a  brilliant  record  in  England 
to  win  the  unofficial  Olympic  title.  See  OLYMPIC 
GAMES. 

One  of  the  biggest  surprises  of  the  year  came 
in  March  at  Madison  Square  Garden,  New  York, 
when  Notre  Dame  halted  N.Y.U.,  6^59,  to  snap 
a  Violet  winning  streak  of  19  games.  The  Irish, 
sparked  by  the  brilliant  Kevin  O'Shea,  fought  back 
from  a  32-23  deficit  at  the  half  to  win. 

Columbia  retained  its  Eastern  Intercollegiate 
League  crown,  its  big  center,  Walter  Budko  scor- 
ing 206  points  ta  break  his  own  league  record  of 
191  set  during  the  previous  campaign. 

Other  major  collegiate  champions  were  Michi- 
gan, Big  Nine;  Kansas  State,  Big  Seven;  Baylor, 
Southwest;  Oklahoma  A.  &.  M.,  Missouri  Valley; 
Arizona,  Border  Conference;  Kentucky,  Southeast- 
ern; Washington,  Pacific  Coast;  Beloit,  Midwest; 
Brigham  Young,  Mountain  States,  and  Louisville, 
National  Association  of  Intercollegiate  Basketball. 

The  Phillips  66  Oilers  captured  A.A.U.  laurels 
for  the  sixth  consecutive  time  when  they  defeated 
the  Denver  Nuggets,  62—48,  in  the  national  tourney 
final.  The  Nashville  Goldblumes  of  Tennessee  re- 
gained the  A.A.U.  women's  title. 

In  Canada,  The  Dominion  championship  fell 
to  the  Vancouver  Clover  Leafs,  while  the  Cardston 
Shooting  Stars  took  the  Western  Canadian  wom- 
en's crown. 

The  debut  of  a  number  of  strong  quintets 
marked  professional  competition,  and  one  of  the 
newcomers,  the  Baltimore  Bullets,  carried  off  hon- 
ors in  the  long  season  of  the  Basketball  Association 
of  America.  Baltimore  annexed  the  title  by  taking 
the  final  play-offs  from  Philadelphia's  Warriors,  de- 
fending champions.  The  Minneapolis  Lakers  won 
laurels  in  the  National  League. 

— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

BASUTOLAND.  A  British  native  territory  in  southern 
Africa.  Area,  11,716  square  miles.  Population  (1936 
census),  562,411,  including  559,377  natives.  Capi- 
tal, Maseru.  In  1946  there  were  86,509  pupils  en- 
rolled in  1,451  elementary  and  secondary  schools 
of  all  kinds.  Expenditure  for  education  for  1946-47 
was  £143,525.  Principal  crops  are  wheat  (350,000 
bags  in  1947);  maize  (715,000  bags);  and  sor- 
ghum (490,000  bags).  Barley,  oats,  vegetables  also 


BATTELLE  MEMORIAL  INSTITUTE  71 

are  grown.  Sheep-raising  is  highly  developed.  Im- 
ports, consisting  largely  of  agricultural  and  domes- 
tic supplies,  were  valued  at  £1,033,328  in  1942 
and  exports  at  £459,509.  In  1946-47  revenue  to- 
taled £827,100;  expenditure  £861,351.  On  Mar. 
31,  1947,  there  was  an  excess  of  assets  over  liabili- 
ties of  £492,422.  The  territory  is  governed  by  a 
resident  commissioner  under  the  direction  of  the 
High  Commissioner  for  the  British  High  Commis- 
sion Territories  in  South  Africa. 

BATTELLE  MEMORIAL  INSTITUTE.  An  Institute  founded 
in  1929  to  promote  research  and  education  in  the 
industrial  sciences,  to  conduct  research  on  a  non- 
profit basis  for  industry  and  government,  maintain 
a  program  of  fundamental  scientific  investigation, 
and  to  offer  fellowships  and  training  in  research 
methods  to  selected  post-graduate  students  in 
physical  sciences.  The  fields  of  investigation  in- 
clude metallurgy,  chemistry,  fuels,  ceramics,  phys- 
ics, electrochemistry,  welding  technology,  graphic 
arts,  corrosion  technology,  mining  and  mineral 
beneficiation,  production  engineering,  agricultural 
science,  and  many  specialized  technologies.  Spon- 
sored research  in  1948  totaled  $5,500,000.  The 
Institute  has  been  a  source  of  numerous  recent 
contributions  to  industrial  technology,  particularly 
those  affecting  basic  products  and  processes.  Its 
staff  comprises  1,300  scientists,  technologists, 
administrative,  and  service  personnel.  Director: 
Clyde  Williams.  Offices:  505  King  Ave.,  Columbus 
1,  Ohio. 

BATTLE  MONUMENTS  COMMISSION,  American.  A  Com- 
mission created  by  Congress  in  1923  to  erect  me- 
morials to  commemorate  the  services  of  the  Amer- 
ican armed  forces  in  World  War  L  It  administers 
and  maintains  World  War  I  American  military 
cemeteries  and  memorials  in  Europe.  The  Com- 
mission is  charged  by  Public  Law  456,  79th  Con- 
gress, with  the  planning  and  erection  of  memorials 
to  commemorate  the  services  of  the  American 
armed  forces  in  World  War  II,  with  control  of  the 
erection  by  American  citizens,  States,  municipali- 
ties or  associations  of  such  memorials  in  foreign 
countries  or  upon  federally  owned  or  controlled 
property,  except  national  cemeteries,  and  it  is  re- 
sponsible for  all  permanent  construction  in  perma- 
nent American  military  cemeteries  located  outside 
of  the  United  States  and  its  Territories  and  pos- 
sessions. Acting  Chairman:  Brig.  Gen.  Robert  G. 
Woodside. 

BECHUANALAND.  A  British  protectorate  in  southern 
Africa.  Area:  275,000  square  miles.  Population 
(1946  census):  252,869,  including  2,325  Euro- 
peans. Cattle-raising  and  dairying  are  the  chief 
industries.  Livestock  (1946):  699,835  cattle,  153,- 
318  sheep,  and  304,462  goats.  Gold  and  silver 
mined  in  1945  was  valued  at  £95,202.  Trade 
(1946):  Imports  £93,072;  exports  £619,835.  Fi- 
nance (1946-47):  revenue  £469,075;  expenditure 
£405,071. 

The  territory  is  administered  by  a  resident  com- 
missioner, acting  under  the  High  Commissioner  for 
the  British  High  Commission  Territories  in  South 
Africa.  The  headquarters  of  the  administration  is 
Mafeking,  Cape  Province.  The  native  tribes  are 
ruled  by  their  chiefs  as  before  the  territory  was  in- 
corporated in  the  British  sphere,  but  now  under  the 
protection  of  the  King.  Resident  Commissioner: 
A.  Sillery. 

BELGIAN  CONGO.  Belgium's  only  colony,  located  in 
central  Africa  and  embracing  a  large  part  of  the 


BELGIAN  CONGO 

basin  of  the  Congo  River.  Area:  approximately 
912,000  square  miles.  Capital.  Leopoldville  (pop. 
117,524). 

Population.  The  native  population  on  Jan.  1, 1948, 
was  estimated  at  10,805,000.  Whites  numbered 
35,772,  of  which  67  percent  were  Belgians.  Most 
of  the  natives  are  Bantu  and  Sudan  Negroes,  with 
a  few  Nilotic  tribes  in  the  northeast  and  some  Pyg- 
mies scattered  in  the  interior. 

Education.  Most  of  the  schools  are  provided  by 
Christian  missions,  though  many  are  subsidized  by 
the  government.  In  1946  there  were  5,903  sub- 
sidized primary  schools  (311,388  pupils)  and  56 
subsidized  secondary  schools  (3,872  pupils).  Not 
subsidized  were  199  primary  schools  (46,827  pu- 
pils), 8,994  rural  schools  (246,424  pupils),  and  24 
professional  schools  (1,343  pupils). 

Religion.  The  great  mass  of  the  natives  is  still 
pagan.  The  work  of  the  Christian  missions  is  car- 
ried on  by  4,150  (Jan.  1,  1947)  missionaries  (three- 
fourths  of  whom  are  Roman  Catholics). 

Production.  The  country's  economy  is  based  on 
agriculture  and  mining.  Agriculture  is  widespread, 
while  mining  is  concentrated  in  the  eastern  and 
southeastern  regions.  Industrially  speaking  the  Bel- 
gian Congo  is  one  of  the  most  advanced  colonies 
in  Africa.  The  natives  have  shown  themselves  read- 
ily adaptable  to  work  in  mines,  factories,  and  of- 
fices. 

Cotton  is  the  principal  agricultural  and  money 
crop;  a  total  of  306,500  hectares  yielded  122,743 
metric  tons  in  1946.  Two  types  of  coffee  are  pro- 
duced— Arabian  and  Robusta — the  total  1947  pro- 
duction was  estimated  at  33,000  metric  tons.  Palm 
oil,  the  chief  forest  product,  yielded  134,774  metric 
tons  in  1945.  Rubber  production  was  greatly  stim- 
ulated by  World  War  II  but  has  since  declined; 
a  total  of  4,080  metric  tons  being  produced  in  1947 
against  11,287  metric  tons  exported  in  1944.  Other 
agricultural  products  include  cacao,  fibers,  cin- 
chona bark,  peanuts,  corn,  manioc,  rice,  sugarcane, 
and  pyrethrum. 

The  Congo  is  one  of  the  world's  richest  mineral 
regions,  copper  being  the  chief  mineral  product. 
Industrial  diamonds,  cobalt,  tantalite,  and  tin  also 
are  important.  Production  in  1947  (metric  tons): 
copper  150,800;  tin  15,120;  cobalt  2,140  (6 
months).  During  the  first  6  months  of  1947  some 
2,399,073  carats  of  industrial  diamonds  and  254,- 
175  carats  of  gems  were  produced.  Gold  output  has 
declined  steadily,  amounting  to  10,895  kg.  of  crude 
gold  in  1946.  Silver,  zinc,  wolframite,  lead,  plati- 
num, and  tungsten  are  other  minerals. 

Foreign  Trade  (1947):  imports  6,452.4  million 
francs;  exports  75602  million  francs. 

Finance.  In  1947  government  revenue  totaled 
2,210,810,000  francs;  expenditure  2,349,850,000 
francs.  Public  debt  (Jan.  1,  1947)  5,035,718,161 
francs. 

Transportation.  The  Congo  River  and  its  larger 
tributaries  are  navigable  for  varying  distances.  The 
Congo  itself  is  broken  at  several  points  by  cataracts, 
around  which  railroads  have  been  built.  Navigable 
rivers  total  more  than  7,500  miles,  railways  3,106 
miles,  and  roads  56,000  miles.  Before  the  war  the 
Congo  was  served, by  several  international  airways 
and  possessed  an  extensive  internal  network  op- 
erated by  the  Sabena  Company. 

Government.  The  administration  is  under  the  gen- 
eral supervision  of  the  Belgian  Minister  of  Colo- 
nies, normally  an  appointee  of  the  King,  and  is  as- 
sisted by  a  colonial  council.  At  the  head  of  the  ac- 
tual administration  is  a  governor  general,  assisted 
by  a  vice  governor,  state  inspectors,  and  six  pro- 
vincial governors.  The  provinces  are  in  turn  divided 


BELGIUM 

into  districts  and  these  are  subdivided  into  admin- 
istrative territories.  Governor  General :  Eugene  Jun- 
gers. 

Ruanda-Urundi,  Territory  of.  This  Territory,  for- 
merly a  League  of  Nations  mandate,  became  a 
Trust  Territory  of  the  United  Nations  on  Dec.  13, 

1946.  The  Territory  has  an  area  of  20,500  square 
miles  and  a  population  (Jan.  1,  1946)  of  3.5  mil- 
lion. The  white  population  numbered  2,232;  the 
Asiatic  1,885.  Capital:  Usumbura.  In  1925  the  Ter- 
ritory was  joined  administratively  with  the  Belgian 
Congo  and  placed  under  the  direction  of  a  gover- 
nor. In  1945  there  were  3,609  schools  with  224,314 
pupils.  Cattle-raising  is  important.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  cotton,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  kapok.  Min- 
erals include  tin  and  gold.  In  1945  imports  were 
valued  at  222,164,567  francs  and  exports  at  322,- 
232,484  francs.  Revenue  and  expenditure  for  1948 
were  estimated  at  200,458,000  francs  and  230,454,- 
000  francs,  respectively.  Governor:  Maurice  Simon. 

BELGIUM.  A  kingdom  of  western  Europe.  Capital, 
Brussels.  (See  below  under  Government  and 
Events. ) 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  of  Belgium,  in- 
cluding the  districts  of  Eupen  and  Malmedy,  is 
11,775  square  miles.  On  July  1,  1947,  the  esti- 
mated population  was  8,421,000.  The  people  are 
of  two  distinct  races,  the  Flemings  and  the  Wal- 
loons. French  and  Flemish  are  the  languages  spo- 
ken. Vital  statistics  in  1947  (rate  per  1,000): 
births  17.8,  deaths  13.3;  marriages  9.9.  Chief 
cities  (1947 populations):  Greater  Brussels,  1,290,- 
534;  Antwerp,  259,622;  Ghent,  162,488;  Liege, 
150,103. 

Education  and  Religion.  On  Jan.  1,  1946,  there 
were  13,065  elementary  schools  and  1,063,980  pu- 
pils; 271  secondary  schools  and  83,856  pupils.  In 
1945_46  the  88  normal  schools  had  9,306  students. 
In  addition  there  were  many  free  or  private 
schools,  mostly  under  ecclesiastical  care.  The  four 
universities  (Brussels,  Ghent,  Liege,  andLouvain) 
had  a  total  of  16,017  students  in  1946-47.  There 
were  also  several  state  agricultural  institutes.  In 
addition  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  there 
were  4  Royal  conservatoires,  117  schools  of  music, 
and  57  schools  of  design.  The  motion-picture 
houses  had  a  total  seating  capacity  of  526,770  in 

1947.  There  is  full  religious  liberty.  Roman  Cathol- 
icism is  the  predominant  religion. 

Production.  Belgium's  manufacturing,  mining,  in- 
tensive agriculture,  and  extensive  foreign  com- 
merce enable  it  to  support  one  of  the  densest 
populations  of  Europe.  (712  per  sq.  mi.).  Leading 
crops  are  wheat,  rye,  oats,  potatoes,  and  sugar 
beets.  The  grain  harvest,  in  1948,  was  350,000 
tons,  somewhat  less  than  normal.  Meat  production, 
in  1947,  averaged  13,500  tons  monthly;  buttter 
production,  2,100  tons  monthly.  Livestock  (Jan.  1, 
1947)  included  304,446  horses,  1,651,576  cattle, 
217,312  sheep  and  goats,  and  839,493  pigs. 

Belgium  possesses  large  mineral  resources,  espe- 
cially coal,  iron,  and  zinc  ores.  The  output  of  coal 
has  been  rising  steadily  since  the  end  of  the  war, 
reaching  90  percent  of  the  prewar  level  in  Septem- 
ber, 1948.  In  August,  2,180,000  tons  of  coal  were 
mined,  against  1,827,000  in  August,  1947.  Belgium 
is  also  an  important  producer  of  glass,  paper,  card- 
board, cement,  cotton,  yarn,  rayon,  metal  prod- 
ucts, alcoholic  beverages,  etc.  The  index  of  in- 
dustrial production  stood  at  121  in  April,  1948 
(1938-100). 

Foreign  Trade.  For  the  year  1948  (last  four 
months  estimated),  exports  amounted  to  70,758 
million  francs  (61,656  million  in  1947)  and  im- 


72  BELGIUM 

ports  to  86,710.5  million  francs  (85,560  million). 
(The  foregoing  figures  include  Luxembourg,  a 
member  of  the  Belgo-Luxembourg  Economic  Un- 
ion.) The  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France, 
the  Netherlands,  Argentina,  Switzerland,  and  the 
Belgian  Congo  were  the  most  important  trading 
countries. 

Transportation.  Belgium  has  approximately  10,200 
kilometers  of  state  highways  and  provincial  roads. 
In  January,  1947,  there  were  4,956  kilometers  of 
standard-gage  railway  and  4,811  kilometers  of 
narrow-gage  railway,  of  which  1,454  were  electri- 
fied. There  are  1,614  kilometers  of  navigable  rivers 
and  canals.  The  number  of  motor  vehicles  in  1946 
was  221,788.  On  Jan.  31,  1947,  the  Belgian  mer- 
chant marine  comprised  63  vessels  aggregating 
183,121  tons  net 

Finance.  For  1946  revenue  was  estimated  to  to- 
tal 1,328  million  francs;  expenditure,  1,603  mil- 
lion francs.  The  public  debt  on  Dec.  31,  1947, 
amounted  to  246,844  million  francs.  Net  total 
money  supply,  June,  1948:  155,700  million  francs. 
Exchange  rate,  1948:  43.96  Belgian  francs  per 
U.S.  dollar. 

The  1949  budget,  presented  in  October,  1948, 
estimated  total  expenditure  at  71,600  million  francs 
against  revenue  of  66,800  million  francs.  The  1949 
deficit  was  estimated  at  4,800  million  francs;  the 
1948  deficit:  13,500  million  francs. 

Government.  Belgium  is  "a  constitutional,  rep- 
resentative and  hereditary  monarchy/'  Legislative 
power  is  vested  in  the  King,  the  Senate,  and  the 
Chamber  of  Representatives.  All  elections  for  the 
Senate  and  the  Chamber  are  held  on  the  principle 
of  universal  suffrage.  The  Senate  comprises  167 
elected  members.  In  the  Chamber  of  Representa- 
tives there  are  202  members.  Senators  and  Repre- 
sentatives serve  for  four  years  unless  both,  or  one, 
of  the  houses  are  dissolved  by  the  King,  upon 
which  event  new  elections  must  take  place  within 
40  days.  Ruler:  King  Leopold  III  (ascended  the 
throne  Feb.  23,  1934).  In  view  of  the  detention 
of  King  Leopold  in  Germany  during  World  War 
II,  the  Belgian  Parliament  in  compliance  with  the 
Constitution  on  Sept.  20,  1944,  elected  Prince 
Charles,  brother  of  the  King,  to  be  Regent  of  the 
Kingdom.  The  Regency  was  extended  indefinitely 
by  the  law  of  July  17,  1945,  which  also  barred 
the  King's  return  to  the  throne  without  consent 
of  Parliament.  Premier:  Paul-Henri  Spaak  (So- 
cialist). 

Events,  1948.  Comparative  political  stability  and 
economic  prosperity,  American  style  (abundance 
at  high  prices ) ,  relegated  the  anxious  memories  of 
the  war  to  the  remote  past  for  most  Belgians  last 
year.  More  than  ever  the  little  country  appeared 
as  a  show  window  for  Europe;  only  there  were 
not  too  many  people  who  could  afford  the  luxuries 
inside. 

The  Royal  Question:  More  of  the  Same.  The  nation- 
wide controversy  about  King  Leopold  III  continued 
in  its  fourth  year,  unabated  and  with  the  end  no- 
where in  sight.  Leopold's  prospects  for  an  eventual 
return  to  the  throne  did  not  brighten  during  the 
year,  in  spite  of  his  own  strenuous  efforts  and 
the  unflinching  support  of  his  faithful.  New  details 
concerning  the  King's  attitude  during  the  war  came 
to  light  at  the  Nuremberg  trial  of  the  Nazi  diplo- 
mats (see  GERMANY).  In  a  dispatch  from  Nurem- 
berg, dated  Feb.  6,  1948,  the  New  York  Times 
quoted  evidence  decidedly  unfavorable  to  the 
King,  which  had  been  submitted  at  the  trial  of 
former  Under  Secretary  of  State  Otto  Meissner. 

The  evidence  in  question  was  contained  in  con- 
fidential reports  sent  to  Herr  Meissner  in  June, 


BELGIUM 


73 


1940,  by  a  German  officer,  Lt.  Col.  Kiewitz,  who 
had  been  assigned  to  supervise  the  King's  move- 
ments while  a  prisoner  of  war. 

It  appears  from  one  of  Kiewitz'  reports  that 
Leopold,  "asking  for  the  strictest  secrecy,"  re- 
vealed to  his  captors  the  hiding  place,  near  Bor- 
deaux, France,  of  the  Belgian  State  treasure  and 
of  sealed  boxes  containing  Belgian  State  docu- 
ments. The  King  also  took  the  initiative  in  bring- 
ing about  the  interview  with  Hitler,  which,  by 
his  own  admission,  took  place  at  Berchtesgaden  on 
Nov.  13,  1944. 

While  the  monarchical  institution  as  such  was 
not  seriously  challenged  by  anybody,  except  per- 
haps the  insignificant  Communist  minority,  the 
question  of  who  should  be  King  of  the  Belgians 
continued  to  divide  the  nation  and  became  even 
more  complicated  during  the  year. 

For,  whereas  in  previous  years  public  opinion 
had  been  split  between  the  partisans  of  Leopold, 
on  the  Right,  and  the  supporters  of  Prince  Charles' 
regency,  on  the  Left,  a  third  potential  occupant 
of  the  throne  now  emerged  to  the  forefront  of 
public  interest:  Prince  Baudouin,  heir  apparent  to 
the  crown. 

On  Sept  7,  1948,  the  Prince  was  18  years  old 
and  thus  became  eligible  to  ascend  the  throne.  In 
anticipation  of  this  event,  the  executive  council 
of  the  powerful  Socialist  Party  voted  on  January 
26  to  demand  the  immediate  abdication  of  Leopold, 
a  move  that  automatically  would  have  entailed 
the  elevation  to  the  throne  of  Prince  Baudouin  in 
September.  However,  Premier  Paul-Henri  Spaak, 
though  a  Socialist  himself,  did  not  approve  the 
resolution  which,  he  predicted,  would  result  in 
harm  to  the  young  Prince,  the  dynasty,  and  the 
country.  He  accepted,  however,  a  mandate  to 
resume  direct  negotiations  with  the  exiled  King 
with  a  view  to  finding  a  way  out  of  the  perennial 
crisis. 

Meanwhile,  on  January  20,  Leopold  bad  left  his 
Swiss  residence  for  a  two  months*  vacation  in 
Cuba.  A  reported  plan  to  visit  the  United  States 
did  not  materialize.  Instead,  the  Regent,  Prince 
Charles,  and  Premier  Spaak  paid  an  official  visit  to 
Washington,  which  lasted  from  April  4  to  April  9. 
After  a  trip  to  Canada,  the  two  statesmen  returned 
to  Belgium  on  April  18.  The  official  explanation  of 
this  State  visit  was  that  it  aimed  at  enlisting  Amer- 
ican support  for  the  West  European  alliance 
formed  at  Brussels  on  March  17  (see  below).  No 
request  for  military  assistance  was  put  forward,  ac- 
cording to  a  statement  by  Acting  Secretary  of  State 
Robert  A.  Lovett  on  April  7. 

Following  the  return  to  Europe  of  all  parties 
concerned,  Premier  Spaak  on  May  29  visited  Leo- 
pold at  the  latter's  villa  near  Geneva,  Switzerland. 
Two  interviews  took  place,  during  which,  accord- 
ing to  Belgian  press  reports,  the  question  of  Bau- 
douin's  return  to  Belgium  was  the  principal  topic  of 
conversation.  Spaak  was  said  to  have  urged  the  ex- 
iled monarch  to  permit  his  son  to  return  to  Bel- 
gium, regardless  of  the  question  of  abdication, 
since  the  Prince  was  required  by  tradition  to  serve 
in  the  Army  and  to  take  his  seat  in  the  Senate  after 
his  18th  birthday. 

Apparently  the  meeting  was  fruitless,  for  Prince 
Baudouin  remained  with  his  father  and  the  latter 
made  a  new  overt  bid  for  the  throne.  In  a  letter  to 
Spaak,  dated  June  22,  and  made  public  three  days 
later,  Leopold  demanded  a  popular  referendum  to 
settle  the  royal  question.  The  letter  read  in  part: 
"I  am  in  favor  of  a  general  consultation  of  all  Bel- 
gians. If  this  consultation  does  not  bring  an  indis- 
putable majority  in  favor  of  my  return  to  the 


BELGIUM 

throne,  I  shall  then  abdicate.  If  a  favorable  major- 
ity is  shown  by  the  referendum,  I  would  expect 
Parliament  to  put  an  end  to  the  present  Regency 
and  vote  a  law  bringing  me  back  to  the  throne." 

The  King's  formal  demand  for  a  referendum  met 
with  the  same  response  as  his  earlier  moves.  The 
Socialists  were  flatly  opposed  to  it,  holding  that  a 
referendum  would  be  unconstitutional  as  well  as 
politically  unwise.  The  Christian  Social  Party  was 
in  favor,  while  the  Liberals  appeared  wavering. 

After  months  of  bickering,  the  drive  for  a  refer- 
endum was  stopped  decisively  on  October  20, 
when  a  bill  calling  for  such  a  "popular  consulta- 
tion" failed  to  gain  the  required  majority  in  the 
Senate.  The  vote  was  even,  83  to  83,  with  the  So- 
cialists, Liberals,  and  Communists  casting  "No," 
and  the  Christian  Socialists  "Yes"  votes.  In  view 
of  the  certainty  of  even  more  resolute  rejection,  no 
attempt  was  made  by  the  pro-Leopold  faction  to 
introduce  a  similar  bill  in  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties. 

Spaak  In  ond  Out.  In  spite  of  the  internal  rift 
produced  by  the  rankling  dynastic  question,  the 
Coalition  Government  headed  by  Premier  Paul- 
Henri  Spaak  held  together  through  most  of  the 
year.  At  least  three  major  attempts  to  unseat  it 
were  foiled  and  when  it  finally  fell  in  November, 
it  was,  as  so  often  happens  in  Belgian  affairs,  over 
a  side  issue. 

The  first  crisis  occurred  toward  the  end  of  the 
preceding  year.  On  Dec.  10,  1947,  Socialist? 
and  members  of  the  Christian  Social  party  clashed 
bitterly,  and  even  came  to  blows,  in  the  Chambei 
of  Deputies.  A  debate  over  woman  suffrage,  along 
with  the  royal  question,  provoked  the  fracas.  The 
Christian  Social  ministers  threatened  to  withdraw 
from  the  Cabinet,  but  when  Spaak  bluntly  asked 
the  House  for  a  vote  of  confidence,  "with  no  strings 
attached,"  he  received  it. 

Next,  in  mid-February  1948,  a  wave  of  Com- 
munist-inspired strikes  hit  the  coal  industry  and  £ 
number  of  public  services.  They  were  generally 
viewed  as  an  attempt  to  wreck  the  Marshall  Plat 
in  Belgium  and  were  dealt  with  firmly  by  the  Go- 
vernment. Workers  in  public  utilities  received  or- 
ders of  "civil  mobilization,"  and  several  hundrec 
postmen  were  discharged  from  the  service. 

The  General  Federation  of  Labor  sided  with  the 
Government  in  condemning  the  strikes  which  col 
lapsed  after  a  brief  flurry  ^of  excitement.  On  Feb 
ruary  18,  the  Government's  handling  of  the  strik< 
situation  was  approved  by  the  Chamber  by  ai 
overwhelming  vote  of  146  to  18.  Minor  wage  in 
creases  were  granted  to  coal  miners  and  utilitie 
workers.  In  June,  another  major  outbreak  of  strike 
occurred,  as  some  200,000  workers  in  the  metal  in 
dustries  walked  off  their  jobs. 

Another  crisis,  in  May,  almost  spelt  the  end  o 
the  Spaak  Cabinet.  It  was  caused  by  a  split  in  tfo 
Socialist  Party  ranks  on  the  old  question  of  stat 
subsidies  for  Roman  Catholic  schools.  The  Premiei 
anxious  to  placate  his  Catholic  partners  in  the  Gov 
ernment  coalition,  nad  accepted  a  proposed  sub 
stantial  increase  in  the  subsidies  previously  paid  b 
the  state  to  the  Catholic  institutions.  When  th 
matter  was  brought  up  in  the  Chamber,  howevei 
he  found  himself  disavowed  by  a  majority  of  hi 
own  party  comrades.  After  ten  days  of  bitter  wrar 
gling  in  Parliament,  Spaak  tendered  the  resignatio 
of  his  Cabinet  to  the  Regent  on  May  5. 

No  sooner  had  the  Premier's  decision  to  qu 
become  known,  than  the  leaders  of  both  major  par- 
ties realized  they  could  not  do  without  him.  A 
compromise  formula  was  thrashed  out  and  on  May 
10  the  executive  committees  of  the  Socialist  and 


BELGIUM 

Christian  Social  parties  called  on  Spaak  to  con- 
tinue. Having  refused  at  first  ('1  am  so  tired"), 
he  yielded  on  May  14  to  the  insistence  of  the  Re- 
gent. The  Coalition  Government  continued  in  of- 
fice unchanged. 

A  new  storm  blew  up  unexpectedly  in  Novem- 
ber. When  the  Minister  of  Justice  Paul  Struye,  a 
member  of  the  Christian  Social  Party,  commuted 
the  death  sentences  of  two  Nazi  collaborators,  the 
Socialists  attacked  him  fiercely  in  the  Chamber. 
•  On  November  18  the  Minister  resigned  and  the 
next  day  the  entire  Cabinet  followed  suit.  After 
weeks  of  wrangling,  Spaak  once  again  proved  his 
indispensability.  On  November  26  he  formed  a 
new  Coalition  Cabinet  which  was  substantially  the 
same  as  before,  except  for  a  new  Minister  of  Justice. 

Be/g/um  and  the  "Western  Union."  When  Britain, 
France,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  and  Luxem- 
bourg decided  early  in  1948  to  pool  their  resources 
and  means  of  defense  in  a  close  political,  economic, 
and  military  alliance,  their  first  conference  was 
held  at  Brussels  and  the  50-year  treaty  was  signed 
there  on  March  17. 

By  joining  the  five-power  alliance,  Belgium  evi- 
dently abandoned  the  ill-fated  policy  of  neutrality 
to  which  the  little  country  had  clung  stubbornly 
for  more  than  a  hundred  years  and  which  twice 
had  been  violated  by  German  aggression. 

Although  the  wording  of  the  treaty  mentioned 
only  Germany  as  a  potential  aggressor,  the  circum- 
stances surrounding  the  Brussels  Conference  un- 
mistakably pointed  to  Soviet  Russia  as  the  only 
possible  threat  to  the  five  nations'  security  in  the 
near  future.  Needless  to  say,  the  Kremlin  did  not 
bestow  its  blessing  on  any  of  the  signatories  to  the 
pact,  yet  Belgian-Russian  relations  do  not  appear 
to  have  suffered  much  from  its  signing.  At  any  rate 
it  did  not  affect  a  new  trade  agreement  between 
the  two  countries  which  had  been  negotiated  a 
few  weeks  earlier. 

Meanwhile  the  economic  union  of  the  Low 
Countries  ("Benelux")  made  further  progress  du- 
ring the  year.  A  two-day  conference  of  twenty 
Cabinet  Ministers  of  Belgium,  the  Netherlands, 
and  Luxembourg,  which  was  held  at  Namur,  on 
,{une  7-8,  resulted  in  agreement  to  make  the  eco- 
nomic unification  of  the  three  countries  fully  effec- 
tive as  of  Jan.  1,  1950. 

Economic  Conditions.  Belgium,  in  1948.,  was  ri- 
ding a  crest  of  economic  prosperity,  but  this  happy 
state  of  affairs  was  not  without  its  worries.  While 
shop  windows  and  counters  were  loaded  to  over- 
flow with  all  sorts  of  commodities,  including  lux- 
uries scarcely  available  elsewhere  in  Europe,  prices 
remained  at  such  high  levels  that  they  made  a  buy- 
ers' strike  inevitable.  As  in  America,  the  so-called 
law  of  supply  and  demand  appeared  to  have  lost 
its  validity,  at  least  temporarily.  The  cost  of  living 
was  about  four  times  as  high  as  before  the  war, 
forcing  a  large  sector  of  the  population  to  do  with- 
out everything  but  the  necessities  of  life. 

As  a  result,  and  on  account  of  continued  cur- 
rency restrictions  in  many  European  countries, 
Belgium's  once  flourishing  tourist  trade  was  in  the 
doldrums.  Except  for  some  Americans,  the  foreign 
clientele  of  Belgium's  famous  seaside  resorts  and 
mediaeval  curiosities  was  conspicuously  absent 
From  Germany  and  Great  Britain,  practically  no 
tourists  were  counted.  Visitors  from  France  and 
the  Netherlands  were  few  and  far  between, 

Belgium's  export  industry  was  very  active  but 
much  of  its  output  went  to  countries  unable  to 
make  reciprocal  deliveries  or  pay  in  cash.  As  a  re- 
sult, Belgium's  credit  balance  was  reported  to  have 
reached  13,000  million  francs  in  late  summer, 


74  BILLIARDS 

causing  the  Government  and  business  to  look  with 
disfavor  upon  a  further  unilateral  expansion  of  the 
export  trade. 

The  problem  of  Rhine  shipping  was  the  object 
of  much  controversy  during  the  year.  Belgian  ship- 
owners complained  that  Antwerp's  harbor  facilities 
were  made  idle  by  the  refusal  of  the  Joint  Export- 
Import  Agency  in  Frankfurt  am  Main  to  release 
Rhine  traffic  for  the  Low  Country  ports.  Charges 
were  even  made  of  an  attempt  to  play  off  Rotter- 
dam against  Antwerp,  contrary  to  the  "Benelux" 
understanding.  In  mid- September  it  was  reported 
that  about  one-half  of  Antwerp's  waterfront  labor 
force  was  out  of  work. 

With  the  end  of  bread  rationing,  in  October, 
only  sugar  was  left  on  the  rationing  fist  in  Belgium. 

— JOACHIM  JOESTEN 

BERMUDA.  A  British  colony  in  the  Atlantic,  677 
miles  southeast  of  New  York.  About  20  of  the  360 
islands  are  inhabited.  Area:  £1  square  miles.  Pop- 
ulation (1946  est.) :  34,965  (excluding  military  per- 
sonnel). Negroes  outnumber  whites  almost  two  to 
one.  Capital,  Hamilton  (pop.  3,000). 

Tourists  are  an  important  source  of  income  in 
Bermuda.  Chief  agricultural  products  are  bananas, 
potatoes,  lily  bulbs,  and  vegetables.  Imports  in- 
clude food,  clothing,  agricultural  supplies,  and 
building  materials.  Trade  (1946):  imports,  £3,- 
612,128;  exports,  £261,445.  Finance:  budget  esti- 
mates for  1948  provide  for  revenue  of  £967,170; 
expenditure  of  £1,270,870.  The  1947  budget 
showed  revenue  of  approximately  £  1,454,000;  ex- 
penditure of  £1,358,000. 

The  colony  is  administered  by  a  governor,  as- 
sisted by  an  executive  council  and  a  legislative 
council,  both  composed  of  appointed  members, 
and  an  elected  House  of  Assembly  of  36  members. 
Governor:  Adm.  Sir  Ralph  Leatham  (assumed 
office  May  6,  1946). 

BHUTAN.  A  semi-independent  state  bounded  by 
Tibet  on  the  north  and  the  Dominions  of  India  and 
Pakistan  on  the  south.  Area:  18,000  square  miles. 
Estimated  population:  300,000.  The  people  are 
nominally  Buddhists.  Rice,  maize,  millet,  lac,  wax, 
different  kinds  of  cloth,  and  musk  are  the  main 
products.  The  ruler  of  the  state  is  in  treaty  relations 
with  Great  Britain. 

BILLIARDS.  Willie  Hoppe,  who  began  collecting  titles 
in  1906,  retained  his  world's  three-cushion  crown 
by  defeating  Ezequiel  Navarra,  youthful  Argentine 
champion,  450-376,  in  a  challenge  match  at  Chi- 
cago in  March.  Navarra  earned  the  right  to  bid  for 
Hoppe's  laurels  by  winning  the  national  tourna- 
ment in  which  Irving  Crane  of  Binghamton,  N.Y., 
was  runner-up.  Willie  Mosconi  of  Kansas  City, 
Mo.,  easily  defended  his  world's  pocket  billiard 
championship,  taking  all  nine  games  from  Andrew 
Ponzi  of  Philadelphia  for  a  point  score  of  1,350- 
643.  Victory  in  the  national  tourney  enabled  Ponzi 
to  challenge  for  Mosconi's  title. 

Ed  Lee  of  the  New  York  A.C.  triumphed  in  the 
amateur  three-cushion  competition  and  Rene  Vin- 
gerhoedt  of  Belgium  won  world  amateur  laurels* 
John  Romano  of  Brooklyn  and  Anthony  Venuto 
of  Philadephia  took  senior  and  junior  honors,  re- 
spectively, in  the  United  States  boys'  pocket  bil- 
liards event  National  intercollegiate  champions 
were  Gordon  Howe,  Wisconsin,  straight-rail;  Sol 
Ashkenage,  Wisconsin,  three-cushion;  Jack  Brown, 
Utah,  pocket,  and  Jeanne  Lynch,  Rhode  Island 
State,  women's  pocket  billiards. 

— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 


BOBSIED0/MG  75 

BOBSLEDDJNG.  The  Majestic  Bobsled  Club  of  Lake 
Placid,  N.Y.,  won  both  the  North  American  and 
national  A.A.U.  four-man  championships  on  the 
fast  Mount  Hoevenberg  run  at  Lake  Placid.  The 
team  was  composed  of  Stanley  Benharn,  Bill  Casey, 
Jim  Atkinson,  and  William  Trombley.  A  pair  of 
daring  riders,  Dick  Surphlis  and  Henry  Stern  from 
Saranac  Lake,  took  three  major  amateur  titles  dur- 
ing the  frigid  campaign,  annexing  both  the  senior 
and  junior  two-man  laurels  in  the  national  com- 
petition and  the  North  American  two-man  award. 
American  bobsled  stars  finished  first  in  points 
in  the  Olympic  Games  at  St.  Moritz,  Switzerland. 
See  OLYMPIC  GAMES.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

BOLIVIA.  A  republic  of  South  America.  About 
three-fifths  of  the  area  is  composed  of  tropical  low- 
lands and  the  remainder  of  mountains  and  pla- 
teaus. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  416,040  square  miles. 
Population  (1947  est):  3,854,000,  of  whom  54 
percent  were  Indians,  32  percent  mestizos,  and  13 
percent  of  European  descent.  Chief  cities:  (1946 
pop.):  La  Paz  (seat  of  government),  302,000; 
Cochabamba,  76,500;  Oraro,  50,000;  and  Sucre 
(legal  capital),  30,000. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  Constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship,  but  the  state  recognizes 
and  supports  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Spanish 
is  the  official  language  but  large  numbers  of  In- 
dians speak  Quecnua  or  Ayrnara.  Measures  are  be- 
ing taken  to  reduce  the  country's  high  illiteracy 
(about  80  percent).  There  were  3,253  elementary 
and  rural  schools  with  254,056  pupils  in  1944;  55 
secondary  schools  with  17,496  students;  arid  326 
Indian  schools  with  an  unknown  number  of  pu- 
pils. Five  universities,  normal  schools,  and  profes- 
sional schools  are  also  found. 

Production.  Mining  is  the  chief  industry  and 
agriculture  the  most  important  occupation.  Tin 
alone  accounts  for  about  80  percent  of  total  ex- 
ports. In  1946  tin  exports  amounted  to  38,221  met- 
ric tons,  valued  at  $52,001,468.  Other  mineral 
exports  in  1947  (metric  tons)  were:  lead,  11,280; 
zinc,  14,640;  copper,  6,240;  antimony  (1946), 
6,964;  wolfram  (1946),  1,273. 

Industrial  production  is  centered  on  consumer 
goods  such  as  blankets,  cement,  cigarettes,  cotton, 
wheat,  etc.  Chief  agricultural  products  include 
maize,  sugar,  tobacco,  cocoa,  cotton,  rubber,  and 
quinine.  Rubber  exports  in  1947  amounted  to  4,320 
metric  tons;  quinine  and  cocoa  leaves  are  also  ex- 
ported in  small  quantities. 

Foreign  Trade.  Latest  available  foreign  trade  fig- 
ures (1946)  show  exports  valued  at  $74,000,000; 
imports,  $51,000,000.  Principal  buyers,  in  order  of 
importance,  were  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
Argentina,  Brazil,  Chile,  and  Peru.  Chief  suppliers 
were  the  United  States,  Argentina,  Peru,  Brazil, 
and  Chile. 

Transportation.  The  country  had  1,454  miles  of 
railway  and  a  total  of  6,280  miles  (all  types)  of 
roads  in  1947.  About  12,000  miles  of  rivers  are 
open  to  small-craft  navigation.  There  are  54  com- 
mercial and  six  government  operated  broadcasting 
stations. 

Finance.  In  the  1948  budget,  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure were  balanced  at  1,496,911,040  boliv- 
ianos (the  controlled  boliviano  equaled  U.S. 
$0.0236,  1946-48),  an  increase  of  24  million  boli- 
vianos from  1947.  The  public  debt  (Jan.  1,  1947) 
totaled  6,054,707,055.  At  the  end  of  June,  1948, 
the  currency  in  circulation  was  1,782  million  boli- 
vianos; bank  deposits  totaled  1,000  million  boli- 
vianos. Gold  reserves  totaled  $23  million  on  Aug. 


BOLIVIA 

30,  1948.  The  cost  of  living  index  in  December 
1947,  was  696  (1937  =  100). 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  Oct.  303 
1938  (rev.  1945),  Bolivia  is  a  centralized  republic 
of  nine  departments.  Legislative  power  is  vested  in 
a  Congress  composed  of  a  Senate  of  27  members 
(elected  for  6  years)  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies 
composed  of  110  representatives  (elected  for  4 
years).  The  President  serves  a  six-year  term  and 
is  assisted  by  a  Cabinet  of  9  members.  On  Jan.  15, 
1947,  Dr.  Enrique  Hertzog  was  elected  President 
and  assumed  office  on  March  10,  for  a  four-year 
term. 

Events,  1948.  Bolivia,  which  in  past  years  had 
been  torn  by  internal  strife,  revolts,  and  coups 
d'etat,  spent  a  relatively  uneventful  1948.  The  Gov- 
ernment of  Dr.  Enrique  Hertzog  managed  to  steej 
clear  of  serious  political  trouble,  although  the  coun- 
try was  affected  by  the  inflation,  shortage  of  for- 
eign exchange  and,  in  general,  by  the  financial 
difficulties  prevalent  in  the  majority  of  Latin  Amer- 
ican republics  during  the  postwar  period. 

Signs  of  Unrest.  A  plot  to  overthrow  the  Govern- 
ment was  discovered  toward  the  end  of  January, 
when  it  was  found  that  ex-Major  Raul  Tovar  and 
other  functionaries  connected  with  the  regime  of 
President  Gualberto  Villarroel  ( ousted  and  assassi- 
nated during  1946)  and  members  of  the  M.N.R. 
party  (Movimiento  Nacional  Revolucionario )  were 
planning  an  uprising.  Documents  were  found  show- 
ing plans  for  the  revolt,  which  was  to  take  place 
on  January  25,  a  holiday  when  the  troops  would 
be  off  duty.  A  provisional  government  had  been 
planned  to  take  over,  with  Tovar  as  Minister  of 
Defense.  President  Hertzog*s  Government  acted 
rapidly,  declared  a  state  of  siege,  and  made  numer- 
ous arrests. 

Politkat  Confusion.  Toward  the  middle  of  the 
year,  although  no  serious  disturbances  had  taken 
place,  the  political  atmosphere  was  clouded.  Al- 
though Hertzog's  administration  was  backed  by 
his  Socialist  Republican  Union  Party,  it  was  af- 
fected by  division  among  party  leaders.  This 
caused  a  change  in  the  Cabinet,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  Javier  Paz  Campero  as  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs.  The  situation  was  further  confused  by  the 
return  to  the  country  of  Jose  Antonio  Arce,  leader 
of  the  P.I.R.  (Partido  de  Izquierda  Revolucion- 
aria),  a  leftist  group  that  has  been  in  the  opposi- 
tion for  a  number  of  years. 

On  their  part,  the  members  of  the  M.N.R.  con- 
tinued their  strong  propaganda  against  the  govern- 
ment. This  group  is  popular  among  the  peasants 
and  workers  of  the  mining  regions,  and  is  backed 
by  Juan  Lechin,  the  most  powerful  labor  leader  in 
the  country.  Later,  President  Hertzog  tried  to  form 
a  coalition  government  and  offered  three  Ministries 
to  the  Liberal  Party,  but  the  offer  was  declined. 

The  President  also  offered  a  Cabinet  post  to  the 
Partido  Social  Democratico,  which  was  declined, 
their  leader  demanding  that  the  Government  ac- 
cept a  number  of  political  measures  before  any 
coalition  was  accepted,  especially  state  control  over 
all  foreign  exchange  derived  from  the  exploitation 
of  minerals;  reestablishment  of  the  National  Educa- 
tion Board;  regimentation  of  the  right  to  strike,  and 
implementation  of  agrarian  reform. 

Education  and  the  Congress.  An  important  congres- 
sional investigation  made  on  the  conditions  of  pub- 
lic education  attracted  wide  attention.  The  inves- 
tigating cornmittee  reached  the  conclusion  that  ( 1 ) 
national  education  is  in  complete  decadence;  that 

(2)  there  is  no  scientific  education  program;  that 

(3)  the  teachers  function  as  a  state  bureaucracy, 
and  that  their  promotions  are  made  not  on  the  basis 


BOMIN  ISLANDS 


76 


BOTANY 


of  academic  merit,  but  subject  to  political  pres- 
sure. 

The  overall  picture  of  conditions  showed  more 
than  80  percent  of  illiteracy;  schoolhouses  owned 
by  private  individuals  who  usually  collect  exces- 
sively high  rent  from  the  Government,  and  72  per- 
cent of  the  teachers  not  having  the  necessary  qual- 
ifications. This  investigation  was  interpreted  as  a 
blow  to  President  Hertzog's  administration  which 
had  always  claimed  that  it  was  deeply  interested 
in  an  improvement  of  the  educational  system. 

International  Front.  The  signing  of  the  economic 
agreement  with  Argentina  (see  ARGENTINA,  Events, 
1948)  was  counterbalanced  by  an  important  meet- 
ing between  President  Hertzog  and  President  Dutra 
of  Brazil  During  the  past  two  years,  one  of  the 
noticeable  trends  in  South  America  has  been  the 
inclusion  of  Eolivia  within  the  Argentine  sphere 
of  influence. 

The  Hertzog-Dutra  meeting  was  interpreted  as 
a  Bolivian  effort  toward  the  reestablishment  of 
balance  of  power  in  the  La  Plata  region.  They  met 
on  August  22  in  the  Bolivian  city  of  Robore,  for 
the  inauguration  of  a  railroad  linking  Bolivia  with 
the  Brazilian  port  of  Santos,  which  will  allow  the 
landlocked  country  an  outlet  to  the  Atlantic. 

Bolivia  took  part  in  the  Ninth  Inter-American 
Conference  of  American  States  at  Bogota,  Colum- 
bia, and  became  signatory  of  the  Charter  of  Amer- 
ican States  (see  PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES). 

— MIGUEL  JOBRIN 

BONIN  ISIANDS.  An  archipelago  of  15  islands  in  the 
western  Pacific,  about  550  miles  south  of  Tokyo, 
Japan.  The  chief  islands  are  Chichi  (10  sq.  mi.), 
Haha,  Ani,  Ototo,  Mei,  Yome,  Muko,  and  Naka- 
dachl  Total  area:  40  square  miles.  Population: 
6,000  in  1940,  Capital:  Omura  (on  Chichi).  The 
principal  agricultural  crops  are  sugarcane,  pine- 
apples, and  bananas.  The  Bonins  passed  to  the  con- 
trol of  United  States  forces  following  the  surrender 
of  Japan  to  the  Allied  nations  in  1945. 

BOTANY.  In  the  centenary  program  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  in 
Washington,  several  botanists  discussed  various 
aspects  of  forest  and  crop  resources  in  relation  to 
world  needs.  This  topic,  recently  popularized  in 
such^  books  as  Osborne's  Plundered  Planet  and 
Vogt's  Road  to  Survival,  also  forms  the  subject  of 
the  latest  issue  of  Chronica  Botanica,  entitled 
"Freedom  from  Want,'*  in  which  several  authori- 
ties survey  crop  and  animal  production,  resources 
of  fertilizers,  and  growth  of  population. 

Even  in  this  year  of  high  costs  several  new 
botanical  periodicals  appeared.  Physiologic  Plantar 
rum,  published  in  Lund,  is  the  organ  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian Society  for  Plant  Physiology.  Three 
numbers  have  appeared,  containing  articles  from 
Copenhagen,  Stockholm,  Uppsala,  Lund,  and  Hel- 
sinki— all  written  in  English.  Vegetatio,  subtitled 
Acta  Geobotanica,  published  in  The  Hague,  is 
devoted  to  plant  sociology,  ecology  and  geography. 
The  first  issue  contains  papers  by  Swiss,  Dutch, 
and  Spanish  botanists  and  one  from  Palestine.  The 
subject  of  Hydrobiologia,  also  published  in  The 
Hague,  is  evident  from  the  title.  Its  first  issue  in- 
cluded papers  on  aquatic  organisms  from  the  Unit- 
ed States,  South  Africa,  Spain,  Holland,  and  central 
Europe.  Such  publications  manifest  a  growing  in- 
ternationality  in  plant  science. 

Dr.  William  Crocker  is  the  author  of  a  book  en- 
titled Growth  of  Plants,  presenting  the  results  of 
twenty  jears'  research  at  the  Boyce  Thompson 
Institute,"  of  which  he  has  been  director  since  its 


foundation.  This  is  an  interesting  record  of  contri- 
butions to  many  fields  of  appned  botany — virus 
diseases,  longevity  and  dormancy  of  seeds,  effects 
of  ethylene  and  other  gases,  plant  hormones,  fungi- 
cides and  insecticides,  and  others. 

Harvard  University  has  published,  under  the 
title  Orchids  in  Retrospect,  a  collection  of  the  writ- 
ings of  Oakes  Ames,  in  honor  of  the  golden  anni- 
versary of  this  distinguished  student  and  teacher. 
Taxonomy  and  FSoristics.  A  conference  was  held 
in  Utrecht  to  consider  proposals  for  changes  in  the 
International  Rules  of  Botanical  Nomenclature, 
which  will  be  acted  upon  at  the  International  Bo- 
tanical Congress  in  1950,  Representatives  attended 
from  Holland,  Great  Britain,  the  United  States, 
Sweden,  Belgium,  France,  Switzerland,  Australia, 
and  India. 

In  a  study  of  certain  Liliales,  sporogenesis  and 
other  morphological  features  were  used  to  test  re- 
lationship, emphasizing  anew  the  growing  co- 
operation of  taxonomy  with  other  disciplines.  Chro- 
mosomes were  widely  used  in  taxonomic  studies. 
One  on  grasses  reported  115  species  in  19  genera 
and  revealed  two  more  species  of  the  increasing 
number  which  have  chromosomal  variation  not 
manifested  by  external  characters.  In  another  study 
it  was  shown  that  two  species  of  Achillea,  tetra- 
and  hexaploid,  cannot  be  separated  by  external 
features,  but  the  former  is  transcontinental,  the 
latter  Pacific  in  range.  Chromosome  studies  in  Lo- 
ganiaceae  reinforce  the  taxonomic  conclusion  that 
the  group  is  artificial.  Chromosome  numbers  were 
correlated  with  growth  habit  in  weeds,  and  it  was 
shown  that  polyploidy  is  unimportant  in  determin- 
ing the  weed  habit,  the  annual  habit  making  for 
their  success.  A  Swedish  study  showed  that  annual 
species  are  mostly  diploid,  apomictic  perennials 
m6stiy  polyploid.  The  variable  species  Valeriana 
officinalis  was  studied  in  England.  It  was  found 
that,  aside  from  considerable  variability  which  can 
be  ascribed  to  the  environment,  much  of  the  varia- 
tion in  this  species  is  to  be  traced  to  genetic 
differences  which  are  propagated,  in  numerous 
combinations,  through  interbreeding;  and  formal 
systematic  attempts  to  classify  such  variation  in  a 
small  number  of  subspecific  groups  must  fail.  To 
this  must  be  added  polyploidy,  the  different  poly-  ' 
ploid  groups  not  being  always  distinguishable  mor- 
phologically, but  occupying  different  ranges  and 
being  intersterile. 

A  study  of  freshwater  red  algae  showed  their  dis- 
tribution to  be  related  to  soil  types.  The  periodicity 
of  their  forms  renders  it  difficult  to  know  the  entire 
life  cycle  of  any  species.  Two  Brazilian  seaweeds 
have  proven  promising  as  a  source  of  agar,  hitherto 
obtained  chiefly  from  Japanese  algae.  A  guide  was 
published  to  marine  algae  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

The  genus  Crepis  has  been  extensively  studied 
for  many  years,  cytology  and  genetics  being  used 
to  clarify  systematics  in  a  striking  way.  The  re- 
sults have  been  summarized  in  a  University  of 
California  publication;  Part  1  appeared  in  1947, 
Part  2  recently;  the  latter  deals  with  systematic 
aspects. 

The  results  were  published  of  an  exploratory 
trip  ^  to  the  Kaieteur  Plateau  and  Table  Mountain 
(British  Guiana  and  Surinam).  Works  appeared 
on  Louisiana  trees  and  shrubs,  on  grasses  of  Penn- 
sylvania, on  grasses  of  Pacific  Islands,  on  UmbeUi- 
ferae  in  Argentina,  on  Cinchona  (quinine)  in 
Ecuador,  on  the  vegetation  of  Angola;  and  a  sec- 
ond part  (Geraniaceae — Compositae)  appeared 
of  Pittier's  catalogue  of  the  Venezuelan  flora. 

Ecology.  Very  varied  surveys  were  made  of  dif- 
ferent types  of  vegetation;  e.g.,  the  bogs  and 


BOTANIC 


77 


swamps  of  White  Russia,  a  soil  reconnaissance 
through  Tanganyika,  A  sublittoral  seaweed  survey 
was  made  in  Scottish  waters.  The  yield  was  esti- 
mated at  45,000  tons  from  3,050  acres;  the  density 
of  population  is  not  directly  proportional  to  depth. 
It  was  sliown  that  colonization  by  marine  algae  at 
Monterey,  California,  depends  on  the  mode  of 
reproduction.  The  yield  of  natural  herbage  was 
studied  under  controlled  grazing  in  Wales.  Grazed 
plots  yielded  twice  as  much  crude  protein  as  plots 
in  hay.  Lime  was  found  efficient  in  increasing  not 
only  minerals  but  also  starch  and  protein  yield. 

Cytology  and  Genetics.  Investigation  continued  of 
polyploid  conditions  resulting  from  treatment  with 
colchicine.  In  Belgium  tetraploid  beets  were  ob- 
tained, "not  of  immediate  agricultural  interest" 
because  of  lowered  fertility  and  increased  suscepti- 
bility to  parasites  with  little  gain  in  sugar  content. 
In  Sweden  tetraploid  and  diploid  plants  of  Sinapis 
alba  (a  mustard)  were  grown  side  by  side,  which 
reduced  the  yield  of  the  tetraploid  plants  by  the 
production  of  abortive  triploid  embryos  though 
open  pollination.  Doubling  the  chromosome  num- 
ber in  Hieracium  hoppeanum  resulted  in  the  oc- 
currence of  reduction  divisions  in  the  somatic  tis- 
sues of  the  ovule — a  process  often  postulated  but 
rarely  demonstrated.  A  fern  hybrid  (Woodsia), 
usually  sterile,  was  of  interest  in  that  the  terminal 
part  of  the  frond  became  fertile.  Since  the  growth 
Df  a  fern  frond  continues  through  a  long  period 
by  means  of  its  apical  cell,  this  suggests  some  dou- 
bling of  chromosomes  in  the  latter  during  the 
growth  of  the  leaf. 

Much  study  has  been  given  to  biochemical  mu- 
tants'* of  Neurospora — new  races  of  this  fungus 
recognizable  only  by  their  need  for  certain  nutri- 
ents. Reversion  of  these  mutants  has  been  obtained 
by  treatment  with  ultra-violet  and  X-rays,  and  ni- 
trogen mustard  gas. 

Morphology.  The  electron  microscope  was  intro- 
duced into  morphology  in  a  study  of  the  chloro- 
plast  of  spinach.  Magnifications  up  to  48,000  times 
were  used.  Each  chloroplast  contains  40-60 
"grana"  embedded  in  a  "stroma."  The  grana  are 
wafer-like,  dense,  uniform  in  one  chloroplast,  low 
in  protein. 

Further  study  of  shoot  apices  in  dicotyledons, 
resulted  in  an  attempt  to  define  the  meristematic 
zones  "dynamically/*  It  was  made  clear  that  "tu- 
nica" and  "corpus"  are  not  histogens,  since  they 
may  fluctuate  in  one  species  during  the  season  and 
during  the  cycle  of  development.  In  an  English 
study  it  was  shown  that  vegetative  and  reproduc- 
tive apices  do  not  differ  essentially  in  organization. 

The  old  question  of  the  nature  of  flower  parts — 
whether  leaves  or  stem — was  attacked  by  a  study 
of  perianth  formation  in  Vinca.  The  corolla  tube 
was  shown  to  be  of  two  parts,  the  upper  composed 
of  separate  parts  ( "appendicular" )  which  fuse  at 
the  margins  during  development.  In  a  study  of 
flowers  of  Passifloraceae,  it  was  concluded  that 
sepals  and  petals  are  leaves,  stamens  also  derived 
from  a  foliar  ancestor,  in  contrast  to  their  origin 
from  branches  as  suggested  by  other  recent  work- 
ers. A  similar  conclusion  was  reached  by  a  Czech 
botanist  working  on  Cyclamen. 

An  English  botanist  reported  on  marine  diatoms 
in  cultivation.  They  lost  their  shells  ( "frustules" ) 
and  gradually  also  their  shape  and  power  of  mo- 
tion. In  such  a  condition  they  survived  9  months, 
the  normal  condition  being  regained  by  immersion 
in  seawater. 

Fertilization  of  species-crosses  in  Datura  some- 
times failed  even  when  shortness  of  style  was  not 
a  factor.  In  such  crosses  fertilization  actually  oc- 


&OTANY 

curred  and  the  zygote  might  divide  but  often  did 
not.  The  endosperm  divided,  but  ultimately  disin- 
tegrated. The  evidence  suggests  a  breakdown  of 
chemical  regulatory  mechanism  or  of  nutrition. 

Mycology  and  Plant  Pathology,  A  method  first  used 
in  bacteriology  has  been  adapted  to  mycology  with 
considerable  success;  this  is  the  maintenance  of 
cultures  under  a  layer  of  mineral  oil.  The  oil  pre- 
vents dehydration,  excludes  mites,  and  slows  me- 
tabolism. A  wide  range  of  fungi  have  been  tested 
for  periods  up  to  2,4  months.  Blakeslea  tnspora, 
which  must'usually  be  transferred  every  few  weeks, 
survived  under  oil  for  10  months. 

A  number  of  fungi  were  successfully  grown  on 
asphalt-treated  paper,  showing  that  such  materials, 
when  used  for  wrapping,  cannot  be  assumed  to 
have  a  preservative  effect. 

Several  papers  appeared  on  the  use  of  antibiotics 
as  a  "cure"  for  plant  diseases,  particularly  of 
crown  gall.  One  of  these  substances  was  derived 
from  a  species  of  Streptomyces,  from  a  species  of 
which  we  obtain  the  well-known  streptomycin. 

Cytological  study  was  made  of  the  bird's-nest 
fungus  Cyathus  stercor&us.  Haploid  mycelia  were 
grown  from  single  spores  and  diploid  mycelia 
which  formed  fruit-bodies  were  obtained  by  pair- 
ing these  mycelia.  In  some  pairings  the  doubling 
of  nuclei  proceeded  in  only  one  direction — one 
mycelium  becoming  diploid,  the  other  remaining 
haploid.  Fruit-bodies  of  several  different  types 
were  obtained,  some  scarcely  recognizable  as  be- 
longing to  the  species.  These  findings  are  important 
in  the  general  problem  of  classification  of  fungi, 
in  which  data  on  hybridization  and  variation  have 
been  lacking. 

In  the  meetings  of  the  A.A.A.S.  in  Chicago  a 
group  of  papers  was  presented  on  breeding  in  re- 
lation to  disease  resistance;  various  diseases  were 
discussed  in  tomatoes,  barley,  rice,  potatoes,  cab- 
bage, and  peas. 

Continued  work  on  virus  with  the  electron  mi- 
croscope disclosed  an  increase  of  "short  particles" 
of  tobacco  mosaic  virus  during  virus  multiplica- 
tion. Squash  mosaic  virus  contained  spherical  par- 
ticles with  a  tendency  to  aggregate. 

Plant  Physiology.  In  the  meeting  of  the  A.A.A.S. 
in  the  last  days  of  1947  photosynthesis  was  dis- 
cussed in  several  programs  by  a  combination  of 
chemists  and  botanists.  Topics  included  photo- 
chemical studies  of  chlorophyll  and  quantum  effi- 
ciencies in  photosynthesis.  Another  symposium 
echoed  the  modern  interest  in  atomic  physics,  be- 
ing concerned  with  the  uses  of  radioactive  isotopes 
in  research. 

Many  studies  were  devoted  to  vitamins.  It  was 
shown  that  the  concentration  of  niacin,  thiamme, 
and  riboflavin  decreases  during  the  development 
of  the  fruit  of  certain  cucurbits.  Different  varieties 
differ  in  vitamin  content,  and  there  are  local  dif- 
ferences within  one  fruit.  In  walnuts  likewise,  the 
maximum  vitamin  concentration  is  found  in  the 
immature  nut;  very  little  is  present  in  the  mature 
fruit.  In  tomatoes  the  highest  concentration  is 
found  in  immature  leaves  and  stem;  mature  leaves 
have  more  than  the  ripe  fruit.  Synthesis  of  ribo- 
flavin and  thiamine  evidently  occurs  in  the  leaves. 

In  peas  there  are  significant  differences  in  vita- 
min content  of  different  varieties,  and  this  varies 
with  the  size  of  the  pea.  Synthesis  of  thiamine  and 
riboflavin  has  been  shown  to  be  correlated  with 
light  intensity  (as  was  already  known  to  be  true 
of  ascorbic  acid).  It  was  shown  that  some  of  the 
elements  necessary  in  minute  amounts  for  plant 
growth  affect  the  amount  of  vitamins  in  turnips 
and  tomatoes. 


BOWi/NG 

Work  was  continued  on  various  phases  of  tissue 
culture.  When  sunflower  tumor  tissue  is  grafted  to 
normal  stem,  induced  tumors  are  formed  at  the 
point  of  union;  the  hypothesis  was  developed  that 
these  consist  of  both  normal  and  tumor  tissue,  the 
invasion  of  the  latter  being  likened  to  that  of 
animal  cancer.  It  was  shown  that  a  growth-promot- 
ing substance  diffuses  from  the  tumor  tissue  into 
the  stem,  but  not  into  agar;  it  has  not  been  identi- 
fied. The  initiation  of  roots  was  studied  in  excised 
asparagus  tips  grown  in  vitro.  A  material  other 
than  auxin  is  involved;  it  is  formed  in  the  light 
and  stored  in  the  seed.  Excised  oat  coleoptiles 
were  used  in  a  study  of  growth.  The  rate  of  growth 
diminished  with  the  age  of  the  culture;  also  the 
sensitivity  to  inhibiting  agents.  It  was  concluded 
that  an  enzyme  is  involved  which  decreases  in 
concentration  with  the  age  of  the  culture.  Oat 
coleoptiles  were  used  also  in  a  study  of  water  in- 
take. This  function  was  inhibited  and  stimulated 
by  substances  which  affect  carbohydrate  metabo- 
lism in  the  same  way;  it  was  concluded  that  water 
intake  depends  on  an  internal  source  of  energy ., 
and  is  not  to  be  explained  entirely  by  physical 
processes. 

A  substance  which  inhibits  growth  of  tomato 
plants  and  may  cause  their  death  was  discovered 
in  the  desert  plant  Encelm  farinosa.  The  search 
for  antibiotics  continued,  including  a  search  among 
soil  fungi  for  inhibitors  of  viruses,  which  it  is 
hoped  may  be  of  importance  in  the  control  of 
human  diseases.  — HAROLJ>  WILLIAM  RICKKTT 

BOWLING.  Although  the  American  Bowling  Con- 
gress tourney,  blue-ribbon  classic  of  the  alleys, 
drew  a  record  entry  of  more  than  27,000  contest- 
ants during  its  80-day  run  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  the 
championships  failed  to  produce  a  new  mark,  the 
general  run  of  scores  being  the  lowest  in  history. 

The  all-events  prize  of  $1,000  went  to  New  Day 
of  West  Allis,  Wis.,  with  a  total  of  1,979,  and  the 
721  turned  in  by  Lincoln  Protich  of  Akron,  Ohio, 
was  good  enough  for  the  singles  award.  James 
Towns  and  William  Sweeney  of  Chicago,  111., 
rolled  1,361  for  the  doubles  title,  while  the  Wash- 
ington Shirts  of  Chicago  bowled  3,007 — lowest 
winning  score  in  the  last  26  years — to  capture 
five-man  team  honors. 

Virgie  Hupfer  of  Burlington,  Iowa,  carried  off 
all-events  laurels  at  the  Women's  International 
Bowling  Congress  championships,  the  singles  title 
being  annexed  by  Shirlee  Wernecke  of  Chicago. 
Margaret  Cass  of  Alhambra,  Calif.,  and  Merle 
Mathews  of  Long  Beach,  Calif.,  took  the  doubles 
award  and  the  Kathryn  Creme  Pact  keglers  of 
Chicago  were  tops  in  the  team  competition. 

— THOMAS  V.  HANKY 

BOXING.  Despite  the  production  of  IS  title  bouts, 
boxing  suffered  a  definite  recession,  with  fewer  li- 
censed fighters  and  a  general  falKng-off  in  attend- 
ance, a  factor  some  promoters  attributed  to  tele- 
vision. Four  of  the  eight  world  championships 
changed  hands  and  1948  closed  with  three  titles 
held  by  men  from  outside  the  United  States  for 
the  first  time  in  the  modern  history  of  the  sport  of 
boxing. 

Big  battle  o£  the  year  was  the  return  meeting  be- 
tween Joe  Louis  and  Jersey  Joe  Walcott  in  the 
Yankee  Stadium  in  June.  Only  the  power  of  Joe 
Louis*  punches,  coming  in  the  eleventh  round  to 
knock  out  the  challenger,  saved  this  bout  from 
turning  into  the  fiasco  of  their  initial  meeting.  Fol- 
lowing this  twenty-fifth  defense  of  his  heavyweight 
crown,  Louis  announced  that  he  would  retire,  but 


78  BRAZIL 


later  stated  he  _would  make  "one  more"  defense  if 
a  suitable  challenger  could  be  found. 

New  champions  were  crowned  in  the  light 
heavyweight,  middleweight,  featherweight,  and 
flyweight  divisions.  Among  the  175-pounders, 
Freddie  Milk,  considered  only  a  mediocre  English 
boxer,  scored  one  of  1948's  surprises  by  dethroning 
Gus  Lesnevich,  New  Jerseyite,  on  a  referee's  deci- 
sion in  London  in  July.  Earlier  in  the  year,  Les- 
nevich had  registered  a  one-round  knockout  of 
Billy  Fox,  challenger. 

The  middleweight  honors  fell  to  a  competent  in- 
vader, one  Marcel  Cerdan  from  Casablanca.  The 
Frenchman  took  the  title  from  Tony  Zale  at  Jersey 
City  with  a  methodical  attack  that  tired  the  cham- 
pion so  badly  Zale  was  unable  to  go  beyond  the 
eleventh  round.  Zale  previously  had  regained  the 
title  with  a  knockout  of  Rocky  Graziano  at  Newark. 

Sandy  Saddler  of  New  York  figured  in  one  of 
the  major  upsets  by  ending  the  six-year  feather- 
weight reign  of  Willie  Pep  with  a  stunning  knock- 
out in  four  rounds  at  Madison  Square  Garden  in 
October.  Among  the  flyweights,  Rinty  Monaghan 
of  Belfast  dethroned  Jackie  Paterson  of  Scotland  in 
seven  rounds  at  Belfast.  Ike  Williams  of  Trenton, 
N.J.,  was  the  busiest  of  all  the  champions,  defend- 
ing his  lightweight  crown  three  times,  outpointing 
Enrigue  Bolanos  and  stopping  Beau  Jack  and  Jesse 
Flores.  Williams  was  voted  the  Eddie  Neil  Memo- 
rial Award  as  the  boxer  of  the  year. 

Sugar  Robinson  of  New  York,  welterweight  king, 
outpointed  Bernard  Docusen  in  Chicago  in  ten 
rounds,  and  Manuel  Ortiz  of  California  knocked 
out  Memo  Valero  in  the  only  defense  of  his  ban- 
tamweight crown. 

National  Amateur  Athletic  Union  champions 
were  Frank  Sodano,  Philadelphia,  112,-  Bill  Mor- 
gan, Newark,  N.J.,  118;  Teddy  Fittipaldo,  Warren, 
Ohio,  126;  Johnny  Gonsalves,  Oakland,  Cal.,  135; 
Eugene  Linscott,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  147;  Ray 
Bryan,  New  York  City,  160;  Grant  Butcher,  San 
Francisco,  175;  Coley  Wallace,  New  York  City, 
heavyweight;  New  York  City,  team. 

National  Collegiate  Athletic  Association  title 
winners  were  Ernie  Charboneau,  Michigan  State, 
flyweight;  Steven  Gremban,  Wisconsin,  bantam- 
weight; Doug  Ellwood,  Louisiana  State,  feather- 
weight; Charles  Davey,  Michigan  State,  light- 
weight; Don  Dickinson,  Wisconsin,  welterweight; 
Herb  Carlson,  Idaho,  middleweight;  Carl  Vernon, 
Wisconsin,  light  heavyweight;  Vito  Parisi,  Wiscon- 
sin, heavyweight;  Wisconsin,  team.  See  OLYMPIC 
GAMES.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

BRAZIL.  A  federal  republic  in  South  America,  and 
the  largest  of  the  Latin  American  countries.  More 
than  one-half  of  the  vast  surfaces  is  a  plateau.  The 
Amazon  lowlands  and  a  small  part  of  the  La  Plata 
lowlands  occupy  more  than  two-fifths  of  the  sur- 
face. Wet  tropical  climate  prevails  throughout  the 
Amazon  lowlands.  Tropical  and  subtropical  cli- 
mates extend  over  most  of  the  plateau  region, 
while  the  southeast  is  temperate. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  3,286,170  square 
miles.  Population  (1947  est):  47,550,000,  of 
whom  about  60  percent  is  of  European  origin,  SO 
mixed,  8  Negro,  and  2  Indian.  The  population  is 
largely  concentrated  in  the  coastal  regions.  Chief 
cities;  Rio  de  Janeiro  (capital),  2,070,662  inhab- 
itants in  1945;  Sao  Paulo,  1,750,000;  Recife,  500,- 
000;  Salvador,  and  Porto  Alegre. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  Constitution  of  1946 
guarantees  freedom  of  worship  and  prohibits  the 
support  of  any  religion.  The  predominant  religion 
is  Homau  Catholicism.  An  intensive  adult  literacy 


BRAZIL  79 

campaign  is  reducing  the  high  illiteracy  of  the 
population  (50  percent  at  last  census).  Latest  sta- 
tistics report  43,975  elementary  schools  with 
3,340,952  pupils;  6,032  secondary  schools  with 
494,563  students.  Higher  education  is  provided  by 
four  universities,  seven  polytechnic  schools,  and 
a  number  of  professional  schools. 

Production.  Brazil  is  a  predominantly  agricultural 
country,  although  it  is  gradually  becoming  indus- 
trialized. The  total  cultivated  area  covers  about 
17,387,000  acres,  of  which  4,133,000  are  devoted 
to  coffee.  Estimates  place  the  1947-48  crop  at  16,- 
687,000  bags  (of  60  kilos).  Under  the  Marshall 
Plan  Brazil  plans  to  ship  some  4  million  bags  of 
coffee  to  Europe.  Other  important  crops  ( in  metric 
tons)  in  1947  were:  rice,  2,771,000;  wheat,  287,- 
018  (1948  est,  500,000);  sugar,  20,370,471  bags; 
cacao,  1,150,000  bags;  tobacco,  101,771;  cotton, 
287,000.  Brazil  also  produces  beans,  maize,  rnandi- 
oca,  tea,  fruits,  and  oranges  (30  million  boxes  in 
1947). 

Brazil  ranks  fourth  among  the  cattle  raising  na- 
tions of  the  world  with  about  44  million  head  of 
cattle.  Vegetable  production  is  important  to  the 
country's  economy  and  includes  nuts,  babasu,  car- 
nauba  wax,  caroa  fiber,  rubber  ( 32,936  metric  tons 
in  1947). 

Mineral  resources  of  the  country  include  gold, 
gems,  industrial  diamonds,  quartz  crystals,  ores, 
and  coal  of  a  poor  quality.  Production  of  pig  iron 
in  1946  (metric  tons)  was:  369,254;  steel,  343,- 
650;  sheet  iron,  231,848;  oil,  66,697  barrels;  coal, 
1,944,000  (1947).  Manganese,  mica,  lead,  zinc, 
nickel,  chromium,  and  copper  are  also  mined. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  exports  were  valued  at  21,- 
179,413,000  cruzeiros  in  1947;  imports  at  22,789,- 
291,000  cruzeiros.  The  United  States  took  42  per- 
cent of  the  exports  and  supplied  61  percent  of 
all  imports.  Trade  figures  for  the  first  six  months 
of  1948  place  imports  at  12,058,000,000  cruzeiros; 
exports  at  6,141,000,000.  Chief  export  items  in 
1947  were:  coffee,  14,830,064  bags  (of  60  kilos) 
of  which  9,755,000  bags  went  to  the  United 
States;  cacao,  130,460  metric  tons  valued  at  651 
million  cruzeiros  (1946);  hides  and  skins,  75,228 
metric  tons  valued  at  1,002,697,000  cruzeiros.  The 
most  favorable  foreign  trade  was  with  Spain,  fol- 
lowed by  Holland  and  Argentina;  least  favorable 
was  with  the  United  States  and  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies. 

Transportation.  Brazil  had  21,866  miles  of  single 
track  railway  in  operation  in  1946;  160,500  miles 
of  roads;  40  miles  of  navigable  inland  waterways. 
The  merchant  marine  is  one  of  the  most  important 
in  Latin  America,  with  a  tonnage  of  over  500,000. 
There  is  an  important  system  of  national  airlines 
and  the  country  is  connected  with  Europe,  Africa, 
and  the  rest  of  America  by  the  principal  interna- 
tional companies. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  (1949)  place  revenue 
at  17,451,150,000  cruzeiros;  expenditures  at  17S- 
440,130,500  cruzeiros.  The  1948  approved  budget 
placed  revenue  at  14,597,320,000  cruzeiros;  ex- 

E*  enditure  at  14,596,041,000.  The  outstanding 
alance  of  the  consolidated  internal  debt  of  the 
Federal  Government  was  10,133,845,000  cruzei- 
ros on  Dec.  31,  1947.  The  external  debt  on  Jan.  1, 
1947,  was  as  follows:  £74,104,000;  $111,733,- 
000;  paper  francs,  520,000,000  and  gold  francs, 
229,186,000.  Currency  in  circulation  in  December 
1947  amounted  to  17,240,000,000  cruzeiros  and 
bank  deposits  to  26,980,000,000.  Gold  exchange 
holdings  show  a  decline  of  7  percent  in  comparison 
with  the  previous  year.  Brazil  has  established  con- 
trol over  imports  and  exchange.  The  cost  of  living 


BRAZIL 

index  at  the  end  of  1947  was  at  284  (1937-100). 

Government.  Brazil  is  a  federal  union,  divided 
into  states,  territories  and  a  Federal  District.  Leg- 
islative power  is  vested  in  the  Federal  Senate  and 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Executive  power  is 
vested  in  a  President,  elected  for  a  five-year  term, 
and  a  Cabinet  of  Ministers  that  must  report  to  the 
Congress  on  request.  On  Dec.  2,  1945,  General 
Eurico  Caspar  Dutra  was  elected  President  and 
took  office  Jan.  31,  1946. 

Events,  1948.  Brazilian  politics  during  the  year, 
as  in  Chile,  were  mostly  concerned  with  legislative 
measures  aimed  at  the  control  of  Communist 
Party  activities.  Economic  life  of  the  country  was 
seriously  affected  by  the  unfavorable  balance  of 
trade,  and  the  purpose  of  the  government  was 
the  development  of  industry  and  the  increase  of 
production. 

Anti-Communist  Legislation.  President  Dutra's  cam- 

Eaign  against  the  Communist  Party  came  to  a 
ead  on  January  7,  when  the  Chamber  passed  a 
law  canceling  the  credentials  of  all  Communists 
who  had  been  elected  to  public  office.  The  session 
of  Congress  at  which  this  took  place  was  a  violent 
one,  with  sixty  deputies  besides  the  fourteen  Com- 
munists voting  against  the  measure.  The  non-Com- 
munists claimed  that  the  law  was  unconstitutional 
and  a  violation  of  the  democratic  system. 

The  government  maintained  that  Communists 
received  instructions  from  a  foreign  power,  while 
the  Communists  replied  that  Dutra's  administra- 
tion was  following  instructions  from  the  United 
States.  During  the  sessions,  pistols  were  flourished, 
though  none  were  actually  fired.  Following  the 
enactment  of  the  law,  the  government  ordered 
Tnbuna,  the  Communist  paper,  to  be  shut  down. 
When  the  police  carried  out  the  order,  they  used 
submachine  guns  and  tear  gas,  resulting  in  some 
being  seriously  injured.  Many  arrests  were  made. 

Senator  Luis  Carlos  Prestes,  head  of  the  Com- 
munist Party,  strongly  opposed  these  steps,  and 
since  he  could  not  appear  in  Congress  himself, 
had  a  manifesto  read  by  Deputy  Pedro  Pomar,  who 
in  spite  of  being  a  Communist,  had  been  elected  by 
the  Socialist-Progressive  Party,  and  his  credentials 
not  canceled.  Further  criticism  of  the  government 
policy  was  made  by  Senator  Vilasboas  and  Deputy 
Mangabeira.  In  a  speech,  the  Senator  attacked 
the  censorship  of  the  press  and  the  violation  of 
freedom  of  assembly.  Mangabeira  stated  that  the 
labor  unions  had  been  deprived  of  their  liberty 
and  had  become  dependencies  of  the  Department 
of  Labor. 

Economic  Measures.  In  February,  President  Dutra 
signed  a  decree  establishing  strict  control  over  im- 
ports and  exports.  This  was  followed  by  the  pres- 
entation of  a  bill  to  Congress,  by  which  foreign 
investments  in  oil  companies  may  be  increased. 
This  bill  allows  foreigners  and  naturalized  citizens 
to  own  40  percent  of  the  stock  in  companies  organ- 
ized by  native  Brazilians,  for  exploitation  of  oil 
and  its  derivatives.  The  government  stressed  the 
importance  of  safeguarding  oil  reserves  in  the 
country,  and  giving  priority  to  the  home  market. 
The  members  of  the  Petroleum  Board  were  of  the 
opinion  that  the  new  legislation  would  represent 
an  important  step  forward  in  the  development  of 
the  petroleum  industry,  and  that  North  American 
firms  would  understand  the  need  for  the  change. 

Financial  Crisis  and  Planning.  In  May,  the  President 
sent  a  message  to  Congress  asking  for  a  five-year 
plan  for  national  development  concentrated  in  the 
fields  of  health,  food,  transport,  and  power.  This 
plan,  called  the  "Salte"  from  the  initials  of  its 
four  main  fields  (saude,  dimentos,  transporte  and 


BRETHREN 

energia)  is  aimed  at  modernization  of  Brazil's 
economy.  Finances  for  the  plan  were  to  come  from 
normal  government  income,  subscriptions  and  per- 
haps foreign  loans.  Approximate  estimates  of  the 
cost  were  over  $860,000,000. 

The  administration  was  seriously  concerned  over 
the  unfavorable  balance  of  trade.  In  the  middle 
of  the  year,  trade  figures  for  the  first  five  months 
showed  that  the  country  was  losing  an  average  of 
nearly  $10,000,000  a  month,  and  that  the  total  un- 
favorable balance  of  trade  for  the  period  was  $48,- 
700,000.  The  government  took  energetic  steps  to 
stop  this  condition  by  enacting  a  law  on  May  7, 
designed  to  prevent  excessive  Brazilian  buying  in 
foreign  countries,  especially  the  United  States, 

Internationa!  Front.  A  significant  event  in  the  in- 
ternational relations  of  Brazil  was  the  visit  of  Uru- 
guay's President  Luis  Batlle  Berres  to  President 
Dutra.  The  result  of  the  visit  was  the  signature  of 
importants  agreements  to  foster  commercial  and 
cultural  relations  between  the  two  countries.  This 
was  additional  evidence  that  the  states  of  La  Plata 
are  trying  to  counterbalance  Argentina's  influence 
with  Brazilian  support,  just  as  Bolivia  has  done. 

Brazil  continued  her  traditional  policy  of  friend- 
ship with  the  Holy  See,  and  had  the  opportunity 
to  prove  it  in  connection  with  the  religious  schism 
caused  by  the  foundation  of  an  independent  Cath- 
olic Church  by  Bishop  Carlos  Duarte.  Dutra's  ad- 
ministration prohibited  the  ceremonies  of  the  new 
church,  and  Bishop  Duarte  appealed  to  the  Su- 

Sreme  Court  on  the  grounds  of  constitutional  vio- 
tion,   as   the   Brazilian   Constitution    guarantees 
freedom  of  worship. 

Brazil  took  active  part  in  the  Inter-American 
Conference  of  Commerce  and  Production  at  Chi- 
cago hi  September,  and  adopted  the  role  of  medi- 
ator and  harmonizer  of  opposing  inter-American 
views.  The  resolution  approved  concerning  the 
economic  role  to  be  played  by  Latin  America  in 
connection  with  the  Marshall  Plan  and  EGA  was 
essentially  what  bad  been  offered  by  Brazilian 
delegates.  The  nation  took  an  active  part  in  the 
Ninth  Inter-American  Conference  of  American 
States  held  at  Bogota  in  April  (  see  PAN  AMERICAN 
ACTIVITIES),  and  became  signatory  of  the  Charter 
of  the  Americas.  —  MIGUEL 


BRETHREN,  Church  of  the.  German  pietists  who  under 
the  leadership  of  Peter  Becker  settled  in  German- 
town,  Pa.,  in  1719.  This,  the  oldest  and  largest  of 
the  four  denominations  of  Dunkers,  has  1,018 
churches,  775  pastors,  2,410  ministers,  and  184,- 
584  members  in  the  United  States.  The  church 
maintains  7  educational  institutions  with  2,452 
students  and  its  Sunday  and  Bible  schools  were 
attended  by  120,224  persons.  Foreign  missionaries 
serve  11,822  members  of  mission  churches;  there 
are  also  68  relief  workers  in  the  field.  Income  from 
contributions  for  the  fiscal  year  1947  was  $3,171,- 
443,  Headquarters,  22  South  State  St.,  Elgin,  111. 

BRIDGES.  No  record-setting  bridge  has  been  con- 
structed for  about  five  years.  The  Sando  bridge, 
which  has  the  world  record  concrete  arch  span  of 
866  ft,  was  completed  in  Sweden  in  1943.  A  re- 
cord-breaking continuous  truss  span  of  845  ft.  was 
completed  over  tbe  Mississippi  River  at  Dubuque 
in  1943.  Bridge  construction  is  still  impeded  oy 
shortages  of  material  and  skilled  labor. 

In  the  United  States  many  State  highway  depart- 
ments were  forced  to  curtail  their  bridge  construc- 
tion programs  due  to  a  shortage  of  qualified  engi- 
neers. Construction  costs  are  almost  twice  those  of 
the  prewar  years,  resulting  in  the  postponement  of 


80  BRIDGES 

many  projects.  The  Ohio  River  bridge  at  Cairo, 
Illinois,  was  made  toll  free  in  November.  The  Ken- 
tucky State  Highway  Department  now  has  only 
one  toll  bridge  on  its  system. 

A  number  of  underpass  and  overpass  structures 
have  been  built  in  connection  with  the  construction 
of  express  highways  in  several  of  the  larger  cities 
— Houston  and  Fort  Worth,  Texas,  for  instance. 
The  American  Institute  or  Steel  Construction 
awarded  stainless  steel  plaques  to  the  nine  steel 
bridges  selected  as  the  most  beautiful  built  in 
their  respective  classes  during  the  years  1942  to 
1947.  This  annual  event  had  been  interrupted  by 
the  war. 

Structures  now  in  the  planning  stage  include  a 
$14  million  suspension  bridge  across  the  Hudson 
River  at  Kingston  Point  with  a  main  span  of 
1,700  ft.  This  is  the  same  span  as  that  of  the  fa- 
mous Firth  of  Forth  bridge  in  Scotland,  which  is 
the  present  longest  span  outside  of  North  America. 
The  Virginia  State  Highway  Department  is  plan- 
ning a  $20  million  bridge  across  the  Rappahannock 
River  near  Gregs  Point  and  a  double  swing  span 
over  the  York  River  between  Yorktown  and  Glouces- 
ter Point. 

In  the  city  of  Toledo,  Ohio,  there  is  being 
planned  a  $5.2  million  deck  cantilever  truss  over 
the  Maumee  River,  Washington  and  Oregon  State 
Highway  officials  have  authorized  a  survey  to  de- 
termine the  feasibility  of  a  toll  bridge  across  the 
Columbia  River  at  The  Dalles.  The  North  Carolina 
State  Highway  Department  has  awarded  a  contract 
for  the  construction  of  a  1,360  ft.  bridge  across  the 
French  Broad  River  at  Asheville, 

In  Pennsylvania  the  Pennsylvania  Turnpike 
Commission  is  planning  a  $4  million  bridge  to 
carry  the  new  eastern  extension  of  the  turnpike 
across  the  Susquehanna  River.  Preliminary  stud- 
ies are  being  made  by  the  Indiana  Toll  Bridge 
Commission  for  a  $3  million  structure  across  the 
Wabash  River  at  Mt.  Vernon.  The  Delaware  River 
Joint  Commission  is  studying  the  possibilities  of 
the  construction  of  a  new  bridge  linking  South 
Philadelphia  with  New  Jersey.  Construction  of  a 
floating  bridge  across  Fletcher  Bay  west  of  Seattle 
was  under  consideration  by  the  Washington  State 
Toll  Bridge  Authority. 

It  is  planned  to  strengthen  and  increase  the  traf- 
fic capacity  of  the  Brooklyn  suspension  bridge. 
This  famous  structure  had  its  65th  anniversary  in 
May,  1948.  The  number  of  traffic  lanes  will  be  in- 
creased from  2  to  6,  which  will  increase  the  traffic 
carrying  capacity  from  20,000  cars  per  day  to 
6,000  cars  per  hour. 

It  is  also  proposed  to  widen  the  suspension 
bridge  across  the  Delaware  River  between  Phila- 
delphia and  Camden,  which  will  increase  its  traf- 
fic carrying  capacity  37  percent.  The  estimate  of 
cost,  which  also  includes  a  mercury- vapor  lighting 
system,  is  $3  million.  Further  studies  have  been 
made  throughout  the  year  on  the  proposed  $155 
million  structure  across  the  San  Francisco  Bay 
paralleling  the  existing  bridge.  The  U.S.  Navy  has 
opposed  the  twin  bridge  idea  and  the  final  out- 
come cannot  be  determined  at  present.  A  public 
hearing  will  be  held  in  January,  1949,  concerning 
a  bridge  across  the  Narrows  between  Staten  Is- 
land and  Brooklyn,  where  a  main  suspension  span 
of  4,621  ft.  is  proposed. 

Progress  has  been  made  toward  the  completion 
of  the  new  highway  bridge  over  the  Mississippi 
River  at  Memphis.  The  substructure  is  complete 
and  about  25  percent  of  the  steel  in  the  main  spans 
has  been  erected;  contract  price  is  $4,605,885.  The 
approach  work  is  nearing  completion.  The  sub- 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA 

structure  for  the  new  crossing  of  the  Mississippi 
River  in  St  Louis,  just  above  the  Eads  bridge,  is 
under  construction;  the  superstructure  steel  is  now 
being  fabricated.  The  Tennessee  Valley  Authority 
completed  a  1,092  ft.  three-span  continuous  deck 
truss  across  the  Watauga  River  in  Eastern  Tennes- 
see, with  one  pier  almost  215  ft,  high.  The  Missis- 
sippi State  Highway  Department  has  under  con- 
struction a  $1,587,000  bridge  over  the  Yazoo  River 
above  Vicksburg.  Contracts  have  been  awarded  by 
the  Delaware  State  Highway  Commission  for  the 
construction  of  a  $40  million  Delaware  Memorial 
Bridge  near  Wilmington.  The  Harvard  Street 
Bridge  in  Peoria,  Illinois,  is  almost  complete.  Bids 
have  been  received  for  a  $2,500,000  bridge  across 
the  Kermebec  River  at  Augusta,  Maine.  The  State 
Street  bascule  bridge  over  the  Chicago  River  in 
Chicago  will  be  completed  early  in  1949. 

The  Charles  W.  Cullen  Bridge  over  Indian  River 
Inlet  at  Bethany  Beach,  Delaware,  collapsed  Feb. 
10,  1948,  causing  the  death  of  3  persons.  This 
structure  was  built  in  1938  and  the  portion  which 
collapsed  failed  under  an  unusual  combination  of 
ice,  wind,  and  tide.  Statistics  maintained  by  the 
Ohio  State  Highway  Department  indicates  that 
bridges  are  failing  on  their  system  at  the  rate  of  2 
a  month  due  to  various  causes.  This  condition  is 
also  true  in  most  all  States.  The  bridges  which  fail 
are  usually  old  structures  of  inadequate  design. 

Most  State  Highway  Departments  are  faced 
with  the  dilemma  of  modernizing  their  bridges  in 
the  face  of  rising  construction  costs  and  a  shortage 
of  qualified  engineers.  Many  of  the  structures  on 
the  State  highway  systems  are  substandard  both 
in  strength  and  roadway  width. 

Foreign  Bridges.  The  Germans  are  building  a  rec- 
ord breaking  girder  span  of  605  ft.  at  Cologne. 
The  world's  first  aluminum-alloy  double  leaf  bas- 
cule bridge  was  put  in  operation  over  the  River 
Wear  at  Sunderland,  England,  in  November.  In 
Canada  the  first  highway  arch  bridge  in  the  world 
of  aluminum-alloys  was  under  construction  over 
the  Saguenay  River  at  Arvida,  Quebec.  In  Eng- 
land plans  for  the  longest  span  bridge  in  Europe 
were  approved.  It  will  be  over  the  mouth  of  tie 
Severn  River  near  Bristol  with  a  3,300  ft.  main 
span,  exceeded  only  by  the  4,200  ft.  Golden  Gate 
Bridge  and  the  3,500  ft.  George  Washington 
Bridge. 

In  Iraq,  the  first  railway  bridge  over  the  Tigris 
River  is  planned  near  Bagdad  to  give  direct  access 
from  Basra  to  Kirkuk.  Australia  is  catching  up  on 
bridge  construction  deferred  due  to  the  war.  Three 
major  structures  will  span  tidal  waters  in  New 
South  Wales,  one  is  planned  over  the  Clyde  River 
at  Bateman's  Bay,  a  double  leaf  bascule  over  Lake 
Macquaire,  and  one  at  Iron  Cove  in  Sydney  Har- 
bor. A  contract  in  the  amount  of  $1,777,500  was 
awarded  for  the  construction  of  a  suspension 
bridge  across  the  Lempa  River  in  San  Salvador, 

In  Canada,  a  $750,000  suspension  bridge  is  pro- 
posed at  Trail,  B.C.,  over  the  Columbia  River.  A 
board  of  engineers  has  been  appointed  to  study  the 
feasibility  of  a  crossing  at  the  Strait  of  Canso  be- 
tween the  Novia  Scotia  mainland  and  Cape  Breton 
Island.  — JOHN  M.  HAYES 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA.  The  third  largest  and  most  west- 
erly province  of  Canada.  Area,  366,255  square 
miles  (including  6,976  sq.  mi.  of  fresh  water). 
Population  (1941  census):  817,861;  (1948  esti- 
mate) 1,082,000.  Leading  religious  denominations 
(1941)  were:  Anglican,  245,531;  United  Church, 
200,817;  Roman  Catholic,  113,282;  and  Presby- 
terian, 94,300.  In  1946  there  were  22,609  live 


81  BRITISH  COMMONWEALTH  AND  EMPIRE 

births,  10,137  deaths,  and  11,762  marriages.  Edu- 
cation (1945-46):  197,141  students  were  enrolled 
in  schools  and  colleges.  Chief  cities  (with  1941 
census  figures):  Victoria  (the  capital)  44,068  in- 
habitants, Vancouver  273,353,  New  Westminster 
21,967,  Trail  9,392,  North  Vancouver  8,914,  Prince 
Rupert  6,714,  Nanaimo  6,635. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction for  1947  was  $99,550,000,  of  which  the 
value  of  field  crops  (from  627,000  acres)  in  1947 
was  $30,488,000.  Chief  field  crops  (1947):  wheat 
2,966,000  bu.  ($4,241,000),  oats  3,915,000  bu. 
($2,936,000),  potatoes  2,138,000  cwt  ($5,944,- 
000),  Livestock  (June  1,  1947):  358,700  cattle 
($27,935,000),  53,300  horses  ($5,237,000),  76,- 
600  swine  ($1,893,000),  105,900  sheep  ($1,309,- 
000),  4,910,400  poultry  ($5,753,000).  There  were 
313  fur  farms  in  1946  with  fur  animals  estimated 
at  $1,184,776.  Value  of  fur  pelt  production  (1946- 
47)  was  $2,047,135.  The  marketed  value  of  fish- 
eries amounted  to  $43,817,147,  of  which  the  sal- 
mon pack,  which  totaled  1,348,347  cases  of  48  Ib,, 
accounted  for  $17,532,462  or  40  percent  of  the 
total. 

There  were  4,436,000  Ib.  of  creamery  butter 
produced  In  1947  valued  at  $2,387,000.  The  esti- 
mated total  farm  value  of  poultry  meat  and  eggs 
was  $16,640,000  in  1947.  Fruit  production  for 
1947  was  valued  at  $23,790,000.  British  Columbia, 
which  had  858  sawmills  in  operation,  ranked  first 
in  the  total  Canadian  production  of  sawn  lumber 
and  contributed  42  percent  of  the  total  for  1946; 
Douglas  fir,  which  is  sawn  almost  entirely  in  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  was  valued  at  $48,637,005.  Mineral 
production  (1947)  included  gold  valued  at  $8,- 
715,385;  coal,  $8,630,285;  others,  $99,426,951. 

In  1946  there  were  2,731  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments with  a  combined  output  of  $644,527,- 
898;  employment  was  furnished  to  75,484  persons 
who  were  paid  $137,506,645  in  salaries  and  wages; 
the  cost  of  materials  used  amounted  to  $335,708,- 
533.  The  sawmilling  industry  occupied  first  place 
in  1946,  followed  by  fish  curing  and  packing,  pulp 
and  paper,  shipbuilding,  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  1947-48  placed 
revenue  at  $58,888,930;  expenditure,  $58,781,335. 
Preliminary  budget  estimates  for  1948-49  placed 
revenue  at  $77,616,310  and  expenditure  at  $77,- 
442,369. 

Government.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
lieutenant  governor  who  is  advised  by  a  ministry 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  the  latter  consisting 
of  48  members  elected  for  a  five-year  term  by 
adult  suffrage.  Six  senators  (appointed  for  life) 
and  16  elected  commoners  represent  British  Co- 
lumbia in  the  Dominion  Parliament  at  Ottawa. 
Lieutenant  Governor,  Col.  Charles  A.  Banks  (app. 
Oct.  1,  1946):  Premier,  Byron  Ingemar  Johnson 
(Liberal;  app.  Dec.  29,  1947).  See  CANADA. 

BRITISH  COMMONWEALTH  AND  EMPIRE.  The  compo- 
nent parts  of  the  British  Commonwealth  and  Em- 
pire, as  of  Dec.  31,  1948,  are  listed  in  the  accom- 
panying table  ( see  EIRE  under  Events,  1948 ) : 

I    SOVEREIGN  STATES  AND  THEIB  DEPENDENCIES 

Land  area       Population 
Country  sq.  miles          estimates 

United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 

and  Northern  Ireland 94,291        50,015,000 

(Dependencies  listed  in  Parts  II, 
III  and  IV) 

Canada 3,466,882        12,582,000 

Australia  (Commonwealth  of ).;...  2,977,600          7,580,800 
Australian  Antarctic  Territory. . . 
Norfolk  Island—Colony 14  800 


BK/T7SH  COMMONWEALTH  AND  EMPIRE 


82 


BJUTISH  GUIANA 


1  SOVEREIGN  STATES  AND  THEIR  DEPENDENCIES 


1 

Country 
Papua  —  Colony  

rjand  area 
so.  miles 
90,540 

Population 
estimates 
300,000 

New  Guinea-  —  Trusteeship 

91  000 

688,400 

Nauru  —  Trusteeship   with   New 
Zealand  and  the  United  King- 
dom     .  .       

8 

2,700 

New  Zealand  

103,935 

1,802,640 

Ross  Dependency  
Tokelau    (Union)   Island—  U.K. 
Colony  administered  by  N.2. 
Western  Samoa  —  Trusteeship  .  .  . 
South  Africa  (Union  of) 

4 
1,150 
472,550 

1,380 
66,450 
11  391,950 

South-  West  Africa—  Mandate  -  .  . 
Eire 

317,725 
26,959 

341,000 
2  953,450 

India                                   f  Approx  ) 

628  808 

231,400,000° 

Pakistan  (Approx) 

Ceylon 

236,638 
25000 

69,000,000 
6  660,000 

Southern  Rhodesia  —  A  self-govern- 
Colony  whose  external  affairs 
are  controlled  by  the  U.K  

150,333 

1,764,000 

Ill    BRITISH   DEPENDENT   TERRITORIES  ADMIN- 
ISTERED THROUGH  THE  COLONIAL  OFFICER  * 


ff  Excluding  Indian  States. 


II 


TERRITORIES  ADMINISTERED  THROUGH  THE 
COMMONWEALTH  RELATIONS  OFFICE 


Country 
Newfoundland 

Form  of 
government 

Land  area   Population 
sq.  miles      estimates 
42,000        315,570 

Labrador 

Dependency  of 

High  Commission 
Territories 
Basutoland 

Newfoundland 
Colony 

112,000            5,530 
11,716        556,390 

Bechuanaland  .  .  , 
Swaziland  

.  .     Protectorate 
Protectorate 

275,000        265,760 
6,704        185,210 

£  Newfoundland  formerly  had  "Dominion  Status,"  which  was 
suspended  at  her  own  request  in  1933.  Government  thereafter 
was  by  a  Commission.  By  referendum  in  July,  1948,  New- 
foundland (with  Labrador)  voted  to  become  a  Province  of 
Canada. 

Ill     BRITISH  DEPENDENT  TERRITORIES  ADMIN- 
ISTERED THROUGH  THE  COLONIAL  OFFICE 

Region  and  Form  of        Land  area   Population 

Territory  government       sq.  miles      estimates 

East  Africa 

Kenya Colony c  and 

Protectorate      219,730         4,053,280 

Tanganyika Trusteeship       342,706         5,499,680 

Uganda Protectorate        80,292         3,997,690 

Somaliland  (British)     Protectorate        68,000  700,000 

Zanzibar  and  Pemba    Protectorate          1,020  250,000 

Central  Africa 
Northern  Rhodesia.     Protectorate      287,640         1,658,810 

Nyasaland Protectorate        37,596         2,230,960 

West  Africa 
Cameroons  (British)    Trusteeship         34,081  800,000 

Gambia Colony c  and 

Protectorate          4,132  249,270 

Gold  Coast Colony « and 

Protectorate        78,802         3,571,000 

Nigeria Colony e  and 

Protectorate      338,593       21,800,000 

Sierra  Leone Colony  e  and 

Protectorate        27,925         1,768,480 
Togoland  (British).     Trusteeship         13,041  391,520 

Far  East 

Brunei Protected  State       2,226  48,634 

Hong  Kong Colony  391         1,600,000 

Malaya,  Federation    - 

of Protectorate        50,850        5,250,000 

(includes  Penang 
and  Malacca,  for- 
merly part  of  the 
Straits  Settle- 
ments and  the 
former  Federated 
and  Unfederated 
Malay  States) 
North  Borneo ......  Colony  29,417  269,970 

Sarawak Colony  50,000  500,000 

Singapore Colony  217  948,300 

Indian  Ocean 

Aden Colony  °and 

Protectorate      115,080  ,730,880 

Mauritius Colony  720  428,270 

Seychelles Colony  156  35,020 

Maldive  Islands ....  Protected  State          115  79,281 

Mediterranean 

Cyprus Colony  3,572   .        449,490 

Gibraltar Colony  If  21,230 

Malta Internally  self- 
governing 
Colony  122  285,600 


Region  and 

Form  of 

Land  area 

Population 

Territory 

government 

53.  miles 

estimates 

Atlantic  Ocean 

Falkland  Islands  .  .  . 

Colony 

4,618 

2,230 

St.  Helena  

Colony 

47 

4,750 

Ascension  

Dependency  of 

St.  Helena 

38 

169 

Tristan  da  Cunha 

Dependency  of 

Group 

St.  Helena 

45 

224 

West  Indies  and  the 

Americas 

Bahamas  

Colony 

4,375 

80,640 

Barbados  

Colony 

166 

195,400 

Bermuda  

Colony 

21 

34,970 

British  Guiana  ...    . 

Colony 

83,000 

381,320 

British  Honduras  .  .  . 

Colony 

8,867 

59,150 

Jamaica  

Colony 

4,411 

1,314,  )30 

Leeward  Islands 

(Antigua,  St. 
Kitts-Nevis,  Vir- 

gin Islands  Mont- 

aerrat)  

Colony 

412 

108,850 

Trinidad  and 

Tobago  

Colony 

1,980 

558,610 

Windward  Islands  .  . 

Grenada  

Colony 

133 

72,060 

St.  Vincent  

Colony 

150 

62,990 

St.  Lucia  

Colony 

233 

69,090 

Dominica  

Colony 

305 

47,700 

Western  Pacific 

British  Solomon 

Islands  

Protectorate 

11,500 

94,970 

Fiji  

Colony 

7,083 

259,640 

Gilbert  and  Ellice 

Islands  

Colony 

333 

35,300 

Tonga  

Protectorate 

250 

40,670 

Pitcairn  Island  

Colony 

2 

126 

« Adjoining  areas  administered  by  the  same  Government. 
IV  CONDOMINIUMS 

Joint         Land  area  Population 
Territory  administrators   sq.  miles      estimates 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  *.  Britain  and 

Egypt          967,500        6,590,000 
New  Hebrides Britain  and 

France  5,700  48,900 

Canton  and  Enderbury .  .  Britain  and 

U.o.A. 

d  Administered  through  the  British  Foreign  Office. 

BRITISH  GUIANA.  A  British  colony  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  South  America.  Area:  83,000  square  miles. 
Population  (1946  census):  375,819,  including  168,- 
453  East  Indians.  Chief  towns:  Georgetown  (capi- 
tal) 77,585  inhabitants  (1946),  New  Amsterdam, 
Springlands,  Morawhanna,  and  Bartica.  Education 
(1946):  63,046  students  enrolled  in  248  govern- 
ment-aided schools. 

Production.  Agriculture,  mining,  and  forestry  are 
the  chief  industries.  With  204,382  acres  under  cul- 
tivation in  1946,  sugar  yielded  171,051  tons  from 
60,313  acres;  rice  64,472  tons  from  85,623  acres. 
Other  important  products  are  coconuts,  coffee, 
cacao,  rubber,  balata,  and  citrus  fruits.  A  total  of 
2,857,568  gallons  of  rum  were  produced  in  1946. 
British  Guiana  is  rich  in  gold;  24,741  oz.,  valued 
at  £206,175,  were  produced  in  1946.  Diamonds 
are  also  mined,  as  is  manganese  ore,  mica,  and 
large  quantities  of  bauxite.  Livestock  ( 1946  est. ) : 
189,437  cattle,  2,518  horses,  48,044  sheep,  17,408 
goats,  and  34,601  swine. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  (1947):  $40,817,023;  ex- 
ports $34,442,161.  Chief  imports  were  machinery, 
cotton  manufactures,  flour,  oils,  and  foodstuffs. 
Chief  suppliers  were  the  United  Kingdom,  Canada, 
and  the  United  States*  Chief  exports  were  sugar 
(185,109  tons  valued  at  $19,075,646);  bauxite 
(1,290,367  tons  valued  at  $6,729,112);  rice  (19,- 
625  tons  valued  at  $2,295,220);  rum  ($1,978,641); 
and  timber  ($1,017,457). 

Government.  A  balanced  budget  estimate  for  1948 
provides  for  an  expenditure  of  $16,510,647.  The 
1947  estimates  placed  revenue  at  £2,976,192;  ex- 


BRITISH  HONDURAS 

penditure  at  £2,965,273.  The  public  debt  on  Dec. 
31,  1946,  amounted  to  £869,898.  Executive  and 
administrative  functions  are  exercised  by  the  gov- 
ernor and  executive  council.  A  legislative  council  is 
composed  of  the  governor  and  3  other  official  mem- 
bers, 7  nominated  unofficial,  and  14  elected  mem- 
bers. Governor:  Sir  Charles  Campbell  Woolley 
(since  1947). 

BRITISH  HONDURAS.  A  British  crown  colony  in  Cen- 
tral America.  Area:  8,867  square  miles,  including 
Albion  (26  sq.  mi.)  and  other  islands.  Chief  towns: 
Belize  (capital)  21,837  inhabitants  (1946),  Coro- 
zal,  Benque  Viejo,  Stann  Creek,  and  Orange  Walk. 
Education:  Both  elementary  and  secondary  schools 
are  denominational  and  government-aided.  In  1946 
the  115  schools  had  a  total  of  12,153  students. 

Production  and  Trade.  Forestry,  the  main  industry, 
accounts  for  about  80  percent  of  the  exports  by 
value.  A  total  of  488,384  acres  of  crown  lands  are 
forest  reserves.  Principal  export  crops,  in  1946, 
were:  grapefruit  juice,  4,085,711  lb.;  coconuts, 
2,632,239  nuts;  bananas,  84,798  bunches.  Foreign 
Trade  (1946):  Imports  were  valued  at  $6,782,516, 
and  exports  at  $5,222,028;  of  this  amount  mahog- 
any accounted  for  $1,201,056,  and  chicle  $1,014,- 
161.  The  United  States  supplied  51.7  percent  of 
the  imports  and  took  45.7  percent  of  all  exports. 

Government.  Budget  (1947):  revenue,  $3,163,- 
248;  expenditure,  $2,909,985.  Public  debt  (Jan.  1, 
1947)  totaled  $2,105,781.  Administration  of  the 
colony  rests  with  the  governor,  assisted  by  an 
Executive  Council  of  3  official  and  4  unofficial 
nominated  members,  A  Legislative  Council  has  2 
official  and  10  unofficial  members,  4  nominated 
and  6  elected.  On  Jan.  31,  1948,  the  governor  ap- 
pointed a  Constitutional  Committee.  Governor: 
Sir  Edward  G.  Hawkesworth  (resigned  June, 
1948).  Governor  designate:  R.  H.  Garvey  (to  as- 
sume office  early  in  1949). 

BRITISH  NORTH  BORNEO.  A  British  crown  colony  in 
northern  Borneo.  Area:  29,540  squafe  miles.  Popu- 
lation (1946):  312,374.  Chief  town:  Sandakan 
(pop.  13,723).  In  1946  the  island  of  Labuan  (35 
sq.  mi.;  pop.  9,253;  capital,  Victoria)  was  reunited 
with  British  North  Borneo.  Education  (1947):  60 
government  and  35  missionary  schools  with  about 
7,000  pupils. 

The  principal  products  are  rubber,  timber,  cop- 
ra, coconuts,  dried  and  salt  fish,  tobacco,  hemp, 
and  cereals.  Valuable  minerals  exist,  but  have  not 
been  commercially  exploited.  Trade  (July  15-Dec. 
31,  1946):  imports  S$8,155,886;  exports  S$4,009,- 
356.  Finance  (1947  est):  revenue  S$5,055,762; 
expenditure  S$43893,455.  (Straits  dollar  [S$]  - 
U.S.$0.475,  1946-48.)  The  colony  is  administered 
by  a  governor  assisted  by  an  Advisory  Council  of 
20  members  and  an  Executive  Committee  of  10 
members.  Governor:  E.  F.  Twining. 

BRITISH  SOLOMON  ISLANDS.  The  British  Solomon  Is- 
lands Protectorate  consists  of  four  groups  of  islands 
in  the  Pacific,  eastward  of  New  Guinea.  The  largest 
is  Guadalcanal  (2,500  sq.  mi.);  the  most  populous 
Malaita  (est.  pop.  40,000).  Total  land  area  is  esti- 
mated at  12,400  square  miles,  and  the  area  within 
the  bounds  of  the  protectorate  at  375,000  nautical 
miles.  Population  (1947  est):  94,965,  of  whom 
94,738  were  natives  (Polynesians  and  Melanesi- 
ans).  Capital,  Tulagi. 

The  chief  products  are  copra,  timber,  rubber, 
gold,  and  fruits.  Finance  ( 1945-46 ) :  revenue  and 
expenditure  balanced  at  £A505,292  (  £A  equals 
U.S.$3.20),  A  resident  commissioner  responsible  to 


88  BRQQKINGS  INSTITUTION 

the  High  Commissioner  for  the  Western  Pacific  ad- 
ministers the  islands  with  the  asistance  of  an  Ad- 
visory Council  Resident  Commissioner,  O.  C. 
Noel,  with  headquarters  on  Guadalcanal. 

BRITISH  SOMAULAND.  A  British  protectorate  on  the 
Gulf  of  Aden,  near  the  eastern  tip  of  the  African 
continent.  Area:  68,000  square  miles.  The  nomadic 
population  is  estimated  at  700,000  and  consists  of 
Somali  tribes  who  are  Moslems.  Capital,  Berbera 
(pop.  30,000).  Education  is  provided  by  5  govern- 
ment and  several  Koran  schools.  The  economy  is 
pastoral,  with  camels,  sheep,  and  goats  as  sources 
of  income.  Agriculture  is  limited;  there  is  millet 
growing  in  the  western  part.  Trade  (1946):  im- 
ports £611,134  (excluding  millelt);  exports  £354,- 
977.  Meat,  hides,  and  ghee  are  chief  exports;  cot- 
ton goods  and  foodstuffs  are  the  chief  imports.  Fi- 
nance (1946-47):  revenue  £451,081;  expenditure 
£576,630.  The  protectorate,  under  military  ad- 
ministration since  1941,  reverted  to  Colonial  Office 
control  on  Nov.  15,  1948.  Civil  Governor:  Gerald 
Reece  (formerly  Military  Governor), 

BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA.  A  region  comprising  the  fol- 
lowing British  territories:  GAMBIA,  GOLD  COAST, 
NIGERIA  and  SIERRA  LEONE,  each  of  which  is  a  col- 
ony and  protectorate. 

BRITISH  WEST  INDIES.  The  colonial  possessions  of 
Great  Britain  in  the  West  Indies,  comprising  three 
main  groups  of  islands:  (1)  Bahamas;  (2)  Jamaica 
and  adjacent  islands;  and  (3)  other  islands  scat- 
tered  throughout  the  Lesser  Antilles  (Leeward  Is- 
lands, Windward  Islands,  Barbados,  Trinidad,  and 
Tobago).  Bermuda,  British  Guiana,  and  British 
Honduras  are  excluded.  Total  area:  12,747  square 
miles.  Population  (1946  est.):  2,504,911.  There  is 
no  unified  governmental  system;  the  island  groups 
listed  above  constitute  separate  colonies,  each  with 
a  governor  appointed  by  the  Crown  and  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  popular  representation  in  their  leg- 
islative bodies. 

The  establishment  of  a  West  Indies  Customs 
Union  Commission  has  been  announced.  The  Com- 
mission will  assist  the  respective  governments  in 
the  preparation  of  a  common  tariff,  coordination  of 
administration,  and  the  training  of  staff. 

On  Nov.  3,  1948,  a  migration  plan  for  the  Carib- 
bean was  made  public.  The  proposed  plan,  con- 
tained in  the  report  of  an  investigating  commission, 
calls  for  the  transfer  of  100,000  surplus  population 
to  British  Guiana  and  British  Honduras  within  the 
next  ten  years.  (See  CARIBBEAN  COMMISSION  and 
the  articles  on  the  various  colonies  listed  in  the  first 
paragraph  of  this  article. ) 

BROOKINGS  INSTITUTION.  A  non-profit  corporation 
devoted  to  research  and  training  in  economics  and 
government.  The  income  of  the  Institution  is  de- 
rived from  grants  from  foundations,  its  own  en- 
dowment, and  the  sale  of  publications.  The  pub- 
lications resulting  from  its  1948  research  program 
included:  The  United  States  and  Foreign  Invest- 
ment Problems,  by  Cleona  Lewis;  The  Issue  of 
Compulsory  Health  Insurance,  by  Lewis  Meriam 
and  George  W.  Bachman;  Governmental  Costs  and 
Tax  Levels,  by  Lewis  H.  Kimrnel  and  Mildred 
Maroney;  Union-Management  Cooperation,  by 
Kurt  Braun;  and  Major  Problems  of  United  States 
Foreign  Policy  (annual  edition),  by  Leo  Pasvolsky 
and  others. 

Officers  for  1948  to  1949:  Chairman,  Robert 
P.  Bass;  Vice  Chairman,  Dean  G.  Achesonj  Presi- 
dent, Harold  G.  Moulton;  Vice  President,  Lewis 


BROOKLYN  fNST/TUTf  OF  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES 

Meriam;  Treasurer,  Mildred  Maroney;  Secretary, 
Elizabeth  H.  Wilson.  Headquarters:  722  Jackson 
Place,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

BROOKLYN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES.  One  of 

America's  oldest  and  largest  institutions  for  infor- 
mal education,  located  in  Brooklyn  17,  New  York. 
Its  public  activities  are  conducted  at  four  centers: 
The  Department  of  Education  at  the  Academy  of 
Music,  the  Central  Museum,  the  Children's  Mu- 
seum, and  the  Botanic  Garden.  Founded  in  1824, 
the  Institute  was  incorporated  in  its  present  form 
in  1890.  Total  membership  is  about  5,700  and  is 
open  to  everyone. 

The  Department  of  Education  at  the  Academy 
of  Music  presents  an  adult  education  program  an- 
nually of  concerts,  lectures,  forums  in  every  major 
field  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Attendance  at  these 
events  for  the  season  1947-48  was  about  210,000. 

The  Institute's  museums  possess  collections  in 
arts,  ethnology,  and  natural  science.  During  1941, 
the  art  and  photography  classes  formerly  con- 
ducted at  the  Department  of  Education  at  the 
Academy  of  Music  were  transferred  to  the  Brook- 
lyn Museum  to  form  the  new  Art  School  of  the 
Brooklyn  Museum.  Attendance  at  Central  Museum 
was  430,000,  at  Children's  Museum  170,000  for  the 
fiscal  year  1947-48. 

The  Institute's  Botanic  Garden  comprises  more 
than  50  acres  and  plant  houses  containing  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  species.  Botanic  Garden  attend- 
ance for  the  fiscal  year  1947-48  totaled  1,280,000. 

Officers:  President,  Brooklyn  Institute,  Adrian 
Van  Sinderen;  Director,  Department  of  Education, 
Julius  Bloom;  Director,  Brooklyn  Museum,  Charles 
Nagel,  Jr.;  Director,  Botanic  Garden,  Dr.  George 
S.  Avery,  Jr, 

BRUNEI.  A  state  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Borneo, 
under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain.  Area,  2,226 
square  miles.  Population  (1947  est.),  48,034.  Capi- 
tal, Brunei  (12,000).  Important  products  include 
crude  oil,  cutch,  rubber,  jelutong,  and  sago.  Trade 
(July-December,  1946):  imports  £375,000;  ex- 
ports £104,000.  Finance  (1947  est):  revenue 
£363,214;  expenditure  £255,046.  The  general 
administration  of  the  state  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
British  Resident,  and  the  supreme  authority  is 
vested  in  the  Sultan  in  Council,  which  includes  the 
Resident,  with  the  Sultan  as  President.  Sultan: 
Ahmed  Tajudin  Akhazul  Khairi  Wad-din. 

BRUSSELS,  Treaty  of.  A  treaty  signed  in  Brussels  on 
Mar.  17,  1948— by  Great  Britain,  France,  Nether- 
lands, Belgium,  and  Luxembourg — to  form  a  West- 
ern Union.  Under  the  terms  of  this  treaty  the  five 
Powers  pledged  themselves  to  the  closest  coopera- 
tion in  economic  matters  and  promised  to  give  im- 
mediate military  assistance  if  any  one  of  them 
"should  be  the  object  of  an  armed  attack  in  Eu- 
rope/* The  five  Powers  also  agreed  to  set  up  a 
permanent  consultative  council  to  meet  in  London. 
During  June  1948,  the  Senate  adopted,  by  64 
votes  to  4,  a  resolution  presented  by  Senator  Van- 
denberg  urging  the  association  of  the  United  States 
with  regional  defense  agreements.  The  Vanden- 
berg  resolution  made  it  possible  for  the  United 
States  State  Department  to  begin  conversations  in 
July  with  Canada  and  The  Brussels  Powers  for  an 
eventual  North  Atlantic  Pact  linking  western  Eu- 
rope and  North  America  and  to  send  military  rep- 
resentatives as  "observers"  to  the  meetings  of  the 
Defense  Committee  of  the  Brussels  Powers. 

BUCKWHEAT.  The  1948  buckwheat  crop  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  was  estimated  by  the  Crop  Reporting 


84  BULGARIA 

Board  of  the  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  to  total 
6,324,000  bushels.  This  was  harvested  from  a  total 
of  337,000  acres.  Yields  (in  bushels)  of  the  prin- 
cipal producing  States  were:  Pennsylvania  2,332,- 
000,  New  York  1,767,000,  Minnesota  435,000, 
Michigan  351,000,  Ohio  304,000. 

BUDDHIST  CHURCHES  OF  AMERICA.  Organized  in  1914, 
this  body  was  incorporated  under  this  name  in 
1942,  and  represents  Buddhism  in  the  United 
States.  The  Buddhist  faith  is  based  on  the  anatman 
doctrine,  the  idea  of  karma  and  nirvana,  and  the 
blissful  mental  state  of  absolute  freedom  from  evil. 
Total  membership  about  70,000.  Headquarters, 
1881  Pine  Street,  San  Francisco  9,  Calif. 

BUDGET,  Bureau  of  the.  A  division  of  the  Executive 
Office  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  trans- 
ferred from  the  Department  of  the  Treasury  in 
1939,  which  assists  the  President  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  Budget  and  the  fiscal  program  of  the 
Government.  Its  chief  branches  pertain  to  Legis- 
lative Reference,  Estimates,  Administrative  Man- 
agement, Statistical  Standards,  and  Fiscal  Analysis. 
The  Bureau  has  the  authority  to  assemble,  corre- 
late, reduce,  or  increase  the  estimates  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. Under  die  Government  Control  Act  of 
Dec.  6,  1945,  similar  authority  was  given  the  Bu- 
reau with  respect  to  the  preparation  and  review  of 
budgets  of  wholly-owned  Government  corporations. 
Director:  Frank  Pace,  Jr. 

BUHL  FOUNDATION.  A  foundation  established  in 
1928  by  Henry  Buhl,  Jr.  Capital  assets  were  $12,- 
495,664  in  1948,  and  expenditures  for  the  year  to- 
taled $276,872.  The  Foundation's  programs  cen- 
ter in  the  Pittsburgh  area,  where  it  has  sought 
to  provide  more  adequate  factual  bases  for  so- 
cial work  and  regional  economic  effort,  to  pro- 
mote research  in  public  health  and  the  natural 
sciences,  and  to  develop  the  community's  resources 
in  higher  education.  Another  objective  is  the  ad- 
vancement of  housing  standards  for  American 
cities,  as  exemplified  in  large-scale,  planned  com- 
munities administered  on  a  long-term  investment 
basis.  In  demonstration  of  this  last-named  objec- 
tive, the  Foundation  operates  Chatham  Village  in 
Pittsburgh,  built  in  1932  at  a  cost  of  $1,700,000. 
The  Buhl  Planetarium  and  Institute  of  Popular 
Science  was  built  at  a  cost  of  $1,100,000  in  1939 
as  a  gift  to  the  people  of  Western  Pennsylvania. 
Director:  Charles  F.  Lewis.  Offices:  Farmers  Bank 
Building,  Pittsburgh  22,  Pa, 

BULGARIA.  A  Balkan  republic  in  southeastern  Eu- 
rope, Area:  42,808  square  miles  (including  south- 
ern Dobruja).  Population  (Dec.  31,  1946  est): 
7,022,206.  Of  these  680,000  were  Turks,  140,000 
Gypsies,  50,000  Jews,  and  24,000  Armenians.  Chief 
cities  (1946  pop.):  Sofia  (capital)  436,936;  Plov- 
div 122,875;  Varna  77,636;  Rousse,  50,754;  Burgas 
43,075;  Pleven  37,092.  Vital  statistics:  crude  rate 
per  1,000  (1st  quarter,  1947);  living  births  27.9; 
deaths  17.7;  infant  mortality  124  (deaths  under 
one  year);  marriages  12.5  (1936). 

Education  and  Religion.  In  September,  1947,  there 
were  544  kindergartens,  5,775  grade  schools,  and 
258  gymnasiums,  33  evening  gymnasiums,  and  133 
similar  high  schools  for  adults;  Sofia  State  Univer- 
sity has  been  expanded,  and  three  provincial  uni- 
versities have  been  opened,  raising  the  enrollment 
in  higher  education  from  13,789  in  1944  to  50,000 
in  1947.  The  predominant  religion  is  that  of  the 
Greek  Orthodox  Church. 


BULGARIA 


85 


BULGARIA 


Production,  Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupa- 
tion, nearly  6  million  of  the  population  being  peas- 
ants. Of  the  total  arable  area  (4,522,000  hectares), 
some  2,563,000  hectares  (hectare — 2.47  acres) 
were  sown  with  cereals  (wheat,  maize,  barley,  rye, 
oats,  and  rice).  In  1947,  Bulgaria's  continuous 
economic  recovery,  even  though  hampered  by  a 
third  consecutive  drought,  can  be  gauged  from 
the  following  production  figures: 


General  index  (1939  «  100)  .  . 
C&pital  goods      '* 

1947 
.      133.2 
131  9 

1946 
115.2 
1154 

1945 
112.0 
88  1 

Consumer  goods  "    

143.7 

118.2 

118.5 

Food  stuffs          "     

80.7 

99.8 

95.5 

Cotton            (tons) 

1  061 

1  013 

707 

Iron  and  steel      '  ' 

1  843 

1,665 

673 

Metals                "     

217 

84 

103 

Coal 

83  305 

83  603 

78,428 

Electric  energy  (1000  kw)  

.    14,579 

13,641 

11,901 

Industrial  crops  grown  include  tobacco  (37,965 
metric  tons  in  1946),  sugar  beet,  sunflower,  ani- 
seed, peanuts,  and  peppermint.  Fruit  grows  in 
abundance.  Livestock  (1945):  7,054,348  sheep, 
1,367,928  cattle,  714,567  goats,  471,576  horses, 
838,000  pigs,  and  6,615,000  poultry.  Mineral  out- 
put is  small  except  for  coal  (lignite),  the  output 
of  which  amounted  to  3,924,000  metric  tons 
(1947). 

In  December,  1947,  industry  and  mines  were 
nationalized.  Under  the  Five- Year  Plan,  Bulgaria's 
agriculture  is  to  be  collectivized;  150  new  machine- 
tractor  stations  are  to  be  set  up?  and  cooperative 
farms  developed.  At  present  only  4  percent  of  the 
arable  land  is  owned  by  cooperative  farms;  by  1953 
about  30  percent  of  the  land  will  be  so  owned.  In 
1947  Bulgaria  had  675  cooperative  villages,  with 
65,000  members  and  210,000  hectares  of  land. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1947  Bulgaria  sizably  increased 
its  trade,  both  in  volume  (701,397  tons  as  against 
617,584  in  1946)  and  in  value  (45,948  million  leva 
as  against  32,456).  Total  imports  rose  by  22,3 
percent  (21.4  as  against  17,514  million  leva), 
while  exports  rose  by  64.2  percent  (24.5  as  against 
14,942  million  leva).  Commercial  relations  with 
the  U.S.S.R.,  Czechoslovakia,  Poland,  and  Yugo- 
slavia were  strengthened;  they  supplied  Bulgaria 
with  the  bulk  of  imports  (84.6  percent)  and  ex- 
ports (83.8  percent).  Trade  with  other  Central 
European  states  also  picked  up  as  well  as  with 
Holland,  Sweden,  and  Italy;  Egypt  became  an 
important  export  market.  The  main  import  cate- 
gories— metals,  machines,  and  textiles — showed  in- 
creases; cereal  imports,  due  to  the  third  consecutive 
drought,  were  relatively  heavy.  Tobacco  alone 
covered  more  than  four-fifths  of  exports;  other 
exports  items  were;  lamb  hides,  lead  ore  concen- 
trates, coal,  and  tomato  pulp. 

Finance,  The  principal  sources  of  revenue  are  di- 
rect and  indirect  taxes.  The  1946  budget  placed 
revenue  at  77,007.9  million  leva;  expenditure  at 
80,883.6  million  leva.  The  public  debt  on  Mar. 
31,  1946  totaled  112,235,683,310  leva. 

Transportation.  In  1941  there  were  15,000  miles 
of  highways,  4,500  passenger  automobiles,  1,000 
buses,  and  3,000  trucks.  Government-owned  rail- 
road lines  extended  2,350  miles.  In  1939  there  were 
49  miles  of  electric  railways.  All  railways  connect 
Sofia  with  the  general  European  system. 

Government.  As  a  result  of  a  referendum  of  Sept. 
8,  1946,  the  monarchy  was  abolished.  The  Bulgar- 
ian People's  Republic  was  proclaimed  by  the  Na- 
tional Assembly  on  Sept.  15,  1946.  A  new  Con- 
stitution was  adopted  by  the  National"  Assembly 
on  Dec.  4,  1947.  The  Assembly  is  empowered  to 
elect  a  Presidium  of  a  President,  two  deputy  Presi- 


dents, and  15  members.  President,  Vasil  Kolorov 
(Communist);  Premier,  Georgi  Dimitrov  ( Com- 
munist^).  On  Jan.  23,  1948,  new  insignia  for  the 
People's  Republic  were  approved:  a  circle,  in  its 
centre  a  lion  supported  on  each  side  by  ears  of 
com,  surrounded  by  a  six-pointed  star,  with  the 
inscription  "9th  of  September  1944"  below. 

Events,  1948.  Under  Premier  Dimitrov,  Bulgaria 
remained  a  faithful  executor  and  proponent  of 
Pan-Soviet  and  Pan-Slavic  policies  of  the  U.S.S.R, 
On  Dec.  9,  1947,  the  new  Constitution,  modelled 
after  that  of  Soviet  Russia,  came  into  force.  On 
Feb.  4,  1948,  the  Fatherland  Front,  headed  by 
DimitJov  and  the  Communists  but  including  rep- 
resentatives of  four  other  parties,  became  the  sole 
party  organization  in  the  state. 

An  illuminating  illustration  of  the  workings  of 
Bulgaria's  "People's  Democracy"  was  furnished  on 
January  12,  when  Dimitrov  presented  his  budget 
to  the  National  Assembly;  when  Social  Democratic 
deputies  had  the  temerity  to  criticize  it  the  Premier 
gave  them  the  alternative  of  voting  for  it,  or  being 
hanged — backing  his  threat  by  reminding  his  crit- 
ics of  the  fate  of  the  executed  Nikola  Petkov. 

In  February,  the  National  Assembly  passed  a 
bill  for  the  expropriation  of  all  urban  real  estate 
holdings;  the  owners  to  be  left  one  house,  or 
apartment  per  family,  and  professional  premises  if 
any;  all  hotels,  warehouses,  and  villas  were  to  be 
expropriated.  On  June  7,  the  decree  for  the  na- 
tionalization of  mines  and  natural  resources  was 
promulgated;  all  concessions  for  prospecting  and 
ore  exploitation  were  annulled  without  compensa- 
tion. 

During  the  summer  holidays  all  Bulgarian  teach- 
ers had  to  attend  special  courses  on  Marxist-Len- 
inist political  education,  a  diploma  from  one  oi 
these  schools  being  required  for  their  continue*: 
work  as  teachers.  In  September  all  foreign  anc 
congregational  schools  were  closed  and  their  teach- 
ers received  orders  to  leave  Bulgaria  immediately 

The  U.S. S JR.  left  no  stone  unturned  to  safe- 
guard Bulgaria's  adherence  to  her  fold,  especially 
since  the  defection  of  Tito  from  the  Cominforn 
left  the  Balkan  flank  exposed.  Nevertheless,  Dimi 
trov's  original  ambition  to  head  a  Balkan  Slav  blo< 
was  halted  by  the  Kremlin  in  February,  when  i 
flatly  refused  to  endorse  "Dimitrov's  attitude"  anc 
stated  that  the  Balkan's  sole  need  was  the  organ! 
zation  of  "domestic  popukr  democratic  forces"  a 
foreseen  by  the  nine  communist  parties  of  tin 
Cominform.  Dimitrov,  an  old-line  Communist  ac 
customed  to  twists  and  turns  of  Soviet  policy 
hastily  scrambled  back  into  line  and  reemphasize< 
that  the  idea  was  "premature.*7 

After  officially  withdrawing  tie  Red  Army  fxpr 
Bulgaria,  Moscow  left  some  50,000  troops  behin< 
as  civilians,  to  form  cadres  for  an  expansion  c 
the  Bulgarian  army.  On  Mar.  18,  1948  Moscov 
concluded  a  20-year  Treaty  of  Friendship,  Coopei 
atton,  and  Mutual  Military  Defense  with  Sofi 
(complementing  Moscow's  pacts  with  Rumani 
and  Hungary);  the  network  of  the  "Pan-Slav 
alliances  was  strengthened  by  the  Bulgaro-Czechc 
slovak  Alliance  of  April  23. 

After   Tito's    defection   from   the    Cominforn 
Dimitrov  started  attacking  Tito's  attitude  and  th 
old  Macedonian  problem  reappeared,  Sofia  clain 
ing  that  Bulgarian  nationals  in  Yugoslav  Macedoni 
were  being  "persecuted."  But  in  April,  Bulgar 
allowed  an  observation  group  from  the  UN  Speci 
Commission  on  the  Balkans  to  enter  the  country — 
the  first  time  a  Commission  had  been  allowed  to 
cross  a  border  of  any  of  Greece's  northern  neigh- 
bors. 


BURMA  ( 

In  September  the  Commission  again  reported 
that  Bulgaria  (as  well  as  Albania  and  Yugoslavia) 
were  helping  the  guerrillas  fighting  in  Greece. 
Several  protests  by  the  United  States  were  fruitless; 
thus  on  November  22,  the  State  Department  ac- 
cused the  regime  of  having;  smashed  its  last  parlia- 
mentary opposition  by  jailing  nine  Independent 
Socialist  deputies  after  secret  trails  on  trumped-up 
charges:  "In  thus  terminating  the  final  pretense 
of  Bulgarian  democracy  by  eliminating  these  re- 
maining elected  representatives  of  the  opposition, 
the  Bulgarian  regime  has  again  violated  its  cove- 
nanted obligation  tinder  Article  2  of  the  Treaty  of 
Peace  to  assure  its  citizens  basic  fundamental  free- 
doms." — JOSEPH  S.  ROUCEK 

BURMA,  Union  of.  A  country  in  southeastern  Asia, 
formerly  a  British  possession,  but  from  Jan,  4, 
1948,  an  independent  state  outside  the  British 
Commonwealth.  The  Union  consists  of  the  terri- 
tories formerly  governed  by  Great  Britain  and  the 
Shan,  Kachin,  and  Karenni  states. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  261,757  square  miles, 
of  which  Burma  proper  covers  196,161  square 
miles.  Population  in  1941:  16,823,798,  of  whom 
the  majority  were  Burmans.  Chief  indigenous  non- 
Burmese,  1941:  Karens,  1.200,000;  Shans,  1,000- 
000;  Chins,  300,000;  Kachins,  150,000.  Chief  non- 
indigenous  groups:  Indians,  887,000;  Chinese, 
150,000.  Chief  cities  in  1931:  Rangoon  (capital), 
400,415;  Mandalay,  147,932. 

Education  and  Religion.  After  the  reoccupation  of 
the  country  in  1945  a  state-controlled  system  of 
education  was  introduced.  The  system  includes 
primary  and  secondary  schools  (628,092  students 
in  1946)  with  the  University  of  Rangoon  at  the 
apex  (2,000  enrollment  in  1947).  Buddhist  mon- 
asteries in  the  villages  give  elementary  instruction. 
About  84  percent  of  the  people  are  Buddhists,  and 
nearly  all  of  the  rest  belong  to  Animist,  Moham- 
medan, Hindu  or  Christian  sects.  • 

Production  and  Trade.  The  economy,  which  is 
chiefly  agricultural,  has  long  been  dominated  by 
rice,  both  in  production  and  export.  Before  World 
War  II  Burma  grew  about  6,000,000  tons  of  rice 
annually,  exporting  it  chiefly  to  India  and  Ceylon, 
In  1946-1947  rice  production  was  restored  to 
5,500,000  tons,  but  1947-1948  estimates  were 
lower.  Other  important  crops  (1945-1946)  were: 
sesamum  (32,059  tons),  groundnuts  (76,385  tons), 
maize  (12,454  tons),  and  cotton  (3,659  tons).  Ex- 
ports of  teak,  of  which  Burma  is  the  world's  largest 
producer,  were  68,179  cubic  tons  in  the  20  months 
from  July,  1946,  through  February,  1948.  Live- 
stock (1946):  cattle,  3,025,643;  buffaloes,  602,782; 
goats,  144,089;  pigs,  258,154. 

Imports  of  cotton  were  112,710,000  yards  in 
1947.  The  United  Kingdom  and  India  were  the 
principal  suppliers.  Burma's  merchandise  imports 
have  ordinarily  been  less  than  half  the  value  of 
exports,  with  invisible  imports,  largely  capital 
equipment  for  non-Burmans,  making  up  the  bal- 
ance. It  is"  expected  that  the  new  government  will 
try  to  increase  imports  and  production  of  manu- 
factured goods  for  the  indigenous  population. 
Plans  for  the  establishment  of  government-con- 
trolled chemical,  cotton,  and  sugar-refining  plants 
have  been  made. 

Transportation.  Burma  had  1,449  miles  of  railway 
in  1947.  Before  invasion  there  were  3,760  miles 
of  hard-surfaced  roads,  but  by  1948  only  the  road 
from  Rangoon  to  Mandalay  had  been  fully  re- 
stored. The  Irrawaddy  River  is  navigable  for  900 
miles  from  the  sea,  and  its  tributary,  toe  Chindwin, 
is  navigable  for  300  miles. 


O  BURMA 

Finance.  The  link  between  Indian  and  Burmese 
currency  was  broken  on  Apr.  1,  1947,  and  the 
Burmese  Currency  Board  took  over  the  manage- 
ment of  Burmese  currency.  By  agreement  with  the 
British  Government  Burma  was  permitted  to  draw 
on  the  central  reserve  of  the  sterling  area  for  £25- 
000,000  to  meet  its  needs  of  hard  currencies  in  the 
second  half  of  1948. 

Government.  According  to  the  Constitution  passed 
on  Sept.  24,  1947,  and  in  full  effect  on  Jan.  4, 
1948,  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  Parliament 
consisting  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  of  about 
250  members  and  the  Chamber  of  Nationalities 
of  125  members,  53  of  whom  represent  the  Union 
proper  and  the  remainder  the  states  and  tribal 
areas.  The  President  of  the  Union  is  elected  for  a 
five-year  term  by  both  chambers  in  joint  session. 
He  has  no  right  of  veto.  The  Constitution  regulates 
the  position  of  the  Shan,  Kachin,  Karenni  and 
Karen  states  and  the  Chin  people,  by  providing 
that  each  shall  be  represented  in  the  Cabinet  by 
a  minister  chosen  from  its  own  members.  President 
on  Jan.  4,  1948,  the  Sawbwa  of  Yawnghwe;  Prime 
Minister,  Thakin  Nu;  Foreign  Minister,  U  Tin  Tut. 
U  Kyaw  Nyein,  Minister  for  Home  Affairs,  became 
Foreign  Minister  in  September,  1948.  See  under 
Events,  1948. 

Events,  1948.  The  year  which  began  auspiciously 
with  the  inauguration  of  the  Republic  of  Burma 
on  Jan.  4,  1948,  soon  developed  into  a  period  of 
revolt  and  wide-spread  distress  among  the  Burmese 
people.  As  the  last  British  Governor,  Sir  Hubert 
Ranee,  gave  up  his  tokens  of  power  to  the  Saw- 
bwa of  Yawnghwe,  the  new  President,  the  future 
seemed  bright.  The  Cabinet  of  Thakin  Nu  was 
working  hard  to  restore  order,  to  bring  back  the 
rice  crop  to  its  former  volume  and  improve  the 
standard  of  living.  The  Government  appeared  to 
enjoy  the  support  of  the  majority  of  the  people. 

In  April  the  promotion  of  strikes  by  Communists 
under  the  leadership  of  Than  Tun  was  an  omen 
of  worse  to  come.  The  Government,  itself  com- 
mitted to  government  ownership  and  the  expro- 
priation of  the  foreigner,  resorted  to  mass  arrests 
when  political  strikes  were  promoted  by  more  ex- 
treme factions.  On  May  26  Prime  Minister  Thakin 
Nu  announced  that  he  would  resign  .on  July  20, 
because  of  a  religious  vow.  The  Prime  Minister 
ascribed  the  increasing  dissension  in  his  party,  the 
Anti-Fascist  People's  Freedom  League,  to  three 
aspects  of  the  struggle  for  material  and  political 
power,  and  later  issued  a  statement  describing  a 
United  Party  of  the  Left  which  he  wished  to  found. 

The  Government's  chief  antagonists  were  the 
large  number  of  Communists,  the  "White  Band" 
People's  Volunteer  Organization  which  joined  the 
Communists  when  the  Government  refused  to 
come  to  terms  with  the  latter,  and  the  Karen  anti- 
leftist  minority  who  thought  this  the  time  to  work 
towards  independence.  The  conspicuous  Commu- 
nist groups  were  the  Trotskyist  "Red  Flags"  and 
the  Stalinist  "White  Flags." 

As  Thakin  Nu's  campaign  progressed  he  empha- 
sized the  intention  of  the  United  Left  Party  to 
throw  off  the  yoke  of  capitalism  and  to  follow 
Russian  ideology.  It  was  at  this  time  that  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  People's  Volunteer  Organ- 
ization withdrew  from  the  Anti-Fascist  People's 
Freedom  League.  Unfortunately  for  the  League, 
its  cooperating  Socialist  Party  was  under  a  cloud 
because  its  chairman,  U  Ko  Ko  Gyi,  as  Minister 
of  Commerce  was  nominally  responsible  for  ques- 
tionable customs  activities  at  Rangoon. 

U  Ko  Ko  Gyi  and  the  Minister  of  Defense,  Bo 
Let  Ya,  sent  in  their  resignations.  On  July  15  the 


BUSINESS  REVIEW  87 

Cabinet  resigned  as  a  whole.  Thaldn  Nu  then 
accepted  the  President's  invitation  to  form  a  care- 
taker  government  until  Parliament  could  meet  to 
hold  elections.  There  were  indications  that  the 
Government  now  planned  to  act  more  vigorously  in 
putting  down  the  Communist  insurrection,  which 
did  not  then  appear  to  have  reached  dangerous 
dimensions,  although  it  was  already  interfering 
with  rice  production. 

Spread  of  the  Revolts.  By  the  middle  of  August  a 
large  area  of  central  Burma  was  under  the  domina- 
tion of  Than  Tun's  Communists,  apparently  with 
the  support  of  a  considerable  section  of  the  Peo- 
ple's Volunteer  Party.  Units  of  the  regular  army 
had  mutinied  and  brigandage  was  spreading.  Ran- 
goon itself  was  under  attack  and  the  rice  port 
of  Bassein  was  closed.  The  power  of  the  central 
government  was  breaking  down. 

The  Karens,  who  differ  from  the  Burmans  in 
language,  traditions  and  temperament,  seized  this 
opportunity  to  effect  an  anti-leftist  revolt.  The 
Karens  had  long  resented  the  favors  granted  by  the 
British  authorities  to  the  Anti-Fascist  People's 
Freedom  League  representatives,  many  of  whom 
had  collaborated  with  the  Japanese  while  the  Ka- 
rens were  resisting  them. 

Early  in  September,  a  small  Karen  force  occu- 
pied two  towns  in  the  area  envisaged  by  the  Karen 
National  Union  as  that  destined  to  be  a  separate 
Karen  state  and  set  up  a  provisional  Karen  admin- 
istration which  for  a  time  issued  its  orders  from 
Moulmein,  Burma's  third  city.  This  was  done  with- 
out fighting  and  without  molesting  the  non-Karen 
population. 

Thaldn  Nu  was  reelected  Prime  Minister  of 
Burma  on  September  14.  At  the  same  time  the 
Cabinet  was  enlarged  and  all  existing  ministers 
were  reelected.  On  September  17  U  Tin  Tut,  who 
had  resigned  as  Foreign  Minister  to  become  In- 
spector General  of  the  Burmese  Auxiliary  Force 
and  was  shortly  to  become  Burmese  Ambassador  to 
Britain,  was  fatally  injured  by  a  bomb  placed  in 
his  car.  He  died  the  next  day.  This  assassination 
recalled  the  killing  of  de  facto  premier  U  Aung 
San  and  6  other  ministers  July,  1947. 

A  state  of  emergency  was  declared,  and  the 
Government's  position  continued  to  deteriorate.  By 
the  end  of  September  the  Communists  had  cut  the 
railway  line  between  Rangoon  and  Mandalay.  The 
Foreign  Minister  who  succeeded  U  Tin  Tut,  for- 
mer Minister  for  Home  Affairs  U  Kyaw  Nyein, 
arrived  in  London  late  in  October,  ostensibly  for 
the  purpose  of  seeking  arms  and  planes  to  aid  the 
Government  in  its  campaign.  It  was  recognized  in 
London  that  the  sending  of  troops  to  Burma,  now 
an  independent  country  outside  the  British  Com- 
monwealth, would  be  an  impossibility. 

— ALZADA  COMSTOCK 

BUSINESS  REVIEW.  In  1948  business  activity  on  the 
whole  surpassed  even  the  record  peacetime  level 
reached  in  the  previous  year.  While  some  of  the 
consumer  goods  industries  began  to  feel  the  effects 
of  somewhat  reduced  demand,  a  number  of  the 
principal  heavy  industries  reached  new  postwar 
peaks.  The  leveling  off  in  soft  goods  fields  was 
counteracted  by  large  government  expenditures 
for  rearmament  and  foreign  aid  and  by  unprece- 
dentedly  high  outlays  by  business  for  plant  and 
equipment.  As  a  result,  the  Federal  Reserve  Board's 
index  of  industrial  production  reached  195  towards 
the  end  of  the  year,  output  for  the  year  showing 
an  increase  of  3  percent.  The  volume  of  crops  was 
the  largest  ever  harvested,  exceeding  the  1947  rec- 
ord total  by  about  9  percent. 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 

Despite  a  substantial  decline  in  prices  of  agri- 
cultural products,  due  to  the  record  crops,  whole- 
sale commodity  prices  as  a  whole  showed  virtually 
no  decline,  while  the  cost  of  living  continued  to 
rise  and  inflationary  pressures  in  the  economy 
again  caused  general  concern.  In  mid-summer, 
however,  the  price  trend  turned  moderately  down- 
ward, leading  to  a  widespread  belief  that  the  infla- 
tionary forces  had  reached  their  peak. 

Total  employment  reached  a  postwar  high  of 
61,600,000  in  July,  but  there  were  evidences  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  year  of  increasing  unemploy- 
ment due  to  lower  production  levels  in  a  number 
of  industries  that  had  caught  up  with  the  demand. 
Idleness  from  strikes  represented  0.4  percent  of 
available  working  time  in  the  first  10  months  of 
the  year,  continuing  the  relatively  low  level  of  the 
previous  year.  Construction  activity,  led  by  the 
housing  boom,  showed  a  considerable  increase, 
while  retail  sales  registered  a  moderate  gain  over 
the  preceding  year. 

National  Product  and  National  Income.  The  gross 
national  product  in  1948,  representing  the  total 
value  of  all  of  the  goods  and  services  produced, 
was  estimated  at  $250,000  million,  on  the  basis  of 
preliminary  calculations.  This  was  approximately 
8  percent  more  than  the  total  of  the  previous  year, 
but  part  of  the  rise  was  due  to  higher  prices.  Na- 
tional income,  which  measures  the  earnings  from 
current  production  received  by  individuals,  was 
estimated  at  $225,000  million,  registering  a  gain 
of  about  a  tenth  over  1947.  Income  payments  to 
individuals  amounted  to  about  $212,000  million  as 
compared  with  $195,000  million  in  the  previous 
year.  After  deductions  for  personal  taxes  and  re- 
lated items,  disposable  personal  income  was  esti- 
mated at  $190,000  million,  representing  an  increase 
of  9  percent  over  the  preceding  twelve  months.  Of 
this  total,  $177,000  million  was  expended  for  pur- 
poses of  personal  consumption,  7  percent  more 
than  in  1947.  This  left  personal  savings  of  $13,000 
million,  as  against  $8,800  million  the  year  before, 
In  1948  about  7  percent  of  disposable  personal 
income  was  saved  as  against  5  percent  in  1947. 

Of  the  total  personal  expenditures,  approxi- 
mately one-eighth  went  for  durable  consumer 
goods,  almost  three-fifths  for  non-durable  goods, 
and  about  three-tenths  for  purchase  of  services. 
Private  domestic  investment,  constituting  more 
than  a  seventh  of  the  gross  national  product,  rose 
by  about  a  fourth  over  1947.  Government  pur- 
chases of  goods  and  services  absorbed  over  one- 
eighth  of  the  gross  national  product  and  increased 
by  more  than  a  fifth  over  1947.  Of  such  purchases, 
the  Federal  government  accounted  for  about  55 
percent  and  state  and  local  governments  for  the 
remainder. 

Construction.  Building  activity  showed  a  substan- 
tial increase  in  1948,  the  volume  of  construction, 
totaling  approximately  $18,000  million,  surpassing 
that  of  the  previous  year  by  about  26  percent. 
While  in  dollar  value  this  represented  a  new  rec- 
ord, the  physical  volume  of  construction  was  con- 
siderably below  the  previous  peacetime  peaks  set 
in  the  1920's.  Despite  a  slackening  off  in  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  year,  the  total  amount  of  housing 
construction  was  considerably  above  that  of  1947. 
The  number  of  new  permanent  non-farm  dwelling 
units  started  during  the  year  was  approximately 
925,000,  as  against  849,000  in  the  preceding  12 
months.  It  also  closely  approached  the  previous 
peak  of  937,000  established,  in  1925. 

The  real  estate  market  was  greatly  stimulated  by 
the  acute  housing  shortage  and  the  liberal  mort- 
gage terms  permitted  under  the  Veterans'  and  Fed- 


BUSINESS  REVIEW  C 

eral  Housing  Administration  programs.  High  build- 
ing costs  and  some  tightening  of  mortgage  financ- 
ing, as  well  as  the  large  amount  of  new  housing 
built  in  the  previous  two  years,  brought  about  a 
decline  in  activity  towards  the  end  of  the  year. 
The  cost  of  building  residences  increased  by  about 
10  percent  during  the  year.  As  a  result  of  the  post- 
war housing  boom,  in  1948  about  a  half  of  all  non- 
farm  families  owned  their  own  homes,  the  largest 
proportion  on  record.  On  the  other  hand,  the  pro- 

Eortion  of  mortgaged  homes  was  larger  than  ever 
efore. 

The  total  estimated  value  of  private  non-farm 
residential  construction  in  1948  was  $7,000  million, 
constituting  two-fifths  of  the  total  dollar  volume 
of  building  and  increasing  by  about  a  third.  The 
high  level  of  business  activity  also  resulted  in  a 
large  amount  of  commercial  and  industrial  con- 
struction, private  non-residential  building  being 
estimated  at  about  $3,500  million.  New  public 
construction,  for  highways,  public  buildings  and 
other  projects,  totaled  approximately  $4,000  mil- 
lion. 

Durable  Goods  Industries.  The  continued  high  de- 
mand for  steel,  automobiles,  and  industrial  and 
transportation  equipment  featured  the  high  level 
of  activity  maintained  by  the  heavy  industries  dur- 
ing the  year.  Although  held  back  by  inadequate 
supplies  of  steel,  the  automobile  industry,  pro- 
duced 5,274,000  motor  vehicles,  a  record  exceeded 
only  in  1929,  The  year's  output  of  3,900,000  pas- 
senger cars  was  10  percent  above  the  1947  figure, 
while  truck  production  of  nearly  1,374,000  sur- 
passed the  former  all-time  record  set  in  1947.  A 
new  peak  was  reached  in  production  of  replace- 
ment parts  with  a  wholesale  value  of  $2,600  mil- 
lion, 10  percent  above  the  1947  figure,  while  em- 
ployment and  payrolls  in  the  industry  also  reached 
new  highs. 


260 
240 
220 
200 
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1941         1942         (943         1944        1945         1946         1947        C948 

Federal  Reserve  Index 
INDUSTRIAL  PBODUCTION 
Physical  Volume  Seasonally  Adjusted,   1935-39=100 

The  steel  industry  likewise  operated  at  near 
all-time  records  levels.  Steel  output  in  1948,  total- 
ing 88  million  tons,  was  3%  percent  above  that  of 
1947.  It  was  higher  than  in  any  peacetime  year 
and  within  one  percent  of  the  peak  outputs  at- 
tained during  the  war  years  1943-44.  Production 
in  October  established  an  all-time  monthly  record. 
Operations  of  the  industry  in  the  last  few  months 
of  the  year  ranged  between  96  and  100  percent  of 
capacity.  The  total  payroll  of  iron  and  steel  com- 
panies was  12  percent  above  that  of  1947  and  28 
percent  above  the  wartime  peak.  Nevertheless,  the 
continued  strong  demand  by  many  heavy  goods 
industries  caused  a  shortage  of  steel  in  a  number 
of  lines. 


3  BUSINESS  REVIEW 

A  major  factor  in  the  heavy  demand  for  steel 
was  the  record  total  of  expenditures  by  industry 
on  new  plant  and  equipment,  which  were  esti- 
mated at  $19,000  million,  a  gain  of  approximately 
one-sixth  over  the  preceding  year.  Most  of  this 
gain  was  accounted  for  by  higher  prices.  More  than 
two-fifths  of  the  expenditures  for  new  plants  and 
equipment  were  made  by  manufacturing  enter- 
prises and  about  one-seventh  by  electric  and  gas 
utilities.  Commercial  concerns,  railroads  and  other 
transport  companies  and  mining  corporations  also 
made  heavy  outlays. 

Among  the  other  durable  goods  industries  that 
showed  gains  over  the  preceding  year  were  railway 
passenger  and  freight  cars,  building  materials,  non- 
ferrous  metals  and  products,  and  such  durable  con- 
sumer goods  as  electric  refrigerators  and  ranges 
and  washing  machines.  A  substantial  decline  in 
output  of  radios  was  counteracted  by  the  phenome- 
nal increase  in  production  of  television  sets.  Out- 
put of  wooden  household  furniture  reached  a  rec- 
ord dollar  value  but  unit  production  declined  some- 
what, as  did  that  of  vacuum  cleaners. 

Mineral  production  in  1948  reached  new  high 
levels  both  in  dollar  value  and  tonnage.  Produc- 
tion and  consumption  of  petroleum  products  were 
at  all-time  highs,  output  of  crude  oil  increasing  by 
8  percent  over  1947.  Domestic  output  of  bauxite, 
the  raw  material  for  aluminum,  was  at  a  peacetime 
high,  although  about  one-third  below  the  record 
war  year  of  1944.  There  were  slight  declines  in 
tonnage  production  of  copper,  zinc,  and  lead  but 
price  increases  brought  dollar  volume  to  above  the 
1947  total.  Gold  mine  output  went  down  about  10 
percent  while  silver  production  increased  by  5  per- 
cent. 

The  changes  in  the  output  of  the  principal  du- 
rable goods  industries  are  shown  in  Table  1. 

TABLE  1— DURABLE  GOODS  PRODUCTION 

[1935-39  average  -100] 

Oct.  Oct. 

Commodity  1947  1948 

Iron  and  steel 205  221 

Machinery 280  279 

Automobiles  (including  parts) 198  201 

Non-ferrous  metals  and  products 179  193 

Lumber 128  135 

Furniture 172  167 

Glass  products 210  220 

Cement 174  184 

Clay  products 161  172 

Gypsum  and  plaster  products 230  242 

Abrasive  and  asbestos  products 224  251 

Durable  Manufactures — Total 223         230 

Consumer  Non-durable  Goods.  In  the  non-durable 
goods  fields,  particularly  textiles  and  apparel,  the 
latter  part  of  1948  was  characterized  by  leveling 
off  in  demand  and  accumulation  o£  inventories. 
This  situation  was  reflected  in  a  reduction  in  the 
price  of  cotton  textiles  and  in  some  slow-down  in 
production  and  employment  during  the  fourth 
quarter.  During  the  year,  for  the  first  time  since 
the  war  more  firms  went  out  of  business  in  the 
manufacture  of  apparel  than  the  number  of  new 
businesses  started.  The  cotton  textile  industry  was 
one  of  the  few  major  industries  to  show  a  substan- 
tial decline  from  the  postwar  peak.  Contributing  to 
the  contraction  in  demand  for  cotton  fabrics  was 
the  decline  in  exports. 

Because  of  the  high  profit  margins  of  the  pre- 
vious year,  however,  the  industry  was  in  a  good 
position  to  withstand  the  impact  of  falling  prices 
without  much  reduction  in  operations.  In  addition, 
the  cost  of  the  raw  cotton  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  staple  fabrics  declined  about  15  percent. 

'In  contrast  to  cottons,,  demand  for  woolen  and 


BUSINESS  REVIEW  89 

worsted  goods  continued  strong  and  prices  rose  by 
about  12  percent  in  the  year  ending  October*  In 
the  last  few  months  of  1948,  however,  there  was 
evidence  of  an  easing  of  demand  in  the  men's  wear 
field,  new  and  unfilled  orders  falling  below  the 
totals  for  the  corresponding  period  of  1947. 

Orders  for  women's  apparel  continued  to  main- 
tain about  the  same  high  level  as  in  the  preceding 
year.  Because  of  the  brisk  demand  for  women's 
clothing^  the  increased  supply  of  materials,  and 
the  continued  growth  of  consumer  income,  output 
of  apparel  as  a  whole  kept  up  to  the  peak  peace- 
time levels.  A  substantial  part  of  the  production  of 
fabrics  and  clothing,  however,  went  into  inven- 
tories; since  sales  increased  less  than  the  accumu- 
lation of  stocks.  On  the  whole,  the  leveling  off  in 
demand  for  apparel  was  not  yet  reflected  in  price 
declines,  although  towards  the  end  of  the  year, 
manufacturers  of  various  types  of  cotton  apparel 
announced  lower  prices  for  spring  deliveries. 

Other  non-durable  industries  recording  increases 
in  1948  included  rayon  products,  paper  and  news- 
print. While  cigarettes  showed  no  appreciable 
change,  the  output  of  shoes  and  alcoholic  bev- 
erages declined.  The  index  of  .production  of  the 
principal  non-durable  goods  fields  is  shown  in 
Table  2. 

TABLE  2— NON-DURABLE  GOODS  PRODUCTION 
[W35-39  average  »  100} 

Oct.        Oct. 

01    *i          j        j  194?      1948 

Textiles  and  products 164        166 

Cotton  consumption 139  129 

Rayon  deliveries 280  321 

Wool  textiles 167  167 

Leather  tanning 121  113 

Snoes 128  117 

Wheat  flour 136  134 

Butter : 75  75 

Cheese 163  162 

Canned  and  dried  milk 157  167 

Meat  packing 142  141 

Pork  and  lard 141  157 

Beef 146  127 

Veal 171  140 

Lamb  and  mutton 109  112 

Processed  fruits  and  vegetables 134  160 

Alcoholic  beverages 229  186 

Cigars 126  122 

Cigarettes 229  230 

Pulp 177  195 

Paper 154  162 

Printing  and  publishing 152  164 

Gasoline 162  170 

Coke 177  181 

Paints 152  158 

Soap 138  135 

Rayon 7 294  308 

Industrial  chemicals 427  451 

Rubber  products 223  210 

Non-durable  Manufactures — Total 176        179 

Retail  Trade.  For  1948  as  a  whole,  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board's  index  of  department  store  sales 
showed  an  increase  of  about  5  percent  over  the 
previous  12  months.  During  the  last  months  of  the 
year,  however,  sales  leveled  off  somewhat,  with 
consumer  resistance  apparently  increasing.  There 
were  indications,  moreover,  that  dollar  volume  was 
kept  at  a  high  level  by  increased  prices,  since  unit 
sales  for  a  number  of  soft  goods  items,  notably 
men's  clothing,  were  considerably  less  towards  the 
end  of  the  year  than  in  1947. 

Retail  sales,  as  a  whole,  were  fairly  well  stabi- 
lized, with  expanded  sales  in  the  automotive  group, 
as  supplies  increased,  and  reductions  or  little 
change  in  hardware  and  house  furnishings.  In  soft 
goods  stores  sales  were  above  those  of  1947,  but 
remained  about  on  a  level  during  the  second  half 
of  tibe  year.  An  important  factor  in  the  increase  in 
retail  trade  was  the  large  expansion  in  instalment 


BUSINESS  KEV/FW 

debt,  which  on  November  30  reached  the  record 
total  of  $7,900  million,  showing  a  rise  of  20  percent 
in  a  year.  Total  consumer  credit,  including  charge 
accounts  and  loans  as  well  as  instalment  credit, 
also  reached  a  new  high  of  $15,300  million.  In- 
ventories in  retail  stores  showed  a  substantial  in- 


300 


300 


250 


100 


194!        1942        J943        1944       1945       1946        1947        1949 

Federal  Reserve  Indexes 

DEPARTMENT   STORE  SALES  AND  STOCKS 
Dollar   Volume    Seasonally    Adjusted,    1935-39=100 

crease  over  1947.  ( See  Table  3. )  Particularly  no- 
ticeable was  the  accumulation  of  inventories  in 
the  men's  clothing  field,  where  sales  leveled  off 
while  stocks  continued  to  mount 

TABLE  3— DEPARTMENT  STORE  SALES  AND 

INVENTORIES 
[19S5-S9  average  «  100} 


Month 
January  

Sa 
265 

le& 
1948 
286 
2S6 
2S5 
306 
310 
312 
316 
311 
312 
306 
287 
309 

302 

Inventories 
1947      1948 
268        289 
275        303 
273        512 
264        308 
252        297 
241        285 
230        275 
227        268 
233        276 
252        282 
273        304 
284        306 

255        292 

February  

268 

March  .  .         

273 

April   

276 

May.  ...         .... 

291 

June  . 

289 

July                .    . 

287 

August               .    . 

282 

September 

294 

October 

279 

November 

302 

December 

303 

Average  for  year  .  .  .  , 

...  286 

Business  Inventories*  Because  of  the  lessened  de- 
mand in  some  industries,  the  smaller  impact  of 
price  increases  on  inventories,  and  the  filling  of 
"pipe  lines"  in  the  previous  two  years,  business 
inventories  in  1948  expanded  less  rapidly  than  ia 
1947.  At  the  end  of  October,  inventories  of  all 
business  establishments  totaled  $54,400  million, 
representing  a  gain  of  14  percent  in  a  year  as 
against  a  rise  of  20  percent  in  the  preceding  twelve 
months.  Manufacturers*  inventories  increased  to 
$31,100  million  during  November,  a  gain  of  $3,500 
million  over  the  previous  year — also  considerably 
less  than  the  increase  in  1947.  The  slowing  up  in 
the  rate  of  expansion  of  inventories  reflected  a 
more  cautious  attitude  on  the  part  of  business  with 
regard  to  the  future  outlook  for  prices  and  pro- 
duction. 

Commodity  Prices.  After  reaching  the  all-time  high 
point  on  August  15,  the  consumers'  price  index, 
measuring  the  cost  of  goods  and  services  bought 
by  moderate-income  families  in  large  cities,  re- 
mained for  a  time  at  that  level  and  tiben  began  to 
decline  slowly.  By  mid-November  the  index  stood 
at  172.2  (compared  with  the  1935-39  base  of 
100),  a  decline  of  1.3  percent  from  the  peak 
reached  in  the  summer.  This  index,  however,  was 
4.4  percent  higher  than  a  year  before.  The  princi- 
pal factor  in  the  decline  in  the  last  months  of  the 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 


90 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 


WHOLESALE  PRICES 


u.>.  Department  of  Labor 
Bureau  ofLahor  Statistics 


40 


1914 


i920 


1925 


1930 


1935 


1940 


1945          1949 


year  was  the  drop  in  food  prices,  which  in  four 
months  decreased  by  more  than  4  percent  from 
the  record  high  level  reached  in  July.  As  of  No- 
vember 15  food  prices  were  2.4  percent  above 
those  on  the  same  date  in  1947. 

Wholesale  prices  also  began  to  turn  downward 
in  rmd-summer,  the  decline  being  due  entirely  to 
the  drop  in  prices  of  farm  products  caused  by  the 
record  crops.  During  the  year  the  reduction  in 
prices  of  farm  products,  which  reached  their  peak 
in  January,  amounted  to  almost  11  percent,  al- 
though government  price  support  operations  for 
the  principal  crops  tended  to  keep  prices  up. 
Wholesale  food  prices  declined  by  about  3  per- 
cent. On  the  other  hand,  prices  of  all  commodities 
other  than  farm  and  food  products  went  up  4  per- 

TABLE  4— WHOLESALE  COMMODITY  PRICES 
[1926  =  100} 

Dec.  £8,  Dec.  SO, 

Commodity  Classification  1948  1947 

All  commodities 163.5  164.5 

Farm  products 177.4  199.0 

Foods 173.6  179.2 

All  commodities  other  than  farm  &  foods .  152.5  146.7 

Textile  products 145.6  149,4 

Fuel  and  lighting  materials 136.9  127.7 

Metals  &  metal  products 173.8  151.9 

Building  materials 200.3  192.6 

All  other 132.8  137.5 

Special  Indexes 

Grains 170.9  248.2 

Livestock 221.4  250,3 

Meats 228,7  238.4 

Hides  and  skins 192.5  245.4 

cent.  As  a  result,  the  wholesale  price  index  for  all 
commodities,  which  was  163,5  on  Dec.  28,  1948 
(with  1926  =  100),  was  only  0.6  percent  below 
that  of  the  index  of  the  year  before.  This  made 
1948  the  first  year  since  1938  in  which  wholesale 
prices  failed  to  show  a  rise.  While  textile  products 
showed  a  slight  decline,  fuels,  building  materials 
and  metals  went  up.  The  increase  for  metals  and 
metal  products  amounted  to  more  than  14  percent, 
due  to  the  excess  of  demand  over  supply. 
The  changes  in  the  indexes  of  wholesale  com- 


TABLE  5— RANGE  OF  COMMODITY   CASH   PRICES 
FOR  1948 


Foodstuffs 

Highest 

Lowest 

Wheat,  #2,  red,  bu  

$3.41f 

Jan. 

16 

$2.41| 

Aug. 

2 

Corn,  #2,  yellow,  bu.  .  . 

3.02| 

Jan. 

16 

1.601 

Oct. 

30 

Rye,  #2,  Western,  bu.  . 

3.171 

Jan. 

15 

1.72| 

Sep. 

7 

Oats,  #2,  white,  bu  

1.60f 

Jan. 

21 

.891 

Sep. 

21 

Flour,  spring  pat.,  100 

Ibs  

8.15 

Jan. 

12 

5.55 

Aug. 

24 

Coffee,  No.  4s  Santos, 

Ib  

.27! 

Nov.  24 

.251 

Feb. 

20 

Cocoa,  Bahia,  Ib  

.47* 

Feb. 

3 

.30 

Dec. 

15 

Sugar,  granulated,  Ib.  . 

.0840 

Jan. 

2 

.0750 

May 

13 

Sugar,  raw,  c.  &  b.,  Ib. 

(#5)  

.0530 

Jan. 

2 

.0450 

May 

12 

Butter,  92  score,  Ib  

.92 

Jan. 

2 

.591 

Oct. 

28 

Lard,  Midwestern,  Ib.  . 

.2975 

Jan. 

13 

.1687 

Dec. 

31 

Metah 

Iron,  #2,  Philadelphia, 

ton  

50.67 

Sep. 

24 

39.34 

Jan. 

2 

Steel  billets,  Pitts.,  net 

ton  

52.00 

July 

23 

45.00 

Mar. 

12 

Steel,  scrap,  heavy, 

Pitts.,  delivery,  ton  . 

49.00 

Sep. 

21 

43.00 

Jan. 

2 

Copper,  electrolytic,  Ib. 

.23* 

Aug. 

3 

.21* 

Jan. 

2 

Antimony,    American, 

Ib  

.4017 

Oct. 

11 

.3444 

Jan. 

2 

Aluminum,  ingot,  Ib.  .  . 

.17 

Oct. 

11 

.15 

Jan. 

2 

Lead,lb  

.21* 

Nov. 

1 

.15 

Jan. 

2 

Quicksilver,   flask,    76 

Ibs  

94.00 

Dec. 

22 

76.00 

June 

7 

Zinc,  East  St.  Louis,  Ib. 

.1750 

Nov. 

15 

.1050 

Jan. 

2 

Zinc,  New  York,  Ib.... 

.1816 

Nov. 

15 

.1106 

Jan. 

2 

Tin,  Straits,  Ib  

1.03 

June 

1 

.94 

Jan. 

2 

Textiles 

Cotton,  mid.,  *  <K  e  *,  Ib. 

.3963 

Apr. 

21 

.3152 

Aug. 

23 

Printcloths,  64/60, 

38**,  yd  

.27 

Jan. 

2 

.151 

Oct. 

28 

Miscellaneous 

Rubber,  No.  1  stand- 

ard rib  smoked 

sheets,  Ib  

.25 

July 

26 

.18 

Nov.  30 

Hides,  packers,  light, 

Ib  

.31* 

Jan. 

2 

.23 

Mar. 

12 

Hides,  butt  brand,  Ib.  . 

.29* 

Jan. 

21 

.20 

Mar. 

12 

Gas,  tank  wag.,  dir., 

gal  

.1360 

Dec. 

29 

.1330 

Jan. 

2 

Crude  oil,  Mid-Gout., 

33  to  33.9  gravity, 

barrel  

2.86 

Sep. 

28 

2.51 

Jan. 

2 

modity  prices  are  shown  in  Table  4. 

The  range  of  commodity  prices  in  1948  in  the 
New  York  market  (unless  otherwise  noted)  is 
given  in  Table  5. 


BUSINESS  REVIEW 


91 


CALIFORNIA 


Corporation  Profits.  Profits  of  business  corporations 
showed  a  substantial  increase  in  1948  over  the 
previous  record  total  registered  in  1947.  Profits 
after  taxes  were  estimated  at  about  $21,000  mil- 
lion as  against  $18,000  million  the  year  before.  In 
the  first  nine  months  of  1948  corporate  profits  after 
taxes  represented  16.6  percent  of  income  originat- 
ing in  corporate  business,  which  measures  the  net 
contribution  of  private  corporations  to  the  total 
national  output.  This  ratio  was  somewhat  higher 
than  in  1947  and  a  larger  percentage  than  in  any 
year  except  1929.  The  ratio  of  profits  to  sales  was 
around  5  percent  Compensation  of  employees 
amounted  to  74.5  percent  of  income  originating  in 
corporate  business  as  against  76.5  percent  in  the 
previous  year. 


BILUONS  OF  DOLLARS 
40 


BJLUONS  OP 


1939 


'43 


1946          1947          1948 

CORPORATE  PROFITS 


According  to  a  compilation  of  the  National  City 
Bank,  net  income  of  400  large  corporations,  with 
an  aggregate  net  worth  of  $20,000  million,  snowed 
a  gain  in  the  first  three  quarters  of  1948  of  31  per- 
cent over  the  same  period  of  1947.  Return  on  net 
worth  of  these  companies  amounted  to  18.7  per- 
cent as  against  16.0  percent  the  previous  year. 

TABLE  6— NET  INCOME  OF  400  LEADING  CORPO- 
RATIONS FOR  THE  FIRST  NINE  MONTHS 
(in  millions  of  dollars) 


Net  income 

%  Annual  return 
on  net  worth 

nine  months 

nine  months 

Industrial  groups 

1947 

1&4S 

1947 

1948 

Food  products 

$    116.0 

$    107.0 

20.1 

16.8 

Textiles  and  apparel  .... 

65.9 

77.8 

21.7 

22.5 

Pulp  and  paper  products 
Chemicals,  drugs,  etc  

62.3 
277.2 

65.4 
320.7 

26.9 
17.0 

23.0 
16.9 

Petroleum  products 
Cement,  glass,  and  stone. 

410.8 
51.8 

718.5 
69.5 

14.1 
18.3 

21.3 
20.8 

Iron  and  steel  

289.5 

346.7 

11.1 

12.6 

Electrical  equip,  and 

radio                

129.9 

154.2 

18.4 

19.5 

38.8 

42.8 

16.0 

16.2 

Office  equipment    .    ... 

46.7 

53.8 

25.3 

25.4 

Autos  and  trucks      .... 

238.2 

356.6 

19.3 

26.1 

Automobile  parts            » 

46.3 

52.0 

20.5 

20.1 

Other  metal  products.  .  . 

131.1 

149.4 

16.9 

17.4 

IVTiscGllanGous  mfs 

88.6 

95.3 

17.7 

17.0 

Total  manufacturing  .  .  . 

1,993.1 

2,609.7 

16.1 

18.7 

Mining  and  quarrying.  .  . 
Trade  (retail  and  whol.)  . 

87.0 
29.0 

124.8 
31.9 

17.0 
13.5 

21.7 
13.7 

Service  industries  

12.7 

13.7 

11.2 

11.7 

Total  

16.0 

18.7 

$2,121.8 

82,780.1 

Especially  large  increases  were  recorded  in  the 
petroleum,  chemical,  textile,  building  materials, 
steel,  automobile  and  electrical  equipment  indus- 
tries. The  profits  and  return  on  net  worth  of  the 


enterprises  included  in  the  calculation  are  shown 
in  Table  6  below. 

Foreign  Trade.  An  outstanding  feature  of  United 
States  foreign  trade  in  1948  was  the  narrowing  gap 
between  exports  and  imports  due  to  the  decline  of 
the  former  and  tibe  substantial  increase  in  the  lat- 
ter. During  the  calendar  year  of  1948,  shipments  of 
American  goods,  totaling  $12,614  million,  were 
18  percent  smaller  than  the  record  volume  of 
1947,  while  imports,  reaching  a  record  high  of 
$7,070  million,  were  23  percent  above  the  1947 
level.  The  deficit  of  foreign  nations  in  their  trade 
with  the  United  States  was  reduced  to  less  than 
$5;600  million  for  the  year  as  compared  with  $9,- 
600  million  the  year  before.  This  trend  was  due,  on 
the  one  hand,  to  partial  recovery  abroad,  which 
made  possible  an  expansion  of  exports,  and,  on  the 
other,  to  numerous  exchange  and  import  restric- 
tions imposed  by  foreign  countries  in  order  to  re- 
duce the  large  deficit  in  their  balance  of  payments 
with  the  United  States. 

The  gap  between  imports  from  and  exports  to 
this  country  was  made  up  in  part  by  gold  ship- 
ments to  the  United  States,  which  totaled  approxi- 
mately §1,500  million  during  the  year,  but  mainly 
through  American  loans  and  grants  under  the 
European  Recovery  Program  (ERP)  and  special 
arrangements.  The  largest  declines  in  foreign  pur- 
chases here  were  in  consumer  goods,  while  special 
efforts  were  made  to  maintain  the  high  level  of 
imports  of  industrial  and  agricultural  machinery, 
fuel  and  raw  materials. 

Shipments  to  virtually  all  the  major  trading  areas 
declined  substantially  from  the  1947  level,  with 
the  steepest  drop  recorded  in  the  case  of  Eastern 
European  countries  due  largely  to  the  tightening  of 
export  controls  after  Mar.  1,  1948.  Agreements 
were  concluded  with  a  number  of  nations  provid- 
ing for  mutual  tariff  reductions  under  the  Trade 
Agreements  Program,  which  was  extended  for  one 
year  by  the  80th  Congress  of  the  United  States. 
— SAMUEL  S.  SHIPMAN 

CALIFORNIA.  A  Pacific  State.  Area:  158,693  sq.  mi. 
Population:  (July  1,  1948)  10,031,000,  compared 
with  (1940  census)  6,907,387.  Chief  cities:  Sacra- 
mento (capital),  105,958  inhabitants  in  1940;  Los 
Angeles,  1,504,277.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION, 
MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS,  etc. 

legislation.  The  California  Legislature  convened 
in  its  first  annual  budget  session  March  1  and  ad- 
journed March  27  after  considering  a  record  budget 
for  the  ensuing  year  of  $919,943,000.  Included  in 
appropriations  was  $50,000,000  from  the  general 
fund  for  additional  school  buildings  in  needy  school 
districts.  The  automobile  tax  of  1%  percent  of  value 
was  raised  to  2  percent,  the  proceeds  to  be  distrib- 
uted among  cities  and  counties  of  the  State. 

Other  enactments  included  establishment  of  day- 
light saving  time  for  one  year  to  saye  power  and 
water;  a  law  to  protect  the  public  from  financially 
irresponsible  motorists;  and  provision  for  addition- 
al child  care  and  migratory  farm  labor  facilities.  In 
the  November  election,  the  people  adopted  a  pro- 
posal designating  the  lieutenant  governor-elect  as 
successor  to  the  governor-elect  in  case  of  death  or 
disability. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $860,576,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $691,699,000. 

Elections.  Truman  carried  the  State  and  won  the 
25  electoral  votes  in  a  close  contest  with  Dewey, 
Running  behind  his  expected  strength,  Wallace  re- 
ceived less  than  five  percent  of  the  popular  vote. 


CAMERQQNS 

There  were  no  Statewide  races  for  Senatorial  or 
State  office.  In  contests  for  House  seats,  Democrats 
won  10  and  Republicans  13,  a  gain  of  one  for  the 
Democrats.  The  California  first  and  tenth  Congres- 
sional districts  were  the  only  ones  in  the  country 
in  1948  in  which  incumbent  Democrats  were  re- 
placed by  Republicans. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Earl  Warren;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Goodwin  J.  Knight;  Secretary  of  State, 
Frank  M.  Jordan;  Attorney  General,  Fred  N.  How- 
ser;  State  Treasurer,  Charles  G.  Johnson;  State 
Controller,  Thomas  H.  Kuchel;  Director  of  Fi- 
nance, James  S.  Dean. 

CAMEROON*,  British.  A  United  Nations  Trust  Terri- 
tory in  British  West  Africa,  administered  by  Great 
Britain.  Area:  34,081  square  miles.  Population 
(1944  est)  925,800.  On  lowland  plantations,  palm 
kernels,  cacao,  rubber,  fruits,  and  nuts  are  grown. 
Uplands  produce  mahogany  and  other  timber.  For- 
eign Trade  (1946);  imports  £112,729;  exports 
317,321.  Principal  exports  were  4,583  tons  of  ba- 
nanas, 1,597  tons  of  cocoa,  and  601  tons  of  palm 
kernels.  Finance  (1945-46  est.):  revenue  £35,- 
551;  expenditure  £201,230.  The  Trust  Territory  is 
administered  as  a  part  of  Nigeria. 

CAMEROONS,  French.  A  Trust  Territory  of  the  Unit- 
ed Nations  in  western  Africa,  administered  by 
France.  Area:  166,489  square  miles.  Native  popu- 
lation (1946):  2,816,000;  European  3,981,  of 
whom  2,848  were  French.  Capital:  Yaounde  (1946 
pop.  50,000).  Education  (1945):  313  schools  with 
43,023  pupils.  Livestock  (Jan.  1,  1946):  1  million 
oxen  and  25,000  asses.  Trade  (1946):  imports 
1,005  million  francs;  exports  1,005  million  francs. 
The  principal  exports  were:  cocoa  (33,196  tons); 
palm  kernels  (26,199  tons);  timber  (42,831  tons); 
coffee  (5,898  tons);  bananas  (4,378  tons);  and 
rubber  (3,987  tons). 

Government.  General  budget  estimates  (1944): 
revenue  349,942,000  francs;  expenditure  288,677,- 
000  francs  (franc  averaged  U.S.$0.0084  in  1946- 
47).  A  High  Commissioner  assisted  by  an  elected 
representative  Assembly  heads  the  administration. 
The  Territory  is  represented  by  2  deputies  in  the 
National  Assembly,  3  councilors  in  the  Council  of 
the  Republic,  and  5  delegates  in  the  French  Union. 
High  Commissioner:  Rene  Hoffherr, 

CANADA.  A  Dominion  *of  the  British  Common- 
wealth of  Nations,  comprising  nine  provinces  and 
two  territories.  ( See  separate  articles  on  the  prov- 
inces and  territories.)  Capital:  Ottawa. 

Area  and  Population.  The  total  land  area  of  Can- 
ada amounts  to  3,462,103  square  miles.  In  the 


Provinces  and  Land  area 

Territories  sq.  miles 

Prince  Edward  Island ...  2,184 

Nova  Scotia 20,743 

New  Brunswick 27,473 

Quebec 523,860 

Ontario 363,282 

Manitoba 219,723 

Saskatchewan 237,975 

Alberta 248,800 

British  Columbia 359,279 

Yukon  Territory 205,346 

Northwest  Territories ....  1,253,438 


Population 

1941  1948  est. 

95,047  93,000 
635,000 
503,000 


577,962 

457,401 

3,331,882   3,792;000 
3,787,655   4,297,000 

729,744    

895,992 

796,169 

817,861 
4,914 


12,028 


757,000 
854,000 
846,000 
1,082,000 
8,000 
16,000 


Canada 3,462,103   11,506,655  12,883,000 

accompanying  table  are  shown  the  land  areas  and 
the  populations  (1941  census  and  1948  estimate), 
by  provinces  and  territories,  together  with  the  to- 
tals for  Canada. 
Chief   cities    (pop.,    1941    census):    Montreal 


92  CANADA 

(without  suburbs),  903,007;  Toronto,  667,457; 
Vancouver,  275,353;  Winnipeg,  221,960;  Hamil- 
ton, 166,367;  Ottawa  (capital),  154,951;  Quebec, 
150,757;  Windsor,  105,311.  Immigration,  June  1, 
1947,  to  June  1,  1948,  90,000.  Of  the  white  pop- 
ulation in  1941,  5,715,904  were  of  British  origin 
(English  2,968,402,  Scottish  1,403,974,  Irish 
1,267,702,  other  75,826)  and  3,483,038  of  French 
origin. 

Education  and  Religion.  Elementary  and  secondary 
education  is  almost  entirely  state-controlled  in  all 
provinces  except  Quebec,  where  most  schools  are 
sectarian,  Canada  has  6  state  universities  and  12 
independent  universities.  School  enrollment  in 
1945:  provincial-controlled  schools,  2,130,175; 
privately-controlled  schools,  130,594;  universities 
and  colleges,  110,892;  Dominion  Indian  schools 
(1946),  18,805. 

The  principal  religious  groups  in  Canada  at  the 
1941  census  were:  Roman  Catholics,  4,800,895; 
United  Church,  2,204,875;  Anglicans,  1,751,188; 
Presbyterians,  829,147;  Baptists,  483,592,  and  Lu- 
therans, 401,153. 

Production.  Manufacturing  had  the  major  place 
in  the  economy  of  Canada,  with  a  gross  value  of 
products  of  more  than  $8,000  million.  Iron  and 
its  products  led  the  list,  with  vegetable  products 
second,  and  wood  and  paper  products  third.  Index 
of  industrial  activity  in  August  (1937  =  100)  was 
152.  Index  of  industrial  employment  in  October 
(1926  =  100),  202.6. 

Final  estimates  (Nov.  1948)  for  grain  produc- 
tion: wheat,  393,300,000  bu;  oats,  357,703,000 
bu.;  barley,  154,603,000  bu.  Index  of  farm  pur- 
chasing power,  June  1, 1947— June  1, 1948  ( 1935- 
39  =  100),  205.  Leading  minerals:  gold,  copper, 
nickel,  lead,  zinc,  asbestos. 

Foreign  Trade.  The  1947  figures  for  foreign  trade 
were  as  follows:  total,  $5,385,700,000  (highest  on 
record);  imports  $2,580,000,000;  exports,  $2,808,- 
000,000.  Favorable  balance,  all  countries,  $237,- 
000,000;  debit  balance  with  the  United  States, 
$918,100,000;  favorable  balance  with  the  United 
Kingdom,  $564,000,000;  principal  export,  wheat 
and  flour.  In  September,  1948,  trade  was  running 
above  the  1947  figure  and  the  deficit  with  the 
United  States  was  diminishing. 

Transportation.  Total  single-track  mileage  (1946), 
42,335;  air  passengers  carried,  508,907.  Seagoing 
vessels  entering  Canadian  ports  in  1946,  30,367,- 
000  tons;  coastal  vessels,  745,559,014  tons. 

Finance.  The  fiscal  year  ending  Mar.  31,  1948 
showed  a  surplus  of  $670,000,000,  Total  revenues 
for  1948-49  were  estimated  at  $2,644,000,000, 
with  a  surplus  of  $489,000,000  over  estimated  ex- 
penditures. The  gross  unmatured  funded  debt  on 
Mar.  31,  1948,  was  $15,957,381,000. 

Government.  Executive  power  is  exercised  in  the 
King's  name  by  the  Governor  General  of  Canada, 
acting  through  a  responsible  ministry.  Legislative 
power  rests  in  a  Parliament  of  two  houses;  a  Sen- 
ate of  96  members  appointed  for  life  by  the  Gov- 
ernor General  on  advice  of  the  Cabinet,  and  a 
House  of  Commons  of  245  members  elected  for 
five  years  (unless  the  Government  is  dissolved 
earlier)  by  popular  universal  suffrage.  The  nine 
Provinces  have  a  large  measure  of  local  autonomy, 
with  a  separate  parliament  and  administration  for 
each.  Governor  General  in  1948,  Viscount  Alex- 
ander (installed  Apr.  12,  1946).  Party  in  power, 
Liberal.  Prime  Minister  (to  Nov.  15,  1948),  Wil- 
liam L.  MacKenzie  King;  (after  Nov.  15),  Louis 
St.  Laurent.  Secretary  of  State  for  External  Affairs 
(to  Sept.  10),  Louis  St.  Laurent;  (after  Sept  10), 
Lester  B.  Pearson. 


CANADA 


93  CANADA 


Events,  1948.  William  Lyon  MacKenzie  Xing, 
Liberal  Prime  Minister  of  Canada  1921-26;  1926- 
30;  1935-1948,  who  Bad  served  his  country  under 
Queen  Victoria  and  four  kings,  gave  up  his  post  to 
Liberal  Leader  Louis  St.  Laurent  on  November  15. 
King  announced  in  the  spring  that  his  office  was 
soon  to  be  surrendered.  It  was  obvious  that  the 
73-year-old  Prime  Minister  felt  the  effects  of  the 
strenuous  years,  but  he  was  in  good  health  when 
he  reached  Paris  on  September  20  for  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  United  Nations. 

When  King  went  to  London  for  the  meeting  of 
Dominion  Prime  Ministers  on  October  11—22,  he 
became  too  ill  to  attend,  and  St.  Laurent,  Acting 
Prime  Minister,  left  Ottawa  for  London  at  once  to 
serve  as  King's  deputy.  King  received  the  various 
Prime  Ministers  in  his  hotel  suite  while  the  con- 
ference was  in  session,  and  on  October  25  the  Earl 
of  Athlone,  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Lon- 
don, went  to  his  suite  to  award  him  the  University's 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws.  King  returned  to  Ottawa 
on  November  7  with  St.  Laurent,  improved  in 
health  and  ready  for  the  surrender  of  the  premier- 
ship to  his  Liberal  colleague  and  deputy  a  few  days 
later. 

Canada  Abroad.  Canada  was  active  in  the  confer- 
ence of  Dominion  Prime  Ministers,  although  the 
MacKenzie  King  tradition  was  one  of  extremely 
loose  Commonwealth  bonds.  St.  Laurent  was  one 
of  the  three  heads  of  the  old  Dominions  ( Canada, 
Australia,  and  New  Zealand)  who  invited  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Irish  Government  to  come  to 
Chequers  on  October  17  to  discuss  the  details  of 
Eire's  contemplated  severance  of  Commonwealth 
ties. 

Canadian  Transport  Minister  Chevrier,  leader  of 
the  Canadian  delegation  to  the  UN  General  As- 
sembly in  the  autumn,  was  one  of  the  more  out- 
spoken critics  of  Soviet  policy  with  respect  to  the 
Berlin  crisis.  On  November  11  he  spoke  of  the  So- 
viet Government  as  "deliberately  ^twisting  facts" 
and  "adding  fuel  to  the  flame/'  Canada  itself,  eager 
to  be  enrolled  on  the  side  of  peace,  on  Novem- 
ber 15  offered  the  Security  Council,  through  Gen- 
eral A.  G.  L.  McNaughton,  a  plan  for  an  armistice 
and  negotiated  peace  in  Palestine. 

John  Erskine  Read  was  elected  one  of  the  judges 
on  the  International  Court  of  Justice  by  the  Se- 
curity Council  and  the  General  Assembly  in  Oc- 
tober. Ambassador  Dana  Wilgress  was  elected 
chairman  at  the  meeting  of  the  countries  partici- 
pating in  the  Geneva  Agreement  on  Tariffs  and 
Trade  in  the  session  of  August  17  at  Geneva,  Switz- 
erland. 

Relations  with  Britain.  Canadian-British  conversa- 
tions in  1948  were  largely  concerned  with  the  trade 
problem.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  Anglo- 
Canadian  trade  agreement  of  1947  went  into  effect, 
with  the  wheat  agreement  continued  and  Britain 
paying  higher  prices  for  Canadian  bacon,  beef, 
cheese,  and  eggs.  The  resulting  deficit  was  met 
partly  by  drawing  on  the  Canadian  credit  to  Brit- 
ain and  partly  by  paying  Canada  in  American  dol- 
lars, of  which  there  was  at  the  opening  of  the  year 
an  acute  shortage. 

Although  Britain  agreed  to  take  all  Canada's  sur- 
plus of  the  four  agricultural  commodities  for  1949, 
the  terms  of  payment  were  arranged  only  for  three 
months  ahead.  By  the  middle  of  March  Canada 
heard  with  some  dismay  British  Minister  of  Food 
Strachey's  statement  that  Britain  could  'not  con- 
tinue the  existing  rate  of  spending  on  Canadian 
food.  The  second  year  of  sales  of  Canadian  wheat 
to  Britain  under  the  Anglo-Canadian  wheat  ag;ree- 
ment  passed  satisfactorily,  however,  and  British 


Food  Minister  Strachey  told  the  press  that  Canada 
would  remain  the  chief  wheat  supplier  in  1948  and 
1949. 

There  was  no  doubt  that  financial  and  economic 
relations  between  the  two  countries  were  deterio- 
rating as  the  summer  passed.  Sir  Stafford  Cripps, 
British  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  left  London 
on  September  19  with  a  party  of  experts  from  the 
Treasury  and  the  Board  of  Trade  on  a  mission  to 
Ottawa.  Two  days  later  the  talks  were  opened  with 
a  Cabinet  committee  consisting  of  Acting  Prime 
Minister  St.  Laurent,  Minister  of  Trade  and  Com- 
merce Howe,  Minister  of  Agriculture  Gardiner, 
Secretary  of  State  for  External  Affairs  Pearson,  and 
Minister  of  National  Revenue  McCann. 

By  September  24  the  talks  were  over.  The  official 
statement  said  that  a  continuing  committee  of  rep- 
resentatives of  the  two  countries  would  be  set  up 
to  meet  regularly  in  Ottawa  and  London  for  the 
full  exchange  of  information.  Canadians  hoped  that 
the  further  statement  that  both  governments  would 
do  everything  possible  to  avoid  any  sudden  change 
in  the  pattern  of  trade  meant  that  there  would  be 
no  further  sudden  cancellations  of  contracts  such 
as  the  British  found  necessary  when  their  dollar 
position  grew  worse.  Sir  Stafford  said  repeatedly 
that  food  contracts  between  Canada  and  Britain 
would  not  be  affected  immediately,  but  he  ad- 
mitted that  ultimately  a  reduction  in  the  amount 
of  food  bought  by  Britain  from  Canada  would  be 
unavoidable. 

Relations  with  the  United  States.  Canadian  discus- 
sions with  the  United  States  centered  on  the  dollar 
shortage  and  on  defense.  Canada  entered  the  year 
with  the  most  acute  shortage  of  American  dollars 
in  its  history  and  fresh  limitations  on  the  importa- 
tion of  American  goods  except  for  industrial  neces- 
sities. On  January  6  Finance  Minister  Douglas  Ab- 
bott left  Ottawa  for  Washington  to  discuss  finan- 
cial matters  with  the  United  States  and  to  complete 
arrangements  for  an  Export-Import  Bank  credit  of 
$300,000,000  which  had  been  promised  by  the 
United  States  in  the  autumn. 

The  loan  agreement  was  signed  in  Washington 
on  January  8.  It  was  stipulated  in  the  agreement 
that  half  of  the  funds  were  to  go  for  the  purchase 
of  United  States  machinery  and  equipment  and  the 
other  half  for  essential  industrial  raw  materials.  By 
October  the  situation  was  improved,  and  Abbott 
announced  that  Canada  would  not  need  to  draw 
further  on  the  Export-Import  Bank  credit,  of  which 
only  $140,000,000  had  been  used.  By  this  time 
Canadian  foreign  exchange  reserves  had  reached 
$742,000,000,  as  compared  with  the  low  point  of 
$461,000,000  touched  in  December,  1947. 

Canada's  efforts  to  sell  more  in  the  United  States 
had  a  good  measure  of  success  in  1948,  but  the  bar- 
riers of  American  tariffs  and  subsidies  still  operated 
against  Canada.  Finance  Minister  Abbott  told  the 
New  England  Council  in  Boston  in  November  that 
unless  Canada's  annual  sales  of  about  $1,000  mil- 
lion to  the  United  States  could  be  brought  closer 
to  Canada's  annual  purchases  of  about  $2,000  mil- 
lion Canada  would  have  to  take  further  restrictive 
measures.  Nevertheless  American  pressure  forced 
Canada  to  stop  sales  of  potatoes  in  the  United 
States  after  the  end  of  November. 

Canadian-American  Defense.  Common  defense 
plans  were  pushed  in  the  last  part  of  the  year. 
American  Secretary  of  Defense  James  Forrestal  was 
in  Ottawa  on  August  16  for  a  meeting  with  the 
Defense  Committee  of  the  Canadian  Cabinet,  at 
which  Gen.  A.  G.  L.  McNaughton,  head  of  the 
Canadian-United  States  Joint  Defense  Committee, 
was  present.  Forrestal  and  Canadian  Defense  Min- 


CANADA 

ister  Brooke  Claxton  went  together  to  Ogdensburg 
on  August  17  to  commemorate  the  8-year-old 
Roosevelt-King  Ogdensburg  declaration  which 
brought  their  governments  into  a  permanent  joint 
defense  agreement. 

In  the  middle  of  November  Canadian  Minister 
of  Trade  and  Commerce  C.  D.  Howe  went  to 
Washington,  ostensibly  to  discuss  standardization 
in  arms,  a  "common  pattern"  in  aircraft,  and  Amer- 
ican orders  for  military  equipment  in  Canada.  It 
was  at  this  time  that  Canada,  the  United  States, 
and  Britain  signed  in  Washington  an  agreement  to 
standardize  the  threads  in  nuts,  bolts,  and  screws. 

Prime  Minister  St.  Laurent  was  known  to  be 
sympathetic  with  a  North  Atlantic  Defense  pact. 
A  Canadian  representative  was  present  when 
agreement  on  such  a  pact  was  reached  in  London 
on  November  19  by  delegates  of  the  five  Western 
Union  powers  and  the  United  States.  On  Novem- 
ber 25  Gen.  McNaughton,  Canada's  permanent 
delegate  to  the  UN  Security  Council  as  well  as 
head  of  the  Canadian-United  States  Joint  Defense 
Committee,  issued  a  29-page  statement  in  which 
he  said  that  Canada  gave  its  full  support  to  the 
idea  of  a  North  Atlantic  Alliance. 

The  Department  of  National  Defense  took  an 
unprecedented  step  on  November  25  in  announcing 
that  a  Canadian  naval  force  had  been  severely 
mauled  by  United  States  submarines  of  the  newest 
type,  during  a  two-day  test  at  sea.  There  was  no 
secrecy  about  the  holding  of  the  tests,  which  were 
announced  earlier  as  occurring  off  the  Nova  Scotia 
coast  on  November  17  and  18.  The  Defense  De- 

Eartment  announced  that  similar  tests  had  been 
eld  earlier  off  Newfoundland,  with  like  results. 
Canada's  existing  fleet  was  designed  almost  wholly 
for  escort  purposes. 

Canada  and  £CA.  In  June  Canada  became  the 
second-largest  supplier  of  goods  authorized  for 
purchase  under  the  Marshall  Plan.  Two  representa- 
tives of  the  Bank  of  Canada  and  an  official  of -the 
Department  of  External  Affairs  went  to  Washing- 
ton in  April  to  get  first-hand  information  about  the 
arrangements  then  in  progress.  Canadian  authori- 
zations included  wheat,  flour,  bacon,  cheese,  beef, 
lead,  copper,  aluminum,  zinc,  and  wood  pulp.  Ca- 
nadian authorizations  to  October  15  were  $327,- 
900,000. 

N&wfoundland's  Status.  In  the  autumn  steps  were 
taken  in  Ottawa  to  arrange  the  terms  of  Newfound- 
land's entry  into  the  Dominion  of  Canada  as  the 
tenth  province.  In  a  referendum  held  on  July  22  a 
majority  of  Newfoundland's  voters  preferred  entry 
into  the  Canadian  Confederation  to  the  alternative 
constitutional  choices.  On  October  6  the  New- 
foundland delegates  sent  to  Ottawa  to  perfect  the 
terms  of  union,  which  must  then  be  submitted  to 
the  Canadian  Parliament,  held  their  first  meeting 
with  the  Canadian  delegates,  to  which  they  were 
welcomed  by  Acting  Prime  Minister  St.  Laurent. 
At  this  time  Premier  Duplessis  of  Quebec  pro- 
tested, as  he  had  done  earlier,  against  the  inclu- 
sion of  Newfoundland  without  the  consent  of  the 
Province  of  Quebec.  Duplessis  criticized  the  finan- 
cial burdens  to  be  accepted  by  the  Dominion  Gov- 
ernment, and  emphasized  particularly  Quebec's 
dispute  with  Newfoundland  over  the  boundaries 
of  Labrador,  about  which  he  believed  that  Quebec 
could  sue. 

In  the  course  of  the  prolonged  discussions  at  Ot- 
tawa the  Newfoundland  representatives  appear  to 
have  asked  for  expenditures  for  services  which 
would  add  materially  to  the  Ottawa  Treasury's 
estimate  of  $15  million  as  the  net  cost  to  Canada. 
The  negotiations  were  secret,  however,  and  *  the 


94  CANADA 

public  was  told  little  about  the  "many  subjects" 
discussed. 

Party  Conventions.  After  the  end  in  midsummer  of 
one  of  the  less  eventful  sessions  of  Parliament,  two 
of  the  political  parties,  the  Liberals  and  the  Co- 
operative Commonwealth  Federation,  held  their 
respective  national  conventions.  Louis  St.  Laurent, 
at  that  time  Minister  for  External  Affairs,  won  the 
leadership  of  the  Liberal  Party  by  a  large  majority 
after  only  one  vote.  His  election  had  the  emphatic 
approval  of  the  outgoing  leader,  Prime  Minister 
King,  who  had  held  the  position  exactly  29  years. 
The  platform  adopted  by  the  Liberal  Party  was  in 
the  main  consistent  with  existing  Government 
policy. 

Later  in  August  the  CCF  (Co-operative  Com- 
monwealth Federation)  held  its  biennial  conven- 
tion in  Winnipeg.  The  delegates  had  sharp  differ- 
ences of  opinion  over  public  ownership,  particular- 
ly the  nationalizing  of  the  chartered  ( commercial ) 
banks,  but  in  the  end  banks,  railways,  coal,  pri- 
mary steel,  meat-packing,  farm  implement,  ferti- 
lizer, and  fuel  and  power  industries  were  included 
in  the  nationalization  program.  Former  leader  and 
Party  President  M.  J.  Colwell  was  given  a  further 
two-year  term. 

The  Progressive  Conservative  convention  was 
opened  in  Ottawa  on  September  30.  John  Bracken, 
retiring  leader,  was  succeeded  by  Premier  George 
Drew  of  Ontario,  whose  immediate  task  was  now 
to  resign  his  premiership  and  seek  a  seat  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  The  party  opposed  further 
centralization  in  Ottawa  and  supported  a  tolerant 
attitude  towards  responsible  business  enterprise. 
All  parties  were  actively  preparing  for  the  general 
election  due  within  a  few  months. 

Cabinet  changes  in  1948  included  the  appoint- 
ment in  September  of  Lester  B.  Pearson,  Ambassa- 
dor in  Washington  from  1945  to  1946,  as  Secretary 
of  State  for  External  Affairs  in  place  of  St.  Laurent, 
who  served  as  Acting  Prime  Minister  and  Minister 
of  Justice  for  two  months  before  he  replaced  King 
as  Prime  Minister  in  November;  Stuart  Garson,  for- 
mer premier  of  Manitoba,  as  Justice  Minister,  and 
Robert  Winters  of  Nova  Scotia  as  Minister  of  Re- 
construction and  Supply.  In  provincial  elections  the 
National  Union  Party  won  in  Quebec,  the  Liberal 
Party  in  New  Brunswick,  Social  Credit  in  Alberta, 
and  Progressive  Conservatives  in  the  province  of 
Ontario. 

Internal  Economy.  Price  ceilings  were  reimposed 
on  meat  and  butter  in  January,  after  the  public 
learned  the  news  of  the  higher  prices  to  be  paid 
by  Britain  for  Canadian  agricultural  products  and 
began  to  push  up  prices  accordingly.  Price  ceilings 
were  reimposed  on  bread  and  hard  wheat  flour  on 
August  19  at  the  levels  in  effect  July  31,  when 
domestic  wheat  was  raised  from  $1.55  to  $2  a 
bushel  and  a  Government  subsidy  of  45  cents  a 
bushel  was  announced  for  wheat  flour  in  order  to 
prevent  an  advance  in  the  price  of  bread.  On  Oc- 
tober 22  rent  ceilings  were  raised  but  the  controls 
were  extended. 

Improvement  in  the  supply  of  American-pro- 
duced consumer  goods  became  possible  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  year.  At  the  beginning  of  August  the 
25  percent  excise  tax  announced  late  in  1947  for 
electric  refrigerators,  vacuum  cleaners,  automo- 
biles, radios,  and  other  mechanical  products  was 
removed.  On  October  18  Finance  Minister  Abbott 
announced  a  seasonal  lifting  of  restrictions  on  the 
importation  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  because  of 
the  steady  improvement  of  the  situation  with  re- 
spect to  supplies  of  American  dollars.  By  Novem- 
ber 1  the  fruit  terminals  offered  a  welcome  sight 


CANADIAN  IJTEKATi/Rf 

to  Canadians,  and  fruit  and  vegetable  prices  were 
falling. 

Ontario's  power  shortage  became  critical  in  No- 
vember, and  morning  and  afternoon  blackouts  were 
ordered  in  order  to  save  electricity.  As  inconven- 
iences increased,  controversy  over  the  cause  of 
shortage  became  acrimonious.  Some  of  it  centered 
around  the  conspicuous  political  figure  of  George 
Drew,  former  premier  of  Ontario  and  new  leader 
of  the  Progressive  Conservatives.  Inactivity  with 
respect  to  power  was  alleged  by  his  opponents. 
The  September,  1948,  number  of  the  Canadian 
Statistical  Review,  published  by  the  Dominion  Bu- 
reau of  Statistics,  attributed  the  shortage  to  in- 
creased use  of  power  and  low  rainfall  in  1948. 

Immigration.  Canada's  immigration  plan,  which 
included  provision  for  displaced  persons,  was  con- 
tinued in  1948.  Resources  Minister  James  Glen  an- 
nounced in  March  that  the  plans  made  in  1948 
would  result  in  100,000  immigrants  for  Canada. 
British  immigrants  to  the  number  of  12,000  were 
expected  to  cross  on  the  austerity  liner  Aquitania, 
which  was  to  make  11  trips  for  that  purpose.  Neth- 
erlands lines  planned  to  bring  10,000  Dutch  farm- 
ers. One  thousand  displaced  persons  from  tempo- 
rary camps  in  Germany  sailed  in  April.  In  Sep- 
tember Humphrey  Mitchell,  Minister  of  Labor, 
informed  the  General  Council  of  the  International 
Refugee  Organization  at  Geneva  that  30,000  refu- 
gees and  displaced  persons  had  been  assimilated 
in  Canada  since  the  end  of  the  war. 

As  the  year  progressed  the  plans  broadened.  In 
September  Canada  placed  French  citizens  on  the 
same  footing  as  those  of  the  United  States  and  the 
favored  Empire  countries.  An  employment  service 
was  opened  in  London  to  advise  intending  immi- 
grants on  the  work  available  in  Canada  in  the  oc- 
cupations for  which  they  were  fitted. 

— ALZADA  COMSTOCK 

CANADIAN  LITERATURE  The  quantity  of  output  of 
Canadian  pubh'shing  houses  in  1948  was  well  up 
to  recent  levels  but  it  was  a  thin  year  for  both  fic- 
tion and  poetry  written  in  English,  though  several 
noteworthy  works  in  biography  and  history  ap- 
peared. By  comparison  the  novels  published  by 
French-language  writers  of  Quebec  province  stood 
out  more  prominently  than  usual.  Les  Plouffes,  a 
second  novel  by  Roger  Lemelin,  brought  new  lau- 
rels to  the  young  French-Canadian  whose  earlier 
work,  Au  pied  de  la  pente  douce  (1944),  now 
translated  into  English  as  The  Town  Below  was 
awarded  a  prize  by  the  Academie  Franchise  and 
earned  him  a  Guggenheim  Fellowship.  Les  Plouffes 
has  already  been  tentatively  hailed  by  literary  crit- 
ics of  Quebec  as  the  greatest  novel  in  French- 
Canadian  literature. 

Hugh  MacLennan,  one  of  Canada's  few  full-time 
professional  novelists,  chose  for  the  theme  of  his 
third  novel,  The  Precipice,  the  sharp  contrast  be- 
tween the  tempo  and  mores  of  New  York  City  and 
those  of  a  tranquil  Canadian  town  on  the  border 
of  Lake  Ontario.  This  novel  was  favorably  re- 
viewed by  several  American  critics.  Mazo^de  la 
Roche,  another  professional,  who  startled  the  Ca- 
nadian writing  world  in  1927  by  winning  the  At- 
lantic Monthly  prize  with  Jalna,  continued  the  long 
saga  of  the  Whiteoaks  family  with  Mary  Wakefield. 
Mprley  Callaghan,  a  Canadian  who  owes  some- 
thing to  the  Hemingway  tradition,  broke  a  long 
silence  with  The  Varsity  Story,  a  fictional  study 
of  the  University  of  Toronto. 

Philip  Child's  The  Village  of  Souls  is  a  tale  of 
New  France,  while  Olive  Knox  in  Red  River  Shad- 
ows again  exemplifies  the  preference  of  Canadian 


95  CANARY  ISLANDS 

novelists  for  historic  settings — her  romance  goes 
back  to  the  early  days  of  the  Selkirk  Settlement. 
The  Aging  Nymph  is  a  light-hearted  war  story  of 
the  Canadians  in  Italy:  the  author,  A.  J.  Elliott 
served  there  during  the  Second  Great  War  as  a 
member  of  the  Air  Force.  The  Rich  Man  by  Henry 
Kreisel  is  another  first  novel  and  has  its  setting  in 
Vienna.  Kreisel  is  a  refugee  from  the  Nazis  now 
on  the  staff  of  a  Canadian  prairie  university. 

In  poetry  there  were  several  collections  by  well- 
known  writers,  notably  The  Strait  of  Anian  by 
Earle  Bimey,  The  Rocking  Chair  and  Other  Poems 
by  A.  M.  Klein,  who  here  turns  aside  from  his 
self-avowed  Jewishness  to  picture  the  French- 
Canadian  scene,  and  All  Fools3  Day  and  Other 
Poems  by  Audrey  Alexandra  Brown.  A  new  voice 
is  that  of  Douglas  Le  Pan,  a  graduate  of  Oxford, 
whose  work  is  sometimes  in  the  vein  of  T.  S.  Eliot, 
and  whose  treatment  of  the  Canadian  scene  in 
The  Wounded  Prince  has  won  encomiums  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  best  biographies  were  of  non-Canadian  sub- 
jects, A  Study  of  Goethe  by  Barker  Fairley,  Mat- 
thew Arnold  by  E.  K.  Brown,  and  a  life  of  Rupert 
Brooke,  entitled  Red  Wine  of  Youth  by  the  novelist 
and  poet  Arthur  Stringer.  A  lively  memoir  of  the 
great  Canadian  editor,  /.  W.  Dafoe  was  written 
by  George  V.  Ferguson,  editor  of  the  Montreal 
Star.  Another  book  of  keen  interest  to  journalists 
was  (CP)  The  Story  of  The  Canadian  Press  by 
M.  E.  Nichols,  for  many  years  head  of  the  Van- 
couver Province. 

Vincent  Massey,  one-time  Canadian  Minister  to 
Washington  and  long  Canada's  High  Commissioner 
at  London,  explored  national  concepts  in  On 
Being  Canadian.  The  Owl  Pen  by  Kenneth  Wejls 
is  a  sort  of  Canadian  The  Egg  and  1.  Paul  Hiebert 
won  the  Stephen  Leacock  award  for  humor  with 
Sarah  Binks,  a  rich  satire  on  a  rural  songstress.  In 
the  first  volume  of  a  trilogy  to  be  known  as  Canada 
and  the  Second  Great  War  Col.  C.  P.  Stacey  pro- 
vided an  authentic  chronicle  of  Canada's  Army, 
1939-45.  Thomas  H.  Raddall,  Canada's  leading 
historical  novelist,  turned  to  straight  history  to 
write  Halifax,  Warden  of  the  North  in  anticipation 
of  the  bicentenary  of  the  founding  of  the  Nova 
Scotia  seaport  in  1749. 

French-Canadian  works  of  note,  in  addition  to 
Les  Plouffes,  included  Au  dela  des  Visages,  by 
Andre  Giroux,  a  philosophical  inquiry  into  murder; 
La  Minuit  by  Felix-Antoine  Savard,  a  poetic  idyll 
of  the  Tadoussac  country;  Circuit  29  by  Rene  Chi- 
coine,  one  of  the  rare  French-Canadian  incursions 
into  detective  fiction;  Les  Desirs  et  les  Jours  by 
Robert  Charbonneau,  a  book  of  poems;  and  Riva- 
ges  de  THomme  by  Alain  Grandbois.  Belles-lettres 
and  criticism  were  strongly  represented  by  works 
written  by  Roger  Duhamel  and  Jean  Bruchesi. 

Canadian  letters  suffered  a  severe  loss  on  Octo- 
ber 7th  in  the  death  of  Pelham  Edgar  (see  NE- 
CROLOGY), dean  of  Canadian  literary  critics. 

— WILFRID  EGGLESTON 

CANARY  ISLANDS.  An  archipelago  off  the  coast  of 
Rio  de  Oro  in  northwest  Africa,  comprising  two 
provinces  of  Spain:  (1)  Las  Palmas  (the  islands 
of  Gran  Canaria,  Lanzarote,  Fuerteventura,  and 
the  islets  of  Alegranza,  Roque  del  Este,  Roque  del 
Oeste,  Graciosa,  Montana  Clara,  and  Lobos),  area, 
1,565  square  miles;  population  (July  1,  1947),  375,- 
744;  capital,  Las  Palmas  (157,548  inhabitants)  on 
Gran  Canaria.  (2)  Santa  Cruz  de  Tenerife  (the 
islands  of  Tenerife,  Pahna,  Gomera,  and  Hierro), 
area,  1,329  square  miles;  population  (July  1,  1947), 
401,283;  capital,  Santa  Cruz  de  Tenerife  (79,928 


CANTON  ISLAND 


96 


CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENTS 


inhabitants).  Las  Palmas  is  an  important  shipping 
and  tourist  center.  Coffee,  corn,  millet,  sugar  cane, 
manioc,  fruits,  vegetables,  tobacco,  cotton,  indigo, 
and  castor  oil  are  produced. 

CANTON  ISLAND.  An  atoll  of  the  Phoenix  group  (3° 
to  5°S.  and  170°  to  175°W.)  in  the  central  Pacific, 
which  with  Enderbury  Island  of  the  same  group,  is 
under  the  joint  control  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  ( Anglo-U.S. A.  Pact  of  Aug.  10, 
1938,  and  Notes  of  Apr.  6,  1939).  Canton  is  29 
miles  in  circumference  and  has  a  land  mass  of 
from  50  to  600  yards  wide  which  encloses  a  lagoon 
9  miles  in  diameter.  Enderbury  is  2.5  miles  long 
and  1  mile  wide.  Canton  is  an  important  port  of 
call  for  the  transpacific  air  service  between  Hono- 
lulu and  Auckland,  New  Zealand. 

CAPE  VERDE  ISLANDS.  A  dependency  of  Portugal, 
320  miles  west  of  Cape  Verde,  French  West  Africa. 
The  islands  comprise  the  Barlavento  (windward) 
group  (Sao  Vincente,  Santo  Antao,  Sao  Nicolau, 
Santa  Luzia,  Sal,  Boa  vista,  Branco,  and  Raso )  and 
the  Sotavento  (leeward)  group  (Santiago,  Maio, 
Fogo,  Brava,  Rei,  and  Rombo).  Total  area,  1,557 
square  miles;  population  (Dec.  1,  1940),  181,286. 
Capital,  Praia  (on  Santiago),  6,188  inhabitants. 
Porte  Grande,,  in  Sao  Vincente,  is  an  important 
fueling  station  for  ships.  The  chief  products  are 
castor  oil,  mustard,  coffee,  oranges,  salt,  brandy, 
and  hides.  Trade  (1945):  imports  149,546,000 
escudos;  exports  149,266,000  escudos.  Finance 
(1946  est.):  revenue  24,687,000  escudos;  expendi- 
ture 22,249,000  escudos.  Public  debt  in  1946  to- 
taled 5,220,000  escudos  (25.065  escudos  equals 
UJS.$). 

CARIBBEAN  COMMISSION.  The  President  on  Mar.  4, 
1948,  accepted  on  behalf  of  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment the  Agreement  for  the  Establishment  of 
the  Caribbean  Commission  pursuant  to  Public  Law 
43 1?  80th  Congress.  Ratification  by  the  four  mem- 
ber governments  (France,  the  Netherlands,  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  the  United  States )  was  com- 
pleted Aug.  6,  1948.  Thus,  the  Caribbean  Com- 
mission was  formally  established  as  an  advisory 
and  consultative  body  on  common  social  and  eco- 
nomic matters  to  the  four  member  governments 
and  the  15  non-self-governing  territories  of  the 
Caribbean  under  their  administration.  Approxi- 
mately 5.5  million  people  live  in  the  region  covered 
by  the  Commission's  activities:  Martinique,  Guade- 
loupe, French  Guiana  (France);  Curacao,  Aruba, 
Surinam  (Netherlands);  Bahamas,  Barbados,  Brit- 
ish Guiana,  British  Honduras,  Jamaica,  Leeward 
Islands,  Trinidad,  Windward  Islands  (United  King- 
dom); Puerto  Rico,  Virgin  Islands  (United  States). 

The  16-member  Commission  is  assisted  by  two 
auxiliary  bodies:  the  Caribbean  Research  Council 
and  the  West  Indian  Conference.  The  Central  Sec- 
retariat, located  at  Port-of-Spain,  Trinidad,  con- 
tinued to  service  the  Commission  and  its  auxiliary 
bodies.  The  Commission  held  two  meetings  during 
the  year — the  Sixth  at  San  Juan,  Puerto  Rico  and 
the  Seventh  at  Guadeloupe. 

Its  major  undertaking  in  1948  was  the  comple- 
tion of  the  first  comprehensive  survey  of  existing 
and  potential  industries  which  has  been  made  on 
a  region- wide  basis.  A  panel  of  four  experts  (one 
from  each  National  Section)  collected  basic  factual 
data  on  industries,  including  such  items  as  produc- 
tion records;  kind  and  source  of  raw  materials;  fi- 
nancial procedures;  availability  of  fuel,  power,  la- 
bor, transportation,  markets;  and  communications. 

"Industrial  Development  and  Economic  Produc- 


tivity" formed  the  central  theme  of  the  Third  Ses- 
sion of  the  West  Indian  Conference  held  in  Guade- 
loupe, Dec.  1-14,  1948,  with  the  survey  as  the 
basis  of  discussion. 

The  Commission  inaugurated  two  devices  de- 
signed to  keep  Caribbean  peoples  currently  in- 
formed of  advancements  in  scientific,  technical, 
and  social  fields,  to  make  them  aware  of  the  simi- 
larity of  their  problems,  and  the  solutions  to  be 
found  by  coordinated  effort.  The  first  was  the  es- 
tablishment, during  1948,  of  a  Monthly  Bulletin 
published  in  the  four  languages  of  the  area.  It  is 
a  systematic  and  continuing  means  of  furnishing 
information  on  scientific,  educational,  social,  and 
economic  developments  in,  or  relating  to,  the  area. 
The  second  was  the  initiation  of  a  weekly  radio 
program  in  the  four  languages  of  tbe  area  to  supply 
news  on  current  social  and  economic  events.  The 
territorial  governments  furnish  time  on  the  air  and 
commentators,  free  of  charge;  the  Commission  is 
responsible  for  collecting  the  material,  and  for  the 
writing  and  editing  of  script. 

The  pressure  of  rapidly  growing  population  on 
limited  agricultural  resources  is  one  of  the  basic 
economic  problems  of  the  Caribbean  area.  The 
Commission  completed  a  preliminary  study  of  the 
movement  of  population  in  the  Caribbean,  includ- 
ing population  growth,  pressure,  and  major  migra- 
tory movements.  The  survey  will  enable  the  Com- 
mission to  ascertain  the  most  fruitful  line  of  fur- 
ther inquiry  and  coordinated  governmental  action 
through  the  agency  of  the  Commission. 

Realizing  that  the  basis  for  regional  action  in 
achieving  economic  development  depends  upon  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  what  research  and  research 
facilities  exist,  the  Commission  launched  upon  a 
survey  of  existing  research  institutions,  projects, 
and  personnel  in  the  area.  The  results  of  this  survey 
will  form  the  nucleus  of  a  permanent  and  active 
Research  Information  Service  to  be  maintained  by 
the  Central  Secretariat. 

The  Commission  established  a  statistical  unit  in 
the  Secretariat  to  collect,  collate,  analyze,  and  dis- 
tribute data  on  such  matters  as  trade,  population 
trends,  and  other  topics  of  general  utility  to  gov- 
ernments and  business  enterprises. 

Principal  publications  of  the  Commission  in  1948 
were:  Report  of  the  Caribbean  Commission  to  the 
Governments  of  the  French  Republic,  the  Kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands,  the  United  Kingdom,  the  Unit- 
ed States  of  America,  for  the  year  1947;  and  In- 
dustrial Development  of  Puerto  Rico  and  the  Vir- 
gin Islands  (Report  of  the  United  States  Section). 

The  Co-Chairmen  of  the  Commission  in  1948 
were  as  follows:  France — Pierre  Pelieu;  Nether- 
lands—Dr.  J.  C.  Kielstra;  United  Kingdom— Sir 
Hubert  Ranee  (succeeded  S.  A.  Hammond  who 
had  been  Acting  Co-Chairman ) ;  and  United  States 
— Ward  M.  Canaday  (appointed  to  fill  vacancy 
created  by  death  of  Charles  W.  Taussig. ) 

— FKANCES  MCREYNOLDS 

CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENTS.  Established  by  Andrew 
Carnegie  between  1896-1911,  the  organizations 
listed  below  are  devoted  to  the  furtherance  of 
peace,  education,  knowledge  and  research. 

Carnegie  Corporation  of  New  York.  Established  by 
Andrew  Carnegie  in  1911  for  the  advancement  and 
diffusion  of  knowledge  and  understanding  among 
the  people  of  the  United  States  and  the  British 
Dominions  and  Colonies,  this  Corporation  has  a 
basic  endowment  of  more  than  $135,000,000,  of 
which  $12,000,000  is  applicable  in  the  British  Do- 
minions and  Colonies.  Its  income  only  is  subject 
to  appropriation  by  the  Trustees. 


MARTIN    2-0-2    twin-engined    airliner,    built    by    the    Glenn    L   Martin    Company,   shown    on    one   of   its   test   flights. 


Courtesy  A.  V.  Roe  Canada  Limited 
JET  AIRLINER.  The  Avro  type  C.   102,  designed  and   built  by  A.  V.  Roe  Canada  Limited,  is  a  medium  range  transport. 


British  Information   Services 

HERMES,    built    by   Handley-Page   in   Great   Britain   for   use  by  British  airlines.  This   plane   has  a  wing-span   of    113 
feet,   a    length   of  81    feet  6   inches,   a   gross  weight   of  75,000    Ib.,  and   a   top   speed    of  355   miles   per   hour. 


CANADAIR  DC-4M-2, 
built  in  Canada  under 
license  from  Douglas, 
this  plane  is  powered 
with  four  Merlin  engines 
built  by  Rolls-Royce. 


Photograph  by 
Wan-en  P.  Shipp 


VAMPIRE,  the  de   Havilland   jet   driven    interceptor  fighter  (de  Havillcmd  Goblin  turbine)  can  speed  over  500  m.p.h. 


GLOSTER-METEOR  jet  aircraft  climbing  at  speed.  The  plane  Is  fitted  with  two  Beryl  turbojets,  made  by  Metropolitan  Vicken 


•1 


HANDLEY-PAGE  HASTINGS,  one  of  the  new   Royal  Air  Force  transport  aircraft,  on  its  way  to  join  the  Berlin  airlift. 


AIRLIFT.  German  work- 
men loading  a  Hastings 
plane  with  coal  to  be  flown 
into  Berlin  on  the  airlift. 

Photos  from  British 
Information  Services 


NORTHROP  F-86A  (above)  piloted  by  Major  R.  L  Johnson,  Sept.  15,  1948,  made  a  world  record  of  640.891    m.p.h. 
McDONNELL     XF-SS     twin-jet     penetration     fighter     (shown     below)    powered     by    two    axial-flow    turbojet    engines. 


U.S.A.F.  XH-15  two-place  liaison  helicopter,  designed  and  built   by   Bell   Aircraft   Corporation,  shown   on   a   test  flight. 


Official  U.S.  Navy  Photos 
CONSTITUTION,  the   new   92-ton,    180    passenger,   airliner  in   flight.    It  was  built  by   Lockheed   for  the   U.S.   Navy. 


SWEPT-WING  JET  PLANE,  a  U.S.  Navy  twin-jet  fighter  designed  for  carrier  operation,  capable  of   over  600   m.p.h. 


SKYROCKET,   the   U.S.   Navy's  lance-like   Douglas    built  aircraft   designed    to    explore    high    speeds   and    altitudes. 


CARNEGIE  ENDOWMENTS 

During  the  year  ended  Sept.  30,  1948,  the  Cor- 
poration appropriated  $8,850,000  for  other  Carne- 
gie agencies,  colleges  and  universities,  education 
in  international  affairs,  the  social  sciences,  the  ad- 
vancement of  teaching,  and  for  various  other  pur- 
poses. 

The  Trustees  of  the  Corporation  are:  Thomas  S. 
Arbuthnot,  W.  Randolph  Burgess,  Vannevar  Bush, 
Oliver  C.  Cannichael,  Charles  Doliard,  Morris 
Hadley,  Devereux  C.  Josephs,  Nicholas  Kelley, 
Russell  LeffingweU,  George  C.  Marshall,  Margaret 
Carnegie  Miller,  Frederick  Osbom,  Arthur  W. 
Page,  Elihu  Root,  Jr.,  and  Leroy  A.  Wilson. 

The  officers  of  administration  are:  President, 
Charles  Doliard;  Secretary,  Robert  M.  Lester; 
Treasurer,  C.  Herbert  Lee.  Office:  522  Fifth  Ave., 
New  York  18,  N.Y. 

Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace.  Found- 
ed by  Andrew  Carnegie  in  1910,  the  Endowment 
consists  of  a  trust  fund  of  $10,000,000,  the  revenue 
of  which  is  to  be  administered  to  hasten  the  aboli- 
tion of  international  war. 

A  special  library  containing  75,000  volumes  on 
all  aspects  of  public  international  relations  is  main- 
tained in  Washington.  During  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  80,  1948,  the  Endowment's  income  amounted 
to  $795,328,  which  included  grants  of  $61,362 
from  the  Carnegie  Corporation  of  New  York  and 
$3,850  from  the  Rockefeller  Foundation.  During 
this  period  the  Endowment  expended  $508,543 
which  included  expenditures  from  balances  brought 
forward  from  previous  years. 

Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees^  John  Foster 
Dulles;  Vice-Chairman,  John  W.  Davis;  President, 
Alger  Hiss  (on  leave);  Acting  President,  James 
T.  Shotwell.  President's  office:  522  Fifth  Ave., 
New  York  18,  N.Y.  Administrative  office:  405 
West  117th  St.,  New  York  27,  N.Y.  Washing- 
ton Branch:  700  Jackson  Place  NW,  Washington  6, 
D.C.  Paris  Branch:  173  Blvd.  Saint-Germain,  Paris 
VI.  The  28  Trustees  will  hold  their  annual  meeting 
in  New  York  City,  May  5,  1949,  and  their  semi- 
annual meeting,  Dec.  12,  1949,  in  New  York  City. 

Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teach- 
ing, The.  A  foundation  established  in  1905  by  An- 
drew Carnegie,  who  gave  an  endowment  of  $10,- 
000,000  for  paying  retiring  allowances  and  widows* 
pensions  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  and  New- 
foundland, and  for  various  other  purposes  in  the 
field  of  higher  education.  Incorporated  by  Act  of 
Congress  in  1906,  the  Foundation  received  a  fur- 
ther gift  of  $5,000,000  from  Mr.  Carnegie  and  ap- 
propriations totaling  $13,250,000  for  endowment 
and  reserves  from  Carnegie  Corporation  of  New 
York.  On  June  30,  1948,  its  resources  amounted  to 
$14,871,380.  In  1947-48,  it  disbursed  $1,869,843 
for  allowances  and  pensions.  It  awards  no  scholar- 
ships or  aid  of  any  kind.  The  Foundation's  Annual 
Reports  and  Bulletins  deal  with  many  phases  of 
higher  education.  In  1947  its  principal  activities 
concerned  the  educational  appraisal  of  individuals 
through  new-type  tests  and  testing,  particularly  at 
the  graduate  level,  and  assisting  in  improvement  of 
college  teaching  in  the  southern  area  through  lo- 
cally administered  programs  of  grants-in-aid. 
Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  Dr.  Frank  P. 
Graham;  Vice  Chairman,  Dr.  Robert  G.  Sproul; 
Secretary,  Dr.  James  B.  Conant.  President  of  the 
Foundation,  Oliver  C.  Cannichael;  Secretary  and 
Treasurer,  Howard  J.  Savage.  Offices:  522  Fifth 
Ave.,  New  York  18,  N.Y.  The  25  Trustees  will  hold 
their  44th  annual  meeting  on  Nov.  16,  1949, 

Carnegie  Hero  Fund.  A  Fund  established  in  1904 
by  Andrew  Carnegie  to  help  those  who  have  risked 
their  lives  to  an  extraordinary  degree  to  save  hu- 


97  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

man  life,  or  to  aid  dependents  of  rescuers  who  have 
lost  their  lives  in  the  performance  of  their  deeds. 
The  original  endowment  was  $5,000,000;  the 
amount  expended  to  Sept  30,  1948,  $7,075,458. 
Dr.  Thomas  S.  Arbuthnot,  President;  C.  B.  Eber- 
sol,  Assistant  Secretary  and  Manager.  Offices;  2307 
Oliver  Building,  Pittsburgh  22,  Pa. 

Carnegie  Institute.  This  institute,  founded  and 
endowed  by  Andrew  Carnegie  in  1896,  houses 
under  one  roof  the  central  branch  of  the  Carnegie 
Library  of  Pittsburgh,  with  special  departments 
covering  technology,  art,  and  music;  the  Depart- 
ment of  Fine  Arts,  with  a  representative  and  grow- 
ing collection  of  modern  painting  and  sculpture, 
and  with  the  distinction  of  having  had  the  only 
annual  international  exhibition  of  paintings  in  the 
world,  until  this  was  necessarily  suspended  by 
World  War  II;  the  Carnegie  Museum,  covering 
the  natural  sciences  and  applied  arts;  and  the 
Carnegie  Music  Hall,  where  from  October  to  July 
free  organ  recitals  are  given  twice  a  week.  The 
Carnegie  Institute  building,  a  modification  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance  style,  covers  about  four  acres-, 
and  stands  among  the  world's  great  works  of  ar- 
chitecture. Officers:  President,  James  M.  Bovard; 
Vice  President,  Roy  A.  Hunt;  Secretary,  Augustus 
K.  Oliver;  Treasurer,  Thomas  L.  Orr.  Headquar- 
ters: 4400  Forbes  St.,  Pittsburgh  13,  Pa. 

Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington.  An  organiza- 
tion founded  in  1902  by  Andrew  Carnegie  *to  en- 
courage in  the  broadest  and  most  liberal  manner 
investigation,  research,  and  discovery,  and  the  ap- 
plication of  knowledge  to  the  improvement  of  man- 
kind." Income  on  investments  for  the  year  1948 
amounted  approximately  to  $1,500,000. 

The  Institution  is  now  fully  engaged  in  the  con- 
duct of  programs  in  the  physical  sciences,  the  bio- 
logical sciences,  and  historical  research.  Reassess- 
ment of  objectives  in  the  several  divisions  and  de- 
partments was  made  at  the  end  of  the  war  period, 
during  which  the  entire  resources  of  the  Institution 
including  laboratory  facilities  and  personnel  had 
been  made  available  to  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment. From  this  reassessment  a  carefully  integrated 
program  of  investigation  has  resulted  and  is  being 
vigorously  pursued. 

Walter  S.  Gifford  is  Chairman  of  the  Board  of 
Trustees.  Other  Trustees  are:  James  F.  Bell,  Rob- 
ert Woods  Bliss,  Lindsay  Bradford,  Frederic  A. 
Delano,  Homer  L.  Ferguson,  W.  Cameron  Forbes, 
James  Forrestal,  Herbert  Hoover,  Frank  B.  Jewett, 
Ernest  O.  Lawrence,  Alfred  L,  Loomis,  Robert  A. 
Lovett,  Roswell  Miller,  Henry  S.  Morgan,  Seeley  G. 
Mudd,  William  L  Myers,  Henning  W.  Prentis,  Jr., 
Elihu  Root,  Jr.,  Henry  R.  Shepley,  Charles  P.  Taft, 
Juan  T.  Trippe,  James  W.  Wadsworth,  and  Lewis 
H.  Weed.  President:  Vannevar  Bush.  Headquar- 
ters: 1530  P  St.  NW,  Washington  5,  D.C, 

CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  The.  The 

Catholic  population  of  the  United  States,  Alaska, 
and  the  Hawaiian  Islands  numbered  26,075,697  in 
1948.  This  represented  an  increase  of  807,524  over 
last  year.  Comparisons  indicate  an  increase  of  1,277 
in  the  number  of  clergy,  bringing  the  total  of 
priests  to  an  all-time  high  in  the  United  States  of 
41,747.  Professed  religious  include  7,335  Brothers, 
an  increase  of  397,  and  141,083  Sisters,  an  increase 
of  520.  The  full-time  teaching  staffs  of  all  educa- 
tional institutions  under  Catholic  auspices  number 
101,944  which  includes  6,779  priests,  3,445  Broth- 
ers, 372  scholastics,  79,952  nuns  and  11,396  lay 
teachers,  an  increase  of  4,168  full-time  Catholic 
teachers  in  a  year.  There  are  61,131  nuns  engaged 
in  work  other  than  teaching. 


CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  98 

A  record  total  of  14,905  Catholic  parishes  are  op- 
erating in  the  United  States,  Alaska,  and  Hawaii. 
This  includes  14,015  parishes  with  resident  pastors, 
a  decrease  of  S3.  In  addition,  there  are  listed  5,617 
chapels,  4,942  missions,  and  1,705  stations  where 
Mass  is  Differed  more  or  less  regularly. 

Meeting  of  the  American  Hierarchy.  November  17 
to  19  were  the  dates  of  the  Annual  General  Meet- 
ing of  the  Cardinals,  Archbishops,  and  Bishops 
held  at  Catholic  University  and  attended  by  146 
members  of  the  hierarchy.  At  the  close  of  the 
Meeting,  the  Bishops  issued  a  statement  entitled 
"The  Christian  in  Action"  which  was  signed  in 
their  names  by  the  Administrative  Board  of  the  Na- 
tional Catholic  Welfare  Conference.  The  statement 
warning  against  the  "corrosive  influence"  of  sec- 
ularism in  every  phase  of  life  may  well  become  one 
of  the  best  known  messages  issued  by  the  members 
of  the  hierarchy  in  this  country. 

During  the  meeting,  the  Bishops  elected  the 
Archbishops  and  Bishops  to  serve  on  the  Admin- 
istrative Board  of  the  National  Catholic  Welfare 
Conference  for  the  year  1948—49.  Officers  subse- 
quently elected  are  as  follows:  Most  Rev.  John  T. 
McNicholas,  O.P.,  Archbishop  of  Cincinnati,  Chair- 
man of  the  Administrative  Board  and  episcopal 
chairman  of  the  Executive  Department;  Most  Rev. 
Francis  P.  Keough,  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  Vice 
Chairman  of  the  Administrative  Board  and  episco- 
pal chairman  of  the  Department  of  Education: 
Most  Rev.  John  Mark  Gannon,  Bishop  of  Erie, 
Treasurer  of  the  Administrative  Board;  and  Most 
Rev.  John  F.  Noll,  Bishop  of  Fort  Wayne,  Secre- 
tary of  the  Administrative  Board. 

Schools.  Despite  postwar  conditions,  11,239 
separate  educational  institutions  (an  increase  of 
100)  were  in  operation,  according  to  Catholic  Di- 
rectory reports.  The  total  includes  60  diocesan  sem- 
inaries, 278  universities  and  colleges  for  men  and 
women,  1,637  diocesan  and  parish  high  schools, 
795  private  high  schools,  7,724  elementary  parish 
schools,  and  524  private  elementary  schools.  There 
are  also  129  protective  institutions  with  14,580 
children  under  instruction. 

An  aggregate  of  4,138,695  American  youth  in  all 
grades  are  under  Catholic  instruction,  an  increase 
of  306,468  over  1947  statistics.  An  increase  of  114 
percent  in  two  years  in  enrollments  in  Catholic 
universities  and  colleges  was  reported.  The  enroll- 
ment jumped  from  175,120  in  1947  to  220,226  in 
1948 — a  numerical  increase  of  45,106.  This  shows 
that  Catholic  universities  and  colleges  have  more 
than  doubled  their  student  bodies  in  the  last  two 
years—from  102,655  to  220,226. 

War  Relief.  During  the  12-month  period  be- 
tween Oct.  1,  1947,  and  Sept.  30,  1948,  War 
Relief  Services-National  Catholic  Welfare  Confer- 
ence, the  foreign  relief  agency  established  by  the 
Administrative  Board  of  Bishops  in  the  early 
months  of  1943,  forwarded  to  countries  still  suffer- 
ing as  a  result  of  the  war  a  total  of  110,487,319  Ib. 
of  food,  clothing,  and  medicine  which  had  an  ap- 
proximate value  of  $15,793,000. 

The  shipments  completed  during  this  period 
brought  the  total  amount  of  relief  extended 
through  War  Relief  Services-N.C.W.C.  since  the 
inauguration  of  its  program  (through  Church  au- 
thorities in  the  war-stricken  countries)  to  approx- 
imately 252,728,000  Ib.  with  a  total  value  of  more 
than  $123,143,000.  This  vast  relief  program  was 
made  possible  by  the  success  of  the  Bishops*  Relief 
Campaign  which  was  held  in  all  the  dioceses  in 
the  United  States  during  1948,  beginning  on  Lae- 
tare  Sunday,  March  7,  as  well  as  from  various  gifts- 
in-kind  campaigns  conducted  during  the  year. 


CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Austria,  Germany,  Hungary,  Italy,  Poland,  and 
Rumania  proved  to  be  the  areas  of  most  critical 
need  in  Europe,  while  in  the  Far  East  the  greatest 
hardship  was  found  in  China  and  Japan. 

Displaced  Persons.  The  passage  of  the  Federal 
Displaced  Persons  Act  by  the  80th  Congress  of  the 
United  States  during  the  past  year  offered  further 
hope  toward  the  final  solution  of  the  displaced  per- 
sons problem.  Under  this  law,  205,000  of  the  near- 
ly 1  million  displaced  persons  who  are  still  living 
in  and  outside  the  camps  in  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Italy  will  have  an  opportunity  to  emigrate  to  the 
United  States.  A  vast  program  centering  around 
Diocesan  Resettlement  Committees  has  been  set 
up  in  the  dioceses  throughout  the  country.  The 
first  of  the  immigrants  coming  to  this  country  un- 
der this  law  have  already  been  assimilated. 

War  Relief  Services-N.C.W.C.,  in  cooperation 
with  the  Vatican  Migration  Bureau  of  the  Holy 
See,  is  continuing  to  assist  in  finding  resettlement 
opportunities  for  thousands  of  other  displaced  per- 
sons in  Canada,  Australia,  and  the  South  American 
countries.  It  has  been  necessary  also  to  maintain 
supplementary  feeding  programs  in  the  displaced 
persons  camps  to  assist  the  children  and  the  aged; 

Military  Personnel  and  Veterans  Services.  Suc- 
cessful development  of  its  peacetime  program  for 
military  personnel,  patients  in  Veterans  Admin- 
istration hospitals,  and  their  families,  has  placed 
the  National  Catholic  Community  Service  in  an 
excellent  position  for  whatever  expansion  of  serv- 
ices may  be  required.  An  outstanding  development 
in  the  past  year  has  been  the  expansion  of  NCCS 
program  for  VA  hospital  patients  on  a  national 
scale.  The  NCCS-VA  Hospital  Service  is  now 
available  in  45  cities  where  NCCS  representatives 
have  been  appointed.  Plans  call  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  an  NCCS— VA  hospital  committee  in  every 
VA  hospital  area  with  the  approval  of  the  Bishop  of 
the  local  diocese. 

The  Catholic  Press.  The  Catholic  publications  in 
the  United  States  increased  by  29  to  a  total  of  396 
over  a  two-year  period,  while  their  combined  circu- 
lations climbed  to  a  total  of  13,495,580.  The 
N.C.W.C.  News  Service,  serving  primarily  the 
Catholic  newspapers  and  magazines  in  the  United 
States,  gained  the  largest  increase  in  subscribers 
in  its  history  last  year.  The  News  Service  today  is 
serving  the  entire  Catholic  newspaper  press  of 
Germany,  China,  Japan,  the  Philippines,  and 
Switzerland  and  virtually  all  of  the  Catholic  news- 
paper press  of  France  and  Italy.  In  the  course  of 
the  year  the  News  Service  inaugurated  a  Portu- 
guese-language edition  which  is  presently  serving 
the  Catholic  press  of  Brazil.  The  News  Services' 
dispatches  now  go  to  subscribers  in  43  countries. 

Social  Action.  National  Catholic  activity  in  the 
field  of  social  action  is  indicated  in  the  following 
partial  report  from  the  N.C.W.C.  Social  Action  De- 
partment which  heads  up  this  work  for  the  Church 
in  the  United  States.  Besides  holding  conferences, 
writing,  arranging  for  pamphlets,  sending  a  news 
letter  to  priests,  attending  meetings,  keeping  per- 
sonal and  organizational  contacts,  staying  abreast 
of  facts  and  movements,  etc.,  the  N.C.W.C.  Social 
Action  Department  opposed  the  Taft-Hartley  law; 
favored  the  Housing  and  Labor  Education  bills 
and  an  improvement  of  the  wages-hours  law;  ad- 
vocated better  State  laws  and  business-labor-farm- 
er-government cooperation  for  social  justice;  held 
institutes  for  priests,  working  women,  leaders  of 
women's  groups,  etc.;  worked  closely  with  diocesan 
groups  of  priests  and  labor  schools.  Other  activities 
carried  on  were  interracial  work,  international 
peace,  inter- American  organization  work,  etc. 


C0NSUS 


99 


CERAMICS 


Activities  of  lay  Organizations.  During  the  year 
tlie  administration  of  the  National  Council  of  Cath- 
olic Men  was  reorganized  and  emphasis  placed  on 
diocesan  organizational  development.  James  S. 
Mitchell,  formerly  Executive  Director  of  the  Na- 
tional Catholic  Community  Service,  was  made  Ex- 
ecutive Secretary  in  February,  1948.  Emmet  A. 
Blaes,  Wichita,  Kans.,  on  June  1  succeeded  John  W. 
Babcock,  Detroit,  Mich.,  as  National  President. 

The  three  nation-wide  radio  network  programs 
produced  by  N.C.C.M.  were  continued  without  in- 
terruption. In  addition  arrangements  were  made  for 
a  monthly  television  program  in  New  York  inau- 
gurated in  July,  1948. 

The  continued  growth  of  the  National  Council 
of  Catholic  Women  is  evidenced  in  the  80  percent 
increase  of  new  affiliations  over  the  year  before, 
bringing  the  federation  which  now  includes  76 
diocesan  councils  and  19  national  organizations  to 
a  total  of  5,324  local  affiliated  groups  representing 
more  than  5  million  Catholic  women  in  the  United 
States. 

Channeling  information  and  services  to  affiliates 
through  its  National  Committee  system,  the 
N.C.C.W.  found  its  chief  activity  this  year  in  the 
fields  of  social  action,  international  and  inter-Amer- 
ican relations,  family  and  parent  education,  arid 
war  relief.  It  had  a  continuing  representation  at 
meetings  of  3  international  and  18  national  agen- 
cies, governmental  and  other,  of  which  3  are  Cath- 
olic and  18  secular,  and  in  its  function  as  repre- 
sentative of  United  States  Catholic  women  on 
matters  of  national  and  international  concern,  espe- 
cially in  above-named  fields. 

— HENRY  P.  LEFEBUEE 

CENSUS,  Bureau  of  the.  A  branch  of  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  which  serves  as  the  major  fact- 
finding  and  statistical  service  agency  for  the  Gov- 
ernment. It  conducts  the  Decennial  Census  and 
other  censuses,  and  also  collects  and  publishes  cur- 
rent information  on  the  characteristics  and  activi- 
ties of  the  people  of  the  United  States  in  the  fields 
of  population,  housing,  agriculture,  manufactures, 
business,  mineral  industries,  State  and  local  govern- 
ments, and  other  subjects.  Director:  J.  C.  Capt. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA.  A  geographical  region  in  the 
Americas,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Mexico  and  on 
the  south  by  Colombia.  It  comprises  BRITISH  HON- 
DURAS, COSTA  RICA,  EL  SALVADOR,  GUATEMALA, 
HONDURAS,  NICARAGUA,  PANAMA,  and  the  PANAMA 
CANAL  ZONE. 

CENTRAL  INTELLIGENCE  AGENCY.  The  National  Se- 
curity Act  of  1947,  (Public  Law  253,  80th  Con- 
gress, 1st  session),  became  effective  in  September 
1947.  Section  101  of  this  Act  established  the  Na- 
tional Security  Council,  with  the  function  of  ad- 
vising the  President  with  respect  to  the  integration 
of  domestic,  foreign,  and  military  policies  relating 
to  the  national  security. 

The  National  Security  Act  provided  further 
(Section  102),  for  the  establishment  of  the  Cen- 
tral Intelligence  Agency,  under  the  direction  of  the 
National  Security  Council.  The  Agency  recom- 
mends to  the  National  Security  Council  various 
measures  for  the  coordination  of  intelligence  ac- 
tivities of  the  Government  relating  to  the  national 
security.  This  coordination  is  particularly  impor- 
tant in  determining  primary  fields  of  intelligence 
responsibility  of  the  various  Departments  and  agen- 
cies. 

The  Agency  works  to  prevent  overlapping  func- 
tions in  the  collection  and  dissemination  of  intelli- 


gence; to  eliminate  duplicate  roles  and  missions; 
and  to  eliminate  duplicate  services  in  carrying  out 
these  functions.  It  makes  continual  surveys  of  all 
Government  agencies  to  ascertain  their  require- 
ments in  foreign  intelligence  and  to  make  certain 
that  these  requirements  are  fulfilled. 

The  Agency  is  charged  by  law  with  performing, 
for  the  benefit  of  Departmental  intelligence  agen- 
cies, additional  functions  of  common  concern  which 
can  be  more  efficiently  performed  centrally — for 
example,  the  exploitation  of  foreign  documents 
captured  during  World  War  II  in  all  theaters.  It 
translates  and  exploits  current  magazines  and  tech- 
nical works,  from  all  foreign  sources.  It  monitors 
foreign  radio  broadcasts  of  news  and  propaganda, 
and  public  statements  of  leading  figures  abroad. 

One  of  die  greatest  contributions  that  the  Cen- 
tral Intelligence  Agency  makes  is  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  national  intelligence  estimates  which  will 
not  be  slanted  in  the  interest  of  any  one  Depart- 
ment. Rather,  it  seeks  to  present  an  over-all  picture 
— a  balanced  national  intelligence  estimate,  includ- 
ing all  pertinent  data.  From  this,  the  President  and 
appropriate  authorities  can  draw  a  well-rounded 
picture  in  formulating  their  policies. 

R.   H.   HrLLENKOETTER 

CERAMICS.  The  ceramic  industry  continued  its 
general  upswing  in  1948,  with  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  virtually  all  ceramic  products  reaching 
new  postwar  peaks  and,  in  many  instances,  exceed- 
ing levels  achieved  in  prewar  production.  Increased 
demand  for  ceramic  products  of  all  types  and  great- 
er availability  of  raw  and  processed  materials  used 
in  their  manufacture  were  the  major  contributing 
factors  to  this  upswing.  China,  earthenware,  glass 
and  glassware,  sanitary  ware,  tile,  brick,  enamel, 
porcelain,  artware,  stoneware,  miscellaneous  white- 
wares,  terra  cotta  and  abrasives  were  all  included 
in  1948  production  gains. 

Increased  industrial,  residential  and  farm  con- 
struction in  the  United  States  required  vast  amounts 
of  ceramic  construction  products.  Production  of 
ceramic  floor  and  wall  tile  during  the  first  six 
months  of  1948  reached  50,421,000  square  feet,  a 
gain  of  24  percent  over  the  corresponding  period 
of  the  previous  year.  The  494  million  bricks  pro- 
duced in  July,  always  a  strong  month  for  construc- 
tion materials,  represented  an  increase  of  12  per- 
cent over  that  of  July,  1947.  Though  production  of 
structural  clay  tile,  used  primarily  in  industrial 
construction,  was  down  slightly,  shipments  of  that 
product  maintained  1947  levels  as  a  result  of  large 
stocks  accumulated  earlier.  Production  of  archi- 
tectural porcelain,  enamel,  sanitary  ware  and  sim- 
ilar products  was  also  favorably  affected  by  the 
building  boom.  Outside  of  the  United  States,  con- 
struction was  begun  on  two  ceramic  manufacturing 
plants  in  countries  where  none  of  major  output  had 
previously  existed:  Puerto  Rico  and  India. 

Foreign  production  of  dinnerware  and  artware, 
at  a  low  ebb  since  the  war,  came  back  strongly  in 
1948.  Though  hampered  by  labor  and  decal  short- 
ages, British  pottery  exports  during  1948  equalled 
223  percent  of  prewar  figures.  German  dinnerware 

E reduction  also  faced  a  shortage  of  skilled  labor 
ut  production  showed  a  steady  improvement 
French  products,  prices  of  which  were  increased 
more  than  once  during  the  year,  were  still  behind 
on  delivery  as  a  result  of  fuel  and  power  shortages. 
Italian  pottery  production  made  great  strides  to- 
ward regaining  prewar  quality  and  quantity.  Japan, 
formerly  one  of  the  world  leaders  in  dinnerware 

E reduction,  also  showed  large  gains  in  1948,  and 
y  the  end  of  the  year  Japanese  ware  was  once 


CEYLON 


100 


CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


again  being  seen  in  considerable  quantities  on  the 
world  market. 

In  the  United  States,  sales  of  dinnerware  and 
decorative  accessories  were  at  peak  levels  in  spite 
of  a  general  10  percent  price  increase  announced 
by  most  major  American  potteries  toward  the  end 
or  the  year.  American  styling,  at  one  time  almost 
exclusively  imitative  of  European  ware,  achieved 
singular  success  during  1948  with  bold  colors  and 
patterns  and  functional,  though  esthetically  appeal- 
ing, design.  California  emerged  as  a  major  center 
of  this  new  style  trend.  (See  GLASS  AND  GLASS- 
WARE.) — DONALD  DOCTOROW 

CEYLON.  A  British  self-governing  Dominion  situated 
in  the  Indian  Ocean  south  of  India.  The  island 
achieved  full  dominion  status  on  Feb.  4,  1948. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  of  Ceylon  is  25,- 
322  square  miles.  Population  (1946  census):  6,658,- 
999,  of  whom  about  two-thirds  were  Singhalese 
and  10  percent  Tamils  from  southern  India.  Fif- 
teen percent  of  the  population  was  urban.  Chief 
cities  (1946):  Colombo  (capital),  361,000;  Jaffna, 
63,000;  Dehiwala-Mt.  Lavinia,  56,000;  Kandy,  52,- 
000. 

Education  and  Religion.  In  1945  a  free  educational 
system  extending  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  uni- 
versity came  into  operation.  Schools  are  Singhalese, 
Tamil,  English,  and  bilingual,  with  a  total  enroll- 
ment in  1946-47  of  870,000.  Higher  education  is 
given  at  the  University  of  Ceylon  and  Ceylon 
Technical  College.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Buddhists. 

Production  and  Trade.  Production  is  specialized, 
with  tea  the  first  and  rubber  the  second  outstand- 
ing product.  Although  rice  is  raised  extensively, 
large  imports  are  necessary  each  year.  Coconuts, 
livestock,  and  a  variety  of  minerals  including  gems 
are  produced.  The  Dominion  Government  plans 
the  erection  of  diversified  industrial  plants. 

Although  Ceylon  has  usually  had  an  export  sur- 
plus, the  trend  was  reversed  in  1947  when  exports 
amounted  to  $270  million  and  imports  to  $290  mil- 
lion. In  that  year  Ceylon-United  States  trade  was 
$36  million  Ceylonese  exports  and  $33  million  Cey- 
lonese  imports.^In  prewar  years  more  than  75  per- 
cent of  Ceylon's  cotton  textile  imports  came  from 
India,  Japan,  and  the  United  Kingdom,  but  in  1947 
India  was  the  chief  supplier  with  43  percent  and 
the  United  States  next  with  29  percent. 

Finance.  In  1946—47  Ceylon  had  an  estimated  ex- 
cess of  revenue  ($93,900,000)  over  expenditure 
($93,300,000).  The  principal  source  of  revenue 
is^ customs.  The  Government  of  Ceylon  has  planned 
the  establishment  of  a  Reserve  Bank.  A  monetary 
agreement  from  1948  signed  with  Great  Britain 
and  effective  June  1,  1948,  covered  Ceylon's  net 
sterling  debt  to  the  United  Kingdom.  Ceylon's  dol- 
lar earnings  in  1948  were  estimated  at  $54  million 
and  dollar  expenditures  at  $30  million  thus  permit- 
ting Ceylon  to  be  a  net  contributor  to  the  dollar 
pool.  In  1948  Ceylon  tightened  its  exchange  con- 
trol regulations. 

Transportation.  Railway  mileage  in  1946  was  913. 
The  merchant  fleet  is.  composed  largely  of  sailing 
vessels. 

Government.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  a  Gov- 
ernor General  appointed  by  the  Crown.  Legislative 
power  (as  from  Independence  Day,  Feb.  4,  1948) 
rests  with  a  Parliament  of  two  chambers:  a  Senate 
and  a  House  of  Representatives.  There  is  a  Cabinet 
and  Prime  Minister  responsible  to  Parliament.  Since 
the  elections  of  1947  the  United  National  Party  has 
been  in  power.  Governor  General,  Sir  Henry 
Monck-Mason  Moore;  Prime  Minister,  Minister  of 


Defense,  Minister  for  External  Affairs,  D.  S.  Sena- 
nayake;  Minister  for  Home  Affairs,  E.  A.  P.  Wije- 
yaratne. 

Events,  1948.  Impressive  ceremonies  were  held  in 
Colombo  on  February  4  in  celebration  of  the  emer- 
gence of  Ceylon  as  an  independent  dominion.  On 
February  10  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  opened  the 
first  Parliament  of  the  Dominion  of  Ceylon  in  a 
setting  of  even  greater  splendor.  In  the  presence 
of  the  accredited  representatives  of  25  nations,  in- 
cluding Soviet  Russia,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  read 
the  King's  Speech  from  the  Throne,  in  which  the 
King  expressed  his  regrets  that  he  was  not  able  to 
open  Parliament  in  person  and  said:  "That  Ceylon 
has  been  able  to  achieve  her  freedom  by  consti- 
tutional and  peaceful  methods  in  collaboration 
with  my  Government  of  the  United  Kingdom  is 
a  matter  of  profound  satisfaction." 

Ceylon's  first  year  of  independence  was  far  less 
disturbed  than  that  of  her  new  sister  Dominions  in 
the  East,  India  and  Pakistan,  or  of  nearby  Burma 
whose  secession  from  the  British  Commonwealth 
became  effective  exactly  one  month  before  Ceylon's 
Independence  Day.  While  the  others  were  erupting 
with  domestic  revolts,  undeclared  wars  and  the 
loss  of  leaders  by  violence  or  sudden  death,  Ceylon 
was  quietly  extending  her  political  connections  and 
developing  her  economic  program. 

The  establishment  of  diplomatic  representation 
was  accomplished  as  early  as  possible.  In  July  Sir 
Oliver  Goonetilleke  gave  up  his  post  as  Home  Min- 
ister to  go  to  London  as  High  Commissioner,  re- 
placing G.  S.  Corea,  who  was  ordered  to  Washing- 
ton as  the  first  Ceylonese  Ambassador  to  the  United 
States.  E.  A.  P.  Wijeyaratne,  a  member  of  the  State 
Council  from  1931  to  1936,  accepted  the  portfolio 
of  Home  Affairs. 

The  Commonweciffn  Conference.  Prime  Minister 
Senanayake  represented  his  country  at  the  Con- 
ference of  British  Commonwealth  P'rime  Ministers 
which  met  in  London,  October  11—22.  His  coun- 
try was  given  special  and  emphatic  mention  in  the 
final  statement  of  the  Conference,  whose  members 
appeared  to  resent  Ceylon's  exclusion  from  the 
United  Nations  by  virtue  of  a  Russian  veto.  The 
Conference  members  placed  on  record  their  rec- 
ognition of  Ceylon's  independence  and  affirmed 
that  Ceylon  enjoyed  the  same  sovereign  independ- 
ent status  as  the  other  self-governing  countries  of 
the  Commonwealth  which  were  members  of  the 
United  Nations. 

After  the  Conference  was  over  Prime  Minister 
Senanayake  said  that  he  believed  Ceylon,  India, 
and  Pakistan  had  much  to  gain  as  members  of  the 
Commonwealth.  He  himself  advocated  the  holding 
of  further  meetings  at  the  ministerial  level,  and 

Zed  that  within  a  year  a  meeting  on  foreign 
irs  would  take  place  in  the  Ceylonese  capital 
On  June  29  the  Government  of  Ceylon  ratified 
the  General  Agreement  on  Tariffs  and  Trade  en- 
tered into  at  Geneva  on  Oct.  30,  1947.  This  put 
into  effect  the  concessions  granted  to  the  United 
States  under  the  agreement,  including  those  on 
machinery,  radios,  refrigerators,  typewriters,  and 
other  products  amounting,  in  terms  of  1939  trade, 
to  $844,000.  The  United  States  concessions  to  Cey- 
lon included  those  on  rubber,  tea,  and  coconut 
products.  In  the  autumn  there  was  a  persistent  re- 
port that  Russia  was  in  the  market  for  Ceylon's 
entire  rubber  output  for  1949. 

— ALZADA  COMSTOCK 

CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY.  The  rising 
tide  of  chemical  activity  has  continued  undimin- 
ished  during  1948. 


CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


101 


CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


Analytical  Chemistry.  The  resurgence  of  analytical 
chemistry  as  an  important  and  fundamental  field 
has  continued.  More  than  a  dozen  specially  organ- 
ized symposia  were  held  and  an  International  Con- 
ference on  Analytical  Chemistry  took  place  at 
Utrecht,  Holland,  in  June. 

1.  Instrumental   Methods.   The   published   papers 
and  symposia  discussion  indicate  that  the  major 
trend  in  analytical  chemistry  continues  to  be  to- 
ward the  development  and  perfection  of  instru- 
ments. 

2.  Mechanization.  The  tendency  to  mechanize  and 
speed  up  analytical  procedures  is  important.  De- 
vices have  been  described  and  are  commercially 
available   for^  completely    automatic    titration.    A 
"quantometer"    combines    photoelectric    intensity 
measurements   with    emission    spectrography   and 
enables  a  quantitative  analysis  for  up  to  16  ele- 
ments to  be  made  on  metallic  specimens  within 
one  or  two  minutes. 

8.  New  Balance.  The  Swiss-manufactured  Gram- 
atic  balance  became  available.  The  instrument  has 
a  single  pan,  operates  with  a  constant  load,  and 
has  a  constant  sensitivity.  Weighing  consists  of  re- 
mo\ring  weights,  which  are  read  directly  on  dials, 
and  the  final  beam  deflection  is  read  directly  in 
milligrams.  A  complete  weighing  can  be  done  in 
20  seconds. 

4.  Neio  Techniques.  Fundamental  research  in  neu- 
tron diffraction,  microwave  spectroscopy,  and  ul- 
trasonics will  lead  to  new  analytical  instruments. 
The  use  of  X-ray  absorption  as  an  analytical  tool 
has  been  enhanced  by  the  development  of  photo- 
multiplier    detectors.    Analysts    are    also    making 
greater  use  of  statistics. 

5.  Fluorometric  Analysis.   The   greatest  develop- 
ment has  been  with  respect  to  apparatus.  The  use 
of  the  photomultiplier  tube  to  collect  the  fluores- 
cent light  from  solutions  has  appeared  on  the  new 
fluorometer.  It  is  now  possible  to  measure  the  fluo- 
rescence of  0.1   millimicrograms   of  riboflavin  in 
0.5  ml.  of  solution. 

The  new  interference  filter  consists  of  two  thin 
semitransparent  metallic  layers  parallel  to  each 
other  and  separated  by  a  distance  of  a  few  wave 
lengths.  A  dielectric  layer  is  used  to  separate  the 
metallic  films. 

The  fluorescence  of  antimalarial  drugs  has  been 
studied.  A  new  simple  test  for  tryptophan  and 
other  amino  acids,  where  perchloric  acid  converts 
the  compound  at  room  temperature  to  a  highly 
fluorescent  substance,  was  developed.  The  fluoro- 
nnetric  determination  of  rutin  and  penicillin  has 
been  accomplished.  Boron  forms  a  fluorescing  com- 
plex with  benzoin. 

6.  Organic  Microanalysis.  Emphasis  has  been  on 
making  old  processes  automatic  and  decreasing  the 
time  involved  and,  in  general,  putting  procedures 
in  such  form  that  they  can  be  handled  by  relatively 
untrained  technicians. 

The  Unterzaucher  method  has  been  evaluated 
and  results  are  far  superior  to  those  obtained  by 
the  classical  hydrogenation  method.  The  method 
is  also  applicable  to  inorganic  materials  which  can 
be  reduced  by  elemental  carbon  at  high  tempera- 
tures. 

Progress  was  made  in  methods  for  converting 
organically  bound  fluorine  to  inorganic  fluoride 
and  the  determination  of  fluoride  by  colorimetric, 
gravimetric,  and  volumetric  procedures. 

Microgram  processes  have  been  developed  for 
biochemistry  and  nuclear  research  where  minute 
traces  are  important  and  the  sample  size  limited. 

7.  Periodical.  In  January  the  American  Chemical 
Society  publication  in  the  field  was  officially  named 


Analytical  Chemistry  and  many  new  features  were 
added.  An  "Analyst's  Calendar'"  was  published  and 
abstracts  of  the  various  symposia  have  been  print- 
ed. Reviews  which  evaluate  developments  of  the 
last  few  years  will  be  published. 

Chemurgy.  The  position  of  agriculture  as  a  sup- 
plier of  raw  materials  is  definitely  threatened  by 
the  synthesis  of  organic  acids,  alcohols,  fibers,  glyc- 
erol,  and  other  products  from  coal,  natural  gas,  and 
petroleum.  Despite  these  advances,  it  is  estimated 
that  the  farm  value  of  major  agricultural  products 
and  by-products  used  by  the  chemical  industry  in 
1947  is  over  1,000  million  dollars. 

The  wet-milling  industry,  in  1947,  consumed 
about  139  million  bushels  of  com  and  produced 
products  valued  at  $420  million.  This  compares 
with  the  1942  and  1937  grinds  of  130  and  68  mil- 
lion bushels,  valued  at  $218  and  $135  millions, 
respectively.  Other  developments  are:  (1)  pro- 
duction of  inositol  from  steep  liquor;  (2)  use  of 
steep  liquor  in  the  production  of  penicillin;  (3) 
production  of  wool-like  fibers  from  the  corn  pro- 
tein; and  ( 4 )  production  of  allyl  ethers  for  protec- 
tive coatings. 

Soybean  production  has  been  increased  fourfold 
since  1938.  Glues  derived  from  refined  soybean 
proteins  have  displaced  casein  in  many  fields.  Re- 
search on  the  production  of  adhesives  and  fibers 
from  soybean,  peanut,  corn,  and  cottonseed  pro- 
teins has  made  marked  progress  and  some  develop- 
ments have  been  translated  into  industrial  opera- 
tions. Wheat  gluten  and  casein  are  used  for  the 
production  of  amino  acids. 

Tall  oil — a  mixture  of  rosin  and  fatty  acids — is 
being  produced  in  ever-increasing  quantities.  The 
annual  production,  now  exceeding  250  million 
pounds,  is  consumed  by  a  wide  variety  of  indus- 
tries. 

The  synthesis  of  hexamethylenediamme,  nylon 
intermediate,  from  furfural  is  an  outstanding  chem- 
urgic  development.  The  waste  liquors  from  sulfite 
pulp  are  used  in  two  plants  for  the  production  of 
industrial  alcohol.  The  investment  in  these  war- 
born  plants  has  largely  been  amortized,  while 
prices  for  blackstrap  and  ethylene  used  in  com- 
petitive alcohol  processes  have  risen. 

Drugs.  Annual  appraisal  of  advances  is  compli- 
cated by  the  fact  that  the  pace  of  discovery  of 
new  agents  has  accelerated  more  than  has  the  pace 
of  final  evaluation  of  usefulness. 

1.  Anesthesia.  The  demonstration  of  the  activity 
of  Methadone  (Amidone,  Dolophine),  6-drmethyl- 
amino-^-diphenyl-S-heptanone,  is   one   of   great 
significance,  since  the  synthesis  of  a  substance  sim- 
pler than  morphine  and  of  equal  or  greater  anal- 
gesic action  relieves  our  dependence  on  the  opium 
poppy. 

While  curare  does  not  cause  loss  of  conscious- 
ness, it  has  been  found  widely  useful  during  surgi- 
cal anesthesia  because  of  the  muscular  relaxation, 
it  produces, 

Myanesin,  3-o-toloxyl-l,2-propanediol,  was  de- 
scribed first  as  a  substitute  for  curare,  and  is  useful 
in  anesthesia  and  certain  spastic  muscular  dis- 
orders. 

2.  Antibiotics.    Aureomycin    and    Chloromycetin 
have  been  obtained  from  soil  organisms,  Strepto- 
myces  aureofaciens  and  Streptomyces  venezuelae. 
Both  have  a  wide  spectrum  of  activity  against  both 
Gram-positive  and  Gram-negative  bacteria.  These 
agents  are  of  unusual  value  against  infections  with 
Rickettsia.  Chloromycetin  also  affords  the  first  satis- 
factory chemotherapeutic  treatment  of  typhoid  fe- 
ver. A  virus-caused  disease,  lymphogranuloma  ve- 
nereum,  responds  to  both  drugs.  These  are  exam- 


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102 


CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


pies  of  successful  extension  of  antibiotic  therapy 
into  the  field  of  non-bacterial,  non-protozoai,  infec- 
tious diseases. 

A  demonstration  of  practical  value  is  that  the 
use  of  aqueous  or  oil  suspensions  of  the  procaine 
salt  of  penicillin  makes  possible  the  painless,  once- 
daily  injection  of  this  antibiotic. 

3.  Antihistamines.  The  discovery  that  bodily  re- 
sponses to  histamine  can  be  successfully  combated 
has  resulted  in  relief  of  symptoms  and  in  emphasiz- 
ing the  role  of  histamine. 

4.  Antimalarials.  War-accelerated  research  estab- 
lished that  true  prophylaxis  o£  malignant  (falci- 
parum)  malaria,  hut  not  benign,  or  relapsing  (vi~ 
vax)  malaria,  may  be  achieved  by  use  of  Quina- 
crine  (Atabrine),  Chloroquine,  or  Carnoquin.  The 
latter  two  are  preferred,  in  that  less  frequent  ad- 
ministration is  required  and  staining  of  the  skin 
does  not  occur. 

Previously,  Pamaquin,  from  8-amino-quinoline, 
was  of  value  in  the  therapy  of  relapsing  malaria. 
Now  Pentaquine  has  been  found  useful  as  a  pro- 
phylactic and  cure.  Paludrine  has  properties  like 
those  of  Chloroquine. 

5.  General.  The  filarial  worm  causing  elephantia- 
sis is  responsive  to  treatment  with  Hetrazan,  1-di- 
ethylcarbamyl-4-methylpiperazine*     Hexachlorocy- 
clohexane,  active  against  many  forms  of  ticks,  fleas, 
and  lice,  is  now  most  helpful  in  scabies. 

6.  Sympatholytics.  Control  of  the  activity  of  the 
sympathetic  nervous  system  has  not  been  practical. 
Considerable  action  has  been  shown  for  Dibena- 
mine    (dibenzyl-/3-chloroethylamine)3    Priscol    (2- 
benzylimidazoline),  Etamon  (tetraethylammonium 
chloride ) ,  and  certain  alkaloids  of  ergot,  but  thera- 
peutic appraisal  is  still  in  progress. 

7.  Tumor  Chemotherapy  has  been  hopeful  but 
equivocal  The  nitrogen  mustard,  N-methyl-6is-0- 
chloroethylamine,  may  cause  remission  in  up  to  90 
percent,  but  no  cures. 

8.  Vitamins.  The  value  cf  the  nutritional  require- 
ments of  bacteria  in  exploring  this  Held  is  evident, 
in  the  discoveries  of  folic  acid  and  vitamin  B-12. 
The  former  is  active  in  promoting  formation  of  red 
blood  cells  in  cases  of  pernicious  anemia,  but  does 
not  relieve  other  difficulties.  Vitamin  B-12  gives  re- 
lief in  daily  doses  of  one-millionth  of  a  gram,  and 
appears  to  be  the  long  sought  anti-pernicious  ane- 
mia factor  in  liver. 

Fertilizer.  The  consumption  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers by  the  American  farmer  in  1947  was  over  15 
million  tons;  1948  will  be  even  higher.  Not  only 
has  the  tonnage  been  increased,  but  the  actual 
plant  nutrient  content  of  the  fertilizer  was  in- 
creased. 

1.  Fluorides.  The  results  of  an  extensive  survey  in- 
dicate that  in  the  Pittsburgh  area,  unexpectedly 
large  amounts  (200  parts  per  million)  of  combined 
fluorine  are  to  be  found  in  the  undamaged  foliage 
of  trees,  alfalfa,  grass,  and  other  vegetation.  The 
plants  may  absorb  fluorine  from  the  soil  and  from 
coal  smoke  in  the  atmosphere. 

2.  Liquid  and  Gas.  The  use  of  liquid  and  anhy- 
drous ammonia  in  direct  application  to  the  soil  is 
becoming  widespread,  especially  for  cotton  and 
grain.   Special  equipment  has  been  designed  to 
make  application  directly  into  the  soil.  ( See  nitro- 
gation  and  nitrojection  under  GLOSSARY.  ) 

3.  Movement.  A  simple  technique  for  studying  the 
movement  of  soluble  fertilizer  in  the  soil  has  re- 
sulted in  more  practical  methods   of  fertilizing 
sandy  soils. 

4.  Radioactive  Isotopes.   The  use  of  radioactive 
compounds  in  fertilizer  mixtures  has  proved  some 
of  the  old  theories  about  the  absorption  of  various 


nutrients.  The  difTerentiation  between  the  amount 
of  plant  food  absorbed  from  the  fertilizer  and  soil 
nutrients  in  soils  of  various  fertility  levels  has  re- 
vealed that  the  amount  of  phosphorus  absorbed 
from  fertilizer  added  to  the  soil  is  much  less  where 
it  is  less  fertile. 

5.  Secondary  Elemental  Deficiency.  The  detection 
and  use  of  such  deficiencies  as  magnesium,  boron, 
manganese,  copper,  and  zinc  have  resulted  in  im- 
provement of  quality  and  crop  yields. 

Molybdenum  is  a  normal  constituent  of  plant 
material.  Under  alkaline  conditions,  enhanced  by 
over  liming  in  humid  regions,  the  movement  of 
molybdenum  into  the  plant  has  been  found  to  be 
sufficient  to  cause  sickness  in  cattle  when  the  plant 
material  carries  more  than  20  parts  per  million. 

Cobalt  deficiency  in  animals  has  indicated  areas 
which  require  supplemental  treatment. 

6.  Soil    Aeration.    The    use    of    rubber-mounted 
heavy  machinery  and  growth-regulating  substances 
which  lessen  the  necessity  of  cultivation  has  re- 
sulted in  soil  compaction  and  poor  aeration.  The 
use  of  gypsum,  lime,  superphosphate,  and  deep  till- 
age has  resulted  in  phenomenal  increases  in  yield. 

The  use  of  high-phosphate  f  ertilizer  in  the  row  in 
the  heavy  soils  of  Canada  has  resulted  in  hastening 
maturity  and  improving  yields  of  tomatoes  and 
other  vegetable  crops. 

Fuel.  Highlights  of  1948  were:  continued  unprec- 
edented expansion  in  the  use  of  and  demand  for 
all  types  of  fuel;  extensive  research  and  develop- 
ment work  on  methods  for  producing  synthetic 
gas  and  liquid  fuels;  marked  expansion  of  the  low 
temperature  carbonization  industry;  and  develop- 
ment of  peak-load  processes  for  the  production  of 
high-Btu  gas. 

1.  Gaseous.  Effort  has  been  directed  toward  the 
conversion  of  coal  into  carbon  monoxide-hydrogen 
mixtures,  from  which  synthetic  chemicals,  liquid 
fuels,  and  fuel  gas  may  be  manufactured.  Emphasis 
has  been  on  modifications  of  the  "fluid-bed"  proc- 
ess. Several  pilot-size  gasification  units  have  been 
in  operation  during  the  year.  Development  work  on 
pilot  equipment  has  also  been  conducted  on  modi- 
fications of  the  Lurgi  gasification  process. 

The  consumption  of  natural  gas  amounted  to 
nearly  6  trillion  (6  X  10  12)  cubic  feet.  Proved  re- 
serves are  currently  estimated  at  165  trillion  (165  X 
10 12)  cubic  feet  Shortages  during  the  winter 
months  stimulate  large-scale  use  of  peak-load  proc- 
esses. 

2.  Liquid.  The  petroleum  industry  has  increased 
refinery  capacity  as  rapidly  as  is  physically  possible 
and  has  operated  existing  facilities  at  or  near  peak 
capacity,  but  has  been  unable  to  meet  the  increased 
demand. 

Crude  oil  production  approached  2,000  million 
barrels,  from  an  estimated  proved  reserve  in  the 
U.S.  of  between  21,000  million  and  22,000  million 
barrels.  Major  wells  were  brought  into  production 
on  the  continental  shelf  off  the  Gulf  Coast,  in  the 
Cuyama  Valley  district  of  California,  and  near  Ed- 
monton, Alberta. 

Although  America's  potential  production  capaci- 
ty for  liquefied  petroleum  gases  is  estimated  at  17,- 
000  million  gallons  per  year,  1948  production 
amounted  to  only  about  2,000  million  gallons. 

Petroleum  companies  showed  marked  activity  in 
research  and  development  work  on  synthetic  liquid 
fuels  and  many  associated  themselves  with  coal 
companies  having  similar  interests*.  Several  of  the 
major  companies  are  currently  investigating  the  re- 
covery and  refining  of  shale  oil. 

3.  Solid.  The  direct  conversion  of  coal  into  liquid 
fuels  and  chemicals  by  hydrogenation  at  pressures 


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103 


CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


,  up  to  10,000  pounds  per  square  Inch  and  at  tem- 
peratures up  to  500°  C.  continues  to  receive  con- 
siderable attention.  A  heavy  fuel  oil,  meeting  Bunk- 
er C  oil  specifications,  is  in  the  offing  at  a  cost  of  12 
cents  per  gallon  or  less. 

Amercia's  coal  reserves  are  generally  quoted  at 
about  3,000,000  million  tons.  Recent  estimates  sug- 
gest that  the  actual  reserves  of  recoverable  coal 
may  be  only  5  to  10  percent  of  the  foregoing  esti- 
mates. American  coal  production  now  approaches 
700  million  tons  per  year. 

By-product  coke  production  exceeded  67  mil- 
lion tons.  Coal  charged  to  coke  ovens  exceeded  95 
million  tons.  Production  of  coal  chemicals  from 
carbonization  plants  approached  an  all-time  high. 
Values  of  all  carbonization  products  have  shown  a 
steady  increase  since  1944.  Total  value  of  by-prod- 
ucts produced  last  year  amounted  to  $3.71  per  ton 
of  colce  produced. 

Public  pressure  for  the  elimination  of  atmospher- 
ic pollution  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  additional 
or  more  stringent  smoke  ordinances  and  added  im- 
petus to  research. 

4.  Oxygen.  Previous  to  1948,  oxygen  was  pro- 
duced principally  for  cutting  and  welding  purposes 
in  2-  to  10-ton-per-day  plants.  This  oxygen  was  a 
99.5  percent  purity  product,  but  too  expensive  for 
tonnage  use.  During  the  year,  tonnage  oxygen  has 
become  a  reality,  with  9  plants  ranging  in  capacity 
from  135  to  2,000  tons  per  day,  under  construction 
or  completed.  Operating  costs,  including  fixed 
charges,  may  be  as  low  as  $3.50  to  $4  per  ton. 

All  of  the  tonnage  oxygen  plants  will  produce 
oxygen  of  90  to  95  percent  purity  and  will  permit  a 
side  stream  take-off  of  99.5  percent  oxygen  for  spe- 
cial purposes. 

Different  operating  cycles,  employing  various 
types  of  heat  exchangers  and  regenerators,  have 
been  developed.  All  employ  relatively  low  pressure 
(about  85  pounds  per  square  inch  as  compared  to 
the  400  to  3,000  psi  of  the  older  methods)  and  tur- 
bo compressors  and  expanders. 

Fuel  Utilization.  It  is  only  recently  that  newer  re- 
fining procedures  have  produced  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  high-octane  automotive  fuel  to  justify  a 
study  of  high  compression  engines  in  a  semi-prac- 
tical way. 

The  results  of  these  studies  are  having  a  pro- 
found effect  upon  the  evolution  of  the  transporta- 
tion industry.  High-octane  quality  fuels  permit 
large  practical  gains  in  fuel  economy  without  sacri- 
ficing customer  acceptance  of  the  product  A  10- 
to-1  compression  engine  operating  on  a  fuel  of  98 
research  octane  number  is  40  to  45  percent  more 
economical  than  a  corresponding  1947  car  requir- 
ing a  fuel  of  85. 

The  chemical  structure  of  the  constituents  of 
gasoline  affects  the  cleanliness  of  the  combustion 
process  in  the  engine  as  well  as  the  antiknock  qual- 
ity of  the  fuel.  Gasolines  differ  markedly  in  the  de- 
gree to  which  they  form  films  of  deposits  on  the 
pistons,  cylinders,  and  other  engine  parts.  The  ef- 
fects of  sulfur  on  the  antiknock  action  of  tetraethyl 
lead  have  been  studied. 

Metallurgy.  Waning  natural  resources  and  an  in- 
creasing demand  for  metals  have  caused  the  metal- 
lurgists to  direct  their  efforts  principally  to  process 
metallurgy.  Although  shortages  of  m?ny  metals 
prevail,  the  most  critical  is  the  shortage  of  iron.  We 
are  now  faced  with  the  exhaustion  of  our  high- 
grade  iron  ores  within  30  or  40  years.  The  concen- 
tration of  low-grade  iron  ore  is  being  attacked 
from  such  angles  as  gravity  concentration,  heavy- 
media  separation,  and  magnetic  roasting.  Within 
a  year  experimental  plants  totaling  $30  million  in 


cost  will  be  in  operation,  aimed  at  the  solution  of 
this  problem. 

Manufacturers,  politicians,  and  labor  leaders, 
clamoring  for  an  expansion  of  our  productive  ca- 
pacity, apparently  do  not  realize  that  such  an  ex- 
pansion would,  in  itself,  consume  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  tons  of  steel,  and  really  make  the  im- 
mediate situation  worse  instead  of  better.  A  much 
more  intelligent  approach  is  to  increase  the  ca- 
pacity of  our  present  steel  plants  by  operation  at  a 
higher  gauge  pressure.  An  increase  to  only  £5 
pounds  gauge  results  in  15  percent  greater  tonnage 
of  iron,  a  10  percent  reduction  in  coke  consump- 
tion, and  a  20  percent  reduction  in  flue  dust  lost 

The  use  of  oxygen  in  the  open  hearth  furnace  to 
reduce  the  time  consumed  in  melting  the  scrap, 
and  later  to  accelerate  the  elimination  of  carbon, 
has  increased  materially  the  capacity  of  existing 
open  hearth  furnaces  and  made  the  production  of 
low-carbon  alloys  cheaper  and  easier.  It  will  un- 
questionably be  used  on  a  still  larger  scale  in  the 
operation  of  Bessemer  converters  and  iron  blast- 
furnaces. It  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  as  a  result 
of  these  developments  our  existing  steel  capacity 
will  be  sufficient  to  supply  our  needs  for  several 
years  to  come. 

Another  problem  of  the  metallurgist  has  been 
the  costly  and  laborious  process  of  reducing  a  steel 
ingot  to  a  usable  form  such  as  an  angle  iron,  a 
plate,  sheet,  or  bar.  Continuous  casting  of  steel  has 
been  carried  out  on  a  pilot  plant  scale.  Close  con- 
trol of  time,  temperature,  pressure,  and  use  of  new 
water-copied  mold  has  resulted  in  the  continuous 
and  efficient  production  of  billets  of  moderate  cross 
section. 

A  new  process  has  been  developed  for  making 
synthetic  cryolite,  which  is  suitable  for  use  as 
electrolyte  in  the  production  of  metallic  aluminum. 
Other  noteworthy  developments  are  reducing  the 
ash  and  sulfur  in  coking  coals;  greater  utilization 
of  the  process  for  producing  electrolytic  tin  plate; 
utilization  of  the  fiuidization  principle  of  suspen- 
sion in  speeding  up  roasting,  carbonization  of  coal, 
and  controlled  roasting  of  ores;  -efforts  to  produce 
very  pure  metals  for  special  uses;  and  processes 
for  the  reduction  and  working  of  such  refractory 
metals  as  molybdenum,  tantalum,  and  tungsten  for 
use  in  jet  engines  and  gas  turbines,  and  the  utiliza- 
tion of  nuclear  energy. 

Nuclear  Chemistry.  Advances  have  been  made  in 
the  nuclear  chemical  aspects  of  the  chain  reactors, 
power  piles  and  breeders.  The  general  nuclear  re- 
actor development  program  has  been  centralized 
and  a  strong  chemical  and  chemical  engineering 
group  has  been  built  up. 

1.  Isolation  of  New  Elements.  A  number  of  ele- 
ments have  recently  been  isolated  *in  macroscopic 
quantities.  Curium  ( 96 )  was  isolated  in  weighable 
amount  following  its  production  by  the  transmuta- 
tion of  americmm  (95)  with  pile  neutrons.  Use  of 
the  long-lives  technetium-99,  isolated  from  urani- 
um fission  products,  has  resulted  in  the  isolation  of 
the  element  technetium  ( 43 )  in  macroscopic  quan- 
tity. The  element  with  atomic  number  61  has  also 
been  isolated  in  substantial  weighable  quantities. 

2.  Molecular   Structure    by   Neutron  Diffraction. 
Slow  neutron  beams  from  the  nuclear  chain  re- 
actors have  been  used  in  diffraction  experiments  to 
give  information  on  molecular  structure.  The  struc- 
tures of  a  number  of  hydrides  have  been  deter- 
mined and  some  new  metallurgical  information  has 
been  obtained. 

3.  New  Radioactive  Isotopes.  Over  100  new  radio- 
active isotopes  have  been  reported  within  the  last 
year  or  so,  covering  the  entire  range  of  the  periodic 


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104 


CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


table.  Among  these  have  been  numerous  interest- 
ing new  cases  of  nuclear  isomerism.  Several  in- 
stances of  triple  isomerism  have  been  discovered. 
Rhenium  (isotope  Re187),  as  it  occurs  in  nature, 
was  found  to  be  radioactive. 

4.  Separation  of  Rare-Earth  Elements.   Initiated 
by  use  of  tracers  on  the  Plutonium  Project,  an  ex- 
cellent method  has  been  developed  for  separating 
the  rare-earth  elements  from  each  other  in  macro- 
scopic quantities.  Using  ion-exchange  resins,  meth- 
ods have  been  worked  out  for  obtaining  all  of  the 
rare-earth  elements  in  pure  form. 

5.  Ultra-High  Energy  Reactions.  The  operation  of 
the  giant  184-inch  synchrocyclotron  at  the  Radia- 
tion Laboratory  of  the  University  of  California  has 
led  to  a  number  of  interesting  new  results.  The 
bombardment  of  elements  throughout  the  entire 
range  of  the  periodic  table  with  the  200  Mev  deu- 
terons  and  400  Mev  helium  ions  with  this  machine 
has  led  to  the  observation  of  the  so-called  spalla- 
tion  reactions  in  which  products  differing  from  the 
target  nucleus  by  as  much  as  30  to  40  mass  units 
and  10  to  15  atomic  number  units  have  been  ob- 
served. A  number  of  elements  below  the  uranium 
region  undergo  the  fission  reaction  when  irradi- 
ated with  such  high  energy  particles.  Mesons,  both 
heavy  and  light  varieties,  have  been  produced  for 
the  first  time  by  artificial  means.  A  number  of  new 
collateral  radioactive  series  has  been  produced  and 
Identified  in  the  region  of  atomic  numbers  of  about 
82  to  92  as  a  result  of  bombardment  of  heavy 
natural  radioactive  elements  with  these  high  en- 
ergy projectiles. 

6.  Use  of  Tracers.  About  2,000  shipments  of  radio- 
active tracer  isotopes  were  made  to  some  200  insti- 
tutions in  the  United  States,  whereas  about  200 
shipments  were  made  to  15  other  countries. 

Carbon-14,  for  example,  has  been  used  to  study 
the  photosynthetic  mechanism;  radioactive  P-32,  to 
elucidate  metabolism  in  normal  animals  and  those 
bearing  malignant  tumors;  radioactive  S-35,  for 
elucidation  of  the  biosynthesis  of  penicillin. 

Separated  stable  isotopes  (more  than  100  varie- 
ties of  29  elements)  also  have  been  made  available 
and  these  together  with  deuterium,  enriched  nitro- 
gen-15,  and  carbon-13  have  been  used  both  as 
tracers  and  as  an  aid  in  the  conduction  of  research 
in  nuclear  chemistry.  Among  the  applications  of 
stable  isotopes  as  tracers  in  biochemistry  may  be 
mentioned  the  use  of  deuterium  to  elucidate  the 
synthesis  of  fats  by  micro-organisms. 

Organic  Free  Radicals.  Of  considerable  interest  is 
a  series  of  papers  on  the  decomposition  of  t-alkyl 
peroxides  and  on  the  hydrogen  bromide  catalyzed 
oxidation  of  t-alkanes. 

Petroleum.  1.  Alcohols.  By  the  oxo  synthesis,  the 
octyl  form  of  alcohol  is  now  in  production. 
This  alcohol  is  utilized  primarily  for  the  manu- 
facture of  phthalate  and  other  esters  for  use  as 
plasticizers.  The  production  of  synthetic  ethyl  alco- 
hol, sec.-butyl  alcohol,  ethylene  glycol,  glycerol, 
and  isopropyl  alcohol,  from  petroleum  or  petroleum 
by-products,  has  expanded. 

2.  Butadiene.  During  the  early  part  of  the  syn- 
thetic rubber  program  in  the  United  States  most  of 
the  butadiene  was  derived  from  ethyl  alcohol  be- 
cause less  steel  was  required.  In  1948  all  butadiene 
in  the  U.S.  was  manufactured  from  petroleum 
sources.  Progress  was  made  in  preventing  the  for- 
mation of  insoluble  polybutadiene,  popcorn  poly- 
mer. 

Butadiene  oxide  and  vinylcyclohexene  (buta- 
diene dimer)  are  marketed  on  a  small  scale.  Iso- 
prene  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Butyl  rubber. 
&  Chemicals  for  Agriculture.  Synthetic  chemicals 


from  petroleum  used  in  agriculture  include:  blos- 
som thinning  agents  as  well  as  fungicides,  growth 
regulators,  insecticides,  repellents,  soil  furnigants, 
vine  killing  agents,  weed  killers,  and  the  like. 

4.  Hydrocarbons.      Synthesis      from      petroleum 
sources  gives  toluene  and  xylenes.  The  o-xylene  is 
oxidized  to  phthalic  anhydride.  The  fluid  catalytic 
technique  is  in  use  for  the  oxidation  of  naphtha- 
lene to  phthalic  anhydride. 

Cyclohexane  of  85  percent  minimum  purity  is 
available  for  the  manufacture  of  nylon.  Ethylene 
has  been  utilized  in  increased  volume  in  the  manu- 
facture of  acrylonitrile,  ethyl  alcohol,  ethylene  gly- 
col, styrene,  and  tetraethyl  lead. 

5.  Synthetic'  Detergents.  The  sale  for  1947  amount- 
ed to  600  million  pounds  (240  million  pounds  of 
active  ingredients ) .  The  alkylaryl-sulf onates,  which 
are  prepared  by  alkylating  aromatics  by  appropriate 
olefins,  account  for  the  greatest  volume. 

6.  Synthetic  Fuels.  Interest  in  the  production  of 
liquid  fuels  from  natural  gas  and  coal  continues  to 
expand,  and  is  taking  a  long  term  viewpoint. 

Petroleum  Refining.  Present  petroleum  refining 
processes  are  characterized  by  extreme  flexibility. 
The  relative  amounts  of  Diesel  fuel,  gasoline,  heat- 
ing oil,  residual  fuel  oil,  and  other  products  made 
from  crude  oil  are  constantly  adjusted  to  meet 
changing  seasonal  and  market  demands.  The  use 
of  crystallization,  precise  fractional  distillation,  se- 
lective solvent  extraction,  and  solid  absorbents  en- 
able sharp  hydrocarbon  separations  according  to 
boiling  points,  freezing  points,  and  chemical  char- 
acteristics. Chemical  conversions  involving  both 
decomposition  and  synthetic  reactions  add  greatly 
to  the  number  of  petroleum  products. 

Cracking  to  produce  gasoline  is  vastly  improved 
by  use  of  refractory  clay-type  catalysts  to  give 
higher-octane  motor  fuel.  Catalytic  cracking  not 
only  produces  higher-octane  gasoline,  but  more 
Diesel  fuel  and  heating  oil  and  less  residual  fuel, 
tars,-  and  coke.  In  catalytic  cracking,  moreover, 
there  is  less  mercaptan  and  more  hydrogen  sulfide 
formation,  and  the  sulfur  in  the  carbonaceous  de- 
posits on  the  catalyst  is  eliminated  as  sulfur  dioxide 
when  the  spent  catalyst  is  regenerated. 

Catalytic  cracking  processes  employ  ( 1 )  pellets 
in  stationary  beds;  (2)  beads  in  moving  beds;  and 
(3)  powders  in  fluidized  dense  phase.  The  latter 
is  dominant  at  present.  Another  improved  feature 
is  the  use  of  microspherical  catalyst  powders  in 
the  fluid  process,  which  undergo  less  wear  and 
cause  less  erosion. 

Since  the  gases  from  cracking  contain  substan- 
tial quantities  of  polymerizable  propylene  and  bu~ 
tylenes,  plants  for  converting  these  olefins  to  pol- 
ymer gasoline  are  now  standard  equipment.  Using 
a  kieselguhr-phosphoric  acid  catalyst,  liquid  poly- 
mers of  over  80  octane  are  produced. 

The  alkylation  of  isobutane  with  gaseous  olefins, 
using  HaSO*  or  HF,  gives  isoparaffinic  alkylates 
which  have  octane  ratings  over  90  and  high  sus- 
ceptibility to  tetraethyl  lead. 

Isomerization  of  n-butane  to  isobutane  using  an 
A1C13  catalyst  gives  increased  supplies  of  the  key 
hydrocarbons  for  alkylation  plants.  The  conversion 
of  n-pentane  and  hexane  to  branched  isomers,  us- 
ing a  liquid  aluminum  chloride-hydrocarbon  cata- 
lyst, gives  hydrocarbons  of  markedly  improved 
antiknock  properties. 

In  finishing  gasolines,  the  use  of  chemical  rea- 
gents such  as  sulfuric  acid  to  remove  gum-form- 
ers and  reduced  sulfur  is  being  superseded  by 
more  selective  and  less  wasteful  methods.  Solvents 
such  as  solutions  of  methanol  in  sodium  hydroxide 
are  used  for  removing  odorous  mercaptans.  Phe- 


CHEMISTRY  AMD  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


105 


CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


nol-  and  amine-type  inhibitors  in  small  amounts  re- 
tard gum  formation.  Tetraethyl  lead  is  added  for 
increasing  octane  rating. 

Demand  for  Diesel  fuel  is  increasing.  The  fuels 
of  best  ignition  and  combustion  characteristics  are 

grimary  uncracked  petroleum  distillates.  The  com- 
ustion  quality  of  Diesel  fuel  from  cracking  is  im- 
proved by  small  amounts  of  organic  nitrates  or 
peroxides. 

Lubricating  oils  are  available  for  every  service. 
Additives  are  now  in  use  for  improving  oiliness,  re- 
ducing freezing  point,  and  increasing  oxidation  re- 
sistance. Others  are  used  for  reducing  viscosity  loss 
accompanying  temperature  rise.  Special  detergents 
are  added  which  keep  bearing  surfaces  washed  free 
from  deposits.  Other  additives  reduce  foaming 
tendencies  and  rust  formation. 

The  silicones  have  exceptional  lubricating  qual- 
ity, and  frequently  show  approximately  the  same 
viscosity  at  zero  and  400°  F.,  which  makes  them 
valuable  in  airplane  engines  operating  between  ex- 
tremes of  desert  heat  and  stratosphere  cold. 

Production  of  chemicals  from  petroleum  base 
hydrocarbons  is  growing  rapidly.  Phthalic  anhy- 
dride is  made  at  the  rate  of  8  million  pounds  a  year 
by  the  oxidation  of  o-xylene  from  California  pe- 
troleum. Glycerin  is  manufactured  from  propylene 
by  high-temperature  substitutive  chlorination,  fol- 
lowed successively  by  hydroxychlorination  and  al- 
kaline hydrolysis.  Acrolein  is  a  product  of  cracking 
diallyl  ether,  a  by-product  of  glycerin  manufacture. 
While  the  production  of  chemicals  utilizes  less 
than  one  percent  of  petroleum  production,  its  fu- 
ture growth  seems  assured. 

The  Bureau  of  Standards  has  furnished  ultra- 
violet, X-ray,  and  infrared  spectra  for  identification 
of  hydrocarbons.  The  mass  spectrometer  is  also  in 
extensive  use  for  rapid  analysis  of  hydrocarbon 
mixtures. 

Pharmacology.  Many  achievements  have  been 
translated  into  therapy  and  new^  drugs  have  made 
their  appearance  in  the  physician's  armamentarium. 

The  number  of  drugs  which  will  combat  the  ac- 
tion of  histamine  and  are  useful  in  the  treatment 
of  hay  fever  and  urticaria  is  increasing  at  a  tre- 
mendous rate.  Compounds  are  now  available  of  the 
Neoantergan  type  which  will  successfully  antago- 
nize 100  fatal  doses  of  histamine  in  the  guinea  pig. 
Besides,  the  use  of  the  newer  antihistaminics  is  ac- 
companied with  less  untoward  side-reactions  than 
some  of  the  early  drugs  of  this  class. 

The  recent  release  of  dihydrostreptomycin, 
which  has  less  vertigo-producing  action  on  the 
semicircular  canals,  means  that  this  form  of  strepto- 
mycin may  be  employed  in  the  treatment  of  tu- 
berculosis without  affecting  seriously  the  equilibri- 
um sense  of  the  patient. 

The  isolation  of  vitamin  B^  represents  a  major 
advance.  This  compound  in  extraordinarily  small 
quantities  appears  to  be  the  agent  responsible  for 
the  maturation  of  the  red  cell  in  pernicious  anemia. 
If  in  later  experimentation  this  compound  shows 
the  degree  of  usefulness  that  it  has  exhibited  to 
date,  it  will  end  the  20-year  search  for  the  active 
antipernicious  anemia  principle  from  liver. 

Plasticizers  are  liquid  or  solid  agents  that  are 
compounded  with  resins  to  produce  the  useful 
composite  products  known  as  plastics.  The  plasti- 
cizer  confers  pliability,  extensibility,  and  worka- 
bility to  the  resin.  The  kind  and  amount  of  plasti- 
cizer used  with  a  given  base  resin  determines  the 
degree  of  flexibility  imparted  to  the  composition. 
1.  Evaluation.  The  American  Society  for  Testing 
Materials  through  its  Committee  D-20  has  been 
very  active  and  helpful  in  making  some  degree  of 


standardization  possible.  Current  methods  of  evalu- 
ation are  based  for  the  most  part  on  stress-strain 
relations  of  plasticized  specimens  in  tension,  tor- 
sion, bending,  and  shear.  Permanence  in  air,  oil, 
and  water  is  measured  and  a  few  miscellaneous 
tests  are  applied. 

Other  approaches  to  the  characterization  of  plas- 
ticizers include  studies  on  the  second-order  transi- 
tion phenomena  of  plastics,  dielectric  loss  of  plasti- 
cized specimens  at  various  temperatures,  the  tech- 
nology of  plasticizers  by  studying  the  time  depend- 
ence of  deformation  of  plasticized  specimens  by 
means  of  creep  measurements,  and  the  determina- 
tion of  heat  softening  points  of  cellulose  acetate 
plastics.  These  investigations  permitted  the  corre- 
lation of  the  logarithm  of  the  heat  softening  tem- 
perature with  the  molar  proportion  of  plasticizer 
present.  The  slope  of  this  fine  proves  to  be  a  meas- 
ure of  plasticizer  effectiveness. 

2.  New  Uses.  New  applications  are  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  plastisols  and  organosols,  which  are  sus- 
pensions respectively  of  finely-divided  resin  parti- 
cles in  plasticizer  or  in  plasticizer  and  volatile  dil- 
uent. By  the  use  of  these  resin-plasticizer  pastes, 
very  economical  application  of  plastics  to  use  in 
coatings,  films,  and  certain  molded  goods  may  be 
made. 

3.  Rapid  Expansion.  The  production  of  plasticizers 
in  this  country  has  expanded  very  rapidly  during 
and  since  World  War  II.  During  the  war,  the  Serv- 
ices required  material  that  would  withstand  severe 
wear  and  extremes  of  temperature  and  climate,  The 
vinyl  resins,  properly  plasticized,  offered  this  com- 
bination of  properties,  and  paced  by  the  military 
needs,  their  production  expanded  rapidly. 

Approximately  one  pound  of  plasticizer  is  re- 
quired for  each  two  pounds  of  vinyl  resin  used,  so 
that  the  quantity  of  plasticizer  necessary  to  supply 
the  vinyl  plastics  industry  alone  is  equal  to  half  of 
the  weight  of  the  vinyl  resin  production.  When  the 
uses  of  plasticizers  in  coatings  and  in  other  applica- 
tions is  added  to  this,  the  total  annual  volume 
(1948)  amounts  to  almost  200  million  pounds.  Di- 
butyl  phthalate,  dioctyl  phthalate,  and  tricresyl 
phosphate  are  in  considerable  demand  as  well  as 
castor  oil  and  certain  of  its  derivatives.  La  recent 
years,  plasticizers  of  higher  molecular  weight  are 
becoming  somewhat  more  important,  such  as  linear 
polycondensation  products  and  polymerization 
products.  Such  plasticizers  have  the  advantage  of 
being  very  permanent,  but  leave  considerable  -to  be 
desired  in  the  way  of  low-temperature  pliability 
and  in  workability  during  compounding. 

Plastics.  Production  has  increased  considerably 
during  1948,  since  increased  facilities  have  be- 
come available.  This  is  particularly  true  of  polysty- 
rene, the  production  in  1948  exceeding  100  million 
pounds  for  the  first  time,  and  polyvinyl  chloride, 
which  is  expected  to  exceed  200  million  pounds.  It 
is  increasingly  apparent  that  the  supplies  of  coal- 
tar  crudes  are  not  sufficiently  great  to  supply  the 
demand.  The  petroleum  chemicals  are,  therefore, 
being  used  to  supply  raw  materials  for  increased 
production  in  plastics. 

Resinography  has  been  proposed  as  the  name  for 
the  graphic  study  of  structures  in  resins  and  plas- 
tics. 

I.  Miscellaneous.  New  families  of  plastics  with 
high  impact  strength  made  from  copolymers  of 
butadiene  and  styrene  or  acrylonitrile,  and  blends 
of  polymers,  appeared  under  the  names  Versalite 
and  Tuf-lite.  These  materials  are  related  to  the 
synthetic  rubbers.  Large-area  signs  formed  from 
Lucite  or  Plexiglas  were  developed  for  novel  and 
effective  advertising  displays. 


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106 


CHSAUSTKY  AM  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


2.  Phenolic  Resins.  These  are  among  the  first  ma- 
terials used  as  plastics,  but  their  applications  and 
production  expand  annually.  In  recent  years,  their 
use  with  natural  and  synthetic  rubbers  has  been 
expanding,  and  mixtures  of  improved  toughness 
and  impact  strength  have  been  produced.   The 
range  of  phenolic  content  varies  considerably. 

3.  'Plaskon  420,  a  new  alkyd  molding  compound, 
a  hot  molding  therrnosetting  material  particularly 
notable  for  its  very  fast  cure  and  good  arc  resist- 
ance, was  announced. 

4.  Polychlorotrifluoroethylene,  an  unusually  stable, 
high  temperature  thermoplastic,  was  placed  on  the 
market  under  the  trade  name  Kel-F.  This  trans- 
parent material  is  resistant  to  attack  by  chemicals 
and  solvents,  is  a  good  electrical  and  heat  insulator, 
is  normally  rigid  and  strong,  and  is  tough  at  very 
low  temperatures. 

5.  Polystyrene.  The  production  of  this  plastic  ma- 
terial has  been  greatly  increased  and  it  is  finding 
wide  application  in  all  types  of  thermoplastic  mold- 
ing.  Some  of  these  will  yield  molded  products 
which  do  not  deform  in  boiling  water.  Styrene  is 
also  used  in  the  low-pressure  laminating  resins. 
These  resins  are  now  offered  with  varying  degrees 
of  stiffness,  and  improved  promoters  effect  a  cure 
without  heating.  The  polystyrene  copolymers  con- 
taining butadiene  have  found  a  wide  range  of  ap- 
plications. They  can  be  used  with  natural  and  syn- 
thetic rubbers  to  reinforce  and  harden  these  com- 
positions. Another  use  of  polystyrene  has  been  as  a 
starring  material  for  ion-exchange  resins. 

6.  Protective  Coatings.  Styrenated  oils  are  formed 
by  adding  styrene  or  a-methylstyrene  to  the  drying 
oils.  The  introduction  of  these  hydrocarbons  im- 
proves water  resistance  and  many  of  the  other 
properties  of  the  resulting  oil.  Styrenated  alkyds 
have  also  been  announced  and  are  finding  wide- 
spread acceptance  in  the  coatings  field.  By  heat 
bodying  mixtures  of  soya  and  tung  oils  under  con- 
trolled conditions,  a  combination  is  effected  which 
is  widely  used  to  replace  linseed  oil. 

7.  Silicons.  These  plastic  derivatives  are  finding 
many  new  applications  where  their  unique  proper- 
ties dictate  their  use.  Materials  have  been  made 
which  are  flexible  at  —150°  F.  and  will  withstand 
continued  service  at  500°  F.  The  direct  process  of 
forming  silicones  from  silicon  and  methyl  chloride 
is  meeting  with  success. 

8.  Synthetic  Rubbers.  The  quality  of  rubber  in 
tire  treads  has  been  greatly  improved  by  polymer- 
ization at  considerably  lower  temperatures,  through 
the  use  of  oxidation-reduction  systems  to  promote 
the  polymerization,  which  have  resulted  in  shorten- 
ing the  polymerization  to  a  reasonable  time.  The 
resulting  rubber  is  more  uniform  in  its  structure 
and  shows  greatly  improved  resistance  to  abrasion 
and  resistance  to  cut  growth.  Improvements  have 
also  been  effected  by  the  use  of  structural  blacks. 

9.  Vinyl  Chloride  Resins.  The  vinyl  chloride  resins 
are  meeting  expanding  markets,  and  the  paste  res- 
ins have  made  new  techniques  in  formulation  pos- 
sible. One  new  type  of  vinyl  chloride  resin  contains 
a.  small  content  of  hydroxyl  groups  along  the  chain. 
The  use  of  this  resin  with  the  oils  helps  reinforce 
the  dried  film.  There  is  considerable  interest  in 
polyacrylonitrile   and  its  copolymers,  particularly 
XL  synthetic  fibers. 

Polymerization.  In  the  study  of  polymerization 
cinetics  in  homogeneous  media,  data  on  the  rela- 
tive reactivity  of  monomers  in  copolymerization 
^ere.  published.  These  provide  information  on  the 
sffect  of  structure  on  reactivity  in  free  radical  re- 
ictions.  Studies  of  regulators  in  the  chain  transfer 
reaction  have  been  published,  Absolute  rates  of 


chain  growth  and  chain  termination  reactions  have 
been  reported  and  indicate  that  rapid  polymeriza- 
tion occurs  at  radical  concentrations  of  the  order 
of  IO'8  molar. 

In  emulsion  polymerization,  further  evidence 
that  the  locus  of  the  reaction  begins  in  the  soap 
micelles  and  continues  in  the  emulsion  particles  has 
been  obtained;  while  a  detailed  theory  of  the  kinet- 
ics of  the  reaction,  which  indicates  that  rate  de- 
pends primarily  upon  the  concentration  of  polymer 
particles,  has  been  developed.  Attention  has  been 
given  to  redox  systems  which  permit  emulsion 
polymerization  at  low  temperatures. 

The  greatest  advance  is  the  development  of 
Cold  GR-S,  a  butadiene-styrene  copolymer  pre- 
pared near  0°  C.  by  use  of  redox  systems  as  cata- 
lysts. Cold  GR-S,  used  in  conjunction  with  certain 
carbon  blacks  in  tires,  gives  a  tread-wear  apparent- 
ly superior  to  natural  rubber. 

Protein.  Electron  microscope  photographs  of  virus 
protein  crystals,  of  antigen-antibody  complexes, 
and  of  other  protein  structures,  have  revealed  much 
about  the  molecular  architecture  of  these  com- 
pounds. 

The  crystallization  of  serum  albumin,  both  hu- 
man and  bovine,  from  water-ethanol  mixtures  at 
low  temperature  and  low  ionic  strength  has  been 
effected.  The  addition  of  decanol  (0.1  percent) 
was  found  to  be  of  essential  importance  in  the 
crystallization  of  human  albumin.  A  new  technic 
was  reported  for  crystallization  of  serum  albumin 
with  mercuric  chloride. 

The  binding  affinity  of  albumin  is  extraordinarily 
great  for  a  variety  of  inorganic  and  organic  anions, 
and  such  reactions  quite  probably  play  an  impor- 
tant role  in  the  biological  function  of  serum  al- 
bumin. 

A  /3-globulin  (M.W,  90,000)  from  blood  plasma, 
which  binds  iron,  copper,  and  zinc,  was  crystal- 
lized. It  binds  two  iron  atoms  per  mole,  and  ap- 
pears to  function  as  the  essential  agent  for  carrying 
iron  in  blood  plasma.  The  affinity  for  copper  and 
zinc  is  much  weaker  than  for  iron. 

Accurate  amino  acid  analyses  were  made  by 
chromatographic  separation  of  protein  hydrolysates 
on  a  starch  column,  using  colorimetric  analysis. 

1.  Blood  Clotting.  A  new  factor  (Ac- globulin)  in 
the  blood  clotting  process  accelerates  the  conver- 
sion of  prothrombin  to  thrombin  in  the  presence  of 
calcium  ions  and  thromboplastin.  Highly  purified 
bovine  fibrinogen  and  highly  purified  human  fibrin- 
ogen  have  been  prepared.  A  very  extensive  study 
was  made  of  the  structure  of  the  fibrin  clot  as  a 
function  of  pH,  ionic  strength,  and  other  factors. 
The  structure  of  the  clot  can  be  varied  between 
two  extremes :  ( 1 )  an  opaque,  rubbery  type  at  rel- 
atively low  pH  (near  6.8)  and  low  ionic  strength; 
and  (2)  a  translucent,  friable  clot  at  higher  pH 
and  ionic  strength,  The  former  is  formed  by  ex- 
tensive aggregation  of  the  initially  formed  fibrin 
network  into  parallel  bundles;  the  latter  is  formed 
under  conditions  which  inhibit  this  aggregation. 
This  interpretation  has  been  demonstrated  by  elec- 
tron microscope  studies. 

2.  Diffusion,  The  new  interference  technic  permits 
the  determination  of  diffusion  constants  of  small 
molecules,  and  also  of  large  molecules  like  proteins, 
with  an  accuracy  of  the  order  of  0.1  percent. 

3.  Enzymes.   The  formation   of   an  intermediate 
compound  between  catalase  and  hydrogen  perox- 
ide now  seems  certain.  The  enzymes  aldolase  and 
glyceraldehyde    phosphate    dehydrogenase    were 
crystallized  and  the  prosthetic  group  of  the  latter 
enzyme  is  believed  to  be  diphosphopyridine  nu- 
cleotide. 


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CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


4.  Heme.   Employing  N-15  as   a  labelling  com- 
pound, it  has  been  shown  that  the  nitrogen  of  heme 
is  derived  from  glycine;   and  studies  with  C-14 
have  indicated  that  the  ^-carbon  of  glycine  is  in 
the  cuposition  of  the  pyrrole  nucleus,  while  the 
carboxyl  carbon  is  the  methine  carbon  of  the  por- 
phyrin  nucleus. 

5.  Reversible  Binding.   Cobaltodihistidine,   which 
reversibly  binds  and  gives  off  oxygen,  has  been  pre- 
pared. A  number  of  organic  chelate  compounds  be- 
have similarly. 

6.  Size.  Estimates  were  made  of  the  sizes  and 
shapes  of  a  number  of  blood  plasma  proteins  from 
sedimentation,  diffusion,  double  refraction  of  flow, 
viscosity,  and  osmotic  pressure  data.  Most  elongat- 
ed of  these  is  fibrinogen  (about  700  A  long  and  38  A 
in  cross-section).  The  ^-lipoprotein  of  human  plas- 
ma is  nearly  spherical  and  highly  hydrated,  with  a 
molecular  weight  of  1,300,000.   Serum   albumin, 
with  a  molecular  weight  of  69,000,  is  approximate- 
ly 150  A  long  and  38  A  in  cross-section. 

7.  Synthetic  Polypeptides.  Large  polymers  have 
been  obtained  of  lysine  as  well  as  copolymers  of 
leucine  and  phenylalanine. 

Sewage  and  Industrial  Wastes.  Research  has  been 
directed  toward  a  better  understanding  of  the  bio- 
chemical oxygen  demand  (B.O.D.)  test  and  a  study 
of  analytical  methods,  largely  through  grants-in-aid 
by  the  National  Institute  of  Health. 

The  most  important  advances  on  the  B.O.D.  de- 
termination were  the  application  of  manometric 
measurements  and  a  re-evaluation  of  the  velocity 
constant.  It  was  shown  that  the  24-hour,  25°  d 
demand  by  the  Warburg  manometric  measurement 
is  approximately  75  percent  of  the  standard  5-day 
value.  The  B.O.D.  reaction  velocity  constant  K 
is  not  0.1  but  varies  from  0.04  to  0.29  for  sew- 
ages, but  if  nitrification  is  taken  into  considera- 
tion the  variation  is  from  0.07  to  0.25.  More  than 
0.01  part  per  million  of  copper  or  of  0.3  part  per 
million  of  chromates  will  give  inaccurate  B.O.D. 
values;  copper  above  0.01  suppresses  the  B.O.D. 
and  more  than  0.3  parts  per  million  of  chromates 
inhibits  nitrification. 

Many  analytical  papers  dealt  with  new  or  im- 
proved procedures  for  phenol,  copper,  zinc,  cya- 
nides, chromium,  nickel,  grease,  oxygen  consumed, 
and  an  amperometric  titration  method  for  residual 
chlorine. 

Radioisotopes  in  Research.  Isotopes  produced  at 
Oak  Ridge  are  now  used  in  more  than  300  lab- 
oratories and  hospitals  in  this  country  and  abroad. 
Their  potential  uses  are  unlimited,  and  already 
there  are  approximately  1,000  individual  research 
projects  utilizing  isotopes. 

1.  Agricultural  Research.  Radioisotopes  are  aiding 
in  advancing  the  efficient  production  of  meat,  milk, 
and  eggs.  Eighteen  tracer  studies  on  the  process  of 
photosynthesis  are  presently  under  way.  Radioiso- 
topes are  used  also  in  the  development  of  better 
fertilizers:   how  plant  foods  are  most  effectively 
applied;  what  forms  of  fertilizer  are  best;  how  the 
plants  utilize  them.  Approximately  12  current  proj- 
ects are  aimed  at  a  better  understanding  of  how 
plant  diseases  and  pests  develop  and  attack  crops. 
Radioisotopes  afford  new  tests  for  the  efficacy  of 
insecticides  and  fungicides; 

The  application  of  radioactivity  on  plant  and 
animal  growth  seems  to  indicate  that  small  amounts 
of  radiation  may  stimulate  plant  growth. 

2.  Chemistry  and  Physics.  Radioisotopes  in  phys- 
ics are  aiding  in  the  understanding  of  the  funda- 
mental forces  which  bind  the  nucleus  together  by 
assisting  in  the  measurement  of  magnetic  moments 
and  spins.   In  chemistry,  isotopes  are  aiding  in 


studying  a  great  variety  of  processes,  such  as  mo- 
lecular formation,  diffusion  in  liquids  and  solids; 
interaction  among  gases,  liquids,  and  solids;  cata- 
lytic action,  solubility  of  materials,  complex  bio- 
chemical reactions,  and  many  other  phenomena. 
&  Education.  Now  that  isotopes  are  available,  a 
limiting  factor  in  their  widespread  utilization  is  the 
shortage  of  scientifically  trained  technicians.  Many 
universities  are  offering  courses  in  radioactivity  and 
the  U.S.  Atomic  Energy  Commission  has  educa- 
tional programs  under  way  at  their  national  labora- 
tories. Information  is  available  from  the  Technical 
Information  Division,  U.S.  Atomic  Energy  Com- 
mission. 

4.  Industrial   As   tracers,   radioisotopes   are  used 
widely  for  the  improvement  and  study  of  various 
processes.  Manufacturers  of  gasoline,  machinery, 
oil,  plastics,  rubber,  and  steel  are  only  a  few  of 
those  who  are  applying  tracer  research  to  bring 
about  better  and  more  economical  production  of 
their  products.  Radio  carbon  provides  investigators 
with  a  method  of  studying  diffusion  of  carbon  in 
iron.  Radio  iron  used  in  friction  experiments  reveals 
the  transfer  of  less  than   1,000  millionth  of  an 
ounce  of  material  from  one  moving  surface  to  an- 
other. In  the  petroleum  industry  isotopes  are  em- 
ployed for  surveying  and  locating  oil  deposits. 

In  the  rubber  industry,  vulcanization  and  poly- 
merization processes  are  studied  with  the  radioiso- 
topes of  sulfur.  In  the  rayon  industry,  where  sul- 
fur must  be  added  and  then  removed,  radio  sul- 
fur is  giving  extremely  accurate  information  on  the 
quantities  employed. 

Radiation  is  used  also  to  dissipate  static  elec- 
tricity which  collects  on  belts,  rolls  of  paper,  and 
other  moving  materials  in  factories. 

5.  Medical.  Isotopes  are  utilized  in  two  ways:  (1) 
as  sources  of  radiation,  particularly  in  the  treatment 
of  diseases;  and  ( 2 )  as  tracers  in  processes  former- 
ly difficult  or  impossible  to  observe. 

Employed  as  tracers,  radioisotopes  are  making 
their  greatest  contribution  in  the  unraveling  of  the 
complex,  kaleidoscopic  picture  of  life  processes  in 
both  medicine  and  biology.  In  medicine,  isotopes 
contribute  to  a  clearer  picture  of  how  the  living 
body  works.  In  hospitals  physicians  are  using  radio- 
isotopes  to  diagnose  various  circulatory  disorders, 
locating  malignant  tumors  and  supplying  important 
information  of  hematology. 

Radioiodine  is  used  successfully  in  the  treatment 
of  toxic  goiter,  since  nearly  all  iodine  in  the  human 
body  is  localized  in  the  thyroid,  although  treat- 
ment of  thyroid  cancer  by  radioiodine  has  been  less 
successful.  Similarly,  radio  phosphorous  concen- 
trates in  the  blood-producing  centers — the  bone 
marrow,  the  spleen  and  lymph  glands — and  is  used 
in  the  treatment  of  certain  blood  abnormalities 
such  as  a  polycythemia.  The  possibilities  of  em- 
ploying radioisotopes  in  the  fight  against  cancer  is 
of  major  interest,  and  the  Atomic  Energy  Commis- 
sion is  distributing  radioisotopes  free  for  such 
studies.  Metallic  cobalt,  when  irradiated  in  the 
pile,  emits  radiations  similar  to  radium  and  there  is 
hope  that  it  may  eventually  come  into  general  use 
in  cancer  treatment  since  it  can  be  made  inexpen- 
sively and  fabricated  into  special  applicators. 

Essentially  the  problem  is  to  find  molecules 
which  will  localize  in  specific  diseased  body  tissues. 
These  molecules  will  then  be  tagged  with  radioiso- 
topes which  will  provide  effective  radioactivity  ^ 
Used  as  tracers,  radioisotopes  will  aid  in  determin- 
ing which  molecules  can  be  localized  in  malignant 
growths. 

Starch.  Progress  in  the  chemistry  of  starch  during 
the  year  was  made  in  a  number  of  areas,  as  in: 


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108 


CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


1.  Acid  Hydrolysis.  The  a~l56-glycoside  linkage  is 
less  susceptible  to  hydrolysis  than  is  the  cul,4-link~ 
age.  The  latter  has  greater  stability  in  cyclic  struc- 
tures such  as  the  Schardinger  dextrins  than  it  does 
in  linear  structures. 

2.  Amglases,     Crystalline     j3-amylase,     bacterial 
a-amylase,    pancreatic    a-amylase,    and    salivary 
a-amylase  were  isolated.  Through  use  of  these  en- 
zymes, the  action  of  amylases  on  starch  may  be  as- 
certained. 

3.  Applications,  A  number  of  papers  and  patents 
deal  with  the  chemical  and  physical  structure  of 
starch  granules,  colloidal  properties  of  starch,  fer- 
mentation, paper  sizing,  textile  sizing,  etc. 

4.  Derivatives.  The  starch  aryl  carbamates  have 
been  prepared  and  characterized.  Considerable  dif- 
ference  was   found   between   the   derivatives    of 
amylose    and   amylopectin.    Starch    tricarbanilate 
was  fractionated  into  two  components  by  use  of 
ethyl  acetate. 

5.  Enzyme  Action.  One  theory  of  enzymatic  hy- 
drolysis proposes  that  when  P-amylase  contacts  an 
amylose  molecule,  the  chain  is  degraded  complete- 
ly before  another  amylose  molecule  is  attacked.  All 
crystalline  a-amylases  appear  to  effect  complete  hy- 
drolysis of  amylose  to  glucose  (13  percent)  and 
maltose  (87  percent). 

6.  Fractionation.   Amylose   may   be   precipitated 
from  an  alkaline  starch  paste  (pH  8)  by  the  use  of 
thymol  or  other  phenols. 

7.  Iodine  Reaction.  From  thermodynamical  con- 
siderations, it  is  proposed  that  the  starch-iodine 
complex  is  dipolar.  Residues  of  4  to  6  glucose 
units  give  no  coloration  with  iodine,  those  of  8  to 
12  give  red  with  a  peak  at  520  millimicrons,  and 
those  of  about  30  or  more  give  blue  with  a  peak 
at  600  millimicrons, 

8.  Phosphorylase   Action.    Muscle    phosphorylase 
can  degrade   glycogen  and  amylopectin  beyond 
branched    junctures.    Potato   phosphorylase,    like 
A-amylase,  however,  is  apparently  unable  to  pass 
a  branched  juncture.  Neither  is  capable  of  splitting 
the  0-1,6-glycoside  linkages.  Isophosphorylase,  iso- 
lated from  potato  juice,  appears  to  be  capable  of 
synthesizing  a  branched  structure  and  of  splitting 
the  cul^-glycoside  Linkage. 

9.  Properties  and  Structure.   3,5-Dinitrosalicylate 
has  been  used  as  an  oxidizing  agent  for  end  group 
analysis.  Com  amylose  gives  values  ranging  from 
200  to  2,100  glucose  residues.  Periodate  on  amylose 
indicates  one  reducing  group  per  250  glucose  resi- 
dues. Crystalline  addition  compounds  of  amylose 
appear  to  have  a  repeat  period  of  6  glucose  resi- 
dues. Molecular  weight  of  com  amylose  subtrac- 
tions by  osmometry  ranges  from  200  to  675  glucose 
residues.  , 

Synthetic  Organic  Chemistry.  The  recent  rapid 
growth  of  the  synthetic  organic  chemical  industry 
stems  in  a  large  measure  to  3  influences:  (1)  the 
postwar  need  for  chemicals;  (2)  the  availability  of 
intelligence  reports  describing  German  practices; 
and  (3)  the  postwar  boom. 

The  production  of  formaldehyde,  acetaldehyde, 
acetone,  methanol,  and  other  chemicals  by  the  air 
oxidation  of  butane  and  propane  ( liquid  petroleum 
gas)  is  an  important  development.  This  process 
also  provides  acetic  acid  and  ketene  (from  ace- 
tone ),  which  are  used  in  synthetic  fiber  operations. 
The  production  is  sufficiently  large  to  warrant  the 
establishment  of  a  tanker  service  for  the  delivery 
of  formaldehyde.  Ethylene  has  displaced  black- 
strap as  the  major  source  of  industrial  alcohol. 

Fatty  acids  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  soaps 
are  obtained  by  the  air  oxidation  of  the  higher 
to  CJ  paraffins. 


Advances  were  made  in  the  field  of  protective 
coatings  where  unsaturated  glycerides  have  been 
supplemented  by  a  wide  variety  of  synthetics  such 
as  allyl  ethers  and  vinyl  esters. 

The  oxo  or  carbonylation  reaction  is  now  used  in 
the  production  of  acetic  acid  from  methanol  and 
glycolic  acid  from  formaldehyde,  and  isooctyl  alco- 
hols from  heptene. 

Three  potential  processes  for  the  commercial 
synthesis  of  lysine  were  reported.  Methionine  and 
tryptophan  are  now  available  in  commercial  quan- 
tities and  up  to  100  pounds  of  any  of  the  other  es- 
sential amino  acids  can  now  be  obtained. 

The  Dowanols  are  obtained  by  the  addition  of 
alcohols  to  propylene  oxide  to  give  products  such 
as  l-methoxy-2-propanol. 

In  the  nitration  of  propane,  conversion  on  a  lab- 
oratory scale  has  been  stepped  up  to  76  percent. 

The  Willstatter  synthesis  of  cyclooctatetraene 
was  repeated,  and  the  product  obtained  is  identical 
with  that  from  the  catalytic  polymerization  of  acet- 
ylene. 

Synthetic  Rubber.  Details  of  the  manufacture  of 
GR-S  were  published.  Investigators  separated 
GR-S  into  molecular  weight  fractions  and  deter- 
mined the  effect  of  the  molecular  weight  on 
strength,  processability,  and  tire  wear. 

1.  Latices.  Since  early  in  1948,  the  production  of 
American-made  latices  has  exceeded  the  consump- 
tion of  natural  latex  in  U.S.  Processes  were  further 
developed  for  incorporating  carbon  black,  oxidized 
lignin,  and  resins  into  synthetic  latices. 

2.  Low  Temperature.  The  outstanding  development 
in  American-made  rubber  during  the  year  was  the 
increased  manufacture  and  use  of  copolymers  of 
butadiene  and  styrene  prepared  at  temperatures 
ranging  from  0°  F.  to  41°  F.  instead  of  the  122°  F. 
temperature  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
GR-S.   Low-temperature  rubber,   which   contains 
less  low-molecular-weight  polymers,  has  a  tensile 
strength  and  elongation  equivalent  to  natural  rub- 
ber, combined  with  resistance  to  abrasion  and  flex- 
cracking  superior  to  GR-S. 

S.  Monomers.  Substituted  vinyl  pyridines  and  bu- 
tadiene make  a  rubber  superior  in  several  respects 
to  GR-S.  Butadiene  was  copolymerized  with  11 
different  nuclearly  substituted  a-rnethylstyrenes, 
20  halogenated  styrenes,  2-vinylfuran,  2-vinylthio- 
phene,  methacrylonitrile,  and  vinylidene  chloride. 

4.  Production.   American-made  rubbers   averaged 
41,000  long  tons  production  per  month,  of  which 
about  80  percent  was  GR-S.  Consumption  of  Amer- 
ican-made rubbers  was  about  41  percent  of  the 
total  new  rubber  consumed  in  the  United  States, 

5.  Rubber-Resin  Mixtures.  There  is  a  pronounced 
trend  toward  the  use  of  mixtures  of  rubbers  and 
resins.  Copolymers  of  butadiene  and  styrene  con- 
taining 80—95  percent  of  styrene  were  used  exten- 
sively as  reinforcing  agents  in   crude  rubber  to 
increase  hardness,  rigidity  and  strength,  and  have 
found  extensive  use  in  footwear.  Phenolic  resins 
were  incorporated  in  GR-S  and  in  copolymers  of 
butadiene  and  acrylonitrile  to  make  leather  sub- 
stitutes, gasket  materials,  and  adhesives.  Extensive 
use  was  made  of  nitrile  rubbers  in  vinyl  chloride 
resins  as  auxiliary  plasticizers. 

6.  Specialty.  Emphasis  was  on  the  production  of 
rubbers  with  special  properties.  Several  types  of 
butadiene  copolymers  were  produced  for  electric 
insulation.  Other  specialty  rubbers  have  non-stain- 
ing properties.,  improved  processing,  and  improved 
tack.  Fabrication  techniques  were  investigated  to 
permit   effective    use    of  silicon    rubbers,    which 
possess  good  thermal  stability  from  —70°  F.   to 
+500°  F. 


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109 


CHEMISTRY  AND  CHEMICAL  TECHNOLOGY 


Tumor  Enxymology,  An  enzymatic  reaction  occurs 
in  liver  and  kidney  by  which  a  variety  of  2,4-diketo 
acids  yield  pyruvic  acid  and  a  fatty  acid;  B'CO 
CH2-CO*C02H  4-  H20  -»  R-CO2H  ~f  CH,*CO- 
COJH.  This  reaction  is  suggestive  of  a  possible 
pathway  for  the  conversion  of  fat  to  carbohydrate. 
It  is  markedly  diminished  in  all  tumors  studied. 

The  conversion  of  normal  tissue  into  a  cancer  is 
accompanied  by  a  considerable  increase  in  the 
enzymatic  capacity  to  hydrolyze  the  unsaturated 
peptide  bond,  R-CO-N  =  CR'-.  The  so-called  de- 
hydropeptidase  activity  of  all  tumors  studied  is 
extremely  high.  The  significance  of  this  observa- 
tion, however,  is  still  unknown.  The  saturated 
peptide  bond,  R-CO-NH-CHR'-,  is  also  hydro- 
lyzed  with  great  rapidity  in  rumors,  but  only  when 
R  and  R'  are  certain  amino  acid  residues.  Thus, 
glycylalanine  is  hydrolyzed  in  cancer  tissues  much 
more  slowly  than  its  isomer,  alanylglycine.  It  is 
conceivable  that  the  arrangement  of  amino  acids  in 
certain  proteins  of  cancer  tissues  may  be  different 
from  that  of  normal  proteins. 

Vitamin  B^  was  isolated  in  crystalline  form  and 
early  clinical  investigations  indicate  that  it  is  ef- 
fective in  doses  of  0.001  milligrams  per  day  in  the 
treatment  of  pernicious  anemia. 

Spectrographic  analysis  shows  the  presence  of 
cobalt  The  red  color  of  the  compound  appears  to 
be  associated  with  its  cobalt-complex  character. 
The  isolation  of  similar  red  needle-like  crystals 
was  effected  from  liver  by  British  workers,  who 
confirmed  the  presence  of  cobalt.  The  presence  of 
both  phosphorus  and  nitrogen  have  been  reported, 
but  tests  for  sulfur  were  negative. 

A  growth  factor  requirement  of  LactobaciUus 
lactisf  Dorner,  has  been  reported  which  bears  an 
almost  linear  relationship  to  the  unit  potency  of 
the  extracts  used  in  the  treatment  of  pernicious 
anemia.  Clinical  tests  using  impure  concentrates 
were  confirmed  and  a  positive  hematological  re- 
sponse noted  in  two  cases  of  Addisonian  pernicious 
anemia  to  single  injections  of  6  and  15  micrograms 
of  vitamin  B12  respectively.  Favorable  responses 
were  obtained  with  its  use  in  two  cases  of  macro- 
cytic  anemia  and  one  case  of  non-tropical  sprue. 

If  so  indicated,  potent  doses  of  the  new  vitamin 
may  be  given  without  physical  discomfort  to  the 
patient  and  there  is  preliminary  evidence  that  by 
the  use  of  a  sufficiently  large  single  dose  it  may 
be  possible  to  produce  a  prolonged  remission  in 
pernicious  anemia.  The  need  for  frequent  admin- 
istration of  large  doses  of  liver  extract  may  be  elim- 
inated. 

Tests  with  chicks  and  rats  indicate  the  possibility 
that  vitamin  B^  is  the  animal  protein  factor. 

Wood,  Cellulose  and  Paper.  Marked  scientific  and 
technologic  progress  in  the  fields  of  cellulose,  pa- 
per, and  wood  has  continued. 

Two  new  rosin  acids,  neoabietic  and  isodextro- 
pimaric  acids,  have  been  isolated  from  Pinus  pa" 
lustris.  A  new  3-hydroxyfiavanone  was  isolated  from 
Douglas  Fir  wood  and  shown  to  cause  the  wood 
to  resist  sulfite  pulping  in  a  manner  similar  to  Erdt- 
man's  hydroxystilbene  derivatives.  Unusual  7-mem- 
bered  carbocyclic  compounds,  including  dehydro- 
perillic  acid,  were  found  in  Western  Red  Cedar 
and  are  believed  to  be  partially  responsible  for 
the  resistance  of  the  wood  to  decay. 

There  is  further  evidence  for  the  existence  of  a 
long  repeating  period  (500  glucosidic  linkages)  in 
fibrous  cellulose.  Extensive  studies  were  reported 
on  methods  of  determining  oxidized  celluloses.  In- 
vestigations of  the  distribution  of  substituent  groups 
in  cellulose  esters  and  ethers  were  made;  preferen- 
tial substitution  of  the  primary  alcoholic  group  was 


shown.  Comparisons  of  methods  for  the  determina- 
tion of  crystalline-amorphous  ratios  in  celluloses 
showed  that  different  results  are  obtained  by  chem- 
ical and  physical  means.  An  exchange  reaction  of 
cellulose  with  heavy  water  was  suggested  as  a  new 
means  of  measuring  crystalline-amorphous  ratio 
and  the  chemical  method  has  been  improved. 

Improved  methods  have  been  developed  for  the 
separation  of  the  carbohydrate  fraction  of  wood 
(holoceHulose)  from  lignin  and  have  shown  the 
beneficial  effect  of  hemicelluloses  on  some  o£  the 
properties  of  pulps.  There  is  definite  evidence  for 
the  presence  of  mannans  in  hardwood  holocellulo- 
ses  and  that  the  resulting  ^-celluloses  contain  com- 
bined mannose  units.  Presumptive  evidence  for  a 
bond  between  lignin  and  carbohydrate  or  wood 
was  provided. 

Progress  has  been  made  in  the  recovery  and  utili- 
zation of  sulfite  waste  liquor.  One  pulp  mill  con- 
structed a  plant  to  use  magnesium  bisulfite  as  the 
cooking  chemical  and  will  evaporate  and  recover 
the  inorganic  chemicals.  Ammonia-base  liquor  also 
is  used  by  several  companies.  Alcohol  is  being  made 
at  two  plants  by  direct  fermentation,  and  construc- 
tion was  started  on  a  plant  to  utilize  the  ferment- 
able pentose  as  well  as  hexose  sugars  for  the  pro- 
duction of  torula  yeasts. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  world  supply  of  vanil- 
lin continues  to  be  made  from  sulfite  waste  liquor 
and  lignosulfonic  acids.  Esters  of  vanilh'c  acid  were 
shown  to  be  excellent  food  preservatives.  Other 
derivatives  of  vanillin  (5-hydroxymercurivanillin) 
show  promise  as  disinfectants.  The  equivalent  of 
one-third  to  one-half  of  the  total  fuel  requirements 
of  an  integrated  pulp  and  paper  mill  are  provided 
by  the  combustion  of  the  kraft  black  liquor. 

Use  of  concentrated  spent  sulfite  liquor  as  a  sup- 

Element  to  tannin  has  increased  considerably.  So 
as  its  use  as  an  adhesive  in  core  binding  in  metal 
casting,  briquets  for  smelting  and  fuel,  and  road 
conditioning. 

The  recovery  of  over  100,000  tons  per  year  of 
fatty  and  resin  acids  from  black  liquor  in  kraft  pa- 
per manufacture  is  now  a  general  practice.  Sulfate 
turpentine  recovery  is  equal  to  the  volume  of  gum 
turpentine  obtained  by  the  naval  stores  industry. 

Use  of  melamine  and  urea-formaldehyde  resins 
in  kraft  paper  and  board  production  has  resulted 
in  strong  water-resistant  containers  adequate  for 
overseas  shipment  and  exposure  to  the  weather  and 
other  adverse  conditions  hitherto  beyond  the  power 
of  fiber  containers  to  resist.  Multiwall  bags  are  tak- 
ing over  the  field  of  shipping  containers.  The  sup- 
plemental bonding  by  gums,  synthetic  materials, 
and  resins,  at  the  points  of  fiber  contact  in  the 
web,  has  created  the  possibility  of  paper  of  greater 
strength  and  the  use  of  shorter  fibered  pulps  in 
greater  proportion  in  the  production  of  paper  of 
equal  strength. 

The  difference  between  consumption  and  pro- 
duction is  almost  entirely  made  up  by  the  duty-free 
importation  of  standard  newsprint  from  Canada, 
Newfoundland,  and  Europe.  This  amounted  to  3,~ 
957,000  tons  in  1947  and  4,135,000  in  1948.  In 
1947,  imports  of  paper  and  paperboard  were  158,- 
578  tons,  and  exports  were  352,462  tons. 

There  are  95  million  tons  of  fibrous  agricultural 
residues  destroyed  annually,  which  are  capable  of 
economic  use  for  the  integrated  manufacture  of 
newsprint,  book,  tissue  and  fine  papers,  corrugating 
paper  and  paperboard,  and  wallboard.  Utilization 
of  only  5  percent  of  this  agricultural  fibrous  ma- 
terial is  sufficient  for  the  supply  of  22  large  modern 
integrated  paper  and  board  mills  capable  of  pro- 
ducing annually  2,400,000  tons  of  newsprint, 


CHESS 


110 


CHILE 


2,280,000  tons  of  corrugated  paper  and  paper- 
board,  and  2,340  million  board  feet  of  insulating 
structural  wallboard. 

Wood  pulp  production  in  the  United  States  was 
reported  by  the  Bureau  o£  Census  to  total  11,153,,- 
052  tons  In  1947.  Imports  in  1947  were  2,012,727 
tons,  whereas  exports  were  134,855  tons. 

Credit  for  Source  Material  Supplied,  J.  L.  Bray, 
Purdue  Univ.;  E.  C.  Britton,  Dow  Chemical  Co.; 
J.  M.  Campbell,  General  Motors  Corp.;  H.  W. 
Chadduck,  Merck  and  Co.;  A.  K.  Doolittle,  Carbide 
and  Carbon  Chemicals  Corp.;  J.  T.  Edsall,  Harvard 
Medical  School;  J,  D.  Edwards,  Aluminum  Com- 
pany of  America;  G.  Egloff,  Universal  Oil  Products 
Co.;  H.  Feuer,  Purdue  Univ.;  J:  P.  Greenstein,  Na- 
tional Institute  of  Health;  P.  H.  Groggins,  U.S.D.A.; 
E.  Haenisch,  Villanova  College;  H.  B.  Hass,  Pur- 
due Univ.;  J.  B.  Hester,  Campbell  Soup  Co.;  E. 
W.  D.  Huffman,  Huffman  Microanalytical  Labora- 
tories; E.  H.  Huntress,  Massachusetts  Inst  of  Tech- 
nology; H.  W.  Kerr,  Corn  Products  Refining  Co.; 
W.  A.  Kirklin,  Hercules  Powder;  P.  K.  Knoefel, 
Univ.  of  LouisviHe;  J.  C.  Krantz,  Univ.  of  Mary- 
land; S.  Peat,  Univ.  College  of  North  Wales;  W.  W. 
Pigman,  Institute  of  Paper  Chemistry;  H.  W.  Post, 
Univ.  of  Buffalo;  P.  O.  Powers,  Batelle  Memorial 
Institute;  M.  M.  Renfrew,  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours 
and  Co.;  E.  R.  Riegel,  Univ.  of  Buffalo;  G.  T.  Sea- 
borg,  Univ.  of  California;  R.  N.  Shreve,  Purdue 
Univ.;  H.  N.  Stevens,  B.  F.  Goodrich  Co.;  L.  A. 
Sweet,  Parke,  Davis  and  Co.;  H.  G.  Swope,  Argonne 
National  Laboratory;  A.  F,  Thompson,  U.S.  Atomic 
Energy  Commission;  B.  M.  Vanderbilt,  Esso  Lab- 
oratories; C.  T.  Wailing,  U.S.  Rubber  Co.;  C.  E. 
White,  Univ.  of  Maryland;  and  C.  C.  Wright,  Penn- 
sylvania State  College.  — ED.  F.  DEGERING 

CHESS.  With  a  score  of  14-6,  Mikhail  Botvinnik, 
36-year-old  Russian  grand  master,  easily  won  the 
world's  chess  championship,  vacant  since  the  death 
of  Alexander  Alekhine  in  1946.  The  round-robin, 
first  tournament  ever  held  for  the  title,  saw  each  of 
the  five  players  meeting  every  other  player  five 
times.  It  was  held  in  March,  April,  and  May,  at  the 
Hague  (two  rounds)  and  at  Moscow  (three  rounds). 
Vassily  Smyslov,  Botyinnik's  countryman,  surprised 
by  taking  second  place  (11-9),  with  Samuel  Re~ 
shevsky  of  the  United  States  and  Paul  Keres  of  the 
U.S.S.R.  tying  for  third  ( lO^Q1^).  Former  world's 
champion  Max  Euwe  of  the  Netherlands  was  a 
-  disappointing  last  (4-16).  Reuben  Fine  of  the 
United  States,  though  invited,  did  not  compete. 

The  principal  international  event,  aside  from  the 
championship,  was  the  interzonal  tournament  at 
Saltsjobaden,  Sweden,  where  six  of  the  first  seven 
places  were  captured  by  the  Russian  contingent. 
Szabo  of  Hungary  finished  second  to  Bronstein, 
with  Boleslavsky,  Kotov,  and  Lilienthal  qualifying 
for  the  1949  tournament  which  will  determine  the 
challenger  for  Botvinnik's  title.  The  five  will  meet 
the  unsuccessful  players  of  the  1948  championship 
tournament,  including  Fine  as  well. 

International  chess  returned  to  New  York  for 
the  first  time  since  1927  with  a  Christmas  week 
tournament  won  by  Fine  over  Najdorf,  Pilnik,  and 
Euwe,  among  others.  In  other  international  events, 
Szabo  won  the  1947-48  Hastings  tournament; 
Prins  led  at  Eeverwrjk;  Eliskases  won  the  XI  Mar 
del  Plata  tourney;  Najdorf  was  first  at  La  Plata 
and  at  Venice;  Szabo  again  triumphed  at  Buda- 
pest; Foltys  beat  Barcza  by  a  half-point  at  Carls- 
bad-Marienbad;  Lundin  took  first  prize  at  Bad 
Gastein;  Rossolimo  finished  on  top  in  the  1948-49 
Hastings  congress. 

Herman  Steiner  became  U.S.  champion  in  a 


round-robin  at  South  Fallsburg,  N.Y.,  while  Weav- 
er Adams  took  the  U.S.  Open  at  Baltimore  in  a 
Swiss-system  tournament.  Mrs.  Gisella  Gresser  and 
Miss  N.  May  Karri  tied  for  the  U.S.  women's  cham- 
pionship. Arthur  Bisguier  was  national  junioi 
champion,  Robert  Byrne  both  speed  and  intercol- 
legiate (Yale)  champion.  City  College  of  New 
York  finished  ahead  of  Yale  and  Syracuse  for  the 
H.  M.  Phillips  intercollegiate  trophy. 

Among  the  national  champions  were  Julio  Bol- 
bochan  (Argentina),  C.  J.  S.  Purdy  (Australian 
Open),  Galia  (Austria),  Devos  (Belgium),  Tsvet- 
kov  and  Neikirch  (Bulgaria),  Richter  and  Zita 
(Czechoslovakia),  Enevoldsen  (Denmark),  Rosso- 
nmo  (France),  Unzicker  (Germany),  Broadbent 
(Great  Britain),  Edith  Price  (British  women's), 
P.  Benko  (Hungary),  B.  Moeller  (Iceland — he 
won  the  Nordic  championship  as  well,  among 
players  from  Iceland,  Norway,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Finland),  Castaldi  (Italy),  Euwe  (Nether- 
lands), Wade  (New  Zealand),  Barda  (Norway), 
Makarczyk  (Poland),  Ekstrom  (Sweden),  Chris- 
toffel  (Switzerland),  Bronstein  and  Kotov  (U.S.S.R.). 

— JEROME  FRIED 

CHILDREN'S  FUND  OF  MICHIGAN.  A  Fund  established 
by  James  Couzens  with  a  gift  of  $10,000,000  in 
1929  to  promote  the  health,  welfare,  happiness, 
and  development  of  children  in  Michigan,  prima- 
rily, and  elsewhere  in  the  world.  During  the  fiscal 
year  ended  Apr.  30,  1948,  a  total  of  $752,910  was 
expended.  Total  assets  on  that  date  were  $4,779,- 
162.  Chief  officer:  Wm.  J.  Norton,  660  Frederick 
St.,  Detroit  2,  Mich. 

CHILE.  A  Republic  of  South  America,  divided  into 
three  geographic  zones:  the  Andes,  the  central  val- 
leys, and  the  Coast.  The  North  is  arid,  the  central 
area  temperate,  and  the  South  is  wet  and  cold. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  286,396  square  miles. 
Population  (1947):  5,522,000,  of  whom  about  80 
percent  were  of  European  descent;  15  percent  mes- 
tizos, and  5  percent  Indians.  Principal  cities:  San- 
tiago (capital),  639,546  inhabitants  in  1940;  Val- 
paraiso, 215,614;  and  Concepcion,  92,364. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  Roman  Catholicism  is 
predominant.  Spanish  is  the  official  language. 
Eighty  percent  of  the  total  population  is  literate! 
In  the  academic  year  1946-47,  there  were  over 
5,400  official  primary  schools  with  nearly  600,000 
students.  Chile  has  nearly  500  intermediate  schools 
or  institutions  that  could  be  classified  as  such. 
Higher  education  is  provided  by  the  National  Uni- 
versity of  Chile,  the  University  of  Concepcion,  the 
Catholic  University  of  Chile,  the  Catholic  Univer- 
sity of  Valparaiso,  and  five  other  specialized  in- 
stitutions of  higher  learning. 

Production.  Chilean  economy  is  closely  associated 
with  mining,  especially  copper  and  nitrates.  Min- 
eral production  in  1947  was  estimated  at  (metric 
tons):  copper,  428,000;  nitrate,  1,631,223;  iron 
ore,  1,737,553;  coal,  2,079,116.  Other  important 
minerals  are  gold,  silver,  manganese,  mercury,  mo- 
lybdenite, lead,  and  tungsten.  Important  items  of 
agricultural  production  in  1946—47  (metric  quin- 
tals) were:  wheat,  8,957,377;  barley,  1,064,457; 
oats,  766,446;  potatoes,  6,171,083;  rice,  872,347; 
kidney  beans,  824,530;  sunflower  seed,  291,857. 

The  cattle  population  was  estimated  at  2,385,641 
head  in  1946;  meat  production  in  1947  amounted 
to  86,400  metric  tons.  Wine  and  chichas  produc- 
tion totaled  262,861  liters  in  1947.  Principal  lines 
of  industrial  production  included  cotton  fabrics 
(22,808  metric  tons  in  1947).  The  following  fig- 


CHILE 


111 


CHILE 


tires  represent  the  production  of  the  chief  factories 
in  1948:  wool  fabrics,  5,773,195  meters;  silk  fab- 
rics, 1,920,298  meters;  hemp  and  jute  fabrics, 
2,734,474  meters;  footwear,  3,423,936  units;  paper, 
16,392,601  kilograms,  and  cement,  579,906  metric 
tons. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1947,  total  exports  amounted  to 
$280  million;  imports  to  $270  million.  Foreign 
trade  for  the  first  eight  months  of  1948  showed 
imports  valued  at  836.5  million  gold  pesos;  exports 
at  925.7  million  gold  pesos  (U.S.$I.OO  equals  4.85 
Chilean  gold  pesos).  Chilean  foreign  trade  is 
mostly  with  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  Ar- 
gentina, France,  Italy,  and  Brazil.  Exports  of  agri- 
cultural products  in  1948  were  estimated  as  sub- 
stantially exceeding  those  of  recent  years,  because 
exporters  of  farm  products  were  permitted  some 
advantages  in  the  purchase  of  foreign  exchange. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  placed  1948  expendi- 
tures at  10,452  million  pesos  (one  peso  equals 
U.S.  $0.032);  revenue  at  9,618  million;  the  deficit 
to  be  met  by  special  taxes  created  by  the  1947 
Emergency  Financing  Law.  The  1947  budget 
showed  revenue  of  9,978,800,000  pesos;  expendi- 
ture of  9,610,500,000  pesos.  Chile's  direct  public 
debt  at  the  end  of  1947  was  7,661  million  pesos; 
indirect  debt,  1,767  million  pesos.  Currency  in  cir- 
culation on  the  same  date  was  3,677  million  pesos; 
bank  deposits,  7,965  million  pesos;  gold  reserves, 
$45,000,000.  The  cost  of  living  index  at  the  end 
of  1947  was  403  (1937  =100). 

Transportation.  The  country  has  5,810  miles  of 
railroad,  which  in  1947  carried  a  monthly  average 
of  193,000,000  net  ton-kilometers  of  freight.  There 
are  29,921  miles  of  roads  (1945),  of  which  some 
25,000  are  fit  for  motor  traffic,  Chile  is  served  by 
important  national  and  international  airlines 
through  6  civilian  and  2  government  airports. 
There  are  over  100  vessels  flying  the  Chilean  flag. 

Government.  Chile  is  a  centralized  republic  of 
25  provinces.  Under  the  constitution  of  Sept.  18, 

1945,  the  legislative  power  rests  in  a  national  Con- 
gress composed  of  a  Senate  of  45  members  ( elected 
for  8  years )  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  the  pro- 

Eortion  of  one  for  each  30,000  inhabitants  ( elected 
Dr  four  years).  The  President  is  elected  for  a  6- 
year  term  and  is  assisted  by  a  Cabinet.  On  Sept.  4, 

1946,  Gabriel  Gonzalez  Videla  was  elected  Presi- 
dent, and  was  inaugurated  on  November  31. 

Events,  1948.  The  political  life  of  Chile  during 
the  year  was  characterized  by  the  strong  anti- 
Communist  stand  taken  by  President  Gonzalez 
Videla,  both  on  the  domestic  and  international 
fronts;  by  the  ultra-nationalistic  line  followed  by 
the  administration;  and  by  the  sensational  claims 
made  to  the  Antarctic  region.  All  of  this  was  a 
sharp-  departure  from  Gonzalez  Videla's  political 
pre-election  platform,  when  he  courted  the  co- 
operation of  flie  Communists  and  labor  groups. 

Politics  and  Poetry.  Early  in  the  year,  the  most 
significant  event  pointing  out  the  gap  existing  be- 
tween the  leftist  element  and  the  Government  was 
provided  by  the  inflammatory  speeches  made  in 
Congress  by  Communist  Senator  Pablo  Neruda. 
One  of  the  most  outstanding  poets  in  Latin  Amer- 
ica, Neruda  is  well-known  in  international  literary 
circles.  When  he  attacked  the  Government  various 
Senators  started  a  movement  to  cancel  his  creden- 
tials on  the  grounds  of  defamation,  and  he  was 
deprived  of  his  parliamentary  immunity,  thus  open- 
ing the  door  to  legal  action  against  him.  Neruda 
appealed  to  the  Supreme  Court  and  later,  when  he 
was  sentenced  by  a  lower  court,  took  asylum  in 
the  Mexican  Embassy,  fearing  an  attack  on  his  life. 
This  caused  diplomatic  tension  between  the  Mexi- 


can and  Chilean  governments,  which  was  later 
eased  when  the  Mexican  Ambassador  explained 
that  Senator  Neruda  was  not  a  political  refugee  but 
merely  his  guest. 

The  Neruda  incident  was  followed  by  a  series 
of  anti-Communist  measures  taken  by  the  Govern- 
ment. President  Gonzalez  Videla  introduced  a  bill 
in  Congress  asking  for  adequate  legislation  on  the 
following  points:  proscription  of  the  Communist 
Party  and  the  Confederation  of  Chilean  Workers 
(C.T.Ch.),  a  strong  Communist  organization;  cre- 
ation of  a  new  federation  of  workers  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Socialist  Party;  dismissal  of  all 
Communists  from  public  offices  and  administra- 
tive positions  in  labor  unions;  disenfranchisement 
of  all  persons  belonging  to  the  Communist  Party. 
The  Communists,  from  their  newspaper  El  Siglo, 
fought  the  proposed  legislation  and  claimed  that 
the  Government  had  arrested  more  than  1,000 
workers  and  kept  them  in  concentration  camps 
without  due  process  of  law.  Shortly  thereafter,  Vi- 
dela's  Government  was  accused  by  various  non- 
Communist  newspapers  in  Mexico  and  the  United 
States  of  being  the  only  Latin  American  country 
maintaining  concentration  camps  for  political  pris- 
oners, among  whom  were  many  Loyalist  Spanish 
refugees  who  came  to  Chile  after  the  Spanish  Civil 
War. 

CoJbmef  Reshuffling.  On  June  22,  there  was  a  large 
popular  demonstration  protesting  against  the  high 
cost  of  living.  No  disturbances  were  seen,  but  the 
Government  ordered  the  arrest  of  various  labor 
leaders,  accusing  them  of,  instigating  the  move- 
ment. Meanwhile,  the  anti-Communist  legislation 
was  being  discussed  in  Congress  where  it  met  op- 
position from  non-Communist  groups,  especially 
from  Arturo  Alessandri,  ex-President  of  the  Re- 
public and  father  of  the  present  Chilean  Constitu- 
tion, and  from  Eduardo  Cruz  Coke,  presidential 
candidate  of  the  Conservative  Party  in  1946. 

President  Videla  held  a  series  of  meetings  with 
leaders  of  the  Liberal  and  Conservative  parties, 
and  on  July  7  reorganized  his  Cabinet,  bringing 
in  representatives  of  various  parties  with  the  pur- 
pose of  strengthening  his  position.  In  so  doing,  he 
deviated  from  the  non-partisan  policy  which  he 
had  been  following  in  his  Cabinet  during  past 
years.  In  the  new  Cabinet,  key  posts  were  retained 
by  non-partisans;  two  seats  went  to  the  Radical 
Party,  two  to  the  Liberals,  and  two  to  the  Con- 
servatives. 

Anfi-Communisf  Legislation.  On  September  3,  the 
Government  promulgated  the  "Law  for  the  De- 
fense of  Democracy"  containing  the  restrictive 
measures  against  Communists.  The  law  had  finally 
been  approved  by  the  Chamber  after  various 
amendments  introduced  in  the  Senate.  Although 
it  called  for  the  "defense  of  democracy,"  it  was 
labelled  by  the  opposition  as  a  "Law  for  the  Of- 
fense of  Democracy."  The  act  takes  away  all  po- 
litical rights  of  the  Communist  Party,  but  permits 
the  15  deputies  and  5  Senators  elected  in  1946 
to  serve  out  their  terms.  However,  no  Communist 
may  be  a  candidate  in  the  1949  elections.  Par- 
liamentary debates  and  voting  on  the  law  caused 
division  within  the  political  parties  considered  as 
conservatives.  Some  Socialists  voted  against  the 
measure  and,  as  mentioned  above,  a  large  group 
of  Conservatives  under  the  leadership  of  Senator 
Eduardo  Cruz  Coke  opposed  the  measure.  This 
Conservative  faction,  called  Social  Christians,  is 
formed  by  Catholics  who  advocate  social  reform 
and  by  a  number  of  university  students. 

The  relations  between  Poetry  and  Politics  which 
enlivened  the  early  months  of  the  year  with  the 


CHINA 


112 


CHINA 


Neruda  incident  continued  when  the  national  lit- 
erary award  for  1948  was  given  to  the  poet  Angel 
Cruchaga,  a  close  friend  of  Neruda's,  and  consid- 
ered a  Communist  sympathizer.  During  the  festivi- 
ties for  the  bestowal  of  the  prize,  veiled  reference 
to  Neruda  brought  storms  of  applause. 

International  Front.  Early  in  the  year,  President 
Gonzalez  Videla  made  a  spectacular  claim  in  the 
name  of  his  country  to  a  part  of  the  Antarctic  ter- 
ritory south  of  the  62nd  parallel.  This  met  with 
opposition  from  Great  Britain,  who  sent  the  bat* 
tleship  Nigeria  to  patrol  Antarctic  waters.  Chile 
pressed  the  claim  at  the  Bogota  meeting  of  Amer- 
ican States  ( see  PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES  ) . 

— MIGUEL  JOBRIN 

CHINA.  The  territory  of  the  Republic  of  China  is 
bordered  by  Korea,  Siberia,  Mongolian  People's  Re- 
public, Soviet  Turkestan,  Afghanistan,  India,  Bur- 
ma, French  Indochina  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In 
May,  1947,  the  Ministry  of  Interior  gave  the  area 
of  China  at  9,739,288  square  kilometers  (3,760,- 
339  sq.  mi. ) ,  divided  among  35  provinces,  1  terri- 
tory and  8  municipalities  as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying table. 


Division 

-    Sq.  km. 

Division 

eg.  "kwi. 

Eangsu  

...  108,315 

Antung  

63,422 

Chekiang  

..   102,646 

Liaopei  

123,315 

Anhwei  

.  ..  140,687 

Kirin  

87,285 

Kiangsi  

.  ..  173,014 

Sungkiang  

80,789 

Kupeh  

.  ..  1S6.363 

Hokiang  

123,620 

Hunan  

.  .  .  204,771 

Heilungkiang  

198,295 

Szechwan  

.  .  .  303,318 

Nunkiang  

66,967 

Siiang  

.    .  451,521 

Hsingan  

258,352 

Hopei  

,  ..   140,253 

Jehol  •?. 

179,982 

Shantung  

.  ,  146,737 

Chahar  

283,675 

Shansi  

.  ..  156,420 

Suiyuan  

329,397 

Honan  

.  ..  165,141 

Ninghsia  

233,320 

Shensi  

,  ..  187,909 

Sinkiang  

1,711,931 

Kansu  .     .   . 

.  .  391,506 

Tibet*.  

1,215,781 

Chinghai  

...  667,236 

Nanking*  

779 

Fukien  

,  .  .  117,977 

Shanghai  b  

893 

Taiwan  

Kwangtung  ,  ,  . 

.    ,     35,961 
...  218,765 

Peipixig  6  
Tientsin  6  

707 
185 

Kwangsi  

...  218,924 

Tsingtao&  

749 

Yunnan  

,    ,  420,466 
.  ..  170,196 

Chungking  6  
Shenyang  (Mukden)  6 

300 
229 

Liaoning 

.  .  .     67,259 

Harbin  b  

930 

a  Territory,  6  Municipality.  Note:  The  areas  of  the  Inde- 
pendent municipalities:  Dairen,  Sian,  Hankow  and  Canton  are 
included  in  those  of  the  provinces:  X/iaoning,  Shensi,  Hupeh  and 
Kwangtung  respectively. 

Population.  China's  total  population  for  the  first 
half  of  1948  was  put  by  the  National  Census  Bu- 
reau of  the  Ministry  of  Interior  at  463,493,418, 
representing  a  slight  increase  of  695,325  over  that 
for  the  second  half  of  1947  and  of  £,487,133  over 
the  estimate  made  in  July,  1947.  The  statistics 
made  public  hy  the  Ministry  of  Interior  in  July, 
1948,  show  that  there  are  more  males  in  China 
than  females,  the  former  totaling  242,273,893  and 
the  latter,  221,219,525. 

The  population  of  Szechwan  is  the  largest  among 
the  provinces,  amounting  to  47,437,387  inhabit- 
ants. Shantung  stands  next,  with  a  population  of 
38,865,254  and  Kiangsu  takes  -  the  third  place, 
being  inhabited  by  36,000,123  people.  Those  prov- 
inces of  over  20  million  people  include  Honan, 
Hopei,  Kwangtung,  Hunan  and  Hupeh,  while  only 
327,563  people  live  in  Hsingan  Province  in  the 
Northeast. 

As  to  the  12  special  municipalities,  Shanghai 
takes  the  lead  in  claiming  a  population  of  4,630,- 
385.  Next  comes  Tientsin  and  Peiping  with  1,772,- 
840  and  1,721,546  respectively.  Nanking,  China's 
capital,  has  1,113,972  dwellers,  while  Canton  and 
Mukden  are  populated  by  over  one  million  people 
each. 

Among  the  177  cities  of  50,000  or  more  people, 


there  are  7  cities  having  more  than  a  million  resi- 
dents; 10  cities  with  500,000  to  1,000,000  people; 
25  cities  with  200,000  to  500,000;  49  with  100,000 
to  200,000;  and  86  cities  with  50,000  to  100,000. 
Thirty-three  of  these  cities  are  concentrated  in  the 
North  China  plain.  There  are  31  density  cities  in 
the  Northeast  and  26  in  the  Shanghai-Nanking 
area.  Scattered  down  the  southeastern  sea  coast 
are  21  cities  and  along  the  Yangtze  River,  18.  On 
the  average,  China  has  a  density  of  47.35  per 
square  kilometer. 

Among  the  provinces  Kiangsu  has  the  highest 
population  density  with  332.93  persons  per  square 
kilometer.  A  density  of  267.74  is  found  in  Shan- 
tung, the  second  most-crowded;  204.84  in  Hopei; 
187.25  in  Chekiang;  177.52  in  Taiwan;  177.14  in 
Honan;  158.46  in  Anhwei;  155,31  in  Szechwan; 
and  2.36  in  Sinkiang.  Tibet  is  the  most  sparsely 
populated  area — having  a  population  density  of 
0.82  per  square  kilometer. 

Tientsin  stands  out  as  the  most  thickly  populated 
city  in  China  having  9,103.65  people  per  square 
kilometer  and  Hankow  with  5,608.79  ranks  the  sec- 
ond. Canton  has  a  density  of  5,581.28;  Mukden, 
4,894.82;  Shanghai,  4,814,58;  Dairen,  3,730.03; 
Chungking,  3,344.81;  Sian,  2,844.48;  Peiping,  2,- 
268.00;  Nanking,  1,392.71;  Tsingtao,  1,050.43  and 
Harbin,  818.08. 

In  July,  1948,  the  Ministry  of  Interior  recorded 
the  populations  of  the  35  provinces,  1  territory  and 
12  important  municipalities  as  follows; 


Division 

Population 

Division 

Population 

Kiangsu  

.  36,080,123 

Kirin  

,     6,465,449 

Chekiang  
Anhwei  

19,958,715 
.  22,462,217 

Sunghiang  
Hokiang  

2,570,806 
,     1,841,000 

Kiangsi  

.   12,506,912 

Heilungkiang.  .  . 

.     2,844,211 

Hupeh  

.  20,975,559 

Nunkiang  

.     3,333,409 

Hunan  

.  25,557,926 

Hsingan  

327,503 

Szechwan  

.  47,437,387 

Jehol  

.     6,196,147 

Sikang  

.     1,696,600 

Chahar  

.     2,185,774 

Hopei  

.  28,719,057 

Suiyuan  

.     2,233,226 

Shantung  

.  38,865,254 

Ningsia  

759,002 

Shansi  

.   15,247,059 

Sinkiang  

.     4,047,452 

Honan  

.  29,654,095 

Tibet"  

.     1,000,000 

Shensi  

.   10,011,201 

Nanking6  

.     1,113,972 

Kansu  

.     7,090,517 

Shanghai  & 

.     4,630,385 

Chinghai  

..     1,307,719 

Peiping  *  

.     1,721,546 

Fukien.  

.   11,143,083 

Tientsin6. 

.     1,772,840 

Taiwan  

,     6,384,019 

Tsingtao  6  

850,308 

Kwangtung 

.  27,209,968 

Chungking  &..  .  . 

985,673 

Kwangsi  

.   14,636,337 

Canton  6  

.     1,128,065 

Yunnan  

.     9,065,921 

Hankow  6  

721,598 

Kweiehow  

.   10,173,750 

Sian6  

628,449 

Liaoning  

.   10,007,204 

Shenyang  6  c  .  .  .  . 

.     1,021,057 

Antung  

.     2,992,305 

Dairen  6  

543,690 

Liaopei  

.     4,627,841 

Harbin6  

760,000 

0  Territory.  b  Municipality.  c  Also  called  Mukden. 

Education.  For  the  first  six  months  of  1948,  13 
percent  of  the  national  budget  was  allocated  for 
educational  and  cultural  purposes,  as  against  only 
3,2  percent  in  the  previous  year.  This  greatly  in- 
creased appropriation  is  an  attempt  to  conform 
with  the  Chinese  Constitution  which  specifies  that 
expenditure  for  educational,  scientific,  and  cultural 
activities  shall  not  be  less  than  15  percent  of  the 
national  budget. 

During  the  academic  year  from  August,  1946, 
to  July,  1947,  there  were  290,617  primary  schools 
in  China,  with  an  enrollment  of  23,813,705.  There 
were  4,687,411  children  who  finished  their  ele- 
mentary education  in  the  same  period.  The  faculty 
members  of  all  primary  schools  totaled  880,555. 

Beginning  1949,  the  Ministry  of  Education  plans 
to  launch  a  ten-year  program  of  extending  primary 
school  education  to  more  of  China's  children.  The 
ten-year  program  provides  for  compulsory  educa- 
tion for  children  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
twelve.  Textbooks  are  to  be  supplied'  free  of 
charge  to  those  from  poor  families.  The  Ministry 


CHINA 


113 


CHINA 


of  Education  during  the  past  undertook  two  similar 
projects.  The  first  was  conducted  from  1940  to 
1945,  with  251,596  primary  schools  established  and 
with  an  aggregate  enrollment  amounting  to  18,- 
692,282. 

The  second  five-year  project  was  started  in  1946. 
This  postwar  plan,  however,  has  been  handicapped 
by  lack  of  funds.  It  subsequently  will  be  shelved 
in  favor  of  the  new  ten-year  plan.  At  present,  of 
China's  67,000,000  school-age  children,  only  23,- 
813,705  or  less  than  50  percent  are  attending  pri- 
mary schools. 

The  Ministry  of  Education  estimated  (in  April, 
1948)  that  78,189,887  illiterate  adults  were  taught 
to  read  and  write.  There  are  still  approximately 
170,000,000  illiterates  in  y  China,  who  constitute 
about  39  percent  of  China's  population. 

Secondary  schools  in  China  numbered  5,892  in 
1947,  with  an  enrollment  totaling  1,878,523.  There 
were  399,465  students  who  graduated  from  sec- 
ondary schools  in  1947.  Teachers  and  staff  mem- 
bers of  secondary  schools  totaled  143,502. 

Universities  and  colleges  in  China  numbered  74 
in  1928  and  108  in  1937.  In  1947  there  were  194 
institutions  of  higher  learning.  The  total  enrollment 
in  the  colleges  and  universities  in  1947  was  129,- 
224,  twice  the  number  before  the  war.  According 
to  a  report  to  the  National  Assembly  made  in 
April,  1948,  by  Dr.  Chu  Chia-hua,  Minister  of 
Education,  the  number  of  universities  and  colleges 
have  been  increased  to  207,  with  the  total  enroll- 
ment of  148,000.  There  were  25,657  students  who 
graduated  from  universities  and  colleges  in  1948. 

In  July,  1948,  a  total  of  U.S.$3,420,000  worth  of 
UNRRA  educational  rehabilitation  supplies  was 
distributed  among  77  universities  and  colleges.  The 
1,300  tons  of  supplies  represent  some  of  the  latest 
American  engineering,  medical,  agricultural,  and 
scientific  laboratory  apparatus  and  equipment. 

The  Ministry  of  Education  disclosed  in  Septem- 
ber, 1948,  that  up  to  the  end  of  August,  more 
than  36,000  refugee  students  from  the  Communist 
occupied  areas  had  registered  for  relief  in  Nanking, 
Hankow,  Tientsin,  and  Peiping.  The  Ministry's 
first  function  was  to  provide  the  youths  with  food, 
shelter  and  school.  Six  temporary  middle  schools 
were  established  for  them  in  central  China.  The 
educational  authorities  were  planning  to  establish 
a  temporary  college  and  three  middle  schools  in 
Peiping.  All  these  institutes  were  to  be  staffed  by 
refugee  teachers. 

Religion.  Under  the  laws  of  the  Republic  of 
China,  every  person  has  undisputed  freedom  of  re- 
ligious belief.  Confucianism  is  still  influencing  the 
Chinese  way  of  Me.  The  teachings  and  philosophy 
of  Confucius  and  his  followers  are  embodied  in  the 
Four  Books  and  Five  Classics.  On  May  31,  1934, 
the  Chinese  Government  designated  August  27,  the 
birthday  of  Confucius,  as  a  national  holiday,  and 
later  the  day  was  also  designated  as  Teacher's  Day. 

Taoism  began  as  a  philosophy,  but  later  devel- 
oped into  a  religion.  As  a  philosophy  it  is  traced  to 
Lao  Tze,  born  in  604  B.C.  Priests  of  Taoism  are 
known  as  Tao  Shih.  They  have  their  own  temples, 
rituals,  and  bible.  Buddhism  first  came  to  China 
in  A.D.  61.  It  is  estimated  that  at  present  there  are 
in  China  more  than  267,000  Buddhist  temples  and 
738,000  monks  and  nuns,  while  the  number  of  lay- 
men and  laywomen  who  have  taken  the  five  vows 
is  five  times  more,  but  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the 
number  of  believers. 

Lamaism  is  a  form  of  Buddhism  believed  in 
by  peoples  of  Tibet  and  Mongolia  and  is  a  mixture 
of  Buddhism  and  Shamanistic  practices.  The  Dalai 
Lama  is  tie  spiritual  head  of  Tibet,  and  next  to 


him  is  the  Panchan  Lama.  Directly  under  the  Dalai 
Lama  are  three  great  monasteries  in  and  around 
Lhasa — the  Djerpung  Monastery  with  four  abbots 
and  7,700  lamas,  the  Sera  Monastery  with  three 
abbots  and  5,500  lamas,  and  the  Gandin  Monastery 
with  two  abbots  and  3,300  lanias. 

Mohammedanism  made  its  advent  in  China  in 
A.D.  651,  when  the  governments  of  the  Muslim  na- 
tions began  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Tang  Emperor. 
The  total  number  of  Moslems  in  China  was  esti- 
mated at  48  million.  Some  authorities  place  the 
number  at  from  10  to  15  million. 

For  the  Protestant  Missions  in  China  the  National 
Christian  Council  is  designated  as  the  central  agen- 
cy. The  Council  has  18  constituent  church  bodies 
and  a  number  of  affiliated  national  organizations. 
There  are  no  accurate  figures  of  churches  in  China, 
but  before  the  war  there  were  approximately  10,- 
000  organized  Protestant  churches  with  512,000 
members  and  10,000  other  centers  of  worship  in 
China. 

The  Catholic  Church  controls  mission  stations 
in  33,354  localities  in  China.  Catholic  Missionaries, 
of  whom  there  are  13,330,  including  priests,  sisters 
and  lay  brothers,  employ  or  receive  free  service 
from  a  trusted  lay  staff  of  100,000  mission  helpers, 
catechists,  teachers,  nurses,  and  doctors.  By  the 
end  of  1944,  there  were  in  all  China  123  Catholic 
bishops  of  whom  25  were  Chinese,  and  6,000  Cath- 
olic priests. 

Production.  The  Ministry  of  Economic  Affairs  re- 
ported in  May,  1948,  that  there  were  14,078  fac- 
tories in  China.  Some  7,738  of  these  factories  are 
located  in  Shanghai.  The  Ministry's  report  indi- 
cates a  greater  number  of  light  industries  over  the 
heavy  industries.  There  are  3,773  textile  factories; 
1,783  clothing;  1,505  machines;  and  494  metal  re- 
fineries. Only  3,312  of  the  factories  were  adhering 
to  the  national  factory  list.  There  was  a  total  of 
682,399  factory  workers,  of  whom  367,433  were  in 
Shanghai. 

In  1947,  the  principal  industrial  products  were: 
machine  tools,  industrial  machines,  motors,  soda 
ash,  sulfuric  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  nitric  acid, 
bleaching  powder,  flour,  and  cotton  yarn.  The  min- 
eral output  in  1947  was  as  follows:  coal,  19,487?- 
400  metric  tons;  petroleum:  967,662,000  gal  of 
crude  oil,  7,880,000  gal.  of  gasoline,  4,002,258,000 
gal.  of  kerosene,  and  54,600,000  cu.  ft  of  natural 
gas. 

In  1947,  the  output  of  steel  was  63,000  metric 
tons  and  that  of  iron,  35,733  metric  tons.  The  total 
electric  power  supply  of  China  in  1947  was  1,287,- 
620  kw.  China's  cotton  textile  industry  had  about 
6,000,000  spindles  in  1947. 

The  agricultural  products  in  1947  were:  rice, 
47,928,750  metric  tons;  wheat,  25,028,800  metric 
tons;  millet,  7,162,000  metric  tons;  barley,  7,901,- 
100  metric  tons;  corn,  7,606,600  metric  tons;  sweet 
potatoes,  24,164,450  metric  tons.  In  1947,  the  esti- 
mated totals  of  livestock  in  China  were:  buffaloes, 
9,320,000;  oxen,  18,998,000;  horses,  2,069,000; 
mules,  2,007,000;  donkeys,  7,667,000;  goats,  18,- 
609,000;  sheep,  9,191,000;  hogs,  53,758,000;  chick- 
ens, 196,743,000;  ducks,  44,372,000;  geese,  7,244.- 
000. 

Foreign  Trade.  China's  import  trade  amounted  to 
Ch.$10,681,326,574  and  her  export  trade,  Ch.$6r 
376,504,297  in  1947,  with  an  unfavorable  balance 
of  Ch.$4,304,822,277.  More  than  60  percent  of 
China's  exports  have  been  agricultural  products. 
According  to  statistics  released  in  July,  1948,  ty 
the  Chinese  Customs  Administration,  the  nations 
foreign  trade  deficit  for  the  first  five  months  oi 
1948  had  been  mounting.  The  unfavorable  balance 


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114 


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for  May  was  Ch.$5,158,021,506,000,  The  month's 
imports  totalled  Ch. $12,837,367,158,000;  the  ex- 
ports, Ch.$7>681,345,652,000.  If  converted  into 
U.S.  currency  on  the  basis  of  Ch.$l,000  to 
U.S. $0.00257,  the  net  value  of  imports  would  be 
U.S.$32,992,033  and  that  of  exports,  U.S,$19,471,- 
058.  The  deficit  then  would  be  U.S.$13,250,975. 
When  compared  with  the  figures  of  the  four  pre- 
ceding months,  it  shows  that  the  unfavorable  bal- 
ance is  on  the  upgrade.  The  deficit  for  the  first 
four  months  was  U.S.$28,173,963,  averaging  about 
U.S.$7,043,490  each  month. 

China's  principal  buyer  and  seller  is  the  United 
States.  During  the  first  five  months  of  1948,  China 
bought  49  percent  or  Ch.$15,339,000,000,000 
worth  of  imports  from  the  U.S.  Her  exports  to  the 
U.S.  amounted  to  Ch. $4,505,000,000,000  or  22.6 
percent  of  all  her  exports  for  that  period. 

Finance,  Finance  Minister  O.  K.  Yui  reported  on 
Jan.  3,  1948,  that  the  1947  Chinese  Government 
expenditure  reached  41  trillion  Chinese  dollars, 
four-and-a-half  times  the  original  estimation  of 
9.3  trillion.  The  total  revenue  was  increased  by  less 
than  twice  the  original  7  trillion.  Mr.  Yui  pointed 
to  the  unchecked  inflation  and  the  Communist  re- 
bellion as  reasons  for  the  failure  to  adhere  to  the 
budget. 

The  budgetary  estimates  for  the  first  six  months 
of  1948  prepared  by  the  Office  of  Comptroller- 
General  called  for  a  total  expenditure  of  Oh.  $96,- 
276,600,410,000,  while  the  national  revenue  of  the 
same  period  was  estimated  at  Ch.$58,340,896,970,- 
000.  The  estimated  revenue  covered  approximately 
61  percent  of  the  total  expenditure. 

By  executive  order,  issued  on  Aug.  12,  1948,  the 
Government's  budgetary  figure  for  its  ordinary  rev- 
enue and  expenditures  for  the  second  half  of  the 
year  was  made  public  as  Ch.$823,621>500,986,000. 
This  so-called  "ordinary"  Jbudget  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  "special"  budget  which  covered 
the  Government's  military  and  other  emergency 
funds  to  prosecute  the  war  against  the  Communists. 
Information  concerning  the  "special"  budget,  how- 
ever, was  withheld  from  publication. 

Of  the  budgeted  revenue,  the  amount  of 
Ch.$302,832,455,486,OQO  was  expected  to  be  de- 
rived from  regular  revenues  with  the  remaining 
Ch. $20,789,045,500,000  from  extra  revenues.  The 
biggest  revenue  was  expected  from  the  commodity 
tax  which  was  estimated  at  Ch.$112,700,000  mil- 
lion for  the  six-month  period.  Customs  revenues 
ran  a  close  second  with  Ch.$100,900,000  million. 
The  next  two  items  of  revenue  were  profits  of 
state-operated  enterprises,  approximately  Ch,$36s- 
780,000  million;  the  income  tax,  Ch.$19,700,000 
nillion. 

On  the  expenditure  side,  the  budget  for  the  Min- 
stry  of  National  Defense  called  for  more  than 
3h.$133,000,000  million.  Nearly  Ch. $50,000,000 
nillion  was  budgeted  for  the  Ministry  of  Educa- 
ion,  Ch,$37,000,000  million  for  repayment  of  Gov- 
ernment debts,  and  more  than  Ch.$35,000,000  mil- 
ion  for  the  Ministry  of  Food. 

Open-market  foreign  exchange  rate  between 
Chinese  and  American  dollars  was  revised  on  Jan. 
12,  1948,  as  CL$113,500  to  U.S.$1.  At  the  begin- 
ling  of  August,  1948,  the  rate  was  further  revised 
,o  Ch.$4,600,000  to  U.S.$1. 

President  Chiang  Kai-shek  on  Aug.  19,  1948, 
ssued  a  mandate  governing:  (1)  the  issuance  of 
i  new  currency  to  be  called  Gold  Yuan;  (2)  the 
urrender  by  the  people  of  all  gold,  silver  coins, 
ind  foreign  currencies;  ( 3 )  the  declaration  by  Chi- 
lese  nationals  of  their  assets  in  foreign  countries; 
ind  (4)  the  tightening  of  economic  control.  Four 


sets  of  measures  for  the  enforcement  of  the  emer- 
gency financial  and  economic  reforms  were  pro- 
mulgated in  the  mandate  which  went  into  imme- 
diate effect. 

The  Gold  Yuan  is  a  managed  currency  backed 
by  U.S.$200  million  in  gold,  silver,  and  foreign  ex- 
change in  the  possession  of  the  Government  and 
U.S. $300  million  in  reliable  Government  properties. 
The  Gold  Yuan  notes  are  in  the  denominations  of 
GY$1,  5,  10,  50  and  100.  Each  Gold  Yuan  is  val- 
ued at  U.S.S0.25. 

The  old  national  currency  was  to  be  withdrawn 
from  circulation  in  November,  1948.  Each  Gold 
Yuan  would  exchange  for  $3  million  old  national 
currency.  Public  reaction  toward  the  new  currency 
reform  program  was  favorable.  According  to  the 
Nanking  Central  Daily  News  of  Oct.  2,  1948,  over 
U.S.$500  million  were  collected  within  one  month 
after  the  enforcement  of  the  new  currency  reform. 
This  sum  represents  approximately  U.S. $130  mil- 
lion surrendered  in  exchange  for  Gold  Yuan  notes; 
U.S. $300  million  transferred  to  the  Central  Bank 
of  China  by  other  Government  banks;  U.S.$10 
million  surrendered  by  commercial  banks  and 
firms,  and  U.S. $18  million  realized  from  Chinese 
exports  between  August  23  and  September  30.  The 
official  rate  of  exchange  between  Gold  Yuan  and 
U.S.  dollars  was  revised  on  Nov.  11,  1948,  to 
GY$20  to  U.S.$1.  The  conversion  of  the  Gold  Yuan 
notes  into  gold  and  silver  dollars  commenced  on 
Nov.  22,  1948.  As  a  result,  commodity  prices  came 
down  in  seven  principal  cities. 

Transportation.  As  Minister  of  Communications 
Yu  Ta-wei  reported  to  the  National  Assembly  in 
April,  1948,  China  today  has  about  13,000  kilo- 
meters out  of  35,000  kilometers  of  railways  in  op- 
eration. When  the  Chinese  Government  moved  into 
the  Northeast  after  V«J  Day,  it  found  only  200 
kilometers  out  of  11,000  kilometers  of  railways  in 
use.  It  repaired  3,000  kilometers  and  put  them 
back  into  service,  but  Communist  destruction  has 
left  only  about  600  operative  kilometers. 

On  Sept.  1,  1948,  both  the  "Chekiang-Kiangsi 
railway  and  the  Nanking- Wuhu  line  were  open  to 
through  traffic  in  West  China.  The  restoration  of 
the  1,153-kilometer  Chekiang-Kiangsi  line,  leading 
from  Hangchow  in  Chekiang,  to  Chuchow  in  Hu- 
nan, on  the  Canton-Hankow  line  is  a  matter  of 
great  significance.  The  line  completes  the  last  link 
of  an  important  rail  network,  joining  the  Nanking- 
Shanghai  area  with  China's  south  and  southwest. 

Starting  from  Nanking,  a  passenger  today  may 
reach  Hangchow  via  the  Nanking-Snanghai-Hang- 
chow  line.  From  Hangchow  he  boards  a  train  of 
the  Chekiang-Kiangsi  line  and  eventually  finds 
himself  at  Chuchow,  a  point  on  the  Canton- 
Hankow  line.  He  may  continue  on  until  he  arrives 
at  Kowloon,  situated  opposite  of  Hong  Kong,  after 
having  travelled  by  rail  a  total  distance  of  2,000 
kilometers. 

If  the  traveller  is  westward  bound,  he  may 
change  trains  at  Henyang  and  ride  for  538  kilo- 
meters until  he  goes  to  Liuchow,  big  town  of 
Kwangsi  Province.  From  there,  he  has  460  kilo- 
meters to  make  to  finish  the  whole  length  of  the 
Kwangsi-Hunan-Kweichow  line  terminating  at 
Tuyun,  which  is  only  a  short  distance  from  Kwei- 
yang,  capital  of  Kweichow  Province. 

Through  traffic  on  the  Canton-Hankow  and 
Peiping-Hankow  railways  was  inaugurated  on  Nov. 
1,  1948.  Trains  on  this  through  trip  would  make 
stop-overs  at  Hengyang,  Changsha,  Hankow,  Yua- 
yuan,  Kwangshui  and  Hsingyang.  At  Hankow  the 
traffic  on  the  two  rail  lines  would  be  connected  by 
trucks. 


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115 


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On  the  530-kilometer  Chungking- Chengtu  rail- 
way in  Szechwan  now  under  construction,  over  80 
bridges  and  six-tenths  of  the  entire  project  have 
been  completed.  A  sum  of  GY$82  million  was  al- 
located by  the  Executive  Yuan  on  Sept  29,  1948, 
to  the  Chengtu-Chungking  railway  for  its  comple- 
tion within  three  years. 

According  to  a  report  made  public  by  the  Min- 
istry of  Communications  in  May,  1948,  there  are 
today  131,912  kilometers  of  highways  in  China, 
an  increase  of  16,210  over  the  prewar  total  of  115,- 
702  kilometers;  Of  the  over-all  total  figure,  only  a 
total  72,604  kilometers  was  in  a  usable  state.  The 
remainder  was  torn  up  by  the  Communists.  The 
Government  repaired  25,166  kilometers  but  7,708 
kilometers  were  again  destroyed  by  the  Commu- 
nists. 

During  the  last  war,  16,298  kilometers  of  high- 
ways were  constructed.  With  die  restitution  of  Tai- 
wan, China  received  3,690  kilometers  of  highways 
on  the  island,  but  it  lost  3,778  to  Outer  Mongolia. 
It  was  reported  in  September,  1948,  that  there 
were  50,000  civilian  automobiles  in  operation  in 
China  at  that  time  and  the  consumption  of  gasoline 
was  4,270,000  gal.  per  month,  of  which  the  Stand- 
ard Vacuum  Oil  Company  supplied  nearly  1,120,- 
000  gal% 

China's  merchant  shipping  reached  the  total  ton- 
nage of  1,030,000  tons  by  the  end  of  1947,  ac- 
cording to  an  announcement  made  in  May,  1948, 
by  the  Yangtze  Navigation  Administration.  Before 
the  war  the  total  Chinese  and  foreign  merchant 
shipping  tonnage  in  China  was  1,280,000  tons,  only 
250,000  tons  over  the  present  tonnage  of  Chinese 
shipping.  During  wartime,  the  tonnage  of  Chinese 
Merchant  shipping  was  reduced  to  80,000  tons. 

Gen.  Claire  L.  Chennault's  former  CNRRA  Air 
Transport  Squadron  became  a  commercial  airline 
in  March,  1948.  By  order  of  the  Executive  Yuan, 
this  new  company,  known  as  the  Civil  Air  Trans- 
port, was  granted  permission  to  extend  its  opera- 
tion in  China  for  one  year,  ending  December,  1948. 
Gen.  Chennault's  CNRRA  Air  Transport  Squadron 
was  first  inaugurated  in  October,  1946,  and  capi- 
talized at  U.S.$2?000,000  (which  came  from 
UNRRA  as  a  grant).  On  July  18, 1948,  China's  two 
leading  airlines,  the  China  National  Aviation  Cor- 
poration and  the  Central  Air  Transport  Corpora- 
tion, announced  the  suspension  of  their  Nanking- 
Shanghai  run  and  a  reduction  of  flights  on  other 
routes  because  of  the  exorbitant  cost  of  gasoline. 
The  two  aviation  companies  are  state-operated. 
Twenty  percent  of  CNAC's  shares  are  owned  by 
Pan  American  World  Airways.  Both  depend  entire- 
ly on  foreign  oil  companies  for  their  gasoline  con- 
sumption. 

Government.  The  Republic  of  China  was  estab- 
lished on  Jan.  1,  1912,  but  the  present  National 
Government  was  inaugurated  in  1928  in  Nanking 
by  Kuomintang  or  the  National  People's  Party. 
Since  then,  the  Kuomintang  exercised  the  govern- 
ing powers  on  behalf  of  the  Chinese  people,  and 
the  National  Government  was  responsible  to  the 
Party.  The  party  rule  was  brought  to  an  end  on 
Dec.  25,  1947,  when  the  Constitution  of  die  Re- 
public of  China,  adopted  by  the  National  Assembly 
on  Dec.  25, 1946,  and  promulgated  by  the  National 
Government  on  Jan.  1,  1947,  became  effective  on 
the  Christmas  Day  of  1947. 

The  core  of  the  new  constitutional  system,  fol- 
lowing the  theory  of  Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen's  teachings, 
is  the  organization  of  the  central  government  in 
five  separate  branches,  each  charged  with  one  of 
the  "governing  powers."  In  addition  to  the  usual 
executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  branches,  there 


are  two  other  units,  exercising  the  powers  of  exami- 
nation and  control,  following  the  precedent  of  two 
traditional  Chinese  institutions,  remodeled  to  form 
parts  of  a  modern  democratic  government  The 
Examination  Yuan  is  charged  with  the  responsibil- 
ity of  holding  examinations  for  public  functionaries. 
The  Control  Yuan  exercises  the  powers  of  impeach- 
ment and  auditing,  besides  the  power  of  consent 
Under  the  new  Constitution,  the  President  and  the 
Vice-President  of  the  Republic  of  China  are  elected 
by  the  members  of  the  National  Assembly  which 
is  composed  of  about  three  thousand  representa- 
tives elected  by  the  people.  The  President  has  the 
power  to  appoint,  with  the  consent  of  the  Legis- 
lative Yuan,  the  President  of  the  Executive  Yuan; 
and  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  latter,  the 
Vice-President,  Heads  of  various  Ministries  and 
Commissions,  and  Members  without  portfolio,  of 
the  Executive  Yuan.  He  also  appoints,  with  the 
consent  of  the  Control  Yuan,  the  President,  the 
Vice-President,  and  Grand  Judges  of  the  Judicial 
Yuan;  similarly,  the  President,  the  Vice-President, 
and  Examiners  of  the  Examination  Yuan. 

Generalissimo  Chiang  Kai-shek  was  elected  the 
first  President  of  the  Republic  of  China  under  the 
new  Constitution  by  the  National  Assembly  on  Apr. 
19,  1948.  Gen.  Li  Tsung-jen  was  elected  China's 
Vice-President  on  April  29.  After  being  sworn  in  on 
May  20,  President  Chiang,  appointed  Dr.  Wong 
Wen-hao,  a  noted  geologist,  as  the  President  of 
the  Executive  Yuan,  and  the  appointment  was  con- 
firmed on  May  24  by  the  Legislative  Yuan.  On 
May  31,  Premier  Wong  announced  the  formation 
of  a  new  Cabinet.  The  Executive  Yuan  was  re- 
organized in  November,  1948  with  Dr.  Sun  Fo  as 
Premier.  The  Executive  Yuan  is  the  highest  admin- 
istrative organ  of  the  National  Government,  and 
has  15  ministries,  3  commissions,  and  a  Govern- 
ment Information  Office.  There  are  5  to  7  minis- 
ters without  portfolio  in  the  Executive  Yuan.  The 
Heads  of  the  present  National  Government  are 
as  follows:  President  of  the  Republic  of  China, 
Chiang  Kai-shek;  Vice-President  of  the  Republic 
of  China,  Li  Tsung-jen;  President  of  the  Execu- 
tive Yuan,  Sun  Fo;  President  of  the  Legislative 
Yuan,  Tung  Kwan-hsien;  President  of  the  Judicial 
Yuan,  Wang  Chung-hui;  President  of  the  Examina- 
tion Yuan,  Cbang  Po-ling. 

Events,  1948.  China's  Election.  China's  popularly 
elected  first  National  Assembly  following  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  Constitution  met  in  Nanking  on 
March  29.  The  most  important  item  on  the  Assem- 
bly's agenda  was  the  election  of  the  President  and 
Vice-President  of  the  Republic  of  China.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Constitution,  die  Assembly  shall  have  a 
membership  of  3,045,  When  the  Assembly  opened, 
1,629  delegates  bad  registered,  enough  to  open  the 
Assembly.  It  was  expected  that  some  2,670  dele- 
gates would  attend,  more  than  enough  to  form  a 
quorum, 

On  April  19,  Generalissimo  Chiang  Kai-shek  was 
elected  President  by  the  Assembly  by  an  over- 
whelming majority  of  2,430  votes  out  of  the  total 
of  2,704.  Chu  Cheng,  President  of  the  Judicial 
Yuan  and  the  only  other  candidate  in  the  Presiden- 
tial race,  received  269  votes.  Thirty-five  o£  the 
ballots  were  declared  void.  The  Assembly  met  the 
announcement  of  President  Chiang's  election  with 
applause.  Meanwhile,  national  flags,  firecrackers, 
and  red  congratulatory  posters  greeted  the  an- 
nouncement in  Nanking,  tbe  nation's  capital.  The 
same  enthusiastic  response  was  also  reported  from 
other  Chinese  cities.  The  election  was  termed  by 
American,  British  and  Canadian  ambassadors  wto 
witnessed  the  proceedings  as  carefully  planned, 


CHINA 


116 


CHINA 


efficiently  supervised  and  openly  and  orderly  con- 
ducted. 

The  election  for  the  Vice-President,  however, 
was  a  bitter  fight  which  lasted  through  four  ballot- 
ings.  There  were  six  candidates  in  the  race:  Sun 
Fo,  the  incumbent  Vice-President;  Gen.  Li 
Tsung-jen,  director  of  the  President's  Headquarters 
in  Peiping;  Gen.  Cheng  Chien,  Director  of  the 
President's  Headquarters  in  Hankow;  Yu  Yu-jen, 
President  of  the  Control  Yuan;  Mo  Teh-hui,  non- 
partisan  State  Council;  and  Hsu  Fu4in,  a  leader 
of  the  Democratic-Socialist  Party.  The  final  vote 
took  place  on  April  29  and  was  a  contest  between 
Li  Tsung-jen  and  Sun  Fo.  Li  won  with  1,438 
votes  against  Sun's  1,295.  Gen,  Li  Tsung-jen  was 
thus  chosen  China's  Vice-President. 

The  National  Assembly  also  adopted  four  tem- 
porary provisions  granting  emergency  powers  to 
the  President  during  the  Communist-suppression 
period. 

Cabinet  Changes.  Premier  Chang  Chun  and  his 
entire  Cabinet  resigned  in  May  on  the  eve  of  the 
installation  of  President  Chiang  Kai-shek  as  the  first 
constitutional  President  of  China.  Premier  Chang 
and  the  Cabinet  members  signed  their  resignation 
document  on  May  11  as  the  last  item  of  business 
of  the  administration. 

Dr.  Wong  Wen-hao,  59-year-old  chairman  of 
the  National  Resources  Commission,  was  nomi- 
nated Premier  by  President  Chiang  Kai-shek  on 
May  24,  and  his  nomination  was  confirmed  by  489 
out  of  a  total  of  603  votes  cast  in  the  Legislative 
Yuan  the  same  day. 

On  May  31,  Premier  Wong  announced  the  for- 
mation of  a  new  Cabinet  which  was  composed  of 
the  following:  Premier,  Wong  Wen-hao;  Minister 
of  Interior,  Chang  Li-sheng;  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  Wang  Shih-chieh;  Minister  of  National  De- 
fense, Ho  Ying-chin;  Minister  of  Finance,  Wang 
Yun-wu;  etc. 

In  November,  the  difficulties  encountered  in  the 
enforcement  of  the  Financial  Reform  and  Eco- 
nomic Control  measures  promulgated  on  August  19 
prompted  Wong  Wen-hao,  President  of  the  Execu- 
tive Yuan,  to  resign.  On  November  26,  Dr.  Sun  Fo, 
President  of  the  Legislative  Yuan,  was  nominated 
and  voted  into  the  post.  The  new  Premier  is  the 
son  of  Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen,  the  founder  of  the  Chinese 
Republic. 

Economic  Measures.  Pursuant  to  a  resolution 
reached  by  the  Executive  Yuan,  President  Chiang 
Kai-shek  issued  in  Nanking  on  August  19  a  man- 
date "governing  ( 1 )  the  issuance  of  a  new  currency 
to  be  called  Gold  Yuan;  (2)  the  surrender  by  the 
people  of  all  gold,  silver  coins,  and  foreign  curren- 
cies; (3)  the  declaration  by  Chinese  nationals  of 
their  assets  in  foreign  countries;  and  (4)  the  tight- 
ening of  economic  control.  In  a  message  issued  on 
August  21,  the  President  instructed  all  provincial 
governors  and  mayors  to  implement  the  economic 
and  financial  measures  thoroughly. 

Premier  Wong  Wen-hao  on  August  22  issued 
an  order  to  all  provincial  governors  and  mayors 
asking  them  to  rigidly  enforce  the  regulations  freez- 
ing commodity  prices  and  wages  at  the  August  19 
levels. 

The  Executive  Yuan  on  November  1  adopted 
four  measures  supplementing  the  August  19  eco- 
nomic program.  The  new  measures  partially  eased 
controls  on  a  number  of  essential  commodities,  es- 
pecially food.  Many  price  ceilings  were  taken  off. 
Taxes  were  increased.  On  November  10,  additional 
economic  measures  were  adopted  to  cope  with  the 
monetary  and  food  situation. 

The  National  Economic  Council  in  Nanking  on 


May  6  approved  the  circulation  of  silver  coins  in 
the  country.  The  Chinese  dollar  was  banned  in 
1935  when  the  country  adopted  a  managed  cur- 
rency. Recently,  the  silver  dollars  reappeared  on 
the  money ,  market. 

China  instituted  a  managed  gold  standard  cur- 
rency called  "gold  Yuan"  on  August  19.  The  new 
currency  notes  went  into  circulation  on  August  23 
in  all  major  cities  where  the  people  began  surren- 
dering gold,  silver  and  foreign  exchange  for  the 
new  currency. 

Civ/1  War.  In  1948,  the  Government  troops  have 
suffered  defeat  after  defeat  in  fighting  against  the 
Communist  army.  Yenan,  Communist  headquarters 
captured  on  Mar.  17,  1947,  was  evacuated  by  Gov- 
ernment troops  on  April  21.  Tsinan,  capital  of 
Shantung  Province  and  major  rail  and  industrial 
center  of  North  China,  fell  to  the  Communists  on 
September  24  after  a  9-day  assault.  Government 
forces  besieged  in  Tsinan  sector  were  estimated  at 
80,000.  On  October  23,  the  Communists  claimed 
capture  of  Chengchow,  Honan  railway  junction 
and  Paotow,  western  terminus  of  Peiping-Suiyuan 
Railway.  Kaifeng,  capital  of  Honan,  fell  into  Com- 
munist hands  on  October  25.  The  Government  con- 
firmed on  October  30  the  collapse  of  Mukden's  de- 
fenses and  abandonment  of  the  city  to  the  Com- 
munists. 

By  the  end  of  the  year,  all  the  Northeastern 
Provinces  (Manchuria)  fell  to  the  Communists.  In 
North  China,  the  Government  troops  only  hold  the 
Peiping-Tientsin  area  under  the  control  of  Gen.  Fu 
Tso-yi,  Taiyuan  area  under  Gen.  Yen  Hsi-shan,  and 
Tsingtao  where  the  U.S.  naval  base  is  located.  In  the 
first  part  of  November,  Nanking  and  Shanghai  were 
placed  under  martial  law  by  President  Chiang  as 
Communists  threatened  to  sweep  past  Hsuchow  to 
attack  both  cities.  Americans  were  urged  to  leave 
Nanking.  The  National  Government  in  Nanking  an- 
nounced on  November  11  that  1,000,000  men  were 
locked  in  battle  of  unprecedented  scale  on  a  200- 
mile  front  in  the  Hsuchow  area.  On  December  1, 
the  Government  troops  made  a  tactical  move  to 
relieve  Communist  pressure  on  Pengpu,  100  miles 
north  of  Nanking,  They  evacuated  the  city  of 
Hsuchow  and  marched  southward  to  break  up  the 
Communist  forces  from  the  rear.  The  Government 
spokesman  admitted  on  December  7  that  Commu- 
nist armies  had  encircled  110,000  Government 
combat  troops  southwest  of  Hsuchow.  They  were 
trapped  by  the  Communists  as  they  marched  south 
from  Hsuchow  to  rescue  other  encircled  Govern- 
ment forces. 

Information  from  neutral  sources  indicates  that 
the  military  forces  on  each  side  in  the  civil  war 
are  now  about  equal  after  the  Government  superi- 
ority was  cut  by  large  losses  in  the  Northeast  Both 
the  Government  and  Communists  have  about 
1,500,000  regular  fighting  troops.  However,  the 
Communists  put  the  present  Government  armed 
forces  at  about  2,900,000  men  including  Army, 
Navy,  Air  Force  personnel,  regular  Army  troops,  and 
irregulars.  They  claim  that  the  strength  of  Commu- 
nist forces  had  been  increased  from  1,200,000  in 
June,  1946,  to  2,800,000  in  June,  1948.  They  fur- 
ther claim  that  at  present  the  Communist  Army  has 
grown  to  more  than  three  million  strong. 

Tungting  Flood.  Eleven  counties  around  Tungting 
Lake  in  Hunan  province  were  flooded  in  June  as 
a  result  of  incessant  rain  and  an  unprecedented 
typhoon.  About  30,000  acres  of  rice  fields  were 
damaged.  The  rice  crop  of  1948  was  expected  to 
suffer  a  loss  of  over  1,000,000  metric  tons.  More 
than  3,000,000  people  suffered  from  the  effects  of 
the  flood* 


CHINA 


117 


CHINA 


China-U.S.  Relations.  On  Dec.  16,  1947,  the  board 
of  directors  of  the  United  States  Education  Foun- 
dation in  China  met  for  the  first  time  in  Nanking. 
The  foundation,  established  to  administer  the  20- 
milHon-dollar  cultiiral  exchange  program  between 
China  and  the  United  States  as  authorized  by  the 
Fulbright  Act,  has  five  directors  and  four  Chinese 
advisors,  headed  by  Dr.  J.  Leighton  Stuart,  Ameri- 
can Ambassador  to  China.  The  program  calls  for 
20  years  of  educational  exchange  to  be  financed  by 
funds  realized  from  the  sale  of  U.S.  surplus  prop- 
erty to  China. 

Francis  Cardinal  Spellman  of  New  York  arrived 
in  Shanghai  May  31  on  his  tour  of  Catholic  cen- 
ters in  the  Far  East.  He  was  welcomed  by  a  large 
gathering  headed  by  Archbishop  Paul  Yupin.  He 
was  President  Chiang  Kai-shek's  dinner  guest  dur- 
ing his  stay  in  Nanking. 

Roger  D.?  Lapham,  Economic  Cooperation  Ad- 
ministration's China  director,  and  Charles  L.  Still- 
man,  head  of  the  Administration's  technical  group, 
arrived  in  Nanking  on  June  8.  They  reached  China 
from  San  Francisco  with  ten  reconstruction  survey 
experts. 

A  2,180-ton  tanker  and  two  mine-sweepers,  all 
donated  to  the  Chinese  Navy  by  the  United  States 
as  gifts,  arrived  at  Kaohsiung,  Taiwan,  on  June  23 
from  the  Philippines.  These  ships  formed  the  first 
group  of  the  22  naval  vessels  anchored  in  Philip- 
pine waters  to  be  transferred  to  China  by  the  Unit- 
ed States. 

The  Sino- American  bilateral  agreement  covering 
the  U.S.  aid  to  China  was  concluded  in  Nanking 
on  July  3.  The  agreement  represented  the  final 
step  in  diplomatic  negotiations  which  began  on 
April  30  when  Dr.  V.  K.  Wellington  Koo,  Chi- 
nese Ambassador  in  Washington,  signed  a  tempo- 
rary pact  on  U.S.  aid  to  China.  Included  in  the 
agreement  were  principles  on  the  utilization  of 
the  economic  aid  portion  (U.S. $275,000,000)  of 
the  total  China  aid  funds  of  U.S.$463,000,000.  The 
foreign  aid  bill  of  1948  was  passed  by  Congress  on 
April  2  and  signed  by  President  Truman  on  the 
following  day.  The  bill  provides  $463,000,000  for 
China. 

Notes  on  the  establishment  of  a  Sino-American 
Rural  Reconstruction  Commission  were  exchanged 
between  the  U.S.  Ambassador  J.  Leighton  Stuart 
and  Foreign  Minister  Wang  Shih-chieh  in  Nanking 
on  August  5.  The  creation  of  the  Commission  is 
provided  for  in  the  U.S.-China  Aid  Act  of  1948. 
The  commission  would  undertake  through  appro- 
priate agencies  a  coordinated  extension-type  pro- 
gram in  agriculture,  home  demonstration,  health 
and  education,  etc, 

Mme.  Chiang  Kai-shek,  wife  of  China's  Presi- 
dent, arrived  in  Washington,  D.C.,  on  December  1 
to  appeal  for  more  American  aid  to  stem  the  Com- 
munist tide  in  China.  Estimates  from  U.S.  Govern- 
ment sources  indicate  that  fighting  equipment  val- 
ued at  about  $63,000,000  has  been  delivered  to 
China's  hard-pressed  armies  in  the  last  year  and  a 
half.  It  was  reported  in  Washington  that  the  pro- 
gram proposed  by  Mme.  Chiang  would  cost  the 
United  States  about  $1,000  million  a  year  over  the 
next  three  years. 

Foreign  Relations.  Foreign  Minister  Wang  Shih- 
chieh  declared  on  November  9  that  the  basis  of 
friendly  relations  between  China  and  the  Soviet 
Union  was  weakened  through  the  non-observance 
by  the  latter  of  terms  of  the  Sino-Soviet  Treaty  of 
Friendship  and  Alliance  of  1945.  The  Foreign  Min- 
ister gave  the  following  instances  of  treaty  viola- 
tion by  the  U.S.S.R.;  (1)  The  Soviet  attempt  to  ob- 
struct the  taking  over  of  the  Northeast;  (2)  the 


Soviet  obstruction  of  the  taking  over  of  the  civil 
administration  of  Dairen  and  Port  Arthur;  (3)  the 
facilities  given  by  the  Soviet  authorities  to  the 
Chinese  Communists  in  their  securing  of  military 
stores  surrendered  by  the  Japanese  to  the  Soviet 
troops;  ( 4 )  the  moral  and  material  assistance  given 
to  the  Chinese  Communists;  and  (5)  the  Soviet 
infringement  of  the  political  independence  of  Outer 
Mongolia. 

The  Japanese  Foreign  Office  figures  released  on 
September  28  revealed  that  an  estimated  140,000 
former  soldiers  and  nurses  of  Japan's  once  power- 
ful and  veteran  ICwantung  Army  were  either  serv- 
ing with  the  Chinese  Communists  in  Manchuria  or 
were  living  independently  in  Red-held  China. 

The  Chinese  Government  on  August  12  accorded 
provisional  recognition  to  the  Government  of  Korea 
and  appointed  Dr.  Liu  Yu-wan  as  China's  diplo- 
matic representative  to  that  Government  with  the 
rank  of  an  Ambassador. 

On  Jan.  12, 1948,  the  Hong  Kong  police  forcibly 
evicted  some  2,000  Chinese  from  their  wooden  huts 
in  Kowloon  city.  A  number  of  them  were  injured 
when  the  Hong  Kong  police  used  tear  gas  and 
opened  fire.  The  incident  climaxed  lengthy  nego- 
tiations between  the  Chinese  and  Hong  Kong  gov- 
ernments over  jurisdictional  rights  in  Kowloon  City, 
which  the  Chinese  Government  has  never  waived. 
One  upshot  of  the  Kowloon  incident  was  the  Can- 
ton incident  on  January  16,  when  a  Chinese  mob 
set  fire  to  the  British  consulate  in  Canton  and 
burned  it  to  the  ground.  A  number  of  British  na- 
tionals were  wounded  in  the  melee.  The  incident 
occurred  when  a  public  demonstration  was  held  in 
Canton  protesting  the  Kowloon  incident. 

The  agreement  concerning  the  prevention  of 
smuggling  between  Chinese  ports  and  Hong  Kong, 
which  provides  for  the  establishment  of  Chinese 
maritime  customs  inspection  centers  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  Chinese  customs  staff  members 
within  Hong  Kong  territory  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  or  assessing  in  advance  Chinese  customs 
duty  on  dutiable  commodities  about  to  be  exported 
to  China,  was  reached  on  Jan.  12,  1948  between 
the  Chinese  and  British  Governments. 

Peiping's  once  famous  "Legation  Quarters"  was 
officially  abolished  on  Dec.  26,  1947.  The  "Lega- 
tion Quarters"  was  established  in  1901  after  the 
Boxer  Rebellion.  The  original  agreement  stipulated 
that  "the  Quarters  occupied  by  the  Legations  shall 
be  considered  as  specially  reserved  for  their  use 
and  placed  under  their  exclusive  control,  in  which 
Chinese  shall  not  have  the  right  to  reside  and 
which  may  be  made  defensible."  It  authorized 
each  of  the  powers  concerned  to  maintain  a  per- 
manent guard.  The  powers  concerned  were  the 
United  States,  Britain,  France,  Belgium,  Nether- 
lands, Austria,  Germany  and  Japan. 

China  and  the  United  Nations.  Dr.  P,  C.  Chang, 
Chinese  representative  on  the  United  Nations  So- 
cial and  Economic  Council,  was  appointed  by  the 
Government  to  head  the  delegation  to  the  United 
Nations  Freedom  of  the  Press  Conference,  held  in 
Geneva  on  Mar,  23,  1948. 

Dr.  Wang  Shih-chieh,  Minister  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, headed  the  Chinese  delegation  to  the  third 
plenary  session  of  the  UN  General  Assembly  con- 
vened in  Paris  in  September.  The  Chinese  delega* 
tion  was  composed  of  Dr.  Chien  Tai,  Chinese  Am- 
bassador to  France;  Dr.  T.  F«  Tsiang,  China's 
permanet  delegate  to  the  UN  Security  Council; 
and  Peng  Hsueh-pei,  advisor  to  the  Executive 
Yuan.  On  November  11,  the  Chinese  Delegate 
asked  the  UN  Assembly  to  order  5tih  columns  dis- 
banded throughout  the  world,  during  the  session  of 


CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE 


118  CIVIL  AERONAUTICS  ADMINISTRATION 


the  Political  Committee  in  Paris;  and  also  charged 
the  U.S.S.R.  with  having  supplied  50,000  Japanese 
war  prisoners  for  service  with  Communist  armies. 
See  COMMUNISM.  — M.  H.  CHANG 

CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE.  A  system  of  metaphysical  or 
spiritual  healing  set  forth  by  Mary  Baker  Eddy  in 
her  textbook  of  the  movement,  Science  and  Health 
with  Key  to  the  Scriptures,  first  published  in  1875. 
The  Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  was  established  by 
Mrs.  Eddy  in  1879.  In  1892  the  name  was  changed 
to  The  First  Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  in  Boston, 
Massachusetts.  It  is  also  known  as  The  Mother 
Church.  There  are  approximately  3,000  branches 
of  The  Mother  Church  located  throughout  the 
world,  and  100  college  and  university  organiza- 
tions. 

The  affairs  of  The  Mother  Church  are  adminis- 
tered by  The  Christian  Science  Board  of  Directors 
under  the  Church  Manual  by  Mary  Baker  Eddy. 
The  Board  of  Lectureship  of  The  Mother  Church 
is  engaged  in  delivering  free  lectures  on  Christian 
Science. 

The  Christian  Science  Publishing  Society,  whose 
affairs  are  administered  by  a  Board  of  Trustees, 
also  under  the  Church  Manual,  issues  the  interna- 
tional daily  newspaper  of  the  organization,  The 
Christian  Science  Monitor.  Other  periodicals  in- 
clude: The  Christian  Science  Journal;  Christian 
Science  Sentinel;  Christian  Science  Quarterly;  and 
five  editions  of  The  Herald  of  Christian  Science, 
in  the  German,  French,  Dutch,  Spanish,  and  Scan- 
dinavian languages,  each  with  the  English  transla- 
tion opposite;  and  also  an  edition  of  The  Herald  of 
Christian  Science  in  Braille.  President  of  The 
Mother  Church  for  the  year  1948-49:  Harry  C. 
Browne.  Headquarters:  107  Falmouth  St.,  Boston 
15,  Mass. 

CHRISTMAS  ISLAND.  The  name  of  two  separate  is- 
lands. (1)  An  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  south- 
west of  Java,  included  in  the  British  colony  of 
Singapore.  Area,  60  square  miles.  Population 
(1941),  1,431.  (2)  The  largest  atoll  in  the  Pacific, 
over  100  miles  in  circumference,  just  north  of  the 
Equator  and  lying  south  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
It  is  included  in  the  British  colony  of  the  Gilbert 
and  Ellice  Islands. 

CHROMIUM.  The  U.S.S.R.  continued  to  be  the  prin- 
cipal producer  of  chromite  ore  in  1948,  as  indi- 
cated by  imports  of  the  United  States,  the  principal 
consuming  nation.  Other  major  producers  included 
South  Africa,  Turkey,  the  Philippines,  Cuba,  and 
Southern  Rhodesia.  Domestic  production  was  in- 
significant, barely  over  5,000  tons.  Imports  of  chro- 
mite in  the  first  nine  months  totaled  1,175,520  net 
tons  (1947:  1,106,180  tons).  Consumption  during 
the  period  was  only  639,967  tons,  the  balance  be- 
ing added  to  stocks. 

As  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines  the  break- 
down by  consuming  industries  was  as  follows: 
Metallurgical,  44  percent;  refractory,  38  percent; 
chemical,  18  percent.  Imports  during  the  period 
were  58  percent  for  metallurgical  uses,  30  percent 
for  refractories  and  12  percent  for  chemicals.  Unit- 
ed States  imports  during  the  nine  month  period 
included:  U.S.S.R.,  303,896  tons,  principally  met- 
allurgical grade;  South  Africa,  206,512  tons,  prin- 
cipally chemical  grade;  Turkey,  185,107  tons,  prin- 
cipally metallurgical;  the  Philippines,  177,471  tons, 
principally  for  refractories;  Cuba,  130,884,  princi- 
pally for  refractories-  Southern  Rhodesia,  115,309, 
principally  for  metallurgical  uses. 

— JOHN  ANTHONY 


CHURCHES  OF  GOD.  Comprising  six  denominations 
with  a  total  membership  of  about  200,000.  The  two 
major  groups  are:  (1)  Church  of  God,  a  pente- 
costal  and  holiness  group  founded  in  1886,  in  Ten- 
nessee. It  has  135,452  members.  Headquarters, 
Cleveland,  Tenn.  (2)  Church  of  God,  Anderson, 
Ind.  (not  pentecostal),  originated  about  1880  and 
stressing  holiness  and  Christian  unity.  It  is  also  re- 
ferred to  as  the  Reformation  Movement.  In  1948 
it  had  2,538  churches,  2,686  ministers,  96,736 
members,  and  80  missionaries.  There  were  166,795 
students  attending  Sunday  schools.  Value  of  church 
property  $13,624,633.  Headquarters:  Anderson, 
Ind. 

CIVIL  AERONAUTICS  ADMINISTRATION  (CAA).  A 
branch  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce 
which  encourages  and  fosters  the  development  of 
civil  aeronautics  and  air  commerce;  encourages  the 
establishment  of  civil  airways,  landing  areas,  and 
other  air  navigation  aids  and  facilities;  designates 
Federal  airways  and  acquires,  establishes,  operates, 
and  maintains  air  navigation  facilities  along  such 
civil  airways  and  at  landing  areas;  makes  provi- 
sion for  the  control  and  protection  of  air  traffic 
moving  in  air  commerce;  undertakes  or  supervises 
technical  developmental  work  in  the  field  of  aero- 
nautics; plans  for  the  development  of  aeronautical 
facilities;  and  maintains  and  operates  the  Wash- 
ington National  Airport.  The  Administrator  also 
enforces  the  civil  air  regulations  (excepting  the 
functions  of  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Board,  q.v.). 

The  Federal  Aid  Airport  Program,  based  on 
matching  by  states  and  cities  of  Federal  grants, 
progressed  during  1948  with  appropriations  of 
$40,000,000  during  the  year  to  bring  the  total 
appropriation  in  the  first  three  of  the  seven  year 
program  to  $117,500,000.  The  sum  of  $500,000,000 
in  Federal  funds  is  authorized  over  the  seven  year 
life  of  the  program. 

Grants  are  being  made  by  the  CAA  in  accord- 
ance with  its  National  Airports  Plan  which  aims 
at  construction  or  development  of  thousands  of 
airports  of  all  classifications. 

The  Federal  Airways  system  of  air  navigation 
aids  was  extended  and  improved.  Notable  advances 
included  the  placing  into  commercial  operation  of 
additional  instrument  landing  systems,  bringing 
the  total  in  operation  to  77  at  selected  air  terminals, 
and  the  operation  on  a  test  basis  of  259  Very  High 
Frequency  radio  ranges. 

CAA  airways  experts  were  assigned  to  assist  in 
the  practical  application  of  the  findings  of  Special 
Committee  "31  of  the  Radio  Technical  Commission 
for  Aeronautics  for  the  comprehensive  15  year  pro- 
gram of  air  route  and  air  traffic  control. 

CAA  contracts  for  the  development  of  cross-wind 
landing  gear  on  several  types  of  private  and  com- 
mercial aircraft  were  completed  and  demonstrated 
to  pilots  and  the  industry  throughout  the  country. 

During  the  year  the  Office  of  Aviation  Safety 
continued  its  program  of  transferring  responsibility 
for  safe  flying  to  the  aviation  industry  wherever 
possible.  It  was  proposed  that  the  industry  take 
over  the  certification  of  personal  aircraft,  a  func- 
tion now  performed  by  Aviation  Safety.  This  pro- 
posal is  now  under  consideration.  Tne  designee 
system,  by  which  qualified  representatives  from  the 
industry  perform  inspection  jobs  of  many  types,  was 
enlarged  and  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  on  July  1 
there  were  9,965  such  aides  from  the  industry 
against  7,997  in  the  previous  year. 

Estimates  put  civil  aircraft  production  during 
the  year  at  7,500;  there  were  115,000  student  pilot 
licenses  issued,  Route  mileage  increased  from  62,- 


CIVIL  AERONAUTICS  AUTHORITY 


119 


CIVll  SERVICE 


224  miles  to  an  estimated  65,000  at  year's  end.  It 
is  estimated  that  2,700  non-scheduled  air  carrier 
certificates  would  be  issued  by  the  end  of  the  year 
1948. 

The  number  of  civil  aircraft  reached  an  all-time 
high  of  97,745.  Interest  in  CAA's  air  education  pro- 
gram was  high  during  the  year,  as  evidenced  by 
the  loaning  of  15,526  films  on  various  aviation 
subjects.  These  films  were  shown  to  844,660  per- 
sons. Thirty  states  have  established  programs  of 
aviation  education  and  an  estimated  15,000  teach- 
ers attended  summer  schools  and  workshops  for 
courses  in  air  education. 

CIVIL  AERONAUTICS  AUTHORITY.  A  division  of  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Commerce.  Its  functions  are 
discharged  by  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Administration 
and  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Board  (qq.v.). 

CIVIL  AERONAUTICS  BOARD.  The  Civil  Aeronautics 
Board,  as  distinguished  from  the  Civil  Aeronautics 
Administration  of  the  Department  of  Commerce, 
is  an  independent  Federal  agency,  headed  by  five 
members  appointed  by  the  President  with  the  con- 
firmation of  the  Senate. 

An  important  mission  of  the  Board  is  to  foster 
and  encourage  the  development  of  an  air  transpor- 
tation system  which  will  be  adequate  to  the  present 
and  future  needs  of  the  foreign  and  domestic  com- 
merce of  the  United  States,  the  postal  service,  and 
the  national  defense;  to  preserve  the  inherent  ad- 
vantages of  air  transportation,  and  to  regard  as  in 
the  public  interest  competition  to  the  extent  neces- 
sary to  assure  the  sound  development  of  an  air 
transportation  system  adjusted  to  the  national 
needs;  and  to  regulate  air  commerce  in  such  man- 
ner as  to  best  promote  its  development  and  safety. 

In  general  the  Board  performs  these  chief  func- 
tions: (1)  regulation  of  the  economic  aspects  of 
United  States  air  carrier  operation,  both  domestic 
and  international;  (2)  promulgation  of  United 
States  safety  standards  in  the  form  of  Civil  Air 
Regulations;  (3)  investigation  and  analysis  of 
United  States  civil  aircraft  accidents.  Chairman  in 
1948,  Joseph  J.  O'Connell,  Jr. 

CIVIL  SERVICE,  U.S.  On  Oct.  1,  1948,  civilian  em- 
ployees in  the  executive  branch  of  the  Federal 
Government,  including  those  outside  the  conti- 
nental United  States,  totaled  2,108,971.  In  the 
continental  United  States,  the  total  was  1,898,561; 
in  Washington,  D.C.,  208,036. 

The  following  shows  the  proportion  of  positions 
in  the  Federal  executive  civil  service  which  are 
subject  to  the  competitive  requirements  of  the  Civ- 
il Service  Act  of  1883:  In  the  continental  United 
States,  92  percent;  in  all  areas,  85  percent 

Positions  subject  to  these  requirements  comprise 
the  "competitive  service."  They  are  filled  on  a 
permanent  basis  by  the  probational  appointment 
of  persons  selected  from  "registers  of  eligibles," 
which  consist  of  the  names  of  persons  who  have 
qualified  in  open  competitive  examinations  an- 
nounced by  the  U.S.  Civil  Service  Commission;  by 
the  promotion,  reassignment  or  transfer  of  persons 
already  in  the  competitive  service;  or  by  the  re- 
instatement of  former  employees  who  have  a  com- 
Eetitive  status.  They  may  be  filled  on  a  temporary 
asis  by  the  appointment  of  qualified  ^persons 
"pending  the  establishment  of  a  register,"  or  by 
"job  appointment"  if  the  work  to  be  performed 
is  of  short  duration. 

The  remaining  positions  in  the  executive  civil 
service  ( 8  percent  in  the  continental  United  States; 
15  percent  in  all  areas)  have  been  excepted  from 


the  competitive  service  by  legislation  or  by  Exec- 
utive order. 

The  ^following  table  shows  other  major  char- 
acteristics of  civilian  employment  in  the  executive 
branch  of  the  Government  (continental  United 
States)  as  of  Oct.  1,  1948: 

Item  Number       Percent 

Number  of  employees 1,S98,561        100 

SEX 

Men 1,467,016  77 

Employed  on  full-time  basis 1 ,254,075  66 

Part-time  and  intermittent 212,941  1 1 

Women 431,545  23 

Employed  on  full-time  basis 414,589  22 

Part-time  and  intermittent 16,956  1 

VETERAN-PREFERENCE  STATUS  1 

Men: 

Veterans 808,737  43 

JNonveterans 654,609  34 

Women : 

Veterans 2 38,845  2 

Nonveterans 392,700  21 

TENTJBE   OF   APPOINTMENT3 

Permanent  and  probationa! 1,352,290          71 

Indefinite  * 389,153          20 

Temporary  (1  year  or  less) 153,538  8 

COMPENSATION  AUTHORITY 

Classification  Act  of  1923,  as  amended.  . .  813,235  43 

Postal  Pay  Act 513,922  27 

Wage  boards  5 496,612  26 

Other « 74,792  4 

1  Refers  to  preferences  granted  to  certain  persons,  on  the 
basis  of  military  service,  by  the  Veterans'  Preference  Act  of 
1944.  Figures  exclude  employees  of  the  Maritime  Commission 
training  organization,  for  whom  distribution  is  not  available. 
2  Includes  wives,  widows  and  mothers  of  veterans.  3  Excludes 
employees  of  the  Maritime  Commission  training  organization, 
for  "whom  distribution  is  not  available.  4  Includes  war-service 
appointments,  appointments  pending  establishment  of  regis- 
ters, and  emergency-indefinite  appointments.  5  Refers  to 
manual  workers  and  employees  in  trades  and  crafts  whose 
compensation  is  fixed  by  wage  boards  in  accordance  with  pre- 
vailing local  rates  of  pay.  6  Represents  employees  paid  at 
rates  fixed  by  other  statutes,  by  Executive  orders,  and  by 
administrative  determination. 

Of  the  2,108,971  employees  in  all  areas,  42  per- 
cent were  in  the  National  Military  Establishment, 
25  percent  in  the  Post  Office  Department,  and  10 
percent  in  the  Veterans  Administration. 

The  most  important  postwar  activity  of  the  U.S. 
Civil  Service  Commission  has  been  a  broad  pro- 
gram of  reconverting  the  Federal  civil-service  sys- 
tem to  a  peacetime  basis.  Under  this  program, 
which  began  in  March,  1946,  the  number  of  em- 
ployees without  competitive  civil-service  status — 
employees  who  received  war-service  and  tem- 
porary-indefinite appointments  during  and  imme- 
diately after  the  war — is  gradually  reduced;  at  the 
same  time,  the  number  of  employees  with  proba- 
tional and  permanent  appointments  is  increased. 

Progress  of  the  program  is  constantly  advanced 
by  "the  announcing  of  open,  competitive  civil-serv- 
ice examinations,  establishing  registers  of  eligibles, 
and  making  placements  from  these  registers  to  fill 
vacancies  and  to  displace  non-status  employees. 

Non-status  employees  who  do  not  compete  in  an 
appropriate  examination  when  it  is  announced,  or 
who  do  compete  but  fail  to  attain  sufficiently  high 
ratings,  are  displaced  by  other  persons  who  qualify 
in  the  examination. 

Between  January,  1947,  and  October,  1948,  the 
number  of  employees  with  war-service  or  tempo- 
rary-indefinite appointments  decreased  55  percent 
—from  855,601  to  389,153  (continental  United 
States);  the  number  with  probational  or  perma- 
nent appointments  increased  41  percent — from 
957,564  to  1,352,290. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1948,  the 
Civil  Service  Commission's  central  office  and  its 
field  offices  announced  examinations  for  establish- 
ing 34,956  registers,  and  32,497  registers  were  es- 
tablished. So  far  as  practicable,  the  Commission,  in 


ClVlt  SEftV/C£ 


120 


COAL 


determining  the  sequence  in  which  examinations 
are  to  be  announced,  has  concentrated  on  those  in- 
volving large  numbers  of  competitors,  thus  speed- 
ing the  completion  of  the  postwar  reconversion  pro- 
gram. 

A  check  on  the  loyalty  of  employees  in  the  exec- 
utive branch  of  the  Federal  Government  has  been 
in  progress  since  October,  1947.  The  purpose  is  to 
prevent  the  employment  in  Federal  agencies  of 
persons  not  loyal  to  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  protect  loyal  employees  against  un- 
founded accusations  of  disloyalty. 

Under  the  Executive  order  which  authorized  the 
program,  the  Civil  Service  Commission,  the  Fed- 
eral Bureau  of  Investigation,  and  the  employing 
agencies  have  clearly  defined  responsibilities  for 
carrying  it  out. 

One  phase  of  the  program  relates  to  "incumbent 
employees" — persons  who  entered  on  duty  prior  to 
Oct.  1,  1947.  Forms  giving  identifying  information 
regarding  most  of  the  approximately  2  million  in- 
cumbent employees  have  been  prepared  by  the 
various  agencies  and  checked  through  the  files  of 
the  Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation,  These  forms, 
together  with  fingerprints,  serve  as  a  basis  for  de- 
termining whether  investigation  is  necessary.  When 
the  checks  develop  a  question  of  loyalty,  the  FBI 
conducts  an  investigation  and  sends  its  report  to  the 
Civil  Service  Commission,  which  transmits  it  to  the 
employing  agency.  Such  investigations  have  been 
found  necessary  with  respect  to  less  than  ^  of  1 
percent  of  the  1,759,599  incumbent  employees 
whose  fingerprints  had  been  checked  by  the  FBI 
as  of  Oct.  16,  1948. 

When  an  FBI  report  reaches  an  agency,  an 
agency  loyalty  board  considers  it  and,  where 
further  action  is  warranted,  sends  a  letter  of 
charges  to  the  employee,  conducts  a  hearing,  and 
makes  a  decision  as  to  the  employee's  retention  in 
the  agency.  If  the  decision  is  unfavorable,  the  em- 
ployee may  appeal  to  the  head  of  the  agency.  An 
unfavorable  decision  by  the  agency  head  may  be 
appealed  to  the  Loyalty  Review  Board,  established 
within  the  Civil  Service  Commission. 

By  Oct.  31,  1948,  agency  boards  had  rendered 
favorable  decisions  in  1,373  cases  and  unfavorable 
ones  in  84  cases;  260  employees  resigned  after  FBI 
reports  had  been  turned  over  to  agency  boards,  but 
before  the  cases  had  been  adjudicated;  the  boards 
had  on  hand  1,734  cases  still  to  be  adjudicated.  Of 
the  84  employees  against  whom  unfavorable  deci- 
sions were  rendered,  44  appealed  to  the  head  of 
the  agency. 

The  other  phase  of  the  loyalty  program  relates 
to  "new  appointees'* — persons  who  entered  on  duty 
in  the  competitive  civil  service  on  or  after  Oct  1, 
1947.  The  Civil  Service  Commission  has  established 
14  regional  loyalty  boards  to  process  the  cases  of 
new  appointees  and  applicants.  As  of  Oct.  16, 1948, 
reports  of  920  FBI  investigations  had  been  for- 
warded to  these  boards.  The  boards  had  completed 
304  cases,  finding  221  of  the  persons  eligible  for 
Federal  employment  so  far  as  loyalty  is  concerned, 
and  19  ineligible;  64  cases  were  closed  without 
determination  because  the  individuals  had  left  the 
service. 

New  appointees  and  applicants,  like  the  incum- 
bent employees,  have  the  right  to  a  hearing  on  spe- 
cific charges.  They  may  appeal  adverse  decisions 
of  the  regional  loyalty  boards  to  the  Loyalty  Re- 
view Board,  the  highest  appellate  body. 

As  of  Oct.  81,  1948,  the  Loyalty  Review  Board 
had  received  18  appeals  from  decisions  by  agency 
heads  (incumbent-employee  cases)  and  15  from 
decisions  of  the  regional  loyalty  boards.  The  Board 


had  completed  8  of  these  33  cases,  concurring  in  6 
instances  and  dissenting  in  2. 

The  following  were  among  the  civil-service  meas- 
ures enacted  into  law  by  the  second  session  of  the 
80th  Congress: 

Public  Law  396  and  an  amendment  extended 
10-point  veteran  preference  in  civil-service  exam- 
inations to  widowed,  divorced,  and  separated  moth- 
ers of  ex-servicemen  and  ex-servicewomen  who 
died  in  service  or  were  totally  and  permanently 
disabled. 

Public  Law  900  increased  the  annual  pay  of  em- 
tirement  Act.  It  simplified  the  formula  for  comput- 
ing annuities,  and  liberalized  the  provision  for 
optional  retirement  with  reduced  annuity. 

Public  Law  900  increased  the  annual  pay  of  em- 
ployees whose  positions  are  subject  to  the  Classifi- 
cation Act  of  1923  by  $330  a  year,  and  that  of 
employees  in  the  Postal  Service  by  $450. 

— HABEY  B.  MITCHELL 

COAL.  Widespread  strikes  in  coal  mines  here  and 
abroad  reduced  production  of  coal  in  1948.  A  na- 
tionwide strike  in  United  States  bituminous  mines 
lasted  from  March  15  to  April  22,  at  an  estimated 
cost  of  53.5  million  tons.  Production  of  bituminous 
coal  dropped  to  586  million  tons  in  1948,  from  619 
million  tons  in  1947.  Pennsylvania  anthracite  pro- 
duction was  at  the  same  rate  as  in  1947,  57  million 
tons. 

The  strike  was  touched  off  by  a  communication 
from  John  L.  Lewis,  United  Mine  Workers  presi- 
dent, to  local  union  officials  that  mine  operators  had 
dishonored  a  1947  agreement  on  the  miners  welfare 
fund.  Lewis  demanded  that  the  operator-financed 
$30  million  fund  pay  $100  a  month  pension  to 
miners  over  60  with  20  years  service. 

Some  400,000  miners  left  the  pits  and  produc- 
tion was  down  by  90  percent.  The  OflSce  of  Defense 
Transportation  on  April  13  ordered  a  25  percent 
mileage  cut  in  coal-burning  passenger  train  service. 
Coal  exports,  except  to  Canada,  were  halted  on 
April  30. 

An  injunction  was  issued  April  3  by  Associate 
Justice  T.  Alan  Goldsborough  of  the  United  States 
District  Court,  Washington.  On  April  19,  a  $1.4 
million  fine  was  levied  on  the  union  and  $20,000 
on  Lewis  for  criminal  contempt.  Civil  contempt 
penalties  were  suspended  when  miners  returned  to 
work.  An  80-day  Taft-Hartley  Act  injunction  super- 
seded the  one  of  April  3  on  April  21. 

The  threat  of  another  coal  strike  in  July  was 
ended  on  June  24  when  Lewis  and  the  soft  coal 
operators  agreed  on  a  wage  increase  of  12.5  cents 
an  hour,  and  an  increase  in  the  royalty  paid  by 
operators  into  the  welfare  fund,  to  20  cents  a  ton. 
Soft  coal  prices  were  raised  46  cents  a  ton  on  July 
6.  Lewis  and  18  steel  producers  signed  a  contract 
on  July  13,  ending  a  seven  day  captive  mine  strike, 
on  the  same  terms. 

An  important  question  as  to  the  accuracy  of  pre- 
vious estimates  of  United  States  reserves  of  coal 
has  been  raised  by  Andrew  B.  Crichton,  mining 
engineer,  who  places  total  domestic  reserves  at  only 
250  years  and  those  in  the  East  at  90  years.  Crich- 
ton's  findings  contrast  with  previous  estimates  of 
reserves  set  variously  at  1,000  years  to  3,000  years 
at  present  consumption  rates.  These  estimates  were 
based  largely  on  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey  of  1907 
which  included  all  coals  14  inches  or  more  thick  to 
a  depth  of  3,000  feet,  the  U.S.  Coal  Commission 
survey  of  1923,  and  the  Bureau  of  Mines  statement 
of  1936.  In  a  state-by-state  study  of  resources, 
Crichton  has  found  important  discrepancies  be- 
tween these  estimates  and  recent  state  geological 


COAST  AND  GEODETIC  SURVEY 


121 


COAST  GUARD 


survey  findings  or  the  current  mining  conditions  in 
the  state.  Crichton  sets  U.S.  reserves  at  only  223,- 
000  million  tons. 

Domestic  and  export  coal  demand  declined  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  year,  making  it  difficult  to 
move  the  poorer  grades.  Higher  quality  and  lower 
production  costs  were  forecast  by  heavy  expendi- 
tures for  mine  mechanization,  automatic  mining 
equipment,  and  coal  washing  facilities.  Operators 
and  union  officials  were  concerned  with  the  com- 
petitive position  of  coal  as  an  industrial  and  domes- 
tic fuel. 

World  coal  production  improved  in  1948.  The 
nationalized  British  coal  industry  slightly  exceeded 
the  200  million  ton  objective  set  by  the  government. 
( 1947  production,  198,300,000  tons;  consumption, 
182,500,000  tons).  France  and  the  Saar  production 
was  about  60.2  million  metric  tons.  Production  of 
Poland  was  about  69,750,000  metric  tons.  Produc- 
tion of  western  Germany  was  about  86,620,000 
metric  tons. 

Total  exports  of  bituminous  coal  by  the  United 
States  to  the  end  of  August  were  31,256,609  net 
tons,  as  compared  with  44,467,617  tons  in  the 
same  period  of  1947.  North  and  Central  America 
received  about  50  percent  of  these  shipments,  and 
40  percent  went  to  Europe.  United  States  exports 
of  anthracite  to  the  end  of  August  totaled  4,463,603 
net  tons,  compared  with  5,430,437  tons  in  the  same 
period  of  1947.  North  and  Central  America  took 
about  76  percent  of  anthracite  exports. 

— JOHN  ANTHONY 

COAST  AND  GEODETIC  SURVEY.  A  Bureau  of  the  U.S. 
Department  of  Commerce  responsible  for  survey- 
ing and  charting  the  coastal  waters  of  the  United 
States  and  possessions,  and  for  executing  geodetic 
control  surveys  in  the  interior  of  the  country  and 
in  Alaska.  Its  releases  include  nautical  and  aero- 
nautical charts,  Coast  Pilots,  geodetic  control  data, 
tide  and  current  tables,  geomagnetic  publications, 
and  earthquake  reports. 

Nineteen  vessels  were  engaged  during  1948  in 
surveying  the  coastal  waters  of  the  United  States 
and  Alaska,  collecting  basic  data  for  the  compila- 
tion and  revision  of  the  nautical  charts  of  the 
Bureau.  A  comprehensive  survey  of  the  area  north 
of  the  Alaskan  peninsula  was  inaugurated.  Surveys 
were  extended  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  distances 
of  225  nautical  miles  from  shore,  using  newly  de- 
veloped electronic  equipment. 

Photogrammetric  surveys  were  made  to  provide 
data  for  the  construction  of  planimetric  and  topo- 
graphic maps  and  for  chart  revision.  Over  100 
airports  were  photographed  and  surveys  completed 
as  part  of  a  program  for  publishing  airport  charts 
and  obstruction  plans. 

The  basic  geodetic  network  of  horizontal  and 
vertical  control  has  been  extended  to  furnish  geo- 
graphic position  -(latitudes  and  longitudes)  and 
elevations  above  mean  sea  level  for  use  in  the  na- 
tional mapping  and  charting  program  and  in  the 
planning  of  extensive  river  basin  developments. 

Tide  and  Current  Tables  for  1949  were  pub- 
lished giving  information  on  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
tide  and  the  ebb  and  -flow  of  the  current  for  world 
ports.  Primary  and  secondary  tidal  stations  were 
maintained  at  100  seaports  in  the  United  States 
and  possessions,  and  in  foreign  areas,  for  the  study 
of  the  variation  of  mean  sea  level  and  for  tide 
predictions. 

Continuous  photographic  records  of  the  changes 
in  the  earth's  magnetic  elements  were  obtained  at 
6  observatories.  A  new  observatory  at  College, 
Alaska,  was  placed  in  operation  for  the  study  of 


Arctic  magnetic  phenomena.  Fifty-two  strong-mo- 
tion seismographs  were  operated  in  the  western 
part  of  the  United  States  and  7  in  South  and  Cen- 
tral America.  More  than  500  earthquakes  were 
located  throughout  the  world.  A  seismic  sea-wave 
detector  was  installed  at  several  places  in  the  Pa- 
cific as  part  of  a  general  warning  system  to  warn 
the  Hawaiian  Islands  of  an  impending  seismic  sea 
wave. 

Over  a  million  nautical  charts  and  nearly  IS 
million  aeronautical  charts  were  issued  during  the 
year.  Two  special  charts  covering  the  entire  Atlan- 
tic coast  were  published  for  use  with  the  Loran 
system  of  navigation  and  11  of  the  33  Gulf  Intra- 
coastal  Waterway  charts  have  now  been  completed. 
Publication  was  begun  of  a  new  series  of  aero- 
nautical charts  for  use  with  high-frequency  instru- 
ment landing  systems  at  airports. 

The  Bureau  participated  for  the  eighth  consecu- 
tive year  in  the  U.S.  State  Department  program 
for  "Cooperation  with  the  American  Republics," 
-and  in  the  Philippine  Rehabilitation  Program  au- 
thorized by  the  79th  Congress. 

— LEO  OTIS  COLBERT 

COAST  GUARD,  U.S.  The  Coast  Guard  effected  many 
rescues  during  1948.  Typical  of  these,  Ocracoke 
(N.C.)  Lifeboat  Station  personnel  removed  the  crew 
of  a  fishing  vessel,  grounded  in  heavy  surf,  by 
means  of  a  breeches  buoy;  the  cutter  Clover  rescued 
6  crew  members  of  a  shipwrecked  cannery  tender 
in  Alaska;  the  Tampa  and  Nike  removed  all  274 
passengers  from  an  army  transport  aground  at 
South  Pass,  La.;  a  PBM  plane  from  Salem  Air  Sta- 
tion picked  up  the  pilot  of  an  F-47  crashed  at 
sea;  a  PBY  aircraft  landed  in  the  open  sea  near 
a  Greek  freighter  grounded  off  Newfoundland  and 
brought  8  seriously  injured  seamen  to  Argentia; 
the  Bibb  transferred  40  persons  by  lifeboat  and 
life  raft  from  a  sinking  Portuguese  schooner  250 
miles  off  Cape  Race,  N.F.,  which  had  been  located 
by  PBY  aircraft;  the  Maple  removed  60  passengers 
from  a  ferryboat  aground  in  Ogdensburg  Harbor, 
Lake  Ontario;  4  men  were  removed  from  two  LSM*s 
that  broke  loose  from  a  tug  off  Absecon  Inlet,  N.J.; 
two  flights  of  1,400  miles  from  San  Diego  brought 
injured  men  from  American  fishing  vessels  off 
Lower  California;  Coast  Guard  boats  rescued  7 
men  from  a  fishing  vessel  afire  off  Barnegat  Inlet, 
N.J.;  aircraft  searched  an  area  of  35,000  square 
miles  during  Mississippi  flood  relief  operations, 
while  other  units  evacuated  victims  of  this  and  the 
Columbia  River  floods.  Altogether  5,399  persons 
were  rescued  from  peril  during  the  year. 

The  Commandant  of  the  Coast  Guard  headed  a 
delegation  to  the  International  Conference  on  the 
Safety  of  Life  at  Sea  at  London  which  adopted  ad- 
vanced safety  standards  for  vessels  of  all  nations. 

Breaking  out  12  vessels  frozen  in  the  ice  of  Buf- 
falo Harbor  on  Mar.  17,  1948,  the  Coast  Guard 
icebreaker  Mackinaw  set  a  50-year  record  for 
early  opening  of  navigation  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

The  Mendota  and  the  Mocoma*  on  International 
Ice  Patrol  off  the  Grand  Banks,  warned  transatlan- 
tic shipping  of  the  presence  of  icebergs  until  all 
danger  had  passed  in  July.  Reconnaissance  flights 
covering  more  than  200,000  square  miles,  by  Coast 
Guard  aircraft,  and  scientific  studies  of  ice  con- 
ditions made  on  board  the  Evergreen  and  Ingham, 
supplemented  the  patrol. 

Congress  authorized  the  Coast  Guard  to  main." 
tain  floating  ocean  stations  for  search  and  rescue, 
communications,  air  navigation  facilities,  and  me- 
teorological services  in  ocean  areas  regularly  trav- 
ersed by  U.S.  aircraft  It  also  provided  funds  to 


COCOA 


122 


COFFEE 


increase  the  number  of  such  stations  in  the  Atlantic 
from  2  to  7,  with  one  more  jointly  maintained  with 
Canada,  There  are  6  others  maintained  hy  Euro- 
pean nations.  Pacific  U.S.  ocean  stations  were  in- 
creased from  one  to  two;  17  additional  vessels  will 
be  manned  for  such  duty  by  June,  1949. 

Different  types  of  aids  to  navigation  including 
light  stations,  lightships,  radio  beacons,  fog  signals, 
and  lighted  and  unlighted  buoys,  numbered  in  all 
36,284  by  mid-year  1948.  Thirty-six  Loran  stations, 
extending  from  Greenland  around  our  coasts  and 
into  the  Pacific  as  far  as  Tokyo,  enabled  vessels  and 
aircraft  to  determine  their  positions  accurately  and 
quickly  in  all  weathers. 

The  Bering  Sea  Patrol,  inactive  since  Pearl  Har- 
bor, was  reestablished  in  May,  1948,  as  the  ice- 
breaker Northwind  proceeded  to  the  remote  Arctic 
regions  of  Alaska,  transporting  a  floating  court  for 
law  enforcement  and  medical  and  dental  assistance 
for  the  native  population.  Protection  of  seal  herds 
and  other  wild  life  was  an  additional  duty. 

Annual  inspections  of  7,513  vessels  of  the  U.S. 
were  completed  during  the  1948  fiscal  year  and 
7,361  drydock  examinations  conducted,  of  which 
78  were  for  vessels  being  converted  or  newly  con- 
structed. Reinspection  of  2,667  vessels  and  special 
surveys  of  141  unclassified  passenger  vessels  were 
augmented  by  special  examinations  on  210  pas- 
senger vessels  and  ferries  by  travelling  inspectors. 
3,166  marine  casualties  were  investigated,  includ- 
ing 130  accidents  resulting  in  the  loss  of  299  lives. 
Merchant  Marine  Details  in  the  major  domestic 
and  in  5  European  ports  made  10,184  investiga- 
tions of  negligence,  incompetence,  and  misconduct. 

Federal  Taws  enforced  on  the  high  seas  and  nav- 
igable waters  of  the  United  States  included  an- 
chorage regulations,  navigation  laws,  custom  laws, 
the  Motorboat  Act,  the  Oil  Pollution  Act,  the  Hali- 
but Act,  the  Sponge  Fishing  Act,  and  Alaskan  fish 
and  game  laws. 

Military  personnel  at  the  mid-year  period  in- 
cluded 1,854  commissioned  officers,  668  chief  war- 
rant and  warrant  officers,  261  cadets  and  17,080 
enlisted  men.  In  addition,  4,303  civilians  comprised 
1,800  salaried,  1,836  wage-board  employees  and 
667  lamplighters. 

The  4,299  floating  units  included  160  cutters, 
59  patrol  boats,  37  lightships,  40  harbor  tugs,  and 
9  buoy  boats;  also  171  motor  lifeboats,  1,466  mo- 
torboats  and  2,357  non-powered  small  craft. 

There  were  778  shore  units,  including  9  air  sta- 
tions (with  79  aircraft,  including  8  helicopters), 
4  air  facilities,  10  bases,  172  lifeboat  stations,  446 
light  stations,  73  light-attendant  stations,  and  20 
radio  stations.  The  41  depots,  2  supply  depots,  and 
the  Coast  Guard  Yard  made  up  the  total 

— JOSEPH  F.  FABLEY 

COCOA.  A  shortage  of  supplies  of  cocoa  beans  con- 
tinued in  1948  and  production  was  less  than  in 
1947  due  to  weather  conditions  and  in  some  loca- 
tions to  tree  diseases.  Prices  have  declined  mainly 
because  of  buyer  resistance  to  the  high  price  of  the 
previous  year,  which  at  one  time  reached  50  cents 
per  Ib.,  and  at  the  end  of  1948  was  about  30  cents. 

Cocoa  is  still  distributed  by  the  International 
Emergency  Food  Council  although  the  trade  in 
the  United  States  strongly  recommends  withdrawal 
from  the  Council  and  return  to  the  old  system  of 
free  negotiation.  Expected  world  production  from 
Get  1,  1948,  to  Sept  30,  1949,  is  about  600,000 
long  tons,  of  which  240,000  are  allocated  to  the 
United  States. 

Total  United  States  receipts  for  1948  were 
3,964,782  bags  compared  with  4,179,977  bags 


in  1947  (one  bag  of  cocoa  averaged  143  lb.)- 
Chief  producing  countries  (with  1949  produc- 
tion estimates)  are:  British  West  Africa  304,000 
tons;  French  West  Africa  75,200;  Brazil  101,700; 
Ecuador  13,700;  Venezuela  10,000;  Santo  Do- 
mingo 22,000. 

Chief  consuming  countries  are:  United  States 
240,000  tons;  United  Kingdom  104,000;  France 
49,600;  Netherlands  36,000;  Canada  18,000; 
U.S.S.R.  17,600.  Germany,  a  large  user  before  the 
war,  has  been  allotted  7,500  tons. 

Good  progress  is  reported  by  the  American 
Cocoa  Research  Institute,  Inc.,  which  is  supported 
by  the  New  York  Cocoa  Exchange,  Inc.,  the  Cocoa 
Merchants'  Association  of  America,  Inc.,  and  the 
Association  of  Cocoa  and  Chocolate  Manufacturers 
of  the  United  States,  in  their  efforts  to  control  dis- 
ease and  to  induce  the  governments  of  various  po- 
tential cocoa-producing  countries  in  this  hemi- 
sphere to  plant  cocoa  trees  on  a  larger  scale.  Imme- 
diate results  will  not  be  seen  because  trees  do  not 
begin  to  produce  until  five  years  after  planting. 
Students  from  tropical  countries  are  being  trained 
in  cocoa  culture  at  Turrialba,  Costa  Rica,  the  Ca- 
cao Center  of  the  Inter-American  Institute  of  Ag- 
ricultural Sciences.  — ROBERT  CKOSS 

COFFEE.  The  year  1948  proved  to  be  important  and 
eventful  for  coffee,  marking  the  first  postwar  year 
during  which  normal  laws  of  supply  and  demand 
have  set  the  course  of  prices  without  having  ele- 
ments foreign  to  coffee  affect  such  a  course.  Events 
also  tended  to  improve  world  consumption  pros- 
pects, while  at  the  same  time  the  business  picture 
of  coffee  was  altered.  It  was  a  year  which  wit- 
nessed bumper  harvests  in  most  food  crops,  yet 
coffee  was  one  of  the  few  natural  products  to  stand 
apart  from  such  a  trend. 

On  a  worldwide  basis,  total  production  was  only 
sufficient  to  cover  consumption  requirements,  and 
since  coffee  needs  more  than  5  years  to  develop, 
this  situation  is  likely  to  continue  for  some  time. 
It  is  indeed  a  far  cry  from  prewar  days  when  it 
appeared  that  over-production  would  always  affect 
coffee.  During  the  war  years  a  succession  of  poor 
crops  caused  by  unfavorable  weather  conditions 
brought  about  the  absorption  of  huge  stocks  held 
in  producing  countries.  The  existence  of  such  stocks 
had  naturally  weighed  down  the  market  and  their 
disappearance  played  a  most  important  part  in  es- 
tablishing today's  healthy  market  situation. 

World  consumption  during  1948  amounted  to 
some  30  million  bags.  Of  this  amount  the  United 
States  accounted  for  over  20  million  bags  and  thus 
remains  by  far  the  most  important  single  market 
for  the  product.  Europe  consumed  around  6.5  mil- 
lion bags,  while  the  remaining  3  million  bags  were 
consunied  throughout  the  world  in  such  countries 
as  Argentina,  Canada,  French  North  Africa  and  the 
Union  of  South  Africa,  to  name  the  most  important 

On  the  producing  side  of  the  picture  it  can  be 
said  at  this  moment  that  at  least  for  the  next  two 
years  the  total  exportable  production  is  not  likely 
to  go  much  above  29  million  bags.  Since  it  can 
safely  be  assumed  that  world  consumption  will  at 
least  maintain  its  30  million  bag  level  there  would 
appear  to  be  a  deficit  of  some  1  million  bags  yearly 
between  production  and  consumption.  For  the  next 
two  years  at  any  rate,  this  deficit  will  be  easily 
taken  care  of  by  stocks  still  existing  in  some  pro- 
ducing countries.  Nevertheless,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  with  the  better  care  that  plantations  are  re- 
ceiving today  in  view  of  the  generally  favorable 
price  situation,  world  production  will  increase  suf- 
ficiently to  make  up  for  the  eventual  absorption  of 


COKE 


123 


COLOMBIA 


such  stocks  since,  obviously  enough,  they  are  not 
inexhaustible  and  the  next  two  years  should  see 
their  end. 

Finally,  there  is  to  be  noted  the  experiment  that 
the  New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange  is  mak- 
ing in  attempting  to  establish  a  Futures  Contract 
with  specifications  such  that  it  can  be  used  by  the 
importing  and  roasting  trade  as  a  general  market 
in  which  to  obtain  actual  delivery  of  coffee,  instead 
of  a  purely  nominal  contract  used  only  for  either 
hedging  or  speculative  purposes. 

In  common  with  most  branches  of  business,  the 
coffee  industry  as  a  whole  was  during  1948,  and 
will  probably  be  during  most  of  1949,  still  adjust- 
ing itself  to  the  postwar  era;  supply  and  consump- 
tion are  in  balance  today,  and  will  remain  so  dur- 
ing the  next  two  years;  and  therefore,  excluding 
any  international  upheavals,  the  prospects  for  eco- 
nomic stability  in  coffee  appear  to  be  excellent 
— PAN-AMERICAN  COFFEE  BUKEAU 

COKE.  The  demand  for  coke  was  very  heavy  in 
1948  in  order  to  meet  capacity  steel  and  foundry 
production.  Despite  a  5-week  strike  in  the  bitumi- 
nous coal  mines,  production  approached  the  1947 
postwar  record  with  73.3  million  tons  (1947,  re- 
vised: 73,445,850  tons).  Oven  coke  production, 
about  80  percent  of  it  from  ovens  operated  by  the 
iron  and  steel  industry,  was  approximately  67  mil- 
lion tons  ( 1947,  revised;  66,758,549  tons).  Beehive 
ovens,  called  on  for  heavier  tonnages  in  view  of  the 
shortage,  produced  6.3  million  tons  ( 1947,  revised: 
6,687,301  tons).  Nearly  80  percent  of  total  coke 
production  was  consumed  by  blast  furnaces  for  pig 
iron  production.  Oven  coke  stocks  were  higher  by 
400,000  tons  at  the  end  of  1948  (1,475,000  tons) 
than  the  previous  year.  — JOHN  ANTHONY 

COLOMBIA.  A  republic  of  South  America.  In  the 
west,  the  Andes  cover  about  one-third  of  the  land 
surface;  the  rest  is  composed  of  plains  watered  by 
the  Orinoco  and  Amazon  rivers.  The  climate  varies 
from  tropical  to  cold  with  the  altitude. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  439,848  square  miles. 
Population  (1947  est.):  10,000,000,  of  whom  the 
majority  are  mestizos;  15  percent  of  European  de- 
scent, 10  percent  Indian,  and  5  percent  Negro. 
Chief  cities:  Bogota  (capital),  452,090  inhabitants 
in  1947;  MedeUin,  224,280;  Barranquilk,  202,760; 
and  Cali,  139,600. 

Education  and  Religion*  The  Constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  religion,  Boman  Catholicism  is  pre- 
dominant. Spanish  is  the  official  language.  Recent 
statistics  show  that  more  than  45  percent  of  the 
population  over  10  years  of  age  is  literate.  There 
were,  in  1946,  12,792  public  and  private  elemen- 
tary schools  with  a  total  enrollment  of  1,101,910 
students,  1,277  secondary  schools  with  86,283  stu- 
dents, and  several  schools  (colleges  and  universi- 
ties )  for  higher  learning  with  a  total  enrollment  of 
7,335  students. 

Production.  Colombia's  economy  is  agrarian.  Cof- 
fee is  the  principal  product  and  yielded  6,086,308 
bags  (of  60  kilos)  in  1946.  Exports  of  coffee  dur- 
ing the  twelve  months  ended  June  30,  1948 
amounted  to  5,420,207  bags,  of  which  4,983,157 
bags  were  exported  to  the  United  States.  Petroleum 
is  a  promising  industry;  production  for  the  12 
months  ending  October,  1947,  totaled  23,615,064 
barrels  of  which  18,102,000  barrels  were  exported. 
The  output  of  gold  in  1947  totaled  418,457  ounces; 
a  decrease  from  other  years.  Production  for  internal 
consumption  centers  on  corn,  620,000  tons  in  1946; 
potatoes,  rice,  96,715  tons;  sugar,  166,500  tons 
(1947);  and  wheat.  Rubber  is  produced  on  a  small 


scale.  Consumer  goods  and  the  construction  in- 
dustry are  important. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1947  total  imports  were  valued 
at  636,200,000  pesos;  exports  totaled  446,200,000 
pesos  (peso,  Bank  of  Republic,  averaged  U.S.- 
$0.5682  during  1946  to  1948). 

Finance.  Budgetary  expenditures  for  1948  were 
estimated  at  308,395,878.26  pesos,  as  compared 
with  291,695,159.27  in  1947.  Currency  in  circu- 
lation on  Dec.  31,  1947,  was  $306  million;  bank 
deposits  $335  million.  The  cost  of  living  index  in 
May,  1948,  was  286  (1937  =  100). 

Transportation.  Railway  mileage  in  1944  was 
4,200.  There  are  14,245  miles  of  road,  of  which 
7,208  are  highways.  Motor  vehicle  registration 
shows  36,500  cars  of  all  kinds.  There  are  175,000 
radios  and  42,200  telephones.  Colombia  has  ex- 
cellent national  companies  providing  domestic  air 
transportation,  while  international  air  lines  connect 
with  the  principal  countries  of  the  world. 

Government.  Colombia  is  a  centralized  republic 
of  15  departments,  3  intendencias,  and  6  "comi- 
sarias."  Under  the  Constitution  of  Aug.  4,  1886 
(extensively  amended),  it  has  a  bicameral  Con- 
gress composed  of  a  Senate  of  63  members  and  a 
Chamber  of  Deputies  of  131  members.  The  Presi- 
dent is  elected  for  a  4-year  term,  and  is  aided  by 
a  Cabinet  of  12  Ministers.  The  Council  of  State 
also  assists  the  President  On  May  5,  1946,  Mariano 
Ospina  Perez  was  elected  to  the  Presidency  and 
took  office  on  August  7  of  that  year. 

Events,  1948.  Colombia,  traditionally  a  demo- 
cratic country,  was  the  scene  of  a  revolt  during 
the  Ninth  Later-American  Conference  of  American 
States  at  Bogota,  on  which  wide  attention  was  fo- 
cused. As  a  result  of  this  revolt  internal  politics 
of  the  year  were  much  affected. 

Preludes  to  the  Revolt.  Colombia  began  the  year 
under  the  administration  of  Conservative  President 
Mariano  Ospina  Perez,  who  had  been  elected  as 
a  result  of  the  split  between  the  Liberals.  He  had, 
therefore,  no  real  backing  among  the  people.  An- 
tagonism between  the  parties  caused  serious  out- 
breaks in  the  department  of  North  Santander 
which  forced  the  Government  to  declare  a  state 
of  siege  in  that  region.  Party  leaders  called  their 
members  to  order,  asking  them  to  prevent  a  schism 
in  the  coalition  cabinet  and  the  President  decreed 
complete  disarmament  of  the  civilian  population. 

On  February  7,  the  liberals  organized  a  mass 
meeting  in  Bogota  which  more  than  1,000  persons 
attended,  with  feelings  high  against  Ministers  of 
the  Interior  and  Education,  but  the  meeting  was 
held  without  incident.  In  preparation  for  the  Ninth 
Inter-American  Conference,  the  Government  ap- 
pointed Laureano  Gomez  to  the  Ministry  of  For- 
eign Affairs. 

Bogota  Revolt.  In  the  early  hours  of  the  afternoon 
of  April  9,  a  serious  revolt  broke  out  in  Bogota. 
The  uprising  was  provoked  by  the  assassination  of 
the  Liberal  Party  leader  Jorge  Eliecer  Gaitan,  who 
was  shot  while  leaving  his  office  at  noon.  Enraged 
people  in  the  street  Mlled  the  assassin,  and  indig- 
nation among  Liberals  was  so  strong  that  they  im- 
mediately marched  to  the  Capitol,  ostensibly  with 
the  intent  of  attacking  Gomez,  who  was  presiding 
over  the  Pan  American  Conference.  The  Palace 
was  sacked  and  considerable  damage  was  done, 
but  no  harm  came  to  the  delegates. 

The  revolt  spread  to  other  sections  of  the  city, 
and  mobs  sacked  and  burned  important  buildings 
and  stores.  When  the  news  of  Gaitan's  death 
reached  other  cities  similar  movements  occurred* 
It  was  later  disclosed  that  nearly  600  policemen 
belonging  to  the  Liberal  Party  remained  neutral 


COIORA0O 


124 


COMMERCE 


in  the  conflict,  which  explained  the  ease  with 
which  the  people  were  able  to  operate. 

Both  political  parties,  Conservative  and  Liberal, 
had  important  conferences  with  the  President, 
who  announced  the  formation  of  a  new  coalition 
cabinet  composed  of  6  Conservatives,  6  Liberals, 
and  an  Independent.  The  important  Ministry  of 
the  Interior  was  given  to  Dario  Echandia  (Lib- 
eral), who  took  Gaitan's  place  as  party  President. 
Minister  Laureano  Gomez  was  removed  from  the 
Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  replaced  by  Edu- 
ardo  Zulueta  Angel  (Conservative). 

Aftermath  of  the  Revolt.  Property  losses  caused  by 
the  Bogota  riots  were  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Em- 
bassy "Airgram,"  released  June  8,  at  88  million 
pesos.  It  was  also  reported  that  some  740  mer- 
chants suffered  losses,  but  that  about  TO  percent 
would  be  able  to  start  businesses  again  on  their 
own  resources.  Following  the  revolt,  Dario  Echan- 
dia secured  the  promise  of  the  Confederation  of 
Colombian  Workers  (C.T.C.)  that  they  back  the 
coalition  government.  The  workers  then  ended  the 
general  strike  that  they  had  declared  following 
Gaitan's  assassination. 

At  first,  various  groups,  especially  the  Conserv- 
atives and  some  of  the  delegates  to  the  Pan  Ameri- 
can Conference,  including  Secretary  Marshall,  at- 
tributed the  uprising  to  Communist  attempts  to 
sabotage  the  Conference.  This  was  doubted  by 
other  observers,  who  claimed  that  the  Communist 
Party  was  too  small  in  Colombia  (affiliation  is  es- 
timated at  8S000)  to  have  organized  such  an  im- 
portant revolt  on  short  notice. 

The  Ospina  Perez  administration  accused  the 
U.S.S.R.  of  having  instigated  the  riot  and  broke 
off  diplomatic  relations.  However,  in  diplomatic 
circles  in  Washington  and  several  Latin  American 
republics,  the  prevalent  opinion  was  that  although 
some  Communists  participated,  the  revolt  was 
caused  by  the  strong  political  antagonism  between 
Gaitan's  followers  and  the  Conservative  adminis- 
tration. 

The  months  following  the  revolt  were  charac- 
terized by  a  tense  political  atmosphere  and  rumors 
of  possible  conflict  between  the  two  major  parties, 
with  mutual  accusations  of  arms  smuggling.  Other 
incidents  included  the  murder  at  Cartagena  of  a 
locally  prominent  Liberal  leader  by  a  police  lieu- 
tenant of  Conservative  affiliation. 

International  Front.  Colombia  participated  in  the 
Ninth  Inter-American  Conference  of  American 
States  held  at  the  capital,  Bogota  ( see  PAN  AMER- 
ICAN ACTIVITIES  ) .  She  severed  diplomatic  relations 
with  the  Soviet  Union  in  April,  and  reached  a  pre- 
liminary agreement  with  the  United  States  for  the 
building  of  an  inter-oceanic  canal,  using  the  At- 
rato  River,  considered  of  great  importance  to  both 
countries.  Colombia  was  a  signatory  to  the  Charter 
of  American  States.  — MIGUEL  JORBIN 

COLORADO.  A  mountain  State.  Area:  103,948  sq. 
mi.  Population;  (July  1,  1948)  1,165,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  1,123,296.  Chief  city: 
Denver  (capital),  322,412  inhabitants  in  1940. 
See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND 
METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES, 
VITAL  STATISTICS,  etc. 

Vital  Statistics.  In  1946  there  were  29,518  live 
births  (26.8  per  1,000  based  on  civilian  population 
present  in  the  area);  12,058  deaths  (10.6  per 
1,000),  excluding  deaths  among  armed  forces  over- 
seas; maternal  deaths  57  (1.9  per  1,000  live 
births);  deaths  under  one  year  1,180  (40.0  per 
1,000  live  births);  stillbirths  650  (22.0  per  1,000 
live  births).  During  1946  there  were  28,875  cases 


of  single  births,  324  cases  of  twins,  and  3  cases 
of  triplets. 

The  death  rates  (per  100,000  of  the  popula- 
tion) for  10  leading  causes,  exclusive  of  stiUbirths 
and  of  deaths  among  the  armed  forces  overseas, 
were  as  follows:  diseases  of  the  heart,  280.1;  can- 
cer and  other  malignant  tumors,  127.2;  intracranial 
lesions  of  vascular  origin,  85.3;  pneumonia  (all 
forms)  and  influenza,  66.2;  nephritis,  63.5;  acci- 
dents, excluding  motor-vehicle  accidents,  57.2; 
premature  birth,  38.2;  tuberculosis  (all  forms), 
35.3;  motor-vehicle  accidents,  31.7;  senility,  ill 
defined  and  unknown,  19.5. 

Of  the  total  deaths,  6,074  were  65  years  of  age 
or  over;  2,877,  45-64;  1,151,  25-44;  373,  15-24; 
196,  5-14;  204,  1-4;  and  1,180  were  in  the  group 
under  one  year  of  age.  Diseases  of  the  heart  led 
the  causes  of  death  in  the  age  groups  25-44,  45- 
64,  and  65  years  and  over  during  the  calendar  year 
of  1946. 

Legislation.  There  was  no  regular  session  of  the 
Colorado  legislature  during  1948.  The  regular  ses- 
sion meets  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  January, 
every  two  years,  on  odd  years. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $93,692,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $95,437,000. 

Elections.  Democrats  won  almost  a  clean  sweep 
of  Statewide  offices  in  the  November  election.  Tru- 
man won  a  plurality  of  about  twenty  thousand  over 
Dewey  and  received  the  6  electoral  votes  which 
went  to  Dewey  in  1944;  Democratic  Governor  Lee 
Knous  was  reelected;  and  incumbent  Senator  Ed- 
win C,  Johnson  was  returned  for  another  term.  In 
contests  for  House  seats,  Republicans  won  1  and 
Democrats  3 — a  gain  of  2  for  the  latter.  Mrs.  Net- 
tie S.  Freed,  Republican,  was  reelected  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction.  Democrats  carried 
other  races:  Lieutenant  Governor — Walter  W. 
Johnson;  Secretary  of  State — George  J.  Baker;  At- 
torney General — John  W.  Metzger;  Auditor — My- 
ron C.  McGinley;  Treasurer — Homer  F.  Bedford. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  William  Lee  Knous; 
Lieut.  Governor,  Homer  L.  Pearson;  Secretary  of 
State,  Walter  F.  Morrison;  Attorney  General,  H. 
Lawrence  Hinkley;  State  Auditor,  Homer  F.  Bed- 
ford; State  Treasurer,  H.  Rodney  Anderson. 

COMBINED  CHIEFS  OF  STAFF— United  States  and  Great 
Britain.  Establishment  of  the  Combined  Chiefs  of 
Staff  was  announced  by  the  U.S.  War  Department 
on  Feb.  6,  1942.  The  Combined  Chiefs  of  Staff 
work  on  matters  deriving  from  the  wartime  coop- 
eration of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 
U.S.  Members:  Fleet  Admiral  William  D,  Leahy, 
Chief  of  Staff  to  the  Commander  in  Chief  of  the 
Armed  Forces;  Admiral  Louis  E.  Denfeld,  Chief 
of  Naval  Operations;  General  Omar  N.  Bradley, 
Chief  of  Staff,  U.S.  Army;  General  Hoyt  S.  Van- 
denberg,  Chief  of  Staff,  U.S.  Air  Force.  British 
Members:  General  Sir  William  Morgan;  Admiral 
Sir  Frederick  Dalrymple-Hamilton;  Air  Chief  Mar- 
shal Sir  Charles  Medhurst. 

COMMERCE,  U.S.  Department  of.  A  Department  of  the 
U.S.  Government,  created  in  1903  as  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  and  Labor.  The  activities  of  the 
Department  include  population,  agricultural  and 
other  censuses;  collection,  analysis,  and  dissemina- 
tion of  commercial  statistics;  promotion  of  foreign 
and  domestic  commerce;  coastal  and  geodetic  sur- 
veys; establishment  of  commodity  weights,  meas- 
ures, and  standards;  supervision  of  the  issuance  of 
patents  and  the  registration  of  trade-marks;  the  es- 
tablishment and  maintenance  of  aids  to  air  naviga- 


COMMODITY  CRfDJT  CORPORATION 


125 


COMMUNICATIONS 


tion,  the  certification  of  airmen,  the  inspection  and 
registration  o£  aircraft,  and  the  enforcement  of 
rules  and  regulations  issued  pursuant  to  the  Civil 
Aeronautics  Act  of  1938;  supervision  of  the  issu- 
ance of  weather  forecasts  and  warnings  for  the 
benefit  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  navigation 
including  weather  service  for  aviation,  and  the 
publication  of  climatic  statistics;  operation  of  a 
system  of  water-line  facilities  as  a  common  carrier 
under  the  trade  name  Federal  Barge  Lines;  and 
numerous  other  functions  concerning  these  ac- 
tivities and  related  subjects. 

The  Department  of  Commerce  as  at  present  con- 
stituted, with  the  Office  of  the  Secretary,  includes: 

Bureau  of  the  Census 

Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce 
Office  of  Business  Economics 
Office  of  Domestic  Commerce 
Office  of  Field  Service 
Office  of  International  Trade 

Civil  Aeronautics  Administration 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 

Inland  Waterways  Corporation 

Office  of  Technical  Services 

Office  of  Industry  Cooperation 

National  Bureau  of  Standards 

Patent  Office 

Weather  Bureau 

Secretary  since  May,  1948,  Charles  Sawyer;  As- 
sistant Secretary  for  Foreign  and  Domestic  Com- 
merce (Acting),  Thomas  C.  Blaisdell,  Jr.;  Assistant 
Secretary  for  Aeronautics,  John  R.  Alison. 

COMMODITY  CREDIT  CORPORATION  (CCC).  An  agency, 
created  under  the  laws  of  Delaware  (Oct.  17, 
1933)  pursuant  to  Executive  Order  6340,  which 
became  a  part  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture in  1939.  CCC  was  continued  until  June  30, 
1948,  as  a  U.S.  agency  by  successive  amendments 
to  the  act  on  Jan.  31,  1933.  In  1948  Congress 
passed  an  Act  providing  a  Federal  charter  for  the 
corporation.  This  dissolved  the  Delaware  corpora- 
tion and  continued  the  CCC  indefinitely  under  its 
Federal  charter.  The  corporation,  within  the  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  is  managed  by  a 
5-member  board  of  directors,  of  which  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture  is  one.  The  other  members  are 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.  In 
carrying  on  its  activities,  the  CCC  makes  wide 
use  of  the  facilities  and  personnel  of  the  Produc- 
tion and  Marketing  Administration.  It  is  authorized 
to  engage  in  buying,  selling,  lending,  and  other 
activities  with  respect  to  agricultural  commodities 
and  related  facilities  for  the  purpose  of  supporting 
farm  prices,  maintaining  adequate  supplies  of  agri- 
cultural commodities,  and  facilitating  their  orderly 
distribution  in  both  domestic  and  foreign  com- 
merce, CCC  procures  and  makes  commodities 
available  to  various  Government  agencies  and 
carries  out  special  import  and  export  programs. 
President  in  1948:  Ralph  S.  Trigg. 

COMMODITY  EXCHANGE  AUTHORITY.  The  Commod- 
ity Exchange  Authority  of  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  regulates  futures  trading  on  the  Chi- 
cago and  Kansas  City  boards  of  trade,  the  Minne- 
apolis grain  exchange,  the  New  York  and  New 
Orleans  cotton  exchanges,  and  a  dozen  other  com- 
modity futures  markets.  The  volume  of  grain  fu- 
tures trading  under  regulation  in  the  year  ended 
June  30,  1948,  aggregated  12,000  million  bushels, 
which  was  the  largest  in  ten  years.  The  volume  in 
cotton  futures  was  110  million  bales,  the  largest 
since  1929.  There  were  also  large  futures  markets 


in  butter,  eggs,  potatoes,  laid,  cottonseed  oil*  and 
feedstuffs. 

The  purpose  of  Federal  regulation  of  these  mar- 
kets under  the  Commodity  Exchange  Act  is  to 
prevent  price  manipulation  and  excessive  specula- 
tion, and  to  protect  the  trading  public  against 
cheating  and  fraud  in  the  execution  of  commodity 
futures  transactions.  Enforcement  activities  of  the 
CEA  in  1947-48  included  the  institution  of  crimi- 
nal proceedings  in  several  instances  against  persons 
charged  with  violating  the  act.  Other  infractions 
are  disciplined  by  denial  of  trading  privileges  on 
the  markets,  and  by  suspension  of  broker  registra- 
tions. To  safeguard  customers'  funds  against  mis- 
use, the  CEA  made  an  increased  number  of  audits 
of  commodity  brokerage  firms  during  the  year.  It 
continued  the  enforcement  of  fixed  limits  on  spec- 
ulative transactions  of  large  traders  in  grains  and 
cotton;  and  made  eight  marketwide  investigations, 
One  of  these  disclosed  that  hundreds  of  speculators 
were  setting  up  sham  positions  in  futures  to  conceal 
income-tax  liabilities.  Several  million  dollars  of  in- 
come tax  recoveries  should  result  from  this  investi- 
gation. 

COMMONWEALTH  FUND,  The.  Established  in  1918  by 
Mrs.  Stephen  V.  Harkness  "to  do  something  for 
the  welfare  of  mankind."  The  Fund  now  amounts 
to  approximately  $50,000,000.  Appropriations  in 
the  year  ended  Sept.  30,  1948,  totaled  $1,992,208. 
Activities  tending  to  promote  or  maintain  physical 
and  mental  health  accounted  for  more  than  80  per- 
cent of  the  total.  Grants  for  more  than  $555,000 
were  made  for  research  on  medical  and  physiologi- 
cal problems.  Through  contributions  to  medical  ed- 
ucation the  Fund  sought  to  encourage  greater 
emphasis  on  problems  of  personality  and  emotional 
adjustment  as  they  affect  general  and  internal  med- 
icine and  pediatrics.  To  mis  end  fellowships  were 
given  for  the  training  of  physicians  in  psychiatry 
and  psychotherapeutic  medicine  and  support  was 
given  to  teaching  clinics  and  other  arrangements 
for  exploring  the  possibilities  of  comprehensive 
medical  care.  Fellowships  were  given  also  for  ad- 
vanced medical  study  in  other  fields  by  men  and 
women  preparing  for,  or  already  engaged  in, 
teaching  and  research. 

Public  health  activities  designed  to  raise  stand- 
ards of  rural  service  centered  in  Mississippi,  Okla- 
homa, and  Tennessee,  and  professional  training  for 
public  health  was  fostered  in  Louisiana  and  Flor- 
ida, In  California,  in  collaboration  with  the  State 
Department  of  Health,  the  Fund  arranged  an  in- 
stitute on  mental  health  for  public  health  officers. 
In  the  rural  hospital  program  emphasis  was  thrown 
on  the  regional  linking  of  small  hospitals  with  med- 
ical centers  as  a  means  of  raising  the  level  of  rural 
medical  care,  particularly  in  regions  surrounding 
Rochester,  N.Y.,  and  Richmond,  Va. 

With  the  addition  of  five  appointees  from  the 
Civil  Services  in  the  Dominions,  the  British  Fel- 
lowship scheme  was  fully  reconstituted  after  the 
interruption  due  to  the  war;  28  Fellows  in  all  came 
to  the  United  States  for  graduate  study  at  Ameri- 
can Toinversities  and  in  various  technical  fields. 

New  publications  during  1948  included  10  books 
of  educational  significance.  The  directors  of  the 
Fund  are:  Malcolm  ?.  Aldrich  (President),  David 
R  Barr,  William  E.  Birdsall,  Harold  B.  Hoskins, 
Lewis  Perry,  Barry  C.  Smith,  William  E.  Steven- 
son, Thomas  D.  Thacher,  and  Boylston  A.  Tomp- 
kins.  Offices;  41  East  57th  St.,  New  York  22,  N.Y. 

COMMUNICATIONS,  Electrical.  Continuing  high  de- 
mands for  service  and  new  technical  developments 


COMMUNICATIONS 


126 


COMMUNICATIONS 


were  responsible  for  large  plant  expansions  in  both 
the  telephone  and  telegraph  industries  during  the 
year.  Radio  communication  service  was  reported 
reopened  to  several  areas  of  the  globe,  but  some 
difficulty  was  reported  by  International  Telephone 
and  Telegraph  Company  in  transferring  funds  out 
of  some  coiintries.  New  developments  appeared  in 
a  wide  range  of  subjects  which  may  be  classed  un- 
der communications,  because  of  their  potential  ef- 
fects in  that  field. 

The  "transistor,"  a  device  that  is  small  in  size  but 
large  in  possibilities,  was  announced  by  Bell  Tele- 
phone Laboratories.  Small  in  comparison  to  an  or- 
dinary paper  clip,  it  is  capable  of  performing  effi- 
ciently nearly  all  the  functions  of  a  vacuum  tube, 
yet  it  has  no  plate,  grid,  nor  filament.  No  vacuum 
is  required,  and  there  is  no  warm-up  delay.  The 
principal  parts  consist  of  two  hair-thin  wires  touch- 
ing a  pinhead  of  a  solid  semiconductor  material, 
such  as  germanium,  soldered  to  a  metal  base.  The 
whole  is  enclosed  in  a  metal  cylinder  not  much 
larger  than  a  shoe-lace  tip. 

Tests  have  shown  that  the  transistor  will  amplify 
at  least  100  times,  and  some  test  models  have  been 
operated  as  amplifiers  at  frequencies  up  to  10  mil- 
lion cycles  per  second.  In  operation  a  voltage  sup- 
ply, such  as  batteries,  energizes  the  transistor  by 
applying  bias  potential  to  the  two  point  contacts, 
which  are  only  two  thousandths  of  an  inch  apart. 
Input  power  delivered  to  one  of  the  point  contacts 
is  amplified  and  transmitted  to  the  other  where  it 
is  delivered  to  an  output  circuit.  Cost  data  on  the 
device  are  not  available  because  it  is  still  in  the 
experimental  stage.  However,  far-reaching  signifi- 
cance in  electronics  and  electrical  communication 
is  expected. 

The  action  of  the  transistor  depends  on  the  fact 
that  the  input  contact  is  surrounded  by  an  "area 
of  interaction"  within  which  the  electronic  struc- 
ture is  modified  by  the  input  current.  If  the  output 
contact  is  placed  in  this  area,  the  output  current 
can  be  controlled  by  the  input  current. 

Amplification  with  a  diamond  rather  than  with 
the  conventional  vacuum  tube  also  was  announced 
by  the  same  laboratories.  The  method  is  based  on 
the  discovery  that  when  beams  of  electrons  are  shot 
at  an  insulator — a  diamond  chip  in  this  instance — 
electric  currents  are  produced  in  the  insulator 
which  may  be  several  hundred  times  as  large  as  the 
current  in  the  original  electron  beam. 

A  system  of  graphic  communication  based  on  a 
combination  of  radio,  television,  and  photography 
to  which  the  name  "Ultrafax"  has  been  given  was 
demonstrated  on  October  21.  Developed  by  RCA 
Laboratories  in  cooperation  with  Eastman  Kodak 
Company  and  National  Broadcasting  Company., 
Ultrafax  can  transmit  and  receive  printed  messages 
and  documents  at  the  rate  of  a  million  words  per 
minute.  This  speed  is  achieved  by  transmitting 
full  pages  of  information  as  television  pictures  at 
the.  rate  of  15  to  30  per  second.  Steps  involved  in 
the  transmission  include  the  preparation  of  the 
data,  scanning  of  -the  data  and  transmission  as  a 
television  image,  and  recording  of  the  received 
image  on  motion  picture  film.  The  film  is  processed 
quickly  by  equipment  similar  to  that  used  during 
the  war  for  V-mail.  One  suggested  possible  use 
is  for  bringing  various  publications  directly  into 
the  home. 

A  printing  process  that  depends  on  electrostatic 
effects  was  developed  at  Battelle  Memorial  Insti- 
tute, Columbus,  Ohio.  Given  the  generic  name 
"xerography,"  it  is  based  on  the  ability  of  certain 
insulating  materials  to  become  electrically  conduc- 
tive when  acted  upon  by  light,  and  on  the  electri- 


cal attraction  of  dissimilar  materials  in  contact.  By 
exposing  a  plate  of  the  material  to  an  image  pattern 
under  a  projection  lamp,  a  "latent  electrical  image" 
is  formed.  The  printing  process  then  consists  of 
using  electrostatic  effects  to  cause  the  plate  to  de- 
posit a  powder  on  the  paper  which  can  be  devel- 
oped by  heat  or  a  spray.  The  process  is  said  to 
be  dry,  fast,  simple,  and  cheap. 

Further  progress  was  made  during  the  year  in 
reducing  the  size  of  electronic  equipment  by  the 
use  of  miniature  tubes  and  printed  circuits.  Reduc- 
tion in  size  sometimes  has  required  special  insulat- 
ing materials  because  of  increases  in  operating  tem- 
peratures. 

A  major  change  in  phonograph  records  for  use 
in  the  home  began  in  June  when  Columbia  intro- 
duced a  long-playing  record  designated  as  "LP" 
or  microgroove  which,  by  operating  at  33%  r.p.m. 
and  having  approximately  twice  as  many  grooves 
per  inch  as  the  standard  78  r.p.m.  record,  repro- 
duces 45  minutes  of  recording  on  a  single  12-inch 
record.  Because  of  the  difference  in  speed  and  the 
necessity  for  a  stylus  or  needle  having  smaller  di- 
ameter and  lighter  pressure  than  the  conventional 
pickup  unit,  manufacturers  began  production  of 
record  players  having  two-speed  motors  and  provi- 
sion for  pickups  having  suitable  characteristics  to 
accommodate  both  types.  Sales  of  records  were  re- 
ported to  total  1.5  million  for  the  LP  type. 

Meanwhile  RCA- Victor  was  developing  a  differ- 
ent type  of  record  to  be  played  at  45  r.p.m.  Rec- 
ords operating  at  33%  r.p.m.  had  been  introduced 
to  the  public  in  the  early  1930's,  but  were  not  sat- 
isfactory at  that  time. 

A  new  type  of  phonograph  pickup  was  an- 
nounced in  which  the  needle  movements  are  trans- 
mitted directly  to  an  element  of  an  electron  tube 
through  a  thin  vacuum-tight  diaphragm  in  the  en- 
velope of  the  tube.  The  movement  of  the  element 
causes  the  mechanical  motion  to  be  converted  to 
electrical  pulses. 

An  entirely  new  type  of  metal  lens  for  focussing 
radio  waves  in  radio  relay  systems  was  developed 
in  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories.  Based  on  the  theo- 
ries of  light  transmission  through  atomic  and  mo- 
lecular structures,  the  lenses  are  built  by  scaling 
up  the  molecular  lattice  structure  of  a  non-conduc- 
tor, such  as  glass,  and  then  substituting  electrically 
conductive  elements  for  the  molecules.  The  ele- 
ments may  be  small  strips  of  conducting  material 
rather  than  spheres.  Lenses  constructed  on  this 
principle  have  been  shown  to  be  usable  over  a 
much  wider  band  of  wave  lengths  than  former 
lenses.  From  50  to  100  television  channels  or  tens 
of  thousands  of  simultaneous  telephone  messages 
are  theoretically  within  the  capacity  of  the  broad 
band  lens. 

Growth  of  power  systems,  with  their  increasing 
complexity  and  interconnections,  has  had  its  effect 
in  the  field  of  communications  in  so  far  as  that 
specialized  method  of  transmission  known  as 
power  line  carrier  is  concerned.  One  means  pro- 
posed for  relieving  the  congestion  in  communica- 
tion channels  provided  by  the  power  lines  them- 
selves was  the  use  of  single  sideband  transmission, 
in  which  the  carrier  frequency  and  one  sideband 
are  suppressed.  The  potential  number  of  communi- 
cation channels  is  thereby  doubled.  Microwave 
space  radio  also  was  proposed  as  a  method  of  com- 
munication to  be  considered  by  power  companies. 

Special  developments  were  aimed  at  improving 
systems  for  railroad  and  airline  reservations.  The 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Railway  established  a  cen- 
tral reservation  bureau  in  Huntington,  W.Va., 
which  can  be  reached  directly  by  a  local  telephone 


COMMUNICATIONS 


127 


COMMUNICATIONS 


call  from  most  of  the  principal  cities  served  by 
the  railroad.  An  electric  reservation  system  was 
developed  under  the  name  of  "Intelex"  which  will 
malce  and  confirm  a  reservation  in  10  seconds.  Op- 
erations are  performed  by  circuits  using  relays, 
switches,  and  tubes.  A  brief  coded  message  of  res- 
ervation, cancellation,  or  inquiry  may  be  trans- 
mitted by  teleprinter  from  any  local  office  and 
with  no  further  manual  operations  the  machine  will 
reply  automatically  to  the  teleprinter  in  the  office 
originating  -the  order.  Information  on  the  status  of 
all  reservations  on  any  specific  journey  may  be  ob- 
tained at  any  time. 

A  new  instrument  designed  and  being  assembled 
for  radio  astronomy  investigation  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity with  the  joint  sponsorship  of  the  Office  of 
Naval  Research  emphasizes  the  decreasing  gap  be- 
tween light  waves  and  radio  waves  as  the  frequen- 
cies of  the  latter  are  made  higher  and  higher.  It 
is  a  telescope  using  a  sensitive  radio  receiver  fed 
by  a  small  antenna  at  the  focal  point  of  a  17-foot 
parabolic  reflector  instead  of  visual  or  photographic 
observation,  and  may  be  used  under  all  types  of 
weather  conditions.  The  sun  radiates  at  all  frequen- 
cies of  the  electromagnetic  spectrum,  but  the  radio 
telescope  will  accept  only  a  small  range  of  fre- 
quencies. Whereas  optical  telescopes  have  a  resolv- 
ing power  of  the  order  of  tenths  of  a  second  of  arc, 
the  radio  telescope  will  have  a  resolving  power 
of  the  order  of  degrees. 

A  vital  part  of  many  items  of  communication 
equipment  is  a  crystal  of  quartz,  used  to  control 
the  frequency.  Experiments  at  Bell  Telephone  Lab- 
oratories showed  that  it  was  possible  to  grow  crys- 
tals of  quartz  and  thereby  produce  a  source  of 
supply  independent  of  natural  supplies.  The  prod- 
uct is  identical  in  every  respect  witii  that  of  nature, 
and  is  produced  under  heat  and  pressure  from  a 
form  of  silicon. 

A  necessary  adjunct  for  progress  in  communica- 
tions is  progress  in  the  field  of  measurements.  Sev- 
eral advances  were  made  during  the  year.  The 
United  States  National  Bureau  of  Standards  con- 
structed an  atomic  clock  in  which  a  quartz-crystal 
oscillator  and  frequency  multiplier  chain  are  locked 
to  an  absorption  line  of  ammonia  gas  at  a  frequen- 
cy of  23,870.1  megacycles.  The  crystal  drives  a 
clock  through  frequency  dividers  and  gives  a  new 
standard  of  physical  or  atomic  time  with  a  poten- 
tial accuracy  of  one  part  in  100  million.  The  ac- 
curacy is  permanent  because  the  absorption  line 
is  invariant  with  age. 

The  Bureau  also  developed  microwave  frequency 
standards  in  the  range  of  frequencies  from  300  to 
100,000  megacycles  and  higher.  Such  frequencies 
are  available  for  application  to  radar,  navigation 
systems,  storm  and  weather  reporting,  relays  for 
frequency  modulation  and  television  broadcasting, 
blind  bombing,  guided  missiles,  and  many  other 
uses,  both  civilian  and  military. 

In  connection  with  studies  of  radio  wave  propa- 
gation the  Bureau  also  developed  an  improved 
electronic  phase  meter.  Designed  for  a  frequency 
range  from  100  to  5,000  cycles  per  second,  the  new 
instrument  reads  and  records  directly  the  phase 
angle  between  two  sinusoidal  voltages  having  a 
variation  of»l  to  30  volts.  A  sensitivity  of  0.5  degree 

Radio.  In  the  United  States  die  Federal  Com- 
munications Commission  called  attention  to  the 
need  for  more  regulation  or  better  scientific  tech- 
niques to  make  room  for  all  the  radio,  television, 
anid  short-wave  broadcasters  who  want  to  get  space 
on  the  air.  At  mid-year  it  was  reported  that  there 
were  131,000  authorized  radio  stations,  plus  150,- 


000  mobile  stations  such  as  aeronautical,  marine, 
radar,  police,  fire,  and  railroad  units.  Taxicab  com- 
panies in  the  cities  use  3,000  stations,  and  about 
the  same  number  are  used  in  general  industry. 

The  Commission  estimates  that  37  million  fami- 
lies— 94  percent  of  the  families  in  the  United 
States — have  one  or  more  receivers.  As  of  June  3d, 
there  were  3,163  major  broadcasting  outlets  au- 
thorized, including  2,034  standard  radio  stations, 
1,020  FM  outlets,  and  109  television  stations. 
About  2  million  FM  receivers  were  in  use  in  homes. 
During  the  year  as  a  whole,  manufacturers  pro- 
duced 16  million  receivers  to  give  the  public  an 
estimated  total  of  74  million  in  working  order  and 
5  million  more  out  of  order.  However,  the  big 
wartime  accumulation  of  demand  for  sets  was 
found  to  have  been  wiped  out,  and  many  manufac- 
turers turned  to  television  to  keep  their  total  busi- 
ness at  or  above  1947  levels. 

Wire  and  radio  telephone  communication  cir- 
cuits may  be  combined  to  provide  telephone  serv- 
ice to  large  groups  of  mobile  units  on  a  common 
carrier  basis.  The  calling  arrangement  rings  a  bell 
only  in  the  automobile  of  the  one  subscriber  with 
whom  communication  is  desired.  Such  systems 
have  been  put  into  use  in  many  places  in  the 
United  States,  and  at  the  beginning  of  1948  there 
were  about  102  land  stations  serving  4,000  mobile 
units.  To  provide  service  to  more  than  a  very  few 
units  in  a  city,  more  than  one  frequency  channel 
must  be  used.  A  typical  land  station  consists  of  a 
250- watt  transmitter  together  with  several  fixed 
receivers  placed  at  favorable  locations  within  the 
sendee  area  to  pick  up  signals  from  the  mobile 
units.  Transmitters  of  the  latter  have  a  power  out- 
put of  from  20  to  40  watts.  Operation  is  in  the 
frequency  ranges  of  30—44  and  152-162  mega- 
cycles. 

A  new  type  of  radiotelephone  system  was  in- 
stalled on  the  Cunard  White  Star  Line's  new  liner 
Caronia,  said  to  be  the  first  ship  in  the  world  to 
use  single  sideband  telephony — a  system  hitherto 
used  only  on  intercontinental  radiotelephone  cir- 
cuits to  provide  improved  speech  transmission. 

Telegraphy.  Significant  steps  were  taken  toward 
speeding  telegraph  service,  oldest  of  the  electrical 
means  of  communication.  Progress  Was  reported 
in  the  expansion  of  facilities  in  the  Mexican  Re- 
public, where  development  has  been  slow  because 
of  the  difficult  terrain  in  many  regions.  Although, 
the  telegraph  was  introduced  in  1852,  some  parts 
of  Mexico  have  no  direct  telegraph  communication 
with  the  capital. 

In  carrying  out  an  improvement  plan  that  was 
begun  under  the  presidential  term  dating  from  De- 
cember, 1946,  the  first  steps  have  been  taken  to- 
ward providing  more  capacity  in  already  over- 
loaded channels  by  adding  copper  circuits.  Sub- 
sequent plans  call  for  the  installation  of  carrier 
equipment  and  improvement  of  the  national  radio 
network  by  the  use  of  the  most  modern  devices. 
Because  both  radiotelephone  and  radiotelegraph 
are  under  control  of  the  Ministry  of  Communica- 
tions and  Public  Works,  they  are  used  one  with  the 
other  to  provide  maximum  service. 

In  the  United  States  the  Western  Union  Tele- 
graph Company  has  been  turning  to  the  use  of 
microwave  radio-relay  circuits  to  provide  addi- 
tional channels.  Reperforator  switching  arrange- 
ments were  installed  in  many  large  cities  which, 
in  combination  with  an  extensive  wire  carrier  and 
radio  telegraph  system,  will  handle  practically  all 
of  the  company's  telegraph  traffic.  Many  private 
wire  systems  were  installed  on  the  premises  of  the 
company's  patrons  to  handle  their  own  messages. 


COMMUNICATIONS 


128  COMMUNISM 


Telephony.  The  total  number  of  telephones  in  the 
world  reached  60.6  million  on  Jan.  1,  1948,  an 
increase  of  6  million  over  the  figure  for  the  same 
date  in  1947,  according  to  statistics  made  available 
by  the  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Com- 
pany. The  number  in  the  United  States  increased 
from  31.6  million  to  almost  34.9  million,  but  the 
percentage  of  the  total  decreased  from  57.9  to 
57.5.  Thus  in  a  period  of  one  year  as  many  tele- 
phones were  added  as  were  installed  in  all  the 
first  25  years  after  its  invention.  In  the  number 
of  telephones  per  100  population,  San  Francisco, 
Calif.,  led  the  world,  with  Stockholm,  Sweden,  sec- 
ond, and  Geneva,  Switzerland,  third. 

In  telephone  conversations  per  capita,  however, 
the  order  is  the  United  States,  Canada,  and  Swe- 
den in  the  first  three  places.  In  the  territory  of  the 
Pacific  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company,  one 
million  new  subscribers  were  gained  in  the  period 
between  V-J  day  and  September,  1948,  but  the 
population  on  the  Pacific  Coast  was  shifting  so 
rapidly  that  this  gain  involved  the  installation  of 
3  million  and  the  removal  of  2  million  instruments. 

During  the  year  1948,  operating  companies  in 
the  Bell  System  added  more  than  2.8  million  tele- 
phones, but  there  still  were  about  1.2  million  un- 
filled applications  on  hand  at  the  year-end,  and 
demand  continued  strong.  The  volume  of  telephone 
calling  continued  upwards,  with  the  number  of  lo- 
cal and  long  distance  calls  handled  by  Bell  com- 
panies averaging  167.3  million  a  day  for  the  first 
11  months. 

In  July  a  complex  system  called  automatic  mes- 
sage accounting  was  placed  in  service  in  Media, 
Pa.,  a  suburb  of  Philadelphia,  after  having  been  in 
the  making  for  more  than  15  years.  By  means  of 
the  system  all  dial  telephone  calls  through  a  tele- 
phone central  office  are  recorded,  sorted,  and  the 
bill  of  each  subscriber  computed.  By  the  elimina- 
tion of  the  multitude  of  meters  and  human  compu- 
tations which  now  monitor  the  price  of  dial  tele- 
phone service,  the  new  system  is  expected  to  in- 
crease the  accuracy  of  billing  and  gradually  ex- 
tend the  area  for  direct  dial  calls.  Eventually  it  is 
planned  to  be  integrated  with  long-distance  toll 
dialing. 

Data  for  the  system  are  punched  on  a  3-inch- 
wide  paper  tape  in  a  numerical  code.  The  origin, 
destination,  and  the  time  and  duration  of  the  call 
are  indicated  by  the  position  of  holes  in  the  tape, 
which  then  goes  through  highly  complex  sorting 
and  computing  machines  for  analysis.  Information 
is  produced  on  typed  slips  for  each  subscriber  and 
then  is  transcribed  onto  the  actual  bill  by  clerks. 

In  August  the  first  units  of  a  rotary  dial  tele- 
phone switching  system  that  is  new  to  the  United 
States  but  which  long  has  been  standard  with  In- 
ternational Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company 
and  other  operating  companies  throughout  the 
world  were  placed  in  service  in  Rochester,  N.Y. 
The  city  is  served  by  the  second  largest  independ- 
ent telephone  company  in  the  country,  and  is  be- 
ing converted  from  manual  to  dial  operation. 

After  several  years  of  hearings  before  the  FCC 
regarding  the  use  of  recording  devices  on  tele- 
phones, Government  regulations  were  issued  re- 
quiring that  the  installation  of  such  equipment  be. 
performed  by  the  telephone  company  and  that  pro- 
vision be  made  to  let  telephone  users  know  that 
the  conversation  is  being  recorded.  An  automatic 
tone  device  is  used  to  produce  a  signal  at  intervals 
of  about  15  seconds  as  long  as  the  recorder  is  in 
use,  except  on  private  lines  which  cannot  be  con- 
nected with  the  general  telephone  exchange. 

Toll  dialing  networks  were  placed  in  operation 


at  New  York,  N.Y.,  and  Chicago,  111.,  late  in  No- 
vember and  early  in  December.  The  installations 
were  steps  in  the  plan  of  the  Bell  System  for  a 
complete  long-distance  dial  service  to  all  parts  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada  under  the  method 
which  permits  operators  to  put  calls  through  to 
distant  telephones  directly  without  the  aid  of  other 
operators  en  route.  With  equipment  already  in  op- 
eration in  Philadelphia,  approximately  10  percent 
of  the  nation's  traffic  between  toll  centers  is  being 
handled  by  operator  toll  dialing. 

Construction  of  a  coaxial  cable  between  Phila- 
delphia and  Cleveland  was  completed  and  it  was 
placed  in  long-distance  telephone  service  in  No- 
vember; eventually  it  also  will  provide  facilities 
for  television.  About  two  thirds  of  the  cable  was 
plowed  directly  into  the  ground  and  the  remain- 
ing third  was  placed  in  conduits.  Steel-armored 
submarine  coaxial  cable  was  used  in  crossing  the 
larger  streams  and  rivers  along  the  route.  Another 
completed  coaxial  cable  is  one  that  extends  3,000 
miles  from  Miami,  Fla.,  to  Los  Angeles  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

A  private  communications  network  which  is  en- 
tirely automatic  was  installed  for  Pan  American 
Airways,  Inc.,  in  order  to  relay  messages  concern- 
ing reservations,  operations,  and  other  business 
matters  between  some  56  offices  located  through- 
out the  nation.  Messages  are  typed  on  one  tele- 
typewriter which  prepares  a  tape  that  is  placed  in 
a  transmitter.  Switching  equipment  is  controlled 
by  coded  characters  at  the  beginning  of  each  mes- 
sage and  selects  the  proper  circuits  and  stations, 
G.  Ross  HENNINGER 

COMMUNISM.  In  1948,  as  in  1947,  the  story  of  world 
Communism  was  the  story  of  the  cold  war  between 
the  Soviet  Union  and  the  United  States.  This  year, 
however,  not  all  the  advantages  were  on  the  side 
of  the  U.S.S.R.  Russia  tightened  its  grip  on  Czech- 
oslovakia, but  lost  control  of  Yugoslavia.  Commu- 
nism was  defeated,  temporarily  at  any  rate,  in 
Italy,  and  the  Communists  lost  ground  in  most  of 
western  Europe.  In  China,  however,  and  in  parts 
of  southeastern  Asia,  Communist  forces  made 
marked  advances. 

Czechoslovakia.  For  some  time  after  its  liberation, 
Czechoslovakia  was  the  one  country  within  the 
Soviet  sphere  of  influence  in  which  Communists 
were  willing  to  cooperate  with  non-Communists. 
In  1948  it  ceased  to  be  an  exception  to  the  rule. 
Late  in  1947  the  Communists  waged  a  successful 
struggle  against  the  Slovak  Democratic  Party,  and 
in  January,  1948,  they  turned  their  attention  to 
the  Czech  National  Socialist  Party.  Challenged  by 
opposition  leaders,  they  moved  on  February  13  to 
complete  their  control  of  the  police.  When  all  the 
non-Communist  groups  protested  this  move,  the 
Communists  staged  a  demonstration  of  factory 
workers,  with  threats  of  violent  revolution. 

Yielding  to  this  pressure,  President  Eduard 
BeneS  appointed  Klement  Gottwald,  Communist 
leader,  as  Premier,  with  a  Cabinet  made  up  of 
Communists  and  their  allies.  Non-Communists 
were  purged  from  office,  and  the  Communists  an- 
nounced an  election  on  May  30  with  a  single  slate 
of  candidates.  On  June  7,  refusing  to  sign  the  Con- 
stitution drawn  up  by  the  Communists,  Benes>  re- 
signed his  office.  Gottwald  became  President  on 
June  14,  and  Antonin  Zapotocky,  the  new  Premier, 
appointed  a  Cabinet  that  was  even  more  firmly  un- 
der Communist  control  than  its  predecessor.  Dur- 
ing the  following  months  the  Communists  took 
steps  to  hasten  the  nationalization  of  industry, 
moved  to  control  the  Sokol  and  other  popular  or- 


COMMUNIST  COUP  in  Czechoslovakia 
during  February  1948.  A  view  (above) 
of  Prague's  Wenzel  Place  where  the 
Communist  Premier  Gottwald  an- 
nounced the  Communist  victory  to 
the  thousands  of  people  assembled. 


DANUBE  CONFERENCE  in  1948 
adopted  the  Soviet  Plan  creating  a 
special  Rumanian-Soviet  Administra- 
tion for  the  Danube's  river  traffic. 
Photo  shows  Rumania's  Foreign  Min- 
ister, Ana  Pauker,  with  her  aides.  ^* 

Photos  from  European 


CZECH     PARLIAMENT     in 

London.  Thirty-five  Czecho- 
slovak members  of  parlia- 
ment who  escaped  from 
their  country  since  the  Com- 
munist coup  d'etat  and  met 
in  London  during  1948  to 
discuss  the  general  elec- 
tions in  their  country  and 
other  major  events  con- 
nected with  the  activities 
of  the  Communist  Party. 


Wide  World 

BULLETS  IN  BOGOTA:  Colombia  was  the  scene  of  a  revolt  during  the  Ninth  Inter-American  Conference  of  Ameri- 
can states  at  Bogota,  April  9,  on  which  international  political  attention  was  focused.  The  photograph  shows  one 
ot  the  scenes  of  noting  and  footing  as  a  streetcar  is  overturned  and  burned  during  the  riot 


REVOLT  IN  COLOMBIA  occurred  on  April  9  when  a  serious  uprising  broke  out 
in   Bogota.   Photo  shows  the   Capitol   building   and   the   Cathedral   in    Bogota. 

European 


European 

PRESIDENT  OF  CUBA:  Dr.  Carlos  Pn'6 
Socarras  was  elected  President  of 
Cuba  on  June  1,  1948.  He  was 
inaugurated  on  October  10,  1948. 


A     MISSION    FOR    AID. 

Mme  Chiang  Kai-shek,  an 
American  military  man  at 
her  back,  arrives  in  the 
U.S.  on  her  mission  for 
money  and  support  of  the 
cause  of  the  Nationalists. 


A  REPUBLIC,  by  proc- 
lamation, is  established 
in  Korea— U.S.  zone. 
Syngman  Rhee  (rig/if), 
its  President,  takes  ac- 
tive part  in  the  celebra- 
tion for  Korea's  newly 
acquired  independence. 


A  GENERAL  MAO  TSE-TUNG,  Chairman  of  the  Chinese 
Communist  Party,  sits  at  his  desk  in  a  cave  headquarters 
somewhere  in  the  northwest  of  China.  By  the  end  of  1948, 
China's  communists  had  won  virtually  all  of  northern 
China  and  hod  effected  the  broadest  move  in  China's 
deep  social  upheaval  since  the  time  of  their  split  with 
Chiang  Kai-shek's  Kuomintang  during  the  year  1927. 


MORE  DEATH  IN  JAPAN.  The  silk  center  of  Fukui  is  hit 
by  an  earthquake  which  destroys  over  19,000  buildings 
in  thirty  seconds.  The  disaster  caused  the  loss  of  over 
3,000  lives  and  more  than  10,000  persons  were  hurt. 

Photos    from    European 


ORDINATION,  a  view  of 
the  ordination  ceremony 
performed  during  1948 
by  Cardinal  Suhard, 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  at 
Notre  Dame  Cathedral. 


DEVALUED      FRANC.      A 

French  newspaper,  dated 
Jan.  27,  1948,  announces 
the  devaluation  of  the 
French  currency  values.  T 


LABOR    IN    UNREST: 

Thousands  of  organ- 
ized workers  at  the 
Boulevard  Haussmann 
in  Paris  demonstrate 
against  heavy  licens- 
ing. A  number  of  the 
demonstrators  are 
throwing  objects  at 
the  policemen  in  rear. 


Photos  from  European 


COMMUNISM 


129 


COMMUNISM 


ganizations,  and  reshaped  the  educational  system 
for  the  propagation  of  their  ideas, 

Yugoslavia.  If  the  Communist  seizure  of  Czecho- 
slovakia had  often  been  predicted,  the  defection  o£ 
Yugoslavia  surprised  most  observers.  There  were 
indications,  to  be  sure,  that  perfect  harmony  did 
not  exist  between  Tito  and  the  rulers  of  Russia,  but 
it  seemed  unlikely  that  the  Yugoslav  leader  would 
dare  to  defy  Moscow.  The  world  was  startled  and 
bewildered  when,  on  June  28,  the  Communist  In- 
formation Bureau  (Cominform)  denounced  Tito 
and  other  leaders  of  the  Yugoslav  Communist  Party 
as  opportunists,  bureaucrats,  and  terrorists,  who 
had  carried  out  "a  hateful  policy**  towards  the 
Soviet  Union  despite  professions  of  friendship. 

One  can  only  surmise  that  the  Soviet  leaders  had 
first  tried  to  bring  direct  pressure  upon  Tito  and 
that  he  had  proved  recalcitrant.  Then,  in  all  prob- 
ability, there  was  an  attempt  to  take  the  Commu- 
nist Party — and  thus  Yugoslavia  itself — away  from 
Tito,  but  his  personal  prestige  and  prompt  action 
prevented  this.  Thereupon  there  was  nothing  for 
Russia  to  do  but  to  express  its  disapproval  through 
the  Cominform. 

Tito  immediately  responded  to  the  Cominform 
charges  with  an  assertion  of  his  complete  fidelity 
to  Marxist-Leninist  principles.  While  the  other  sat- 
ellite states  reaffirmed  their  loyalty  to  the  Soviet 
Union  and  echoed  the  Cominform's  attacks  on  Tito, 
he  quietly  purged  his  enemies  from  the  party  and 
from  the  Government,  and  by  the  end  of  the  sum- 
mer his  power  appeared  to  be  undisputed.  It  was 
reported  that  some  Yugoslav  Communists  were  or- 
ganizing against  Tito  in  various  neighboring  coun- 
tries, with  the  blessings  of  the  satellite  governments, 
but  there  was  no  evidence  of  a  movement  power- 
ful enough  to  cause  Tito  concern. 

Through  all  this,  Tito  not  only  proclaimed  him- 
self a  good  Communist  but  continued  to  administer 
Yugoslavia  in  the  typical  Communist  police-state 
manner.  In  a  speech  on  November  11,  he  warned 
"exploiting  capitalist  elements"  that  the  struggle 
against  them  would  continue  until  they  were  ex- 
terminated. At  the  same  time  he  notified  his  Com- 
inform critics  that  the  way  Yugoslavia  was  build- 
ing Socialism  was  none  of  their  business.  For  the 
moment  there  was  a  deadlock;  while  rejecting  in- 
terference in  domestic  affairs,  Tito  announced  his 
support  of  Soviet  foreign  policy,  and  was  obviously 
eager  to  avoid  trouble  with  his  powerful  neighbor. 

Soviet  leaders,  for  their  part,  were  equally  eager 
not  to  throw  Yugoslavia  into  the  hands  of  the  west- 
ern powers.  It  seemed  unlikely,  however,  that  this 
situation  could  endure  if  relations  between  Russia 
and  the  West  continued  to  deteriorate.  Either  Rus- 
sia would  find  some  way  of  eliminating  Tito  and 
drawing  Yugoslavia  back  into  the  Soviet  orbit  or 
he  would  be  forced  to  come  to  some  sort  of  terms 
with  the  West. 

Elsewhere  in  Eastern  Europe.  For  the  Russians,  the 
Yugoslav  episode  must  have  been  a  demonstration 
of  the  continuing  power  of  nationalist  sentiments 
and  a  warning  that  this  was  the  rock  on  which  all 
their  plans  might  be  wrecked.  Within  the  Soviet 
sphere  of  influence,  Tito's  success  may  have  en- 
couraged other  nationalists,  but  Russia  had  no  in- 
tentions of  permitting  further  defections. 

In  Poland,  for  example,  a  milder  nationalism 
than  Tito's  was  quickly  suppressed.  Apparently 
Vice  Premier  Wladyslaw  Gomulka  objected  to  the 
Cominform  program  for  the  rapid  nationalization 
of  the  land  as  unsuited  to  Polish  conditions.  Go- 
mulka was  thereupon  deposed  as  secretary  general 
of  the  Communist  Party,  and  on  September  5  his 
place  was  taken  by  President  Boleslaw  Bierut  (Al- 


though he  had  been  a  Communist  for  many  years, 
Bierut  had  at  least  pretended  to  remain  aloof  from 
party  affairs  while  he  was  serving  as  President  of 
Poland.)  Gomulka  bowed  to  party  discipline  and 
repudiated  his  "errors."  They  were  due,  he  said, 
to  his  failure  to  understand  the  "real  ideological 
meaning  of  relations  between  the  peoples*  democ- 
racies and  the  Soviet  Union"  and  "the  leading  role 
of  the  All-Union  Communist  Party  of  Bolsheviks 
(i.e.  the  Russian  Communist  Party)  in  the  interna- 
tional front  in  the  battle  against  imperialism."  After 
the  successful  disciplining  of  Gomulka,  Bierut  took 
up  the  task  of  absorbing  the  Socialist  Party,  and  16 
leaders  were  expelled  from  the  Socialist  Party  be- 
cause of  their  opposition  to  amalgamation  with  the 
Communists. 

In  Finland  there  has  always  been  an  avowed 
opposition  to  the  Communists,  but  this  opposition 
has  sought  to  conciliate  them  rather  than  risk  trou- 
ble with  Russia.  It  therefore  took  great  courage  for 
President  Juho  K.  Paasikivi  to  dismiss  Yrjo  Leino, 
a  leading  Communist,  as  he  did  on  May  23.  As 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  Leino  had  control  of  the 
police,  and  it  was  obvious  that  Paasikivi  feared 
such  a  coup  as  had  taken  place  in  Czechoslovakia. 

The  Communists  responded  with  extensive 
strikes,  and  Paasikivi  finally  had  to  yield.  A  Com- 
munist sympathizer  was  made  Minister  of  the  In- 
terior, and  a  Cabinet  position  was  given  to  Leino's 
wife,  Hertta  Kussinen,  who  is  the  daughter  of  the 
President  of  the  Finnish  Karelian  Soviet  Republic 
and  is  regarded  as  the  real  power  in  the  Finnish 
Communist  Party.  On  July  1  and  2,  however,  the 
Finnish  people  showed  their  support  of  Paasikivi  by 
voting  four  to  one  against  the  Communist-dominat- 
ed People's  Democratic  Union.  Karl  August  Fager- 
blom,  a  Social  Democrat,  became  Premier,  and  un- 
der his  leadership  Finland  continued  to  pursue  its 
difficult  course,  in  spite  of  Communist-led  strikes 
and  pressure  from  the  Soviet  Union. 

Germany.  In  Germany,  as  in  some  other  coun- 
tries, it  appeared  that  Communist  leaders  were 
not  satisfied  with  the  condition  of  their  forces.  In 
May,  William  Pieck  and  Otto  Grotewohl,  co-chair- 
men of  the  Socialist  Unity  Party  (SED),  the  Com- 
munist front,  denounced  the  lethargy  and  defeat- 
ism of  their  associates,  and  in  following  months 
many  former  Social  Democrats  were  expelled  from 
the  Unity  Party.  Apparently  the  Communists,  who 
had  been  so  eager  to  absorb  the  Socialists,  were 
discovering  that  the  converts  were  not  wholly  de- 
pendable from  the  Communist  point  of  view,  and 
the  Communists  could  not  tolerate  these  weak- 
nesses at  this  particular  time. 

On  November  30,  a  few  days  before  the  munici- 
pal elections  in  Berlin,  the  Communist  Party  set  up 
an  independent  government  in  the  Soviet  sector  of 
the  city.  In  the  western  zone,  the  Social  Democrats 
won  an  impressive  victory  on  December  6.  Observ- 
ers believed  that  by  spring  the  Communists  would 
proclaim  a  constitution  lor  all  Germany,  which 
would  be  put  in  operation  in  the  Soviet  zone. 
Thereafter,  it  seemed  likely,  Soviet  forces  would 
withdraw,  leaving  the  administration  of  eastern 
Germany  to  the  Communist  front.  It  was  conceiva- 
ble that  such  a  move  could  have  propaganda  value 
in  the  whole  of  Germany,  but  the  Communist  lead- 
ers themselves  seemed  uncertain  that  they  were 
ready  to  carry  it  out. 

Western  Europe,  In  most  of  western  Europe  Com- 
munist influence  has  declined  as  economic  recovery 
has  progressed.  In  France  and  Italy,  however,  the 
situation  has  remained  critical  despite  the  Commu- 
nist setback  in  the  Italian  election  of  April  19  and 
20. 


COMMUNISM 


130 


COMMUNISM 


From  May,  1947,  when  they  were  finally  ousted 
from  Alcide'de  Gasperfs  Cabinet,  the  Italian  Com- 
munists worked  ceaselessly  for  the  defeat  of  the 
Premier  and  his  Christian  Democratic  Party.  Their 
efforts  were  met,  however,  by  the  vigorous  opposi- 
tion of  the  Catholic  Church  and  the  various  anti- 
Communist  parties.  Communists  centered  their  at- 
tack on  the  United  States,  maintaining  that  this 
country  intended  to  enslave  the  Italians  and  in- 
volve them  in  war  with  Russia.  Anti-Communists 
replied  by  pointing  to  the  dependence  of  Italy  on 
American  aid,  which,  they  argued,  would  not  be 
forthcoming  if  the  Communists  controlled  the  coun- 
try. In  the  end  the  Christian  Democrats  won  a  clear 
majority  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  with  307 
seats  to  182 -for  the  Popular  Front  (Communist). 
The  Popular  Front  received  only  30.7  percent  of 
the  votes,  as  against  the  Christian  Democrats'  48,7 
percent. 

Particularly  noteworthy  was  the  decline  of  the 
Communist  vote  in  the  industrial  cities  of  north- 
ern Italy.  Communist-led  strikes  developed  in  the 
months  following  the  election,  but  even  after  the 
attempted  assassination  of  Palmiro  Togliatti,  Com- 
munist leader,  in  July,  strikes  and  other  demonstra- 
tions seemed  less  effective  than  they  had  once  been. 
On  October  10  the  Central  Committee  of  the  Ital- 
ian Communist  Party  reminded  Communists  that 
"the  strength  of  the  Soviet  Union  and  the  political 
capacity  of  the  glorious  Bolshevik  Party  and  its 
leaders  are  decisive  guarantees  of  victory  over  the 
forces  o£  reaction  and  war/*  and  appealed  for 
greater  militancy  and  a  higher  ideological  level. 

The  membership  of  the  Communist  Party  in 
France,  according  to  some  observers,  declined 
sharply  in  1948,  but  the  Communists  remained 
strong  enough  to  embarrass  the  Government,  and 
they  helped  to  precipitate  a  series  of  cabinet  crises. 
In  the  autumn  the  Communists  initiated  a  coal 
strike,  with  the  dual  purpose  of  making  difficulties 
for  the  Marshall  Plan  and  crippling  the  Govern- 
ment of  Henri  Queuille.  The  strike  continued  for 
many  weeks,  causing  incalculable  economic  loss, 
and  was  marked  by  violence  and  sabotage. 

Elections  on  November  7  to  the  advisory  Council 
of  the  Republic  (formerly  the  Senate)  indicated 
that  General  de  Gaulle  was  likely  to  be  the  chief 
gainer  if  disorders  and  parliamentary  crises  con- 
tinued, for  the  Gaullists  emerged  as  much  the 
strongest  party,  and  Communist  representation 
dropped  from  84  to  16. 

United  States.  The  attack  on  American  Commu- 
nists continued  from  several  quarters  in  1948.  Sev- 
eral prominent  Communists,  including  Alexander 
Bittehnan  and  Jack  Stachel,  both  members  of  the 
party's  national  committee,  were  arrested  as  illegal 
aliens  and  held  for  deportation.  Twelve  party  lead- 
ers were  indicted  in  New  York  City  under  the 
Smith  Act,  being  charged  with  conspiracy  to  teach 
and  advocate  the  forcible  overthrow  of  the  Govern- 
ment, Committees  of  both  the  House  and  Senate 
and  also  several  state  legislative  committees  were 
engaged  in  investigating  Communist  activities. 

Although  public  indignation  against  the  Commu- 
nists was  higher  than  at  any  time  in  recent  years, 
and  sometimes  approximated  hysteria,  the  Commu- 
nist Party  did  not  seem  to  be  particularly  menacing. 
Its  influence  in  the  labor  movement  continued  to 
decline.  Michael  J.  Quill,  President  of  the  Trans- 
port Workers  Union,  broke  with  the  Communists 
in  that  union,  after  having  long  been  regarded  as 
their  spokesman,  and  led  a  vigorous  fight  against 
Communist  control.  Few  of  the  larger  unions  fol- 
lowed the  Communist  line  in  1948. 

The  Communists  could  and  did  claim  credit  for 


the  organization  of  Henry  Wallace's  Progressive 
Party,  and  they  devoted  a  large  share  of  their  ener- 
gies to  the  Wallace  campaign^  Because  the  Progres- 
sive Party  provided  a  "front"  for  the  Communists 
and  gave  them  an  opportunity  to  reach  large  num- 
bers of  people,  they  may  have  felt  that  their  efforts 
were  profitable.  Their  spokesmen,  however,  admit- 
ted that  the  concrete  result,  as  measured  in  votes, 
was  disappointing. 

China,  The  struggle  of  the  Chinese  Communists 
for  Manchuria,  which  began  as  soon  as  the  war 
with  Japan  ended,  achieved  a  large  measure  of 
success  in  1948.  In  February  the  Communists  cap- 
tured Yingkow,  a  major  port.  There  was  fighting 
all  through  the  spring  and  summer,  with  some  vic- 
tories for  Chiang  Kai-shek's  Nationalist  armies,  but 
more  for  the  Communists,  and  finally,  in  November, 
Mukden,  the  principal  Manchurian  city,  fell  into 
Communist  hands.  The  Communists  had  already 
made  considerable  gains  in  northern  China,  and 
after  the  fall  of  Mukden,  they  launched  a  heavy 
attack  against  Suchow  and  threatened  Nanking, 
the  Nationalist  capital.  In  the  meantime,  they  had 
succeeded  in  setting  up  many  bases  in  the  southern 
provinces,  from  which  they  harassed  Nationalist 
troops  in  guerrilla  warfare.  In  late  December  it  was 
obvious  that  the  Communists  dominated  the  mili- 
tary situation,  and,  as  the  fighting  slowed  down, 
observers  assumed  that  negotiations  were  going  on, 
perhaps  looking  towards  the  formation  of  a  coali- 
tion government.  Whatever  might  happen,  the 
Communists  were  clearly  destined  to  play  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  future  of  China. 

A  rather  significant  political  development  was 
the  merging  in  June  of  two  large  Communist  areas 
in  northern  China  into  a  single  administrative  and 
military  unit.  The  new  North  China  Liberated  Area 
had  a  population  of  44,000,000  and  included  sev- 
eral major  cities.  In  August  an  assembly  was  held, 
and  a  North  China  People's  Government  was  set 
up.  This  was  described  by  the  Communists  as  a 
forerunner  of  a  people's  government  for  all  China, 
and  the  assembly  included  representatives  of  areas 
held  by  the  Nationalists. 

On  the  anniversary  of  the  Russian  Revolution, 
Mao  Tse-tung,  Chairman  of  the  Chinese  Commu- 
nist Party,  and  Chu  Teh,  Commander  of  the  Chi- 
nese Red  Army,  sent  a  message  of  congratulation 
to  Premier  Stalin:  "We  hail  the  constant  strength- 
ening of  the  U.S.S.R.,  bulwark  of  world  peace  and 
democracy,  and  close  cooperation  between  the  peo- 
ples of  China  and  the  Soviet  Union."  Mao  Tse-tung 
also  released  a  statement  denouncing  "the  extreme 
rottenness  of  the  capitalist  world,"  and  calling  upon 
the  Chinese  people  to  drive  out  "the  aggressive 
forces  of  American  imperialism"  and  to  overthrow 
the  government  of  Chiang  Kai-shek. 

Elsewhere  in  Asia.  In  a  broadcast  on  Dec,  25, 
1947,  Mao  Tse-tung  proposed  the  formation  of 
an  Asian  Corninform.  Although  no  such  organiza- 
tion was  known  to  exist,  many  observers  pointed 
out  that  there  was  close  cooperation  among  the 
Communist  parties  of  southeastern  Asia.  Commu- 
nists were  not  numerous  in  Indonesia,  but  they  had 
great  influence,  especially  in  Java. 

In  September  Communists  captured  Madiun, 
one  of  Java's  principal  cities.  In  French  Indochina, 
French  and  colonial  troops  were  unable  to  suppress 
the  Viet  Namese  revolutionaries,  whose  leaders 
were  Communists.  British  authorities  outlawed  the 
Communist  Party  and  its  allies  in  Malaya,  but 
Communist  guerrillas  succeeded  in  paralyzing  Ma- 
layan industry.  In  Burma  and  in  India  there  was 
a  constant  ferment  stirred  by  Communists,  and  the 
premier  of  Siam  announced  in  November  that  he 


COMMUNITY  CHESTS  AND  COUNCILS 


131 


was  taking  strong  measures  to  forestall  a  Commu- 
nist revolt. 

By  the  end  of  the  year,  1948,  it  was  apparent 
that,  even  if  the  western  democracies  had  made 
some  progress  in  Europe,  they  were  a  long  way 
from  winning  the  battle  for  the  world. 

— GRANVUXE  HICKS 

COMMUNITY  CHESTS  AND  COUNCILS  OF  AMERICA,  Inc. 

The  national  association  of  Community  Chests  and 
Councils  of  Social  Agencies,  organized  in  February, 
1918,  as  a  national  clearing  house  of  ideas  and  serv- 
ices for  local  Community  Chests  and  Councils  of 
Social  Agencies.  For  description  see  YEAR  Boos 
for  1939,  page  161. 

Of  the  1,369  Community  Chests  and  Councils  of 
Social  Agencies  in  operation  in  August,  1948, 
(1,010  Chests  and  361  Councils),  964  Chests  and 
836  Councils  were  in  continental  U.S.;  4  Chests 
and  3  Councils  in  Hawaii;  38  Chests  and  21  Coun- 
cils in  Canada;  2  Chests  in  South  Africa;  1  Chest 
in  the  Virgin  Islands;  1  Chest  in  Puerto  Rico;  and 
1  Council  in  the  British  West  Indies.  Almost  every 
city  in  the  U.S.  (except  New  York  City,  which  has 
a  limited  joint  financing  organization)  in  1948  had 
a  Community  Chest  or  similar  plan  of  federated 
financing  for  its  voluntary  social  services.  In  1,010 
cities  in  1947  more  than  16,000,000  contributions 
totaling  $177,034,294  were  given  to  Community 
Chests  to  be  used  during  1948  for  voluntary  Red 
Feather  services  in  local  communities.  In  1943  the 
reactivated  USO  got  its  major  financial  support 
through  inclusion  in  Chest  campaigns  throughout 
the  country. 

Officers  for  1948  were:  Honorary  President, 
Gerard  Swope;  President,  Edward  L.  Ryerson; 
Vice-Presidents,  J.  B.  Adoue,  Jr.,  H.  L.  R.  Emmet, 
Philip  Morgan,  Mrs.  Henry  P.  Russell;  Treasurer, 
Milton  H,  Glover;  Secretary,  Mrs.  Oswald  B.  Lord; 
Executive  director,  Ralph  H.  Blanchard.  Headquar- 
ters: 155  East  44  St.,  New  York  17,  N.Y. 

COMMUNITY  FACILITIES,  Bureau  of.  During  1948  the 
Bureau  of  Community  Facilities  of  the  Federal 
Works  Agency  administered  the  following  pro- 
grams : 

Advance  Planning  Program.  The  provisions  of  the 
War  Mobilization  and  Reconversion  Act  of  1944, 
under  which  the  Bureau  made  advances  to  State 
and  local  governments  for  the  planning  of  non- 
Federal  public  works,  expired  June  SO,  1947.  Dur- 
ing 1948  the  Bureau  concentrated  on  speeding  up 
the  completion  of  approved  plans,  reviewing  com- 
pleted plans  to  insure  readiness  for  construction, 
and  collecting  repayments  when  construction  be- 
gan. 

Veterans1  Educational  Facilities  Program.  Under 
Public  Law  697,  79th  Congress,  war  surplus 
buildings  and  facilities,  other  than  housing,  were 
transferred  to  colleges  and  universities  requiring 
them  for  the  training  or  education  of  veterans  un- 
der the  G.L  Bill  of  Rights. 

Disaster  Surplus  Property  Program.  The  program 
was  established  by  Public  Law  233,  80th  Congress, 
July,  1947.  Surplus  personal  property  was  lent  or 
transferred  to  State  and  local  governments  to  as- 
sist them  in  the  alleviation  of  damage  caused  by 
flood  or  other  catastrophe. 

Water  Pollution  Control  Program.  On  June  30,  1948, 
the  Water  Pollution  Control  Act  was  approved 
(Public  Law  845,  80tih  Congress).  The  Bureau 
was  engaged  in  studies  preliminary  to  the  making 
of  grants  and  loans  to  State  and  local  governments 
for  treatment  works  to  control  pollution  in  inter- 
state waters. 


CONGRESS 

Maintenance  and  Operation  of  Schools.  The  Bureau 
furnished  financial  aid  in  the  maintenance  and 
operation  of  certain  schools  which  were  in  need  of 
such  aid  after  the  discontinuance  of  Federal  grants 
under  the  Lanham  Act  Program. 

Public  Works  Programs  in  the  Virgin  Islands 
and  Hawaii  were  also  administered  in  1948, 

COMMUNITY  TRUSTS.  The  aggregate  charitable  re- 
sources of  upwards  of  60  community  trusts  and 
foundations  had  risen  to  $81,362,269  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1948  from  $77,835,014  a  year  before.  The 
New  York  Community  Trust  administers  85  me- 
morial funds  having  a  value  of  $17,398,817.  Re- 
sources of  $13,250,000  were  reported  by  the  Chi- 
cago Community  Trust;  $10,814,276  by  the  Cleve- 
land Foundation;  $8,452,154  by  the  Permanent 
Charity  Fund,  Boston;  and  $4,794,929  by  the  Cali- 
fornia Community  Foundation,  Los  Angeles. 

Philanthropic  distribution  from  these  funds  rose 
to  $2,250,189  in  1947  from  $2,205,459  in  1946. 
The  largest  outpayments  were  in  New  York  $594,- 
019;  Chicago,  $368,542;  Cleveland,  $301,240;  and 
Boston,  $258,842.  Gifts  to  the  community  founda- 
tions in  1947  totaled  $9,464,875.  The  largest  re- 
ceipts were  in  Boston,  $2,471,398;  Pittsburgh,  $1,- 
801,553;  Winston-Salem,  $1,715,699;  and  New 
York,  $599,263.  During  1947,  foundations  in  New- 
ton Centre,  Mass.,  and  Seattle,  Wash.,  received 
their  initial  principal  funds, 

Community  trusts  are  administrative  media  for 
multiple  charitable  funds,  each  of  which  retains 
its  separate  identity  within  the  trust.  A  distinguish- 
ing feature  of  these  trusts  is  their  power  to  amend 
the  uses  for  which  particular  funds  are  applicable, 
if,  in  changing  conditions,  originally  designated 
charitable  purposes  become  obsolete. 

Directing  personnel  of  the  New  York  Community 
Trust,  120  Broadway,  New  York  5,  include  Thomas 
M.  Debevoise,  Chairman  of  the  Distribution  Com- 
mittee, Winthrop  W.  Aldrich,  Chairman  of  the 
Trustees'  Committee,  and  Ralph  Hayes,  Executive 
Director. 

COMPTROLLER  OF  THE   CURRENCY,   Bureau  of  the.  A 

Bureau  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Treasury 
which  has  general  supervision  over  national  banks; 
established  1863.  Comptroller:  Preston  Delano. 

CONGREGATIONAL  CHRISTIAN  CHURCHES.  The  Con- 
gregational churches  in  America  date  back  to  the 
early  settlers  in  Massachusetts,  in  1620,  The  Chris- 
tian churches  originated  at  the  time  of  the  Wes- 
leyan  and  revival  movements  of  the  18th  century. 
These  two  church  groups  merged  in  1931.  From 
earliest  days  the  denomination  has  preached  and 
taught  democratic  ideals  and  has  fostered  colleges, 
schools,  and  social  agencies. 

The  denomination  includes  5,765  self-governing 
churches,  3,312  pastors,  2,732  ordained  persons  en- 
gaged as  educators,  chaplains,  missionaries,  etc., 
with  a  total  membership  of  1,173,626  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  489  missionary  churches  with 
95,640  members. 

Contributions  totaled  $5,536,816  (1947),  invest- 
ments, $35,611,583,  and  church  property  had  a 
value  of  $205,184,715.  The  American  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  reported  income  of  $1,917,862, 
while  the  total  income  of  all  national  agencies  from 
all  sources  was  $8,764,134.  Headquarters:  287 
Fourth  Ave.,  New  York  10,  N.Y. 

CONGRESS,  United  States.  The  81st  U.S.  Congress 
convened  for  its  first  session  on  Jan.  3,  1949.  As  of 
that  date,  it  comprised  the  following  members: 


CONGRESS 


132 


United  States  Senate.  Alben  W.  Barldey  Is  Vice 
President  of  the  United  States  and  President  of  tlie 
Senate. 

President  pro  terapore:  Kenneth  JMcKeUar 
Chaplain:  Rev.  Peter  Marshall 
Majority  floor  leader:  Scott  Lucas 
Majority  whip:  Francis  J.  Myers 
Minority  floor  leader:  Kenneth  S.  Wherry 
Minority  whip:  Leverett  Saltonstall 
Secretary  of  the  Senate:  Leslie  L.  Biffle 
Secretary  for  the  majority.'  Felton  Johnston 
Secretary  for  the  minority:  J.  Mark  Trice 
Sergeant  at  arms:  Joseph  C.  Duke 
Chief  clerk:  Emery  L.  Frazier 

Democratic  Senators  (54)  are  indicated  by  (D); 
Republican  Senators  (42)  by  (R),  in  the  list  fol- 
lowing. 


CONGRESS 

Term 
Expires 


Senator 


Address 


Term 
Expires 


Alabama 

Lister  Hill  (D) Montgomery    1951 

John  Sparkman  (D) Huntsville 1955 

Arizona 

Carl  Hayden  (D) Phoenix 1951 

Ernest  W.  McFarland  (D) . .  Florence    1953 

Arkansas 

John  L.  McClellan   (D) Camden    1955 

J.  William  Fulbright  (D) . . .  Fayetteville     1951 

California 

Sheridan  Downey  (D) Lacuna  Beach   1951 

William  F.  Knowland  (R) .  .  Oakland    1953 

Colorado 

Edwin  C.  Johnson   (D) Craig    1955 

Eugene  D.  Millikin  (R) Denver    1951 

Connecticut 

Brien  McMahon   (D) .  . Norwalk    1951 

Kaymond  E.  Baldwin   (R) . .  Stratford   1953 

Delaware 

John  J.  Williams  (R) Miilsboro     1953 

J.  Allen  Frear,  Jr.  (D) Dover   1955 

Florida 

Claude  Pepper    (D) Tallahassee   1951 

Spessard  L.  Holland  (D) . . .  Bartow    1953 

Georgia 

Walter  F.  George  (D) Vienna    1951 

Richard  B,  Russell   (D) Winder   1955 

Idaho 

Glen  H.  Taylor  (D) Pocatello 1951 

Bert  H.  Miller  (D) Boise 1955 

Illinois 

Scott  W.  Lucas  (D) Havana 1951 

Paul  H.  Douglas  ( D) Chicago 1955 

Indiana 

Homer  E.  Capehart  (R) . . ,  ,  Washington    1951 

William  E.  Jenner  (R) .  . . .  Bedford     1953 

Iowa 

Bourfce  Hickenlooper  (R) .  . .  Cedar  Rapids 1951 

Guy  M.  Gilette  (D) Cherokee  , , 1955 

Kansas 

Clyde  M.  Reed  (R) Parsons   1951 

Andrew  F.  Schoeppel  (R) .  .  Wichita 1955 

Kentucky 

Garrett  L.  Withers  (P) ,  .  ,  .  Dixon 1951 

Virgil  Chapman   (D) Paris   1955 

Louisiana 

Allen  J.  Ellender  (D) ......  Houma    1955 

B.  Russell  Long   (B) Baton  Rouge    1951 

Maine 

Owen  Brewster   (R) Dexter 1953 

Margaret  Chase  Smith   (R) .  Skowhegan  1955 

Maryland 

MiUard  E.  Tydings  (D) . . .  .  Havre  de  Grace 1951 

Herbert  R.  O'Conor  (D) .  . .  Annapolis   1953 

Massachusetts 

Leverett  Saltonstall  (R) Boston 1955 

Henry  C.  Lodge,  Jr.  (R) ...  Beverly 1953 


.1953 
.1955 


Senator  Address 

Michigan 

Arthur  H.  Vandenherg  (R) .  Grand  Rapids    1953 

Homer  Ferguson   (R) Detroit    1955 

Minnesota 

Edward  J.  Thye   (R ) Northfield    1953 

Hubert  H.  Humphrey  (D ) . .  Minneapolis    1955 

Mississippi 

James  O.  Eastland   (D ) Ruleville 1955 

John  Stennis   (D) DeKalb    1953 

Missouri 

Forrest  C.  Donnell   (R) Webster  Groves    1951 

James  P.  Kern  (R) Kansas  City   1953 

Montana 

James  E.  Murray  (D ) Butte     1955 

Zales  N.  Ecton   (R) Manhattan    1953 

Nebraska 

Hugh  Butler   (R) Omaha    

Kenneth  S,  Wherry  (R) .  .  .  .  Pawnee  City  ,  . 

Nevada 

Patrick  A.  McCarran   (D) .  ,  Reno 1951 

George  W.  Malone  (R) . .  .  .  Reno ]  1953 

New  Hampshire 

Styles  Bridges    (R) Concord    1955 

Charles  W.  Tobey  (R) Temple   ,195] 

Mew  Jersey 

H.  Alexander  Smith  ( R ) .  .  .  .  Princeton     1955 

Robert  C.  Hendrickson   (R)  .  Woodbury     *.  ]  '.  1955 

New  Mexico 

Dennis  Chavez   (D) Albuquerque 195S 

Clinton  P.  Anderson   ( D ) .  .  .  Albuquerque 195* 

New  York 

Robert  F,  Wagner   (D) New   York 195] 

Irving  M.  Jves  (R ) Norwich    195£ 

North  Carolina 

Clyde  R.  Hoey  (D) Shelby    195] 

J.  Melville  Broughton  (D) .  .  Raleigh   195£ 

North  Dakota 

William  Langer  (R) Bismarck     195,* 

Milton  R.  Young  (R) Berlin    195] 

Ohio 

Robert  A.  Taft  (R) Cincinnati 1953 

John  W.  Bricker  (R) Columbus    1955 

Oklahoma 

Elmer  Thomas  (D) Medicine  Park 195] 

Robert  S.  Kerr  (D) Oklahoma  City 195£ 

Oregon 

Guy  Cordon  (R ) Roseburg     

Wayne  Morse   (R) Eugene 

Pennsylvania 

Francis  J.  Myers  (D) Philadelphia    1951 

Edward  Martin  (R) ,  Washington     195£ 

Rhode  Island 

Theodore  F.  Green  (D) Providence    195£ 

J.  Howard  McGrath  (D) .  . .  Providence    195C 

South  Carolina 

Burnet  R,  Maybank  (D) .  . .  Charleston     195£ 

Olin  D.  Johnston    (D) Spartanburg    195] 

South  Dakota 

Chan  Gumey  (R) Yankton    195] 

Karl  E.  Mundt   ( R) Madison    195! 

Tennessee 

Kenneth  McKellar  (D ) Memphis     195C 

Estes  Kefauver  (D) Chattanooga * . . .  195£ 

Texas 

Tom  Connally  (D) Marlin     I95i 

Lyndon  B.  Johnson  (D) .  .  ,  ,  Johnson  City    195° 

Utah 

Elbert  D.  Thomas  (D ) Salt  Lake  City 195] 

Arthur  V.  Watkins   (R) Orem     195? 

Vermont 

George  D.  Aiken  (R) Putney    195' 

Ralph  E.  Flanders  (R) Springfield    195J 

Virginia 

Harry  F.  Byrd  (D) Berryville 19& 

A.  Willis  Robertson  (D) .  . .  ,      Lexington    195S 


.1955 

.1951 


CONGRESS 


Senator 


I3S 


Term 
Expires 


Address 
Washington 

Warren  G,  Magnuson  (D) . .  Port   Blakely    1951 

Harry  P.  Cain  (R) Tacoma     1953 

West  Virginia 

Hurley  M.  Kilgore  (D) Beckley 1953 

Matthew  M.  Neely  (D) Fairmont 1955 

Wisconsin 

Alexander  Wiley  (R) Chippewa  Falls    1951 

Joseph  R.  McCarthy  (R) .  . .  Appleton     1953 

Wyoming 

Joseph  C.  O'Mahoney  (D) . .  Cheyerrae    1953 

Lester  C.  Hunt  (D) Cheyenne    1955 

United  States  House  of  Representatives.  Sam  Ray- 
burn  is  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Chaplain:  Rev.  James  Shera 
Parliamentarian:  Lewis  Deschler 
Majority  floor  leader:  John  W.  McConnack 
Majority  whip:  Percy  Priest 
Minority  floor  leader:  Joseph  W.  Martin,  Jr. 
Minority  whip:  Charles  A.  Halleck 
Sergeant  at  arms;  Joseph  H.  Callahan 
Chief  clerk:  Ralph  R.  Roberts 

Democratic  Representatives  ( 262 )  are  indicated 
by  (D);  Republican  Representatives  (171)  by 
(R);  American  Labor  Party  (1)  by  (ALP);  va- 
cancies (1;  7th  New  York);  total  435.  Those  marked 
*  served  in  the  80th  Congress.  The  numbers  pre- 
ceding the  names  indicate  Congressional  districts. 
All  Representatives'  terms  expire  Jan.  3,  1951. 


Representatives 


Address 


Alabama 

1.  Frank  W.  Boykin  *  (D) Mobile 

2.  George  M.   Grant  *    (D) Troy 

3.  George  W,  Andrews  *   (D) Union  Springs 

4.  Sam  Hobbs*    (D) Selma 

5.  Albert  Rains  *    (D) Gadsden 

6.  Edward   deGraffenried    (D) Tuscaloosa 

7.  Carl  Elliott  (D) Jasper 

8.  Robert  E.  Jones,  Jr.*    (D) Scottsboro 

9.  Laurie  C.  Battle  *    (D ) Birmingham 


1.  John   R.    Murdock  *    (D) Tempe 

2.  Harold  A.  Patten  (D) Tucson 

Arkansas 
1    E    C.  Gathings  *  (D)    West  Memphis 

2.  Wilbur  D.  MiUs  *    (D) Kensett 

3.  James  W.  Trimble  *  (D) Berryville 

4.  Boyd  Tackett  (D) Nashville 

5.  Brooks  Hays  *    (D) Little  Rock 

6.  W.  F.  Norrell  *   (D) Monticello 

7.  Oren  Harris  *   (D) El  Dorado 

California 

1.  Hubert  B.  Scudder   (R) Sebastopol 

2.  Clair  Engle  *    (D) Red  Bluff 

3.  Leroy  Johnson  *    (R) Stockton 

4.  Franck  R.  Havenner  *  (D) San  Francisco 

5.  Richard  J.  Welch  *  (R) .San  Francisco 

6.  George  P.  Miller  *   (D) Alameda 

7.  John  J.  Allen,  Jr.*    (R) Oakland 

8.  Jack  Z.  Anderson  *  (R) San  Juan  Bautista 

9.  Cecil  F.  White   (D) Frts^ 

10.  Thomas  H.  Werdel  (R) Bakersfield 

11.  Ernest  K.  Bramblett  *  (R) Pacific  Grove 

12.  Richard  M.  Nixon  *   (R) Whittier 

13.  Norris  Poulson  *   (R) Los  Angeles 

14.  Helen  Gahagan  Douglas  *   (D) Los  Angeles 

15.  Gordon  L.  McDonough  *  (R) Los  Angeles 

16.  Donald  L.  Jackson  *   (R) Santa  Monica 

17.  Cecil  R.  King  *    (D) .  .Los  Angeles 

18.  Clyde  Doyle  (D) Long  Beach 

19.  Chet  Holifield  *    (D) Montebello 

20.  Carl  Hinshaw  *   (R) Pasadena 

21.  Harry  R.   Sheppard  *    (D ) Yucaipa 

22.  John   Phillips  *    (R) Banning 

23.  Clinton  D.  McKinnon  (D) San  Diego 

Colorado 

1.  John  A.  Carroll  *   (D ) .Denver 

2.  William  S.  Hill  *    (R) Fort  Collins 

3.  John  H.   Marsalis    (D ) Pueblo 

4.  Wayne  N.  AspinaU  (D) Palisade 


Representatives 


CONGRESS 

Address 


Connecffcuf 

1.  A.  A.  Ribicoff  (D) Hartford 

2.  Chase  Going  Woodhouse  (D) Baltic  (R.F.D.) 

3.  John  A.  McGuire  (D) Wallingford 

4.  John  Davis  Lodge  *  (R ) Westport 

5.  James  T.  Patterson  *  (R) Naugatuck 

At  Large 
Antoni  N.  Sadlak  *   (R) RockviUe 


J.  Caleb  Boggs  ' 


Delaware 

A*  Large 

(R) 


.Wilmington 


Florida 

1.  J.  Hardin  Peterson  *  (D) Lakeland 

2.  Charles  E.  Bennett  (D ) Jacksonville 

3.  Robert  L.  F.  Sikes  *   (D) Crestview 

4.  George  A.  Smathers  *   (D) Miami 


5.  A.  S.  Herlong,  Jr.   (D) Leesburg 

6.  Dwight  L.  Rogers*   (D).  -.-,,, 


.Fort  Lauderdale 


Georgia 
1*  Prince  H.  Preston,  Jr.*   (D) Statesboro 

2.  E.  E.  Cox  *   (D) Camilla 

3.  Stephen  Pace  *    ( D ) Americus 

4.  A.  Sidney  Camp  *    (D) Newnan 

5.  James  C.  Davis  *    ( D ) Decatur 

6.  Carl   Vinson  *    (D) Miiledgeville 

7.  Henderson  Lariham  *    (D) Rome 

8.  W.  M.  (Don)  Wheeler  *   (D) Alma 

9.  John  S.  Wood  *    (D) Canton 

10.  Paul    Brown  *     (D) Elberton 

Idaho 

1.  Compton  I.  White  (D) Clark  Fork 

2.  John   Sanborn  *    (R) Hagerman 

Illinois 

William  L.  Dawson  *   (D) Chicago 

Barratt  CTHara   (D) Chicago 

Neil  J.  Linehan  (D) Chicago 

James  V.  Buckley   (D ) Lansing 

Martin  Gorski  *   (D) Chicago 


1. 
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Thomas  J.  O'Brien  *  ( D ) Chicago 

Adolph  J.  Sabath  *  (D) Chicago 

Thomas  S.  Gordon  *  (D ) Chicago 

Sidney  R.   Yates    ( D ) Chicago 

Richard  W.  Hoffman    (R) Berwyn 

Chester  A.   Chesney    (D ) Chicago 

Edgar  A.  Jonas   (R) Chicago 

Ralph  E.  Church  *    (R) Evanston 

Chauncey  W.  Reed  *   (R) West  Chicago 

Noah  M.  Mason  *    (R) Oglesby 

Leo  E.  Allen  *    (R) Galena 

Leslie  C.  Arends  *    (R) Melvin 

Harold  H.  Velde  (R) Pekin 

Robert  B.   Chiperfield  *    (R) Canton 

Sid   Simpson  *    (R ) Carrollton 

Peter  F.  Mack,  Jr.    (D) Carlinville 

Rolla  C.  McMillen  *    (R) Decatur 

Edward  H.  Jenison  *   (R) Paris 

Charles  W.  Vursell  *    (R) Salem 

Melvin  Price  *  (D) East  St.  Louis 

C.  W.   (Runt)   Bishop  *   (R) Carterville 

Indiana 

1.  Ray  L  Madden*   (D) Gary 

2.  Charles   A.   Halleck  *    (R) Rensselaer 

3.  Thurman  C.  Crook   (D) South  Bend 

4.  Edward  H.  Kruse,  Jr.    (D) Fort  Wayne 

5.  John  R.  Walsh   (D) .Anderson 

6.  Cecil  M.  Harden   (R) Covington 

7.  James  E.  Noland   (D) Bloomington 

8.  Winfield  K.  Denton  (D ) * Evansyille 

9.  Earl   Wilson  *    (R) -  .Bedford 

10.  Ralph  Harvey*  (R) New  Castle 

11.  Andrew  Jacobs   (D) Indianapohs 

Iowa 

1.  Thomas  E.  Martin  *  (R) Iowa  City 

2.  Henry  O.  Talle  *    (R) •<£??*?** 

3.  H.  R.  Gross   (R) Waterloo 

4.  Karl  JML  LeCompte  *    (R) Corydon 

5.  Paul  Cunningham  *   (R) ...ges  Monies 

6.  James  I.  DoUiver  *  (R) Fort  Dodge 

7.  Ben  F.  Jensen*   (R) -  •  -fxira 

8.  Charles  B.  Hoeven  *   (R) Alton 

Kansas 

1.  Albert  M.   Cole  *    (R) •  •  •  •  -Holtpa 

2.  Errett  P.  Scrivner  *    (R) V^8*888* Clty 

3.  Herbert  A.  Meyer  *    (R) Independence 

4.  Edward  H,  Rees  *    (R) •  •  -Emporia 

5.  Clifford  R.  Hope  *  (R) Ga34?n  P1^ 

6.  Wint  Smith  *    (R) Mankato 


Representatives 


Address 


Representatives 


Address 


Kentucky 

1.  Noble  J.Gregory*  (D) Mayfield 

2.  John  A.  Whitaker  *   (D) Russellville 

3.  Thruston  Ballard  Morton  *   (R) , Glenview 

4.  Frank  L.  Cbelf  *   (D) Lebanon 

5.  Brent  Spence  *    (D ) Fort  Thomas 

6.  Thomas  R.  Underwood   (D) Lexington 

7.  Carl  D.  Perkins  (D) Hindman 

8.  Joe  B.  Bates  *  (D ) Greenup 

9.  James  S.  Golden  (R)   Pineville 

Louisiana 

1.  F.  Edward  Hebert  *   (D) New  Orleans 

2.  Hale  Boggs  *   (D ) New  Orleans 

3.  Edwin  E.  Willis   (D ) St.  Martinsvflle 

4.  Overton  Brooks  *    (D) Shreveport 

5.  Otto  E.  Passman  *   (D ) Monroe 

6.  James  H.   Morrison  *    (D ) Hammond 

7.  Henry  D.  Larcade,  Jr.*   (D) Opelousas 

8.  A.  Leonard  Allen  *    (D) Winnfield 

Maine 

1.  Robert  Hale  *   (R) Portland 

2.  Charles  P.  Nelson   (R ) Augusta 

3.  Frank  Fellows  *    (R) Bangor 

Maryland 

Edward  T.  Miller  *    (R) Easton 

William  P.  Bolton  (D ) Towson 

Edward  A.  Garmatz  *    ( D ) Baltimore 

George  H.  Fallen  *    (D ) Baltimore 

Lansdale  G.  Sasscer  *    (D) Upper  Marlboro 

J.  Glenn  Beall  *    (R) Frostburg 

Massachusetts 

John  W.  Heselton  *   (R) Deerfield 

Foster  Furcolo    (  D ) Longmeadow 

Philip  J.  Philbin*    (D) Clinton 

Harold  D.  Donohue  *    (D ) Worcester 

Edith  Nourse  Rogers  *    ( R ) Lowell 

George  J.  Bates  *   (R) Salem 

Thomas  J.  Lane  *    (D ) Lawrence 

Angier  L.  Goodwin  *    (R) Melrose 

Donald  W.  Nicholson  *   (R) Wareham 

Christian  A.  Herter  *    (R) Boston 

John  F,  Kennedy  *   (D ) Boston 

John  W.  McConnack  *  (D ) Dorchester 

Richard  B.  Wigglesworth  *   (R) Milton 

Joseph  W.  Martin,  Jr.*  (R) North  Attleboro 

Michigan 

George  G.  Sadowski *    (D) Detroit 

Earl  C.  Michener  *   (R) Adrian 

Paul  W.  Shafer  *  (R) Battle  Creek 

Clare  E.  Hoffman  *   (R) Allegan 

Gerald  R.  Ford,  Jr.  (R ) East  Grand  Rapids 

William  W.  Blackney  *    (R) Flint 

Jesse  P.  Wolcott *  (R) Port  Huron 

Fred  L.  Crawford  *    (R) Saginaw 

Albert  J.  Engel  *    (R) Muskegon 

Roy  O.  Woodruff  *   (R ) Bay  City 

Charles  E.  Potter  *    (R) Cheboygan 

John  B.  Bennett  *   (R) Ontonagon 

George  D.  O'Brien   (D) Detroit 

Louis  C.  Rabaut  ( D ) Grosse  Pointe  Park 

John  D.  Dingell  *   ( D ) Detroit 

John  Lesinski  *    (D) Dearborn 

George  A.  Dondero  *   (R) Royal  Oak 

Minnesota 

August  H.  Andresen  *  (R) .Red  Wing 

Joseph  P.  O'Hara  *   (R) Glencoe 

Roy  W.  Wier  (D) Minneapolis  , 

Eugene  J.  McCarthy  (D) St.  Paul 

Walter  H.  Judd  *    (R) Minneapolis 


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Fred  Marshall  (D) Grove  City   (R.F.D.) 

H.  Carl  Andersen  *   (R) Tyler 

John  A.  Blatnik  *    (D) Chisholm 

Harold  C.  Hagen  *  (R ) Crookston 

Mississippi 

John  E,  Rankin  *  (D ) Tupelo 

Jamie  L.  WMtten  *  (D ) Charleston 

William  M.  Whittington  *  (D) Greenwood 

Thomas  G.  Abernethy  *   (D) t    Okolona 

Arthur  Wiastead  *    ( D ) Philadelphia 

William  M,  Colmer  *   (D ) Pascagoula 

John  Bell  Williams  *    (D) Raymond 

Missouri 

Clare  Magee    (D) Unionville 

Morgan  M,  Moulder   (D) Camdenton 

Phil  J    Welch  (D) St.  Joseph 

Leonard  Irving  (D) Independence 

Richard  Boiling  (D) Kansas  City 

George  H.  Christopher  (D) Amoret 

Dewey  Short*    (R) Galena 


8.  A.  S.  J.  Carnahan   (D) Ellsinore 

9.  Clarence  Cannon  *    ( D ) Elsberry 

10.  Paul  C.  Jones  *    (D) Kennett 

11.  John  B.  Sullivan  (D ) St.  Louis 

12.  Raymond  W.  Karst  (D) St.  Louis 

13.  Frank  M.  Karsten  *    (D) St.  Louis 

Montana 

1.  Mike  Mansfield  *    ( D ) Missoula 

2.  Wesley  A.  D'Ewart  *   (R) Wilsall 

Nebraska 

1.  Carl  T.  Curtis  *   (R) Minden 

2.  Eugene  D.  O'Sullivan   (D) Omaha 

3.  Karl  Stefan  *    (R) Norfolk 

4.  A.  L.  Miller  *   (R) Kimball 


Nevada 

At  Large 
Walter  S.  Baring  (D) 


.Reno 


New  Hampshire 

1.  Chester  E.  Merrow  *   (R) Center  Ossipee 

2.  Norris    Cotton  *    (R) Lebanon 

New  Jersey 

1.  Charles  A.  Wolverton  *    (R) Merchantville 

2.  T.  Millet  Hand  *   (R) Cape  May  City 

3.  James  C.  Auchincloss  *   (R) Rumson 

4.  Charles  R.  Howell  (D) Pennington 

5.  Charles  A.  Eaton  *    (R ) Watchung 

6.  Clifford  P.  Case  *   (R ) Rahway 

7.  J.  Parnell  Thomas  *    (R ) Allendale 

8.  Gordon  Canfield  *    (R) Patterson 

9.  Harry  L.  Towe  *   (R) Rutherford 

10.  Peter  W.  Rodino,  Jr.    ( D ) Newark 

11.  Hugh  J.  Addonizio    (D ) Newark 

12.  Robert  W.  Kean  *   (R) 


13.  Mary  T.  Norton  *  (D) , 

14.  Edward  J.  Hart  *  (D) . 


Livingston 
Jersey  City 
Jersey  City 


New  Mexico 

At  Large 
Antonio  M.  Fernandez  *  (D  )......  .......  Santa  Fe 

John  E.  Miles  (D  )  ......................  Santa  Fe 

New  York 
W.  Kingsland  Macy  *  (R)  ...................  Islip 

Leonard  W.  Hall  *  (R)  ................  Oyster  Bay 

Henry  J.  Latham  *    (R  )  ............  Queens  Village 

L.  Gary  Clemente  (D)  ................  Ozone  Park 

T.  Vincent  Quinn  (D)  .............  Jackson  Heights 

James  J.  Delaney  (D)  ............  Long  Island  City 


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Joseph  L.  Pfeifer  *   (D) Brooklyn 

Eug        -    ~      -   -    • 


D). 
D    . 

(D) 


igene  J.  Keogh  *    (D ) Brooklyn 

Andrew  L.  Somers  *   ( D ) Brooklyn 

James  J.  Heffernan  *   ( D ) Brooklyn 

John  J.  Rooney  *   (D) Brooklyn 

Donald  L.   O'Toole  *    (D) Brooklyn 

Abraham  J.  Multer  *   (D) Brooklyn 

Emanuel  Celler  *   ( D ) Brooklyn 

James  J.  Murphy   (D  ^ Staten  Island 

Frederic  R.  Coudert,  Jr.*   (R) New  York  City 

Vito  Marcantonio  *   (ALP) New  York  City 

Arthur  G.  Klein  *   (D) New  York  City 

Sol  Bloom  *  (D) New  York  City 

Jacob  K.  Javits  *   (R) New  York  City 

Adam  C.  Powell,  Jr.*   (D) New  York  City 

Walter  A.  Lynch  *   (D) New  York  City 

Isidore  Dolliuger  (D) New  York  City 

Charles  A.  Buckley  *    (D) New  York  City 

Christopher  C.  McGrath  (D) New  York  City 

Ralph  W.   Gwinn  *    (R ) Bronxville 

Ralph  A.  Gamble  *   (R) Larchmont 

Katharine  St.  George  *    (R) Tuxedo  Park 

Jay  LeFevre  *    (R) New  Paltz 

Bernard  W.  (Pat)   Kearney*   (R) Glovers ville 

William  T.  Byrne  *    (D ) Loudonville 

Dean  P.  Taylor  *    (R) Troy 

Clarence  E.  Kilburn  *  (R) : Malone 

John  C.  Davies   (D ) Utica 

R.  Walter  Riehlman  *   (R) Tully 

Edwin  Arthur  Hall  *  (R) .  .  . , Binghamton 

John  Taber  *    (R) Auburn 

W.  Sterling  Cole  *    (R) Bath 

Kenneth  B.  Keating  »   (R) Rochester 

James  W.  Wadsworth  *    (R) Geneseo 

William  L.  Pfeiffer    (R) Kenmore 

Anthony  F.   Tauriello    (D ) Buffalo 

Chester  C.   Gorski    (D) Buffalo 

Daniel  A.  Reed  *    (R) .  .Dunkirk 


a  Vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  John  J.  Delaney  (D), 
Nov.  18,  1948. 


CONGRESS 


135 


Representatives 


Address 


Representatives 


CONGRESS 

Address 


10. 
11, 
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North  Carolina 

Herbert  C.  Bonner  *    (D) Washington 

John  H.  Kerr  *    (D) \Yarrenton 

Graham  A.  Harden  *   (D ; New  Bern 

Harold  D.  Cooley  *  (D) Nashville 

Thurmond  Chatham  (D) Wmston-Salem 

Carl  T.  Durham  *   (D) Chapel  Hill 

F.  Ertel  Carlyle   (D) Lumberton 

Charles  B.  Deane  *    CD) Rockingham 

Robert  L.  Doughton  *   (D) Laurel  Springs 

Hamilton   C.    Jones  *    ( D ) Charlotte 

Alfred  L.  Bulwinkle  *    ( D ) Gastonia 

Monroe  M.  Redden  *   (D) Hendersonville 

North  Dakota 
At  Large 

William   Lemke  *    (R) Fargo 

Usher  L,   Burdick    (R ) Wffliston 

Ohio 

Charles  H.  Elston  *   (R) .Cincinnati 

Earl  T.  Wagner  (D) Cincinnati 

Edward  Breen    ( D ) Dayton 

William  M.  McCulloch  *    (R) .Piqua 

Cliff  Clevenger  *  (R) Bryan 

James  G.  Polk  (D) Highland 

Clarence  J.  Brown  *    (R ) Blanchester 

Frederick  C.  Smith  *    (R) Marion 

Thomas  H.  Burke  (D) , Toledo 

Thomas  A.  Jenkins  *    ( R ) Ironton 

Walter  E.  Brehm  *   (R) Millersport 

John  M.  Vorys  *   (R) .  . . Columbus 

Alvin  F.  Weichel  *   (R ) Sandusky 

Walter  B.  Huber  *  (D) .Akron 

Robert  T.  Secrest  ( D } Senecaville 

John   McSweeney    (D) Wooster 

J.  Harry  McGregor  *    (R) West  Lafayette 

Wayne  L.  Hays  <D) Flushing 

Michael  J.  Kirwan  **   ( D ) Youngstown 

Michael  A.  Feighan  *  ( D )..... Cleveland 

Robert  Grosser  *  (D) Cleveland 

Frances  P.  Bolton  *   (R) Lyndhurst 

At  Large 
Stephen  M.  Young  (D } Cleveland 

Oklahoma 

1.  Dixie  Gilmer   (D) Tulsa 

2.  William  G.  Stigler  *   (D) Stigler 

3.  Carl  Albert  *    (D) McAlester 

4.  Tom  Steed    (D) Shawnee 

5.  A.  S.  Mike  Monroney  *   (D) Oklahoma  City 

6.  Toby  Morris  *    (D ) Lawton 

7.  Victor   Wickersham    ( D ) Mangum 

8.  George  H.  Wilson   (D) Enid 

Oregon 

1.  Walter  Norblad  *    (R) Astoria 

2.  Lowell  Stockman  *   (R) Pendleton 

3.  Homer  D.  Angell  *  (R) Portland 

4.  Harris  Ellsworth  *    ( R ) Roseburg 

Pennsylvania 

1.  William  A.  Barrett  (D) Philadelphia 

2.  William  T.  Granahan    (D ) Philadelphia 

3.  Hardie   Scott  *    (R) Philadelphia 

4.  Earl  Chudoff  (D ) Philadelphia 

5.  William  J.  Green,  Jr.  (D) Philadelphia 

6.  Hugh  D.  Scott,  Jr.*   (R) Philadelphia 

7.  Benjamin  F.  James  (R) Villanova 

8.  Franklin  H.  Lichtenwalter  *    (R) AHentown 

9*  Paul  B.  Dague  °   (R) Downingtown 

10.  Harry  P.  O'Neill  (D) Dunmore 

11.  Daniel  J.  Flood  (D) Wilkes-Barre 

12.  Ivor  D*  Fenton  *   (R) Mahanoy  City 

13.  George  M.  Rhodes   (D) Reading 

14.  Wilson  D.  Gillette  *    (R) Towanda 

15.  Robert  F.  Rich  *   (R) Woolrich 

16.  Samuel  K.  McConnell,  Jr.*   (,K) Penn  Wynne 

17.  Richard  M.  Simpson  *  ( R ) Huntingdon 

18.  John  C.  Kunkel  *    (R) . . . Harrisburg 

19.  Leon  H.  Gavin  *  (R) Oil  City 

20.  Francis  E.  Walter  *    (D) Easton 

21.  James  F.  Lind   (D) York 

22.  James  E.  Van  Zandt  *  (R) Altoona 

23.  Anthony  Cavalcante  (D ) Uniontown 

24.  Thomas  E.  Morgan  *    (D) Fredericktown " 

25.  Louis  E.  Graham  *   (R ) Beaver 

26.  Robert  L.  Coffey,  Jr.    (D ) Johnstown 

27.  Augustine  B.  Kelley  *   (D) Greensburg 

28.  Carroll  D.  Kearns  *   (R) Farrell 

29.  Harry  J.  Davenport  (D) Pittsburgh 

30.  Robert  J.  Corbett  *  (R) Bellevue 

81.  James  G.  Fulton  *  (R) Dormont  (Pittsburgh) 

32.  Herman  P.  Eberharter  *   (D) Pittsburgh 

83.  Frank  Buchanan  *  (D) McKeesport 


Rhode  Island 

1.  Aime  J.  Forand  *  (D) . Cumberland 

2.  John  E.  Fogarty  *   (D) Harmony 

South  Carolina 

1.  L.   Mendel   Rivers  *    (D) Charleston 

2.  Hugo  S.  Sims    (D) Orangeburg 

3.  James  B.  Hare  (D) Saluda 

4.  Joseph  R.  Bryson  *    (D ) Greenville 

5.  James  P.  Richards  *   (D) Lancaster 

6.  John  L.  McMillan  *   (D ) Florence 

South  Dakota 

1.  Harold  O.  Loure  (R) Watertown 

2.  Francis  Case  *    (R) Custer 

Tennessee 

1.  Dayton  E.  Phillips  *  (R) Elizabethton 

2.  John  Jennings,  Jr.*    (R ) Knoxville 

3.  James  B.  Frazier,  Jr.   ( D ) Chattanooga 

4.  Albert  Gore  *   (D ) Carthage 

5.  Joe  L.  Evins  *   (D) Smithville 

6.  J.  Percy  Priest  *    (D) Nashville 

7»  Pat  Sutton   (D) Lawrenceburg 

8.  Tom  Murray  <*    (D) Jackson 

9.  Tere   Cooper  *    (D) Dyersburg  - 

10.  Clifford  Davis  *   (D) Memphis 

Texas 

1.  Wright  Patman  *   ( D ) Texarkana 

2.  J.  M.  Combs  *   (D) Beaumont 

3.  Lindley  Beckworth  *   (D) Gladewater  (R.F.D.) 

4.  Sam  Rayburn  °   ( D } , Bonhan 

5.  J.  Frank  Wilson  *    ( D ) Dallat 

6.  Olin  E.  Teague  *  (D) College  Static* 

7.  Tom  Pickett *    (D) Palestine 

8.  Albert  Thomas  *   (D ) Houston 

9.  Clark  W.  Thompson  *   ( D ) Galvestou 

10.  Homer  Thomberry  (D ) Austin 

11.  W.  R.  Poage*    (D) Waco 

12.  Wingate  H.  Lucas  *    (D ) . . . Grapevine 

13.  Ed  Gossett  *    (D) Wichita  Falls 

14.  John  E.  Lyle,  Jr.*  (D) Corpus  Christi 

15.  Lloyd  M.  Bentsen,  Jr.*  (D) McAIlen 

16.  Ken  Regan  *   (D) „ Midland 

17.  Omar  Burleson  *    (D ) Anson 

18.  Eugene  Worley  *    (D ) Shamrock 

19.  iGeorge  H.  Mahon  *  (D) Colorado  City 

20.  Paul  J.  Kilday  *  (D) San  Antonio 

21.  O.  C.  Fisher  *   (D) San  Angelo 

Utah 

1.  Walter  K.  Granger  *   (D) Cedar  City 

2.  Reva  Beck  Bosone  (D ) Salt  Lake  City 

Vermont 

At  Large 

Charles  A.  Plumley  *(R) Northfield 

Virginia 

1.  Schuyler  Otis  Bland  *  (D ) Newport  News 

2.  Porter  Hardy,  Jr.  *    (D) , Churchland 

3.  J.  Vaughan  Gary  *    (D ) Richmond 

4.  Watkins  M.  Abbitt  *  (D) Appomattox 

5.  Thomas  B.  Stanley  *    (D ) Stanleytown 

6.  Clarence  G.  Burton  *    ( D ) Lynchburg 

7.  Burr  P.  Harrison  *   (D) Winchester 

8.  Howard  W.  Smith  *  (D ) Alexandria 

9.  Tom  B.  Fugate   ( D ) Ewing 

Washington 

1.  Hugh  B.  Mitchell   (D) Seattle 

2.  Henry  M.  Jackson  *   (D ) Everett 

3.  Russell  V.  Mack  *   (R) .Hoquiam 

4.  Hal   Holmes  *    (R) Ellensburg 

5.  Walt  Horan  *    (R) Wenatchee 

6.  Thor  C.  Tollefson  *  (R) Tacoma 

Wes*  Virginia 

1.  Robert  L.  Ramsay  ( D ) Follansbee 

2.  Harley  O.  Staggers  (D ) .Keyser 

3.  Cleveland  M.  Bailey  (D ) Clarksburg 

4.  M.  G.  Burnside   (D ) Huntington 

5.  John   Kee  *    (D) Bluefield 

6.  E.  H.  Hedrick *    (D) Beckley 

Wisconsin 

1.  Lawrence  H.  Smith  *    (R) Racine 

2.  Glenn  R.  Davis  *  (R) Waukesha 

3.  Gardner  R.  Withrow  (R) La  Crosse 

4.  Clement  J,  Zablocki   ( D ) Milwaukee 

5.  Andrew  J.  Biemiller  ( D ) Milwaukee 

6.  Frank  B.  Keefe *  (R) Oshkosh 

7.  Reid  F.  Murray  *    (R ) Ogdensburg 

8.  John  W.  Byrnes  *  (R) Green  Bay 

9.  Merlin  Hull  *   (R) , Black  River  Falls 

10.  Alvin  E.  O'Konski  *   (R) Mercer 


CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATIONS 


136 


CONSTRUCTION 


Representatives  Address 

Wyoming 
At  Large 

Frank  A.  Barrett  *   (R) Lusk 

Alaska 
Delegate 

E,  L.  Bartlett  *   (R) Juneau 

Hawaii 
Delegate 

Josepli  R.  Farrington  *    (R) .Honolulu 

Puerto  Rico 

Resident  Commissioner 
A.  Fern<5s-Isem  *  &   (R) San  Juan 


h  Popular  Democrat.  Elected  for  a  4-year  term. 

CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZATIONS  (CIO).  A 

central  national  labor  body  committed  to  organiza- 
tion of  workers  into  unions  that  will  best  fit  the 
needs  of  the  workers  involved,  without  discrimina- 
tion as  to  race,  creed,  or  color,  for  the  purpose  of 
collective  bargaining.  Founded:  November,  1935, 
Claimed  membership:  6,500,000.  President,  Philip 
Murray;  Secretary-Treasurer,  James  B.  Carey, 
Headquarters:  718  Jackson  Place  NW,  Washing- 
ton 6,  D.C,  The  1948  National  Convention  was 
held  at  Portland,  Oregon,  on  November  22-26. 

CONNECTICUT.  A  New  England  State.  Area:  5,004 
sq.  mi.  Population  (July  1,  1948):  2,011,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  1,709,242.  Chief  city: 
Hartford  (capital),  166,267  inhabitants  in  1940. 
See  AGRICULTUEE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND 
METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND<  COLLEGES, 
VITAL  STATISTICS,  etc. 

Legislation.  A  special  session  was  called  in  Feb- 
ruary to  reduce  the  state  sales  tax  enacted  at  the 
regular  1947  session.  Revenues  under  the  act  had 
greatly  exceeded  estimates,  so  the  tax  was  reduced 
from  the  original  3  percent  rate  to  1  percent,  to  be 
increased  to  2  percent  on  July  1,  1949.  A  brief  ses- 
sion also  was  called  in  August. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $116,473,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $123,544,000. 

Elections.  Dewey,  with  438,226  votes  to  422,228 
for  Truman  and  13,370  for  Wallace,  won  the 
State's  8  electoral  votes  which  went  to  Roosevelt  in 
1944.  Democrats  and  Republicans  each  won  3 
House  seats,  a  gain  of  3  for  the  Democrats.  There 
was  no  Senatorial  contest.  In  the  race  for  Governor, 
Republican  incumbent  James  C.  Shannon  lost  to 
Chester  Bowles,  Democrat.  Republican  State 
Treasurer,  Joseph  A.  Adorno  was  reelected,  but 
Democrats  won  the  other  Statewide  offices:  Lieu- 
tenant Governor — William  T.  Carroll;  Secretary  of 
State — Mrs.  Winifred  McDonald;  Comptroller — 
Raymond  S.  Thatcher. 

Officers,  7948.  Governor,  James  L.  McConaughy 
(d.  Mar.  75  1948),  succeeded  by  Lieut.  Governor 
James  C.  Shannon.  Secretary  of  State,  Frances 
Burke  Redick;  Attorney  General,  William  L.  Had- 
den;  State  Treasurer,  Joseph  A.  Adorno;  State 
Comptroller,  Fred  R.  Zeller, 

CONSTRUCTION.  This  is  the  term  applied  to  those 
activities  which  "are  directed  at  providing  and 
maintaining  the  greater  part  of  the  entire  physical 
plant  of  the  nation."  It  is  second  only  to  agriculture 
in  magnitude  and  accounts  for  approximately  10 
percent  of  the  national  income.  The  above  defini- 
tion of  construction  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census 
includes  original  construction  and  maintenance  and 
repairs. 
Estimates  of  construction  activity  in  the  United 


States  prepared  by  the  Construction  Division,  Bu- 
reau of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  U.S. 
Department  of  Commerce,  measure  the  value  of 
construction  work  put  in  place.  This  includes  the 
cost  of  materials  installed  and  expenditures  for  la- 
bor and  overhead.  Separate  estimates  are  prepared 
for  new  construction  activity  and  for  maintenance 
and  repairs.  The  estimates  do  not  include  oil-well 
drilling,  actual  mining  operations,  and  farm  work 
which  is  an  integral  part  of  farm  operations.  Esti- 
mates for  tourist  courts  and  cabins,  some  play- 
ground and  park  construction,  privately-owned 
water  systems  and  some  other  minor  items  are  not 
available  and  are  not  included. 

Engineering  News-Record  reports  the  amount  of 
"contracts  let"  for  engineering  construction  in  the 
continental  United  States.  Public  works  reported 
include  waterworks,  sewerage,  bridges,  earthwork 
and  waterways,  streets  and  roads,  buildings,  and 
unclassified.  The  items  included  under  private  con- 
struction are  bridges,  industrial  buildings,  com- 
mercial buildings,  and  unclassified.  The  reports  in- 
clude projects  of  the  following  minimum  costs: 
waterworks,  excavation,  drainage,  and  irrigation, 
$28,000;  other  public  works,  $50,000;  industrial 
buildings,  $68,000;  other  buildings,  $250,000. 

The  F.  W.  Dodge  Corporation  reports  construc- 
tion contracts  awarded  in  the  37  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  The  reports  exclude  farm  con- 
struction and  may  not  be  complete  for  low-cost 
projects. 

Total  Construction.  The  dollar  volume  of  new  con- 
struction activity  reached  an  all-time  high  in  1948 
of  about  $17,750  million.  The  dollar  volume  of 
maintenance  and  repairs  is  estimated  at  $7,750  mil- 
lion, giving  a  total  for  the  year  of  $25,500  million. 
The  corresponding  figures  for  1947  were:  new  con- 
struction activity,  $14,000  million;  maintenance 
and  repairs  $7,100  million;  total  construction  activ- 
ity $21,100  million. 

The  1948  private  new  construction  was  approxi- 
mately $13,750  million  ($10,900  million  in  1947) 
and  public  new  construction  was  about  $4,000 

TABLE  1— NEW  CONSTRUCTION  ACTIVITY 
(Millions  of  Dollars) 


Type  of  Construction 
Total  new  construction  

1947 
18,977 

1948 
17,775 

1949  « 
18,750 

Total  private  

Residential  (exclusive  farm)  .... 

10,893 
5,260 

7!lOO 

18,750 
6,500 

Nonresidential  building  

8,181 

8,600 

4,060 

Industrial  

1,702 

1,380 

1,300 

Warehouses,     office    &    loft 

buildings  * 

216 

350 

450 

Stores,  restaurants,  garages  .  .  . 

619 

910 

1,000 

Other  nonresidential  building. 

594 

960 

1,300 

Religious  

118 

230 

325 

Educational  

164 

245 

325 

Hospital  and  institutional  .  . 

107 

115 

175 

Social  and  recreational  1 

OAK 

/215 

275 

Hotels  and  miscellaneous  .  .  ,  J 

205 

\155 

200 

Farm  construction  

450 

500 

450 

Public  utility  

8,58$ 

2,750 

Railroad  

318 

350 

350 

Telephone  and  telegraph  

510 

675 

725 

Other  public  utility  

1,224 

1,510 

1,675 

Total  public  

8,084 

4,040 

6,000 

Residential  

182 

65 

150 

Nonresidential  building  

505 

970 

1,375 

Educational  

275 

525 

700 

Hospital  and  institutional  .    ,  . 

81 

200 

375 

Other  nonresidential  building  . 

149 

245 

300 

Military  and  naval  

204 

150 

175 

Highway  

1,233 

1,550 

1,700 

Sewer  and  water  

331 

450 

550 

Misc.  public  service  enterprises  , 

117 

105 

125 

Conservation  and  development. 

396 

600 

750 

All  other  public  

116 

150 

175 

0  Joint  estimates  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce  and 
the  XJ.S.  Department  of  Labor. 

million  ($3,100  million  in  1947).  Private  new  con- 
struction constitutes  between  75  percent  anci  80 
percent  o£  total  new  construction.  Private  new  con- 


CONSTRUCT/ON 


137 


CONSTRUCTION 


struction  has  been  equal  to  or  greater  than  public 
new  construction,  and  in  some  years  almost  four 
times  as  much,  since  1915,  except  in  1932,  1933, 
1934,  1942,  1943,  and  1944.  These  will  be  recog- 
nized as  the  depression  and  war  years. 

About  a  third  of  the  increase  in  dollar  volume  of 
new  construction  activity  from  1947  to  1948  may 
be  attributed  to  the  increase  in  costs.  The  balance 
is  due  to  the  increase  in  physical  volume. 

The  1948  total  of  private  residential  construction 
was  approximately  $7,100  million,  an  increase  of 
about  35  percent  over  the  1947  amount  of  $5,260 
million.  Private  residential  construction  constituted 
a  little  more  than  50  percent  of  the  total  private 
new  construction  activity  in  1948  as  compared  to 
a  little  less  than  50  percent  in  1947. 

Highway  construction  was  the  largest  single  item 
(38  percent)  of  public  new  construction  in  1948 
and  held  the  same  relative  place  in  1947  (40  per- 


transient  crews,  and  subject  to  the  vagaries  of  the 
weather.  If  a  building  is  enclosed  before  cold 
weather,  operations  may  continue.  Highways,  dams, 
and  similar  structures  are  built  in  the  open  where 
weather  conditions  are  important.  The  industry  is 
making  some  progress  in  lengthening  the  construc- 
tion season.  The  seasonal  patterns  of  certain  types 
of  construction  are  indicated  by  the  indexes  in  Ta- 
ble 3. 

New  Housing.  Private  residential  construction  has 
comprised  an  average  of  41  percent  of  total  private 
new  construction  from  1915  through  1948.  The 
lowest  amount  percentagewise  was  25  percent  in 
1945  and  the  highest  was  54  percent  in  1924,  1925, 
1939,  and  1948.  It  is  usually  the  largest  single  clas- 
sification under  private  new  construction. 

The  number  of  new  permanent  dwelling  units 
put  under  construction  in  the  first  10  months  of 
1948  was  803,000  compared  to  710,500  for  the 


TABLE  2— TOTAL  NEW  CONSTRUCTION  ACTIVITY 

Regional  and  Quarterly  Distribution 
[Department  of  Commerce]    [Millions  of  dollars] 


Census  Region 
New  England 

IstQi 
1948 
164  2 

tarter 
1947 
122.4 
408.8 
480.1 
204.2 
343.2 
132.2 
284.7 
101.5 
477.9 

2nd  Quarter 
1948            194? 
203.8            153.8 
675.3            478.9 
795.8            586.7 
387.0            276.7 
597.4            418,7 
201.7            164.3 
510.9            366.4 
190.7            132.9 
825.4            543.6 

3rd  Quarter 
1948             1947 
264.7            203.1 
851.6            630.3 
1,025.6            802.4 
516.5            400.1 
671.5            531.4 
247.3            210.4 
565.7            457.1 
230.1            169.4 
024.0            646.8 

4th  Quarter 
1948             1947 
(Not            222.2 
avail-           687.0 
able)            837.2 
364.6 
559.9 
210.4 
477.4 
170.5 
710.8 

Middle  Atlantic. 

529  4 

East  North  Central  

6355 

West  North  Central  

.  .     259.7 

South  Atlantic  

.     4466 

East  South  Central   . 

.     1509 

West  South  Central 

.  .     394  0 

Mountain 

.     125  1 

Pacific.  . 

.     626  6 

cent),  the  respective  amounts  being  $1,550  million 
and  $1,230  million. 

Employment  on  construction  contracts  reached 
a  postwar  peak  of  21A  million  workers  in  August, 
1948.  The  number  of  workers  in  September,  Oc- 
tober, and  November  averaged  about  110,000 
greater  than  the  number  in  the  corresponding 
months  of  1947.  The  maximum  number  of  workers 
in  1947  was  2.1  million  in  September. 

Geographical  Distribution.  The  East  North  Central 
Census  region  led  in  total  new  construction  activity 


same  period  of  1947.  The  total  units  for  1948  will 
probably  be  between  900,000  and  925,000.  The 
total  number  for  1947  was  855,000.  The  number  of 
units  completed  in  1947  was  835,000.  The  number 
of  publicly  owned  units  started  in  1948  constitutes 
less  than  2  percent  of  the  total  number  of  starts. 
The  number  of  units  put  under  construction  in 
1948  is  exceeded  only  by  the  937,000  units  started 
in  1925. 

Approximately  40,000  prefabricated  units  were 
erected  in  1948,  less  than  5  percent  of  the  totaL 


TABLE  3— SEASONAL  INDEXES  FOE  SELECTED  TYPES  OF  NEW  CONSTRUCTION  ACTIVITY 
[U.S.  Department  of  Commerce]    [Average  for  year  =  100} 


Type  of  Construction 
Private: 
Residential  (excl,  farm)  ,  

Jan. 
87 

Feb. 
73 

Mar. 
76 

Apr. 
89 

May 
102 

June 
111 

July 
116 

Aug. 
117 

Sept, 
114 

Oct. 

110 

Nov. 
107 

Dec. 
98 

Industrial  buildings       ... 

99 

90 

87 

86 

92 

93 

103 

108 

113 

113 

112 

104 

"Warehouses,  office  &  loft  builck'ngs. 
Stores  restEurants  garages 

95 
77 

88 
75 

89 
84 

90 
87 

93 

104 

98 
122 

108 
124 

111 
116 

109 
112 

107 
107 

108 
104 

104 

8$ 

Other  nonresidential  buildings  

94 
31 

87 
35 

92 
55 

92 

87 

95 
121 

107 
149 

104 
192 

105 
196 

116 

154 

109 
95 

100 
53 

99 
32 

Public  Utility  

85 

83 

91 

97 

102 

107 

108 

111 

109 

109 

104 

94 

Public: 
Nonresidential  bldg.  (excl.  indust.)  . 
Highway  

81 
55 

71 
53 

91 
60 

97 
81 

100 
106 

110 
126 

121 
139 

121 
142 

115 
138 

111 
130 

98 
101 

84 
69 

£e*wer  &nd  ws.ter            ........... 

84 

87 

93 

96 

104 

112 

123 

113 

109 

106 

89 

84 

during  the  first  three  quarters  of  1948  with  approx- 
imately $2,500  million,  followed  by  the  Pacific  re- 
gion with  $2,400  million,  and  the  Middle  Atlantic 
region  with  about  $2,100  million.  During  the  same 
period  California  led  all  States  with  about  $1,860 
million  followed  by  Texas,  $980  million  and  New 
York,  $938  million.  These  regions  and  States  held 
the  same  relative  standing  for  total  new  construc- 
tion activity  in  1947.  Table  2  shows  the  regional 
and  quarterly  distribution  of  total  new  construction 
activity  for  the  first  three  quarters  of  1948  and  for 
the  four  quarters  of  1947. 

Seasonal  Variation.  New  construction  activity  fol- 
lows a  fairly  distinct  seasonal  pattern  being  at  a 
low  ebb  during  the  winter  months  and  reaching 
peak  production  during  the  late  summer  and  early 
fall.  This  seasonal  pattern  results  from  the  nature 
of  the  operations.  The  work  is  done  at  the  site,  by 


About  80  firms  are  manufacturing  prefabs  of  which 
5  make  steel  dwellings.  Some  of  the  plants  are  not 
operating  at  full  capacity.  Merchandising  and 
financing  are  the  important  problems  rather  than 
consumers*  acceptance.  One  company  introduced  a 
porcelain-enamel  steel  house  during  the  year. 

Costs.  Construction  costs  continued  to  rise 
throughout  1948  and  will  average  about  10  per- 
cent above  1947  costs.  Large  variation  in  costs 
exists  between  various  localities  resulting  from  the 
difference  in  demand  and  the  productivity  of  labor. 
A  seller's  market  still  exists.  Cost  trends  are  depict- 
ed by  various  indexes.  Some  are  general  in  nature 
while  others  indicate  the  trend  of  a  particular  type 
of  structure.  Some  are  local  in  character  while  oth- 
ers are  more  or  less  national.  The  base  year  also 
varies. 

Engineering  News-Record  reports  two  cost  in- 


CONSTRUCTION 


138 


CONSUMERS1  COOPERATIVES 


lexes.  The  E.N.-R.  construction  cost-index  is  based 
Dn  the  cost  of  structural  steel,  cement,  lumber,  and 
common  labor  rates  at  selected  points  and  weighted 
in  proportion  to  the  importance  of  each  in  heavy 
construction.  The  E.N.-R.  building  cost-index  is 
based  on  the  same  material  items  as  given  above, 
and  skilled  labor  rates. 

Court  Decisions.  The  U.S.  Supreme  Court  ren- 
dered two  decisions  of  importance  to  the  construc- 
tion industry.  The  decision  of  the  Court  in  the  Fed- 
eral Trade  Commission  vs.  the  Cement  Institute 
case  upheld  the  FTC  and  affirmed  that  a  multiple- 
basing  point  delivered  price  system  as  used  by  the 


TABLE  4— COST  INDEXES 
[Engineering  News  Record]        [191S  = 


100] 


Month 
January.  .    .    . 

Construe 
1948 
.  .  .     441.65 

tion  Cost 
1947 
381.68 
390.76 
391.95 
396.09 
396.49 
403.29 
406.52 
415,00 
417.81 
424.41 
429.30 
432.30 

Building  Cost 
1948           1947 
333.58        289.05 
335.49        297.65 
334.22        298.84 
334.56        300.81 
333.93        299.61 
339.26        303.14 
342.42        304.87 
355.45        313.03 
356.70        317.08 
357.07        320.58 
355.86        322.27 
355.55        325.27 

February     .  .  . 

.  .     442.67 

March     .    .    . 

443.60 

April 

443.64 

May  

.  ,  .     444.86 

.  .  .     455.80 

July  

.  .  .     464.83 

.  .  .     477,11 

September 

.     478.49 

October 

480.21 

November.  ,  .  . 

.  .  .     478.25 

December  . 

.     477.66 

cement  industry  results  in  ( 1 )  restraint  of  competi- 
tion and  ( 2 )  systematic  price  discrimination,  which 
are  prohibited  by  the  FTC  Act  and  the  Clayton 
Act  respectively.  This  court  ruling  affects  cement, 
steel,  and  other  products  of  common  use  in  con- 
struction. This  decision  may  well  result  in  a  group 
of  regional  or  local  monopolies  and  will  increase 
the  cost  of  some  products.  Contractors  will  experi- 
ence some  difficulty  in  arriving  at  a  price  to  use  in 
bidding.  The  determination  of  freight  rates  over  a 
wide  area  is  not  a  simple  matter. 

The  second  decision  resulting  from  the  case  of 
New  York  longshoremen  against  stevedoring  com- 
panies redefines  overtime  and  is  popularly  referred 
to  as  "overtime-on-overtime."  The  interpretation  or 
redefinition  of  overtime  pay  is  applicable  in  the 
construction  industry  and  has  caused  considerable 
confusion  in  the  preparation  of  payrolls.  Employers 
and  employees  have  had  a  long-time  understanding 
that  overtime  pay  at  1%  or  2  times  the  regular  rate 
applied  to  hours  worked  outside  the  regular  shift  of 
8  a.m.  to  5  p.m.,  Monday  through  Friday.  The  court 
ruled  that  such  pay,  unless  for  work  in  excess  of  40 
hours,  was  in  reality  premium  pay  for  undesirable 
hours  and  must  be  considered  in  determining  the 
base  rate  from  which  overtime  pay  is  computed. 
The  application  of  this  decision  is  variable  in  dif- 
ferent cases  depending  somewhat  upon  contract 
agreements  or  company  policy.  In  some  cases  its 
application  will  result  in  a  varying  "regular  rate" 
From  which  overtime  will  be  computed.  Any  given 
employee's  "regular  rate"  may  be  $1  per  hour  one 
week,  $1.07  per  hour  another  week,  and  still  a  dif- 
ferent amount  during  a  succeeding  week.  The 
amount  added  to  the  total  weekly  pay  of  an  em- 
ployee is  variable,  ranging  from  nothing  to  $5,  or 
$10,  or  more.  This  court  ruling  adds  to  the  labor 
and  cost  of  preparing  payrolls  and  will  cause  some 
lifficulty  in  preparing  estimates  for  contract  bid- 
ling  purposes.  Shifting  the  work  week  to  Monday 
through  Sunday  may  be  helpful  in  some  cases. 

Construction  Equipment.  The  Road  Show,  spon- 
sored by  the  American  Road  Builders'  Association, 
was  held  during  the  summer  for  the  first  time  since 
the  war.  All  forms  of  construction  equipment  were 
exhibited  and  the  variety  of  machines  on  display  is 
indicative  of  the  effort  being  made  to  mechanize  all 
possible  operations.  Machines  displayed  ranged 


from  small  power  tools  and  150  Ib.  generators  to 
3^/2  cu.  yd.  power  shovels  and  750  h.p.  bulldozers. 
One  machine  can  dig  and  load  750  cu.  yd.  per 
hour. 

The  trend  in  design  is  to  increase  size,  power, 
mobility,  operator's  comfort,  power  control,  and  re- 
duce maintenance  costs.  More  manufacturers  are 
introducing  models  of  motor-scraper  units  and  rub- 
ber-tired bulldozers.  The  application  of  large-size, 
low-pressure  tires  to  construction  equipment  con- 
tinues to  gain  favor.  Diesel  power  continues  in  fa- 
vor in  the  heavier  machines. 

Large  capacity  portable  aggregate  plants  are 
available  to  meet  strict  specifications  for  aggregates. 
These  units  are  becoming  economical  as  hauling 
costs  rise.  Truck  haul  of  aggregate  is  now  about  6? 
to  8$  per  ton-mile. 

Tractor  loaders  are  being  used  in  many  opera- 
tions to  reduce  hand  labor.  Powered  rubber-tired 
buggies  are  replacing  the  wheelbarrows  and  2-man 
concrete  buggies.  One-pass  soil  stabilizers  are  now 
available  for  the  construction  of  relatively  low  cost 
roads. 

Needs.  The  Joint  Congressional  Committee  on 
Housing  recommended  1,250,000  new  homes  a 
year  for  12  years.  This  recommendation  was  based 
on  figures  gathered  by  the  committee,  some  of 
which -are:  F.  W.  Dodge  Corporation,  820,000  per 
year  for  10  years;  National  Housing  Agency,  1,260,- 
000  per  year;  American  Federation  of  Labor, 
1,560,000  per  year;  Charles  Adams,  1,860,000  per 
year  for  10  years;  Twentieth  Century  Fund,  1,133,- 
000  per  year  for  15  years;  Producers  Council,  900,- 
000  to  1,000,000  per  year  for  3  or  4  years;  and  As- 
sociation of  Real  Estate  Boards,  300,000  per  year 
for  10  years.  The  Construction  News  indicates 
900,000  new  units  per  year  for  at  least  8  years  will 
be  required  before  the  situation  becomes  normal. 

Estimates  prepared  by  State  Highway  Commis- 
sions indicate  the  need  for  vast  sums  to  raise  the 
several  systems  to  acceptable  standards,  The  de- 
partments of  some  States  are  barely  able  to  main- 
tain the  highways  in  serviceable  condition  due  to 
the  lack  of  funds,  lack  of  trained  personnel,  and 
the  increase  in  both  traffic  and  magnitude  of  loads. 

Indiana  estimates  it  will  require  $67.5  million 
per  year  for  11  years  (1950-1960)  for  necessary 
improvements  to  raise  the  system  to  tolerable  stand- 
ards. Michigan  needs  $179  million  per  year  for  12 
years  to  correct  present  deficiencies  and  for  re- 
placement and  maintenance.  Nebraska  highway 
needs  are  placed  at  $64  million  per  year  for  10 
years  and  the  California  highway  needs  are  placed 
at  210  million  in  1949,  increasing  to  $240  million 
in  1959.  All  the  above  figures  are  based  on  care- 
fully prepared  engineering  analyses. 

Outlook,  1949.  The  outlook  for  1949  is  bright. 
The  volume  of  new  construction  activity  may 
amount  to  $18,750  million.  The  number  of  housing 
units  to  be  placed  under  construction  will  prob- 
ably be  a  little  smaller  than  in  1948.  Construction 
costs  may  be  expected  to  increase  about  5  percent 
above  the  1948  level. 

Source  of  Data.  Business  Week;  Construction  and 
Construction  Materials,  U.S.  Department  of  Com- 
merce; Construction,  U.S.  Department  of  Labor; 
Engineering  News-Record;  The  Construction  News. 
— F.  W.  STUBBS,  JE. 

CONSUMERS'  COOPERATIVES.  Again,  in  1947,  the 
consumers'  cooperatives  in  the  United  States  reach- 
ed all-time  peaks  in  membership  and  business.  For 
the  first  time  the  annual  aggregate  retail  distribu- 
tive business  of  these  associations  exceeded  1,000 
million  dollars. 


CONSUMERS'  COOPERATIVES 


139 


Among  the  retail  petroleum  associations,  slightly 
less  than  3  percent  showed  losses  on  the  year's 
business  and,  of  those  showing  earnings,  in  well 
over  half  were  the  earnings  greater  than  in  1946. 
Although  the  retail  store  associations  had  a  rate 
of  increase  in  volume  of  business  which  exceeded 
any  previous  year  for  which  there  is  record,  their 
operating  results  were  less  satisfactory  than  in 
1946.  Among  those  reporting,  over  a  fourth  (28.5 
percent)  sustained  a  loss  on  the  year's  operations, 
as  compared  with  16.1  percent  in  1946;  among 
those  which  were  "in  the  black,"  over  half  had 
smaller  earnings  than  in  1946.  For  both  types  of 
associations,  earnings  included  patronage  refunds 
on  purchases  made  from  wholesale  cooperatives, 
and  for  some  retail  associations,  such  refunds  were 
all  that  kept  them  on  the  earnings  side  of  the  ledg- 
er. Difficult  operations  were  reflected  in  an  unusu- 
ally large  number  of  dissolutions  of  associations  in 
1947  and  early  1948. 

More  than  4,200  retail  associations  were  affili- 
ated to  regional  wholesales  at  the  end  of  1947,  and 
24  of  these  wholesales  were,  in  turn,  members  of 
National  Cooperatives,  Inc. 

Among  the  commercial  federations,  the  regional 
and  district  wholesales  had  a  distributive  and  serv- 
ice business  of  nearly  261  million  dollars  (as  com- 
pared with  222  millions  in  1946).  Earnings  of  the 
reporting  regional  wholesales,  which  exceeded  15 
million  dollars,  were  nearly  30  percent  above  those 
of  1946;  in  1946,  however,  earnings  had  been 
nearly  88  percent  above  those  of  1945.  Combined 
earnings  for  the  group  were  reduced  considerably 
by  the  losses  of  a  few  associations.  As  among  the 
retail  associations,  some  of  the  wholesales  found  the 
going  hard  in  1947.  This  was  particularly  true  of 
the  three  which  deal  mainly  in  groceries;  two  of 
these  sustained  a  loss  on  the  year's  business.  In  two 
other  wholesales  with  grocery  departments,  those 
departments  ended  the  year  with  an  operating  loss. 

Patronage  refunds  to  the  affiliated  member  as- 
sociations by  the  wholesales  totaled  nearly  12^4  mil- 
lion dollars — or  nearly  half  again  as  much  as  in 
1946. 

The  year  1947  saw  another  sizable  increase  in 
value  of  goods  produced  by  the  wholesales  and 
productive  federations,  reaching  nearly  128%  mil- 
lion dollars  as  compared  with  95%  millions  in  the 
previous  year.  Over  60  percent  of  this  product 
came  from  plants  operated  by  the  regional  whole- 
sales, and  somewhat  over  a  third  came  from  those 
of  the  productive  federations. 

In  many  cases,  the  interest  in  cooperatives  mani- 
fested during  the  past  year  by  organized  labor  has 
died  without  anything  concrete  emerging.  In  nu- 
merous other  places,  however,  new  cooperatives 
have  been  formed,  and  some  existing  associations 
report  an  influx  (large  or  small)  of  unionists  as 
new  members  or  patrons.  One  of  the  results  has 
been  a  new  "warehouse"  type  of  retail  store,  han- 
dling only  a  few  hundred  major  food  items  needed 
by  a  household,  compared  with  the  thousand  or 
more  ordinarily  carried  in  stock  by  grocery  stores. 
As  the  goods  in  these  warehouses  are  displayed  in 
the  boxes  in  which  they  are  shipped,  the  processes 
of  shelving  and  pricing  are  eliminated.  The  results 
are  said  to  be  quick  turnover  of  inventory,  lower 
labor  and  other  overhead  costs,  and  greater  savings 
for  the  patrons. 

Important  in  the  domestic  scene  in  1948  was 
the  holding  of  the  Sixteenth  Biennial  Congress  of 
the  Cooperative  League  of  the  U.S.A.  in  Minneap- 
olis, in  November,  This  was  a  working  congress 
dealing  with  the  various  aspects  and  problems  of 
the  cooperative  movement.  Special  sessions  consid- 


ered  finance,  taxation,  housing,  petroleum,  retail 
services,  public  relations,  and  labor  and  coopera- 
tives. Their  conclusions  were  reported  to  the  gen- 
eral sessions,  in  most  cases  with  recommendations 
for  specific  action. 

The  annual  convention  of  the  Cooperative 
Health  Federation  of  America  preceded  the  Con- 
gress of  the  League. 

In  the  international  field,  the  outstanding  event 
was  the  Seventeenth  Congress  of  the  International 
Cooperative  Alliance  (founded  in  1895),  at 
Prague,  Czechoslovakia,  in  September.  Coopera- 
tives and  nationalization,  and  the  expansion  or  the 
cooperative  movement  in  the  economic  and  busi- 
ness field,  were  the  two  main  themes  of  the  Con- 
gress, both  evoking  considerable  discussion  and 
widely  differing  points  of  view.  The  resolution 
passed  by  the  Congress  on  the  former  subject  ex- 
pressed the  belief  mat,  although  nationalization  is 
desirable  in  certain  basic  industries,  cooperation 
is  preferable  to  nationalization  in  all  industries 
which  cater  to  individuals  or  in  which  individual 
preferences  and  tastes  are  important.  The  Congress 
also  reiterated  the  historic  stand  of  the  Alliance, 
asserting  its  political  and  religious  neutrality  and  its 
independence  of  any  ties  with  organizations  in 
either  field.  — FLORENCE  E.  PARXEH 

MEMBERSHIP  AND  BUSINESS  OF  CONSUMERS' 

COOPERATIVES,  1947 

(Local  Associations) 

Estimated  Totals 

No  of  No  of  Amount  of 

As  soda-  Members  Business 

Type  of  Association             tions  ^,000's)  ($t,QQQ) 

Retail  distributive 3,985  2,208  1,050,300 

Stores,  buying  clubs 2,500  1,250  715,000 

Petroleum 1,400  925  320,000 

„  Other 85  33  15,300 

Service 793  357  25,503 

Rooms,  meals 200  25  6,100 

Housing 125  10  fl  3,000 

Medical,  medical  care: 

On  contract 60  100  1,800 

Own  facilities 75  65  6,000 

Burial: 

Complete  funeral 36  30  355 

Caskets  only 3  1  6 

On  contract 42  42 

Cold  storage 180  107  7,000 

Other 110  17  1,200 

Electric  light,  power 1,029  » 2,031  113,704 

Telephone      (mutual     and 

coop  ) 33,000  675  10,000 

Credit  unions -   9,040  3,340  455,834 

Insurance 2,000  « 11,200  <*207,000 

Federations 
Wholesales: 

Interregional 1  *  24  10,581 

Regional 23  *  4,220  255,216 

District 11  «171  /  5,664 

Service 18  '1,405  1,732 

Productive 16  '386  53,741 

a  Gross  income  b  Number  of  patrons  e  Number  of 
policy  holders  d  Premium  income  *  Total  number  of  mem- 
ber associations  /  Includes  wholesale  distributive,  retail  dis- 
tributive, and  service  business 

COPPER.  For  the  third  postwar  year,  consumption 
of  primary  copper  by  domestic  industry  in  1948 
exceeded  high  level  consumption  prewar  years  by 
about  100  percent,  reaching  approximately  1,230,- 
000  net  tons  (1947:  1,278,400  tons).  Heavy  post- 
war consumption  of  copper  has  been  caused  by 
pent-up  consumer  and  industrial  demand  after  the 
war,  and  the  heavy  use  of  certain  brass  mill  prod- 
ucts to  substitute  for  scarce  steel  products. 

Domestic  mine  production  of  copper  was  at  the 
high  level  of  approximately  826,000  tons  in  1948, 
the  additional  tonnage  required  by  domestic  con- 
sumption coming  from  imports,  largely  from  Chile. 
(1947  production,  revised:  847,560  tons.)  About 
50,000  tons  of  copper  production  was  lost  by  a 


COPYRIGHT 


140 


CORN 


strike  of  railroad  workers  at  the  Bingham,  Utali 
open-pit  mine  of  Kennecott  Copper  Corp.,  that 
was  still  unsettled  at  year  end. 

Domestic  consumers  of  copper  were  hit  hard  by 
a  shortage  throughout  the  year  that  grew  particu- 
larly acute  in  the  fall  and  winter.  The  principal 
cause  of  the  shortage  was  the  heavy  demand  by 
domestic  industry,  and  the  strike  in  the  last  quar- 
ter. Other  contributing  causes  were  the  strategic 
stock-piling  program  of  the  government  which  was 
accelerated  in  tile  last  half  of  the  year,  and  the 
granting  of  dollar  credits  to  the  nations  of  western 
Europe  for  purchases  of  copper  and  mill  products 
under  the  Economic  Cooperation  Administration 
program. 

Major  producers  distributed  available  tonnages 
to  domestic  and  foreign  consumers  with  care  so  as 
to  prevent  price  increases  during  the  year.  An  in- 
crease of  2$  per  Ib.  in  August  brought  the  price 
to  23.50^  delivered  Connecticut  Valley,  with  a 
premium  of  %$  per  Ib.  for  Midwest  delivery.  De- 
mand that  could  not  be  satisfied  grew  so  heavy 
in  the  last  half  of  the  year  that  premium  prices 
were  paid  as  high  as  28$  per  Ib.  by  many  consum- 
ers, largely  for  foreign  metal.  Consumers  also  en- 
tered the  scrap  market  to  buy  copper  for  conver- 
sion by  custom  smelters  on  a  toll  basis.  This  added 
buying  pressure  bid  up  the  price  of  scrap  copper 
as  high  as  22$  per  Ib.,  which  was  reflected  in  high 
prices  for  secondary  ingot. 

Heavy  wartime  construction  of  fabricating  plants 
in  the  Midwest  has  wrought  an  important  change 
in  the  geographical  center  of  consumption,  which 
has  moved  westward  from  the  eastern  seaboard. 
The  refining  plants  have  been  heavily  centered  in 
the  eastern  seaports  to  serve  the  market,  where 
they  are  fed  by  imported  concentrates  and  domes- 
tic concentrates  from  western  mining  areas.  Con- 
struction o£  additional  refining  capacity  in  the  West 
and  Midwest  will  cut  down  on  freight  costs  in- 
volved in  consumption  by  plants  in  that  area.  Ken- 
necott Copper  Corp,  began  the  construction  of  a 
refinery  at  Garfield,  Utah,  to  handle  the  output  of 
its  Bingham,  Utah,  mine. 

Arizona  was  again  the  leading  mine  producing 
state  and  its  production  together  with  that  of  Utah 
constituted  nearly  three-fourths  of  total  domestic 
production.  Other  leading  producing  states  were 
New  Mexico,  Montana,  and  Nevada. 

Imports  in  the  form  of  ore,  matte,  crude  and  re- 
fined copper  totaled  496,320  tons  in  1948  (1947  im- 
ports: 407,937  tons).  Of  this  amount,  258,156  tons 
came  from  Chile,  more  than  80  percent  of  it  in 
refined  form.  Mexico,  Canada,  Peru  and  other 
Western  Hemisphere  nations  sent  the  balance,  ex- 
cept small  tonnages  from  Rhodesia,  Yugoslavia, 
South  Africa,  and  Cyprus.  The  tariff  on  copper 
imports  has  been  suspended  until  Mar.  31,  1949. 
Copper  exports  of  the  United  States  in  the  form 
of  ingots,  bars,  eta  reached  142,598  tons  ( 1947  ex- 
ports: 148,399  tons).  The  United  Kingdom  took 
50  percent  of  U.S.  exports  of  refined  copper. 

The  principal  copper-producing  countries  of  the 
world,  excluding  Russia  for  which  statistics  are  not 
available,  based  on  mine  production  in  1947  were 
as  follows  (net  tons):  United  States,  847,560: 
Chile,  470,318;  Canada,  227,209;  Rhodesia,  218,- 
222;  Belgian  Congo,  166,271;  and  Mexico,  72,675. 
The  world  total  was  estimated  at  2,280,000  net 
tons.  — JOHNT  ANTHONY 

COPYRIGHT,  U.S.  The  three  most  significant  events 
in  copyright  in  1948  were  the  increase  in  the  fees 
charged  for  the  registration  of  copyrights  and  other 
services  performed  by  the  U.S.  Copyright  Office, 


the  increase  in  the  appropriation  voted  by  Con- 
gress for  the  maintenance  of  that  Office,  and  the 
improvement  in  the  Catalog  of  Copyright  Entries. 

The  fees  charged  the  public  for  the  various  serv- 
ices performed  by  the  Copyright  Office  have  re- 
mained extremely  low  for  many  years;  in  a  number 
of  instances  below  the  schedule  of  a  century  and  a 
half  ago.  They  were  so  far  out  of  line  with  the  pay 
scale  for  federal  employees  that  it  was  possible  to 
secure  for  $1  an  hour  the  making  of  bibliographical 
and  other  Copyright  Office  searches  costing  the 
government  $3  an  hour.  This  situation  led  the  Ap- 
propriations Committee  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives to  refer  to  the  Copyright  Office  fees  as 
"woefully  inadequate  to  cover  present  day  costs" 
and  the  Congress  to  increase  almost  all  the  Copy- 
right Office  fees  effective  May  27,  1948,  The  most 
significant  changes  were  the  increase  of  the  fee  for 
the  registration  of  each  original  copyright  to  $4 
(the  charge  for  registering  prints  and  labels  re- 
mains at  $6)  and  of  that  for  making  searches  to 
$3  per  hour. 

To  compensate  the  users  of  the  Copyright  Office 
for  the  higher  fees  they  were  to  pay,  the  Congress 
increased  the  appropriation  of  the  Copyright  Office 
so  that  it  could  give  the  public  better  service.  The 
new  appropriation  did  not  become  effective  until 
July  1st  and  it  takes  time  to  secure  and  train  new 
employees,  so  the  public  has  not  yet  received  the 
full  benefit  of  the  increase  appropriation.  However, 
the  public  has  already  received  better  and 
prompter  service  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  im- 
provement will  be  even  more  marked  in  the  year 
1949. 

The  Catalog  of  Copt/right  Entries  changed  in 
1947  its  form,  contents,  price,  and  frequency  of 
publication.  Its  size  has  been  changed  to  quarto 
so  as  to  facilitate  the  use  of  larger  and  more  read- 
able type.  The  form  and  content  of  the  entries 
has  been  altered  to  make  them  more  useful  and 
readily  understandable.  All  parts  of  the  catalog 
are  now  published  semi-annually.  The  Catalog  can 
be  purchased  as  a  whole  or  any  one  of  its  eleven 
separate  parts  can  be  bought  separately  (each 
covering  a  different  class  of  copyrighted  material) 
either  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  or 
the  Copyright  Office.  The  price  of  the  entire  Cata- 
log for  one  year  is  $20. 

The  number  of  claims  to  copyrights  registered 
in  fiscal  year  1948  was  the  largest  ever  received 
in  the  Copyright  Office,  numbering  238,121.  Of 
this  number  51,546  were  for  books  (of  which 
9,786  were  monographs),  72,339  for  musical  com- 
positions, 59,699  for  periodicals,  1,456  for  maps, 
and  1,631  for  motion  pictures.  Of  the  573,698 
registrations  made  in  the  fiscal  five-year  period 
1915-1920,  62,100,  or  10.8  percent  were  renewed 
in  the  fiscal  years  1943  to  1948. 

— SAM  B.  WARNEK 

CORN  (Maize).  World  corn  output  for  1948  was 
forecast  at  the  record  figure  of  5,900  million  bush- 
els, on  the  basis  of  information  available  in  the  Of- 
fice of  Foreign  Agricultural  Relations,  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  At  that  level  the  crop 
would  be  25  percent  above  the  1935-39  average 
of  4,800  million  bushels.  The  increase  was  account- 
ed for  by  the  record  outturn  in  the  United  States, 
and  a  slight  gain  in  Africa.  All  other  continental 
totals  were  estimated  below  average.  Production 
yields  of  the  continents  for  1948  were  estimated 
(in  bushels)  as  follows:  North  America  3,753  mil- 
lion, Europe  671  million,  U.S.S.R.  125  million  (in 
1947),  Asia  630  million,  Africa  272  million,  South 
America  464  million,  Oceania  5  million. 


CORSICA 


141 


COSTA  R!CA 


United  States,  The  1948  com  crop  of  the  United 
States,  according  to  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture Crop  Report  of  December  1948,  amounted 
to  a  record  of  3,651  million  bushels,  compared  with 
2,384  million  bushels  in  1947.  Yields  of  the  prin- 
cipal producing  States  in  1948  (in  bushels)  were: 
Iowa  666,730,000,  Illinois  549,793,000,  Indiana 
279,780,000,  Minnesota  272,055,000,  Nebraska 
252,468,000,  Ohio  215,924,000,  Missouri  201,110,- 
000,  South  Dakota  131,472,000,  Wisconsin  113,- 
252,000,  Kentucky  100,040,000,  Kansas  81,304,000, 
Tennessee  74,415,000,  North  Carolina  69,006,000, 
Michigan  67,119,000,  Pennsylvania  65,379,000, 
Alabama  58,824,000,  Mississippi  53,544,00,  Vir- 
ginia 50,525,000,  Georgia  49,182,000,  Texas  44,- 
698,000. 

CORSICA.  A  French  island  department  in  the  west- 
ern Mediterranean,  100  miles  southeast  of  Nice. 
Area,  3,367  square  miles.  Population  (March, 
1946),  267,971.  Chief  towns:  Ajaccio  (capital), 
38,000  inhabitants;  Bastia,  52,208. 

COSTA  RICA.  A  Republic  of  Central  America.  The 
interior  is  mountainous  with  a  small  highland  pla- 
teau, hemmed  by  volcanic  cones  and  cordillera 
ranges.  The  coastal  plains  border  the  Pacific  and 
the  Caribbean  oceans.  Along  the  coast,  the  climate 
is  hot  and  humid,  while  cool  and  refreshing  cli- 
mates prevail  in  the  highland  plateaus. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  19,656  square  miles. 
Population  (census,  Dec.  31,  1945):  746,535 
(1948  est.  835,000),  of  whom  about  80  percent 
are  of  European  descent;  15  percent  mestizos;  4 
percent  Negro;  one  percent  Indian.  Chief  cities: 
San  Jose  (capital),  86,952  inhabitants  in  1948; 
Cartago,  Heredia,  and  Alajuela.  Limon  is  the  prin- 
cipal port. 

Education  ond  Religion.  The  Constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  religion,  but  Roman  Catholicism  is 
the  official  religion.  Over  80  percent  of  the  popula- 
tion is  literate  under  a  program  of  free  and  com- 
pulsory education.  In  1947,  there  were  nearly  900 
primary  public  schools  with  83,000  students;  5 
secondary  schools  with  more  than  4,000  students. 
The  national  university  of  Costa  Rica  is  a  well- 
known  institution  of  higher  learning  in  Central 
America. 

Production.  Agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation, 
with  1,040,000  acres  under  cultivation.  Principal 
export  crops  are  coffee,  bananas  and  cocoa,  which 
usually  amount  to  80  percent  of  the  total  value  of 
exports.  Coffee  production  in  1947  was  estimated 
at  307,000  bags  of  60  kilos.  The  value  of  exports 
of  agricultural  products  in  1946  follows:  coffee 
$6,528,569;  bananas,  $4,388,357;  cocoa,  $792,848. 
There  are  some  small  industries  of  consumer  goods 
as  well  as  dairy-farming  and  cattle-raising  (401,- 
104  head  in  1945).  Although  forest  covers  about 
80  percent  of  the  total  area  of  the  country,  the 
timber  industry  is  not  well  developed  (10,246 
metric  tons  exported  in  1946). 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  exports  in  1947  amounted  to 
$14,357,272;  imports  to  $33,041,135.  With  such  an 
unfavorable  balance  of  trade  the  economy  of  the 
country  was  seriously  affected.  Coffee  exports 
(1947)  totaled  302,937  bags,  79  percent  of  which 
went  to  the  United  States.  Banana  exports,  Jan- 
uary-July, 1947,  consisted  of  3,851,627  stems 
(1946  total  export  5,500,000  stems).  Cocoa  exports 
(1946)  totaled  8,751,000  Ib.  Lumber  exports  for 
the  period  January-August,  1947,  totaled  $745,- 
000,  or  about  twice  that  of  1946,  Principal  buyers 
are  the  United  States,  Canada,  Switzerland,  Co- 
lombia, and  Panama.  Principal  suppliers  are  the 


United  States,  Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Argentina.,  and 
Chile. 

Finance.  The  budget  estimate  for  1947  was  $17,- 
000,000,  both  for  revenues  and  expenditures.  On 
Jan.  1,  1947,  the  public  debt  amounted  to  256,406,- 
852  colones  (one  colon  equals  U.S.$0.1764;  1948). 
The  foreign  debt  is  distributed  among  French, 
British,  and  American  bondholders.  The  internal 
debt  is  approximately  77,000,000  colones.  Currency 
in  circulation  at  the  end  of  1947  totaled  82.6  mil- 
lion colones;  bank  deposits,  105  million  colones; 
gold  reserves,  $2,000,000.  The  cost  of  living  index 
in  August,  1947,  was  226  (1936  =  100). 

Transportation.  Costa  Rica  has  a  total  of  some  600 
miles  of  narrow-gage  railroad,  of  which  301  miles 
are  main  lines.  The  United  Fruit  Company  main- 
tains approximately  190  miles  of  the  railroad. 
There  are  about  1,017  miles  of  highway  (1947), 
of  which  921  miles  are  hard  surfaced,  the  remain- 
der improved.  Local  air  service  is  supplied  by 
TACA,  LACSA,  and  TAN.  International  service  is 
supplied  by  the  Pan  American  Airways  and  TACA. 
There  are  1,904  miles  of  telegraphic  lines  and  350 
miles  of  telephone  line;  the  first  are  government 
owned,  the  latter  private. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  1871 
(amended  1943),  Costa  Rica  is  a  centralized  re- 
public of  7  provinces.  Legislative  power  rests  in 
a  unicameral  Congress  of  45  members  ( elected  for 
4  years ) .  The  President,  who  serves  a  4-year  term, 
is  assisted  by  a  Cabinet  of  9  members.  In  May, 
1948,  a  revolutionary  Junta  headed  by  Jose  Figue- 
res  assumed  power.  ( See  below  EVENTS.  ) 

Events,  1948.  A  peaceful  and  traditionally  demo- 
cratic country,  Costa  Rica  had  her  share  of  violence 
in  1948. 

Presidential  Elections.  In  preparation  for  the  elec- 
tions to  be  held  on  February  8,  the  three  political 
parties  opened  the  year  stressing  their  different 
ideologies.  Rafael  Calderon  Guardia  was  the  can- 
didate of  the  liberally  inclined  Partido  Nacional 
Republicano;  Otilio  Ulate  Blanco,  nominated  by 
the  Partido  Union  Nacional,  represented  the  landed 
classes,  and  Manuel  Mora  Valverde  was  nominated 
•by  the  pro-Communist  Van-Guardia  Popular,  a 
small  party. 

Early  election  returns  gave  a  majority  to  Ulate, 
but  this  was  immediately  contested  by  the  other 
parties,  who  claimed  fraud.  The  case  was  referred 
to  an  electoral  tribunal  which  decided  in  favor 
of  Ulate  on  February  28.  The  decision  was  close, 
with  the  President  of  the  Tribunal  stating  that  Con- 
gress should  make  the  decision.  After  considerable 
bickering,  Congress  voted  20  to  19  to  annul  the 
elections,  and  announced  that  a  provisional  govern- 
ment would  be  appointed  until  a  new  election 
could  be  held. 

Preludes  fo  Civil  War.  After  the  decision  of  Con- 
gress was  published,  the  government  took  measures 
to  stop  revolts,  the  first  step  being  a  house  search 
by  police  at  the  home  of  Dr.  Valverde,  one  of 
Ulate's  backers.  Entrance  denied,  an  exchange  of 
shots  followed  in  which  two  policemen  were  killed 
and  Dr.  Valverde  was  fatally  wounded.  Out  of  this 
incident  serious  tension  arose;  Ulate  and  some  of 
his  followers  were  placed  under  arrest  and  accused 
of  being  responsible  for  the  incident,  since  they 
had  resisted  the  government  order. 

The  Figoeres  Uprising.  Early  in  March,  a  group 
headed  by  Col.  Jose  Figueres  took  possession  of 
three  planes  of  the  TACA  line,  and  smuggled  arms 
and  ammunition  from  Guatemala.  A  veritable  civil 
war  broke  out  and  the  rebels  bombed  the  presiden- 
tial palace  from  the  air.  President  Picado,  whose 
term  did  not  expire  until  May  8,  asked  the  diplo- 


COITON 


142 


COURT  GAMES 


matic  corps  to  intervene;  they  accepted  and  formed 
a  committee  headed  by  the  Papal  Nuncio  and  the 
Ambassadors  from  the  United  States,  Mexico,  the 
Dominican  Republic,  Panama,  and  Chile.  Figueres 
appointed  an  emissary  to  work  out  an  agreement, 
under  which  it  was  understood  that  Ulate's  elec- 
tion would  be  recognized  and  a  coalition  govern- 
ment formed.  However,  on  April  28,  Figueres' 
troops  entered  San  Jose  in  a  triumphal  march  and, 
instead  of  delivering  the  government  to  Ulate, 
formed  a  revolutionary  Junta  controlled  by  himself. 
He  then  announced  that  a  Constituent  Assembly 
would  be  convoked  to  draw  up  a  new  constitution. 

De  Facfo  Government.  Figueres  is  ruling  Costa  Rica 
and  the  political  situation  is  confused.  The  Conser- 
vatives are  disturbed  by  the  socialistic  trends  of 
the  present  administration,  while  the  democratic 
group  is  dissatisfied  with  the  dictatorial,  strong-arm 
methods  used  to  repress  political  opposition.  On 
the  international  front,  in  spite  of  internal  unrest, 
Costa  Rica  attended  the  Ninth  Inter-American 
Conference  of  American  States  held  in  Bogota  in 
April,  and  became  signatory  to  the  Charter  of  the 
Americas. 

Invasion  and  the  Inter' American  System.  On  Decem- 
ber 10,  the  country  was  invaded  by  a  revolutionary 
group  headed  by  defeated  candidate  Rafael  Cal- 
deron  Guardia.  The^rebel  troops  came  from  Nica- 
ragua, and  Figueres'  government  immediately  re- 
ferred the  case  to  the  Organization  of  American 
States,  which  immediately  intervened  and  appoint- 
ed an  investigation  commission,  composed  of  dele- 
gates from  Mexico,  Paraguay,  Brazil,  Colombia  and 
the  United  States.  The  commission  went  to  Costa 
Rica  and  Nicaragua  and  conducted  several  hear- 
ings, with  the  following  results :  that  the  movement 
was  organized  in  Nicaraguan  territory,  and  that  the 
government  of  that  country  had  taken  no  preven- 
tive measures  against  it  until  after  December  10; 
that  the  rebel  troops  were  formed  mostly  by  citi- 
zens of  Costa  Rica  and  some  Nicaraguans,  but  that 
there  was  no  evidence  of  participation  by  Nicara- 
guan armed  forces;  and  that  the  government  of 
Costa  Rica,  before  the  invasion,  had  given  moral 
and  material  support  to  the  so-called  Caribbean 
Legion,  whose  objective,  among  others,  is  the  over- 
throw of  the  Nicaraguan  government.  The  Council 
of  the  Organization  of  American  States  took  the 
following  steps:  A  request  to  the  governments  of 
Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  to  refrain  from  any  hos- 
tile acts;  a  statement  to  the  Nicaraguan  govern- 
ment that  they  should  have  taken  steps  to  prevent 
the  invasion,  and  to  the  Costa  Rican  government 
that  they  should  in  the  future  block  activities  of 
revolutionary  groups  against  neighboring  govern- 
ments; and,  in  general,  a  request  to  both  countries 
to  obey  the  principles  of  non-intervention  that  they 
had  formally  accepted.  — MIGUKL  JOKRIN 

COTTON.  The  1948  output  of  cotton  lint  in  the 
United  States  (based  on  information  received  by 
the  United  States  Crop  Reporting  Board,  as  of  Dec. 
1,  1948)  was  estimated  to  total  14,937,000  bales 
(of  500  lb.),  compared  with  11,857,000  bales  in 
1947  and  the  10-year  average  of  12,014,000  bales. 
The  record  crop  was  18,946,000  bales  produced  in 
1937.  Yields  (in  500-lb.  bales)  for  1948  of  the 
chief  producing  States  were:  Texas  3,200,000, 
Mississippi  2,350,000,  Arkansas  2,000,000,  Ala- 
bama 1,200,000,  California  960,000,  South  Caro- 
lina 890,000,  Louisiana  760,000,  Georgia  760,000, 
North  Carolina  680,000,  Tennessee  650,000,  Mis- 
souri 505,000,  Oklahoma  370,000,  Arizona  320,000, 
and  New  Mexico  240,000. 

Cottonseed  production  for  1948,  if  the  ratio  of 


lint  to  cottonseed  is  the  same  as  the  average  for  the 
past  5  years,  would  amount  to  6,036,000  tons,  com- 
pared with  4,681,000  tons  in  1947  and  the  10-year 
average  of  4,947,000  tons.  The  chief  producing 
States,  with  production  in  tons,  follow:  Texas 
1,417,000,  Mississippi  603,000,  Arkansas  490,000, 
Alabama  347,000,  California  295,000,  Georgia 
253,000,  South  Carolina  253,000,  Louisiana  201,- 
000,  Tennessee  197,000,  North  Carolina  177,000, 
Oklahoma  137,000,  Missouri  132,000. 

World  Cotton  Output.  The  Office  of  Foreign 
Agricultural  Relations  of  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  in  a  press  release  dated  Jan.  31,  1949, 
estimated  the  1948—49  world  output  of  cotton  at 
29,200,000  bales  (of  500  lb.  gross),  compared  with 
the  1947-48  output  of  25,300,000  bales  and  the 
10-year  average  (1935-39)  of  31,676,000  bales. 

Yields  (in  500-lb.  bales)  of  the  principal  pro- 
ducing countries,  in  1948-49,  were:  United  States 
14,937,000,  U.S.S.R.  (Europe  and  Asia)  2,500,000, 
China  (including  Manchuria)  2,300,000,  India 
2,050,000,  Egypt  1,772,000,  Brazil  1,400,000,  Pak- 
istan 1,055,000,  Mexico  560,000,  Argentina  369,- 
000,  Peru  325,000,  Uganda  292,000,  Turkey  235,~ 
000,  and  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  225,000.  The 
world  area  planted  to  cotton  in  the  year  beginning 
Aug.  1,  1948,  was  estimated  (preliminary)  at  64,- 
875,000  acres. 

World  Cottonseed  Output.  According  to  a  press 
release  of  the  Office  of  Foreign  Agricultural  Re- 
lations, Nov.  8,  1948,  the  world  1948-49  cotton- 
seed production  was  forecast  at  13,740,000  short 
tons,  compared  with  11,755,000  short  tons  in  1947- 
49  and  the  10-year  average  (1935-39)  of  15,285,- 
000  short  tons.  The  chief  producing  countries  (with 
yields  in  short  tons)  were:  United  States  6,091,000, 
India  1,400,000  tons,  China  (including  Manchuria) 
1,232,000,  U.S.S.R.  (Europe  and  Asia)  1,250,000, 
Egypt  920,000,  Brazil  672,000,  Pakistan  536,000, 
Mexico  269,000,  Argentina  234,000,  Uganda  128,- 
000,  Turkey  120,000. 

COUNCIL  OF  STATE  GOVERNMENTS.  A  joint  govern- 
mental agency  established  (1925)  by  the  States, 
for  service  to  the  States,  supported  by  the  States. 
The  Council  serves  as:  A  clearing  house  for  infor- 
mation and  research,  serving  the  48  States;  A 
medium  for  improving  legislative  and  administra- 
tive practices  of  State  governments;  An  instrument 
for  encouraging  full  cooperation  among  the  States 
in  the  solution  of  interstate  problems,  both  regional 
and  national;  and  A  means  of  facilitating  and  im- 
proving Federal-State  relations. 

The  Council  is  composed  of  commissions  or  com- 
mittees on  interstate  cooperation  established  in 
each  of  die  48  States.  The  Council  also  serves  as 
the  secretariat  for  the  Governors'  Conference,  die 
American  Legislators*  Association,  the  National 
Association  of  Attorneys  General,  the  National  As- 
sociation of  Secretaries  of  State,  etc. 

Besides  the  central  office  located  in  Chicago  (at 
1313  East  Sixtieth  Street,  Chicago  37,  III),  the 
Council  maintains  regional  offices  in  New  York, 
San  Francisco,  and  Washington,  D.C.  Major  pub- 
lications of  the  Council  include  The  Book  of  the 
States  (biennial),  State  Government  (monthly), 
and  the  Washington  Legislative  Bulletin  (monthly). 

Officers:  President,  Governor  William  Preston 
Lane,  Jr.,  Maryland;  First  Vice  President,  Chair- 
man of  the  Board,  Senator  Burton  M.  Gross,  Maine; 
Executive  Director,  Frank  Bane. 

COURT  GAMES.  Robert  Grant,  3d,  and  J.  Richards 
Leonard,  New  York  stars,  stood  out  in  racquets 
competition,  Grant  capturing  the  national  singles 


CRETE 


143 


CRIMINOLOGY 


championship  and  the  Pell  Cup  for  his  biggest 
achievements  of  the  campaign,  while  Leonard's 
many  conquests  included  triumphs  in  the  U.S.  dou- 
bles with  Malcolm  Kirkbride  of  Boston,  Mass.;  the 
Tuxedo  Gold  Racquet;  the  Canadian  singles;  and 
the  Canadian  doubles,  in  which  he  paired  with 
Fred  de  Rham,  another  New  Yorker. 

In  squash  racquets,  the  United  States  won  the 
Lapham  International  Trophy  again.  Stanley  Pear- 
son, Jr.,  of  Philadelphia  emerged  triumphant  in  the 
national  championships,  taking  the  singles  and 
combining  with  Charles  Brinton  of  Philadelphia  for 
the  doubles.  Other  major  national  title  winners  in- 
cluded Al  Ramsay  of  Cleveland,  professional; 
George  Waring  of  Boston,  veterans;  Diehl  Mateer, 
Jr.,  of  Haverford  College,  intercollegiate;  Cecile 
Bowes  of  Philadelphia,  women's  singles,  and  Peggy 
Scott  of  the  Germantown  (Pa.)  Cricket  Club  and 
Mrs.  Dudley  Vail,  Jr.,  of  New  York,  women's 
doubles. 

H.  Robert  Reeve  of  the  Bayside  Tennis  Club  of 
Long  Island  was  among  the  year's  outstanding 
squash  players  and  carried  off  the  national  singles 
squash  tennis  crown.  Joseph  Lordi  of  the  New 
York  A.C.  won  the  national  veterans*  title. 

Top  event  of  the  court  tennis  season  was  the 
meeting  between  Pierre  Etchebaster,  formerly  of 
France,  and  James  Dear  of  England  in  their  chal- 
lenge match  at  the  Racquet  and  Tennis  Club  in 
New  York  City.  Etchebaster,  truly  an  iron  man  in 
this  sport,  extended  his  reign  as  world  champion 
to  20  years  by  turning  back  Dear,  English  title- 
holder,  by  7  sets  to  4. 

United  States  singles  honors  were  won  by  Ogden 
Phipps  of  Roslyn,  L.I.,  who  also  teamed  with  Ala- 
stair  B.  Martin  of  Glen  Head,  L.I.,  for  the  national 
doubles  title.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

CRETE.  A  mountainous  island  in  the  eastern  Medi- 
terranean, forming  the  most  southerly  part  of 
Greece.  Crete  is  160  miles  long  and  from  6  to  35 
miles  wide.  Area,  3,235  square  miles.  Population, 
441,687  on  Jan.  1,  1939.  Chief  towns:  Canea  (capi- 
tal), 26,604  inhabitants;  Candia,  33,404. 

CRIMINOLOGY.  In  1930,  at  the  request  of  the  Inter- 
national Association  of  Chiefs  of  Police  and  pur- 
suant to  an  act  of  Congress,  the  Federal  Bureau 
of  Investigation  began  the  Uniform  Crime  Report- 
ing program,  collecting  statistics  on  crime  from  law 
enforcement  agencies  throughout  the  land  and 
publishing  them  at  regular  intervals  in  booklets 
which  were  given  nationwide  distribution.  Prior 
to  this  time,  unfortunately,  there  was  no  way  to 
tell  whether  the  problem  of  crime  was  worse  in 
our  day  ihan  it  was  centuries  ago.  To  limit  the  dis- 
cussion to  the  American  scene — it  is  not  even  pos- 
sible to  make  a  comparison  of  the  present-day 
problem  with  'that  of  two  decades  ago, 

In  1947,  there  were  a  total  of  1,665,110  esti- 
mated serious  crimes  in  the  United  States.  The 
total  for  1937,  for  example,  was  1,415,816.  This 
number  increased  steadily  during  the  prewar  years, 
reaching  a  peak  of  1,531,272  in  1941.  When  the 
nation  went  to  war,  crime  rates  began  a  slow  de- 
cline. The  total  number  of  major  offenses  com- 
mitted dropped  to  a  low  of  1,381,681  for  1943. 
Then  the  backwash  of  war  set  in.  The  figures 
mounted  steadily  from  1943  until  they  reached  an 
all-time  high  in  1946. 

An  average  day  during  1947  saw  21  persons 
slain  and  47  -women  raped.  Each  day  in  1947  left 
205  persons  feloniously  assaulted,  159  robbed. 
Each  day,  1,023  burglaries  were  committed,  506 
automobiles  stolen  and  2,585  larcenies  reported. 


The  first  nine  months  of  1948,  compared  with 
the  first  nine  months  of  1941,  the  last  peacetime 
year,  show  the  continued  seriousness  of  the  crime 
problem.  Aggravated  assault  is  up  44  percent  in 
1948;  rape  rose  34  percent;  burglary  is  21  percent 
higher;  robbery,  17  percent  higher;  negligent  man- 
slaughter, 6.5  percent  higher;  and  murder  in- 
creased 6.9  percent.  Larceny  showed  only  a  1.8 
percent  rise  and  auto  thefts  declined  10  percent. 

Based  on  the  wilful  homicide  figures  for  1947, 
it  is  estimated  that  if  the  crime  rate  continues,  ap- 
proximately 154,000  Americans  will  commit  mur- 
der before  they  die,  and  they  will  murder  ap- 
proximately 231,000  persons.  It  is  estimated  that 
during  the  next  thirty  years,  515,400  rapes  will 
be  committed  and  over  59  percent  of  these  will 
be  forcible  in  nature.  It  is  further  estimated  that 
in  the  next  thirty  years  there  will  be  1,743,000 
robberies,  2,240,700  aggravated  assaults,  11,203,- 
500  burglaries,  28,302,900  larcenies  and  5,541,900 
auto  thefts. 

The  crime  trends  reflected  by  fingerprint  arrest 
records  received  by  the  FBI  reveal  that  America 
is  still  faced  with  a  serious  crime  problem  among 
youth.  Figures  for  1947  compared  with  1946  re- 
flect a  21.4  percent  increase  in  arrests  of  boys  18  to 
20  years  of  age  and  a  10.5  percent  increase  in  ar- 
rests of  boys  under  21.  This  comparison  reflects  that 
there  was  a  6.6  percent  decrease  in  arrests  of  girls 
under  21.  In  comparing  the  1947  arrest  records  of 
young^  people  with  1941,  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
there  is  a  4.1  percent  increase  in  arrests  of  males 
under  21  and  a  30.8  percent  increase  in  arrests  of 
females  under  21. 

The  causes  of  juvenile  delinquency  and  adult 
lawlessness  do  not  stem  from  any  one  source. 
Crime  is  as  old  as  mankind  and  its  roots  are  im- 
bedded in  our  whole  culture.  Progressive  research, 
which  considers  the  criminal  or  delinquent  not 
only  as  an  individual  but  also  as  a  member  of  many 
groups — the  community,  the  family,  the  work 
group,  the  play  group  and  others — discovers  that 
the  individual  has  been  provided  with  values  and 
attitudes  from  these  sections  of  social  life  and  that 
his  conduct  among  his  fellow  men  is  guided  by 
such  values  and  attitudes. 

The  Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation  and  other 
law  enforcement  agencies  possess  convincing  evi- 
dence of  factors  which  pave  the  way  for  antiso- 
cial behavior.  Many  criminal  careers  have  their 
beginnings  in  childhood  and  early  youth.  It  is  to  be 
recalled  that  gangsterism  was  the  scourge  of  the 
land  in  the  period  following  the  first  World  War. 
Many  members  of  these  gangs  started  on  the  road 
to  crime  by  engaging  in  delinquent  acts  during 
their  childhood.  They  graduated  into  the  ranks  of 
hoodlumism  which  reached  into  every  walk  of  life 
through  the  medium  of  powerful  criminal  syn- 
dicates. These  gangs  brutally  victimized  those  who 
stood  for  law,  order  and  decency. 

This  situation  led  to  a  wholesome,  aroused  pub- 
lic wrath.  Law  enforcement  at  the  time  was  not 
adequately  equipped  to  meet  the  crisis.  Local 
agencies  were  handicapped  by  limitations  of  juris- 
diction. The  availability  of  high-powered  auto- 
mobiles, fast  trains,  a  network  of  national  highways 
and  other  modes  of  travel,  gave  criminals  a  mobil- 
ity they  had  never  before  enjoyed.  In  many  in- 
stances the  equipment  available  to  gang  leaders 
was  far  superior  to  that  at  the  command  of  law 
enforcement  agencies.  Federal  agencies  were 
powerless  to  render  assistance  because  they  had  no 
jurisdiction  to  investigate  such  crimes. 

In  the  1930"s  Congress  passed  a  series  of  laws 
known  as  the  Federal  Crime  Bills,  giving  the  FBI 


CROSS-COUNTRY  RUNNING 


144 


CUBA 


concurrent  jurisdiction  with  local  agencies  in  types 
of  crimes  most  frequently  committed  by  organized 
gangs  or  individuals  operating  on  an  interstate  ba- 
sis. American  law  enforcement  on  all  levels  devel- 
oped a  unity  of  purpose  and  action  which  resulted 
in  an  overwhelming  victory  against  the  underworld 
before  the  advent  of  World  War  II  brought  us  face 
to  face  with  another  acute  problem. 

During  the  recent  war  years,  America  was  faced 
with  an  unhealthy  juvenile  delinquency  problem. 
In  1941,  for  example,  age  19  predominated  in  the 
frequency  of  arrests.  In  1942  and  1943,  age  18  pre- 
dominated. In  1944  and  1945,  age  17  led  all  other 
age  groups.  In  1946  and  1947,  age  21  was  the 
leading  age  group. 

The  pattern  of  delinquency  found  fertile  ground 
in  the  wholesale  shifting  of  rural  and  village  pop- 
ulations to  crowded  industrial  areas.  The  emotional 
stresses  incident  to  broken  homes,  the  uprooting 
of  established  family  practices,  the  housing  short- 
age, and  the  lack  of  recreational  facilities  produced 
unique  and  complicated  problems  among  our 
youth.  The  spirit  of  wartime  abandon,  the  lack  of 
family  responsibility  and  the  indifference  of  par- 
ents generally  forced  legions  of  youngsters  to  the 
streets,  for  whatever  guidance  they  could  obtain, 
as  their  parents  spent  leisure  hours  seeking  enjoy- 
ment outside  the  family  hearth. 

Behind  the  confines  of  the  home  the  road  to 
delinquency  becomes  easy  for  children  who  are 
welcomed  in  disreputable  dance  halls,  gambling 
dens,  and  other  media  of  moral  degradation.  The 
prevention  of  crime  becomes  a  mockery  under  our 
democratic  system  when  corruption  in  some  com- 
munities is  allowed  to  seep  into  the  machinery  of 
daily  life  and  shackle  justice.  The  power  of  .the 
venal  politician  to  influence  the  processes  of  law 
enforcement  accounts  to  some  degree  for  the  grav- 
ity of  the  criminal  situation.  Corrupt  political  au- 
thority and  manipulating  schemers  have  abused, 
in  many  instances,  the  worthwhile  systems  of  pa- 
role and  probation.  This  has  resulted  in  forcing 
back  upon  society  scores  of  ravaging  desperadoes 
who  recognize  no  law  but  their  own. 

The  real  solution  to  the  problem  of  crime  is  the 
responsibility  of  the  American  public.  Citizens 
must  decide  what  action  shall  be  taken  against  the 
dives  where  crime  is  bred,  against  the  subtle  forms 
of  dishonesty  and  obscenity  which  choke  com- 
munities, and  against  the  corruption  and  venality 
in  high  places.  It  is  the  responsibility  of  each 
American  to  see  to  it  that  youth  is  provided  with 
sufficient  training  in  the  homes,  in  the  schools,  and 
in  the  churches  in  order  that  honesty  and  decency 
will  take  the  place  of  lawlessness. 

Prompt  detection,  vigorous  and  quick  prosecu- 
tion, adequate  and  certain  punishment  fitted  to 
the  crime,  the  criminal,  and  the  needs  of  the  com- 
munity, should  be  recognized  as  a  program  which 
constitutes  a  definite  deterrent  to  the  commission 
of  crimes  and  contributes  to  the  reduction  of  crime 
among  all  age  groups.  — JOHN  EDGAR  HOOVER 

CROSS-COUNTRY  RUNNING.  Bob  Black,  Rhode  Island 
State  star,  captured  three  of  the  major  prizes  in  the 
hill-and-dale  sport,  his  greatest  victory  coming  on 
November  27  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  when  he  annexed 
the  national  Amateur  Athletic  Union  senior  cham- 
pionship by  the  unbelievable  margin  of  two  inches. 
Matching  stride  for  stride  with  Curtis  Stone,  de- 
fending champion  from  Philadelphia,  Black  won 
by  one  one-hundredth  of  a  second  with  a  desperate 
lunge  at  the  tape.  The  slender  war  veteran  from 
North  Attleboro,  Mass.,  was  timed  in  30  minutes, 
two  seconds  for  the  grind  of  approximately  six  and 


one-quarter  miles.  Team  honors  were  captured  by 
Michigan  State. 

Black's  other  titles  came  in  the  National  Colle- 
giate Athletic  Association  and  Intercollegiate 
A.A.A.A.  runs,  his  time  of  19  minutes  52  and  three- 
tenths  seconds  for  the  four-mile  N.C.A.A.  test  shat- 
tering the  mark  of  20:12.9  set  by  Greg  Rice  in 
1939.  Black  won  the  I.C.4-A  run  after  defeating 
Horace  Ashenfelter  of  Penn  State  for  the  second 
year  in  a  row.  Team  championships  in  both  college 
events  were  won  by  Michigan  State,  giving  the 
Spartans  a  sweep  of  major  team  honors  for  1948. 

The  metropolitan  A.A.U.  senior  title  was  won  by 
Victor  Dyrgall  of  the  Millrose  A. A.,  with  the  New 
York  A.C.  team  victor.  Dyrgall  had  captured  the 
national  A.A.U.  20-kilometer  run  earlier,  the  Boston 
A.A.  finishing  first  for  the  team  prize. 

Manhattan  College  retained  its  metropolitan  in- 
tercollegiate crown  although  Bob  Berger  of  Colum- 
bia led  home  the  pack,  and  Army's  harriers  repeated 
in  the  Heptagonal  grind  as  Stanley  Waterman  of 
Dartmouth  placed  first.  In  the  initial  competition 
for  the  Malcolm  Main  Trophy,  Yale  defeated 
Princeton  and  Harvard  although  Stanley  Johnson 
and  Don  Wittreich  of  Princeton  finished  one-two. 

Bob  Palmer  of  the  University  of  Maryland  set  a 
record  of  19  minutes,  40  seconds  for  the  College 
Park,  Md.,  course  as  he  p^ced  his  team  to  the 
Southern  Conference  title.  Wisconsin  took  Western 
Conference  laurels  as  its  ace  harrier,  Don  Gehr- 
mann,  placed  first. 

Sydney  Wooderson,  former  world  mile  king, 
starred  abroad,  winning  the  English  crown  after 
having  defeated  449  rivals  in  the  Southern  Counties 
(English)  race.  The  Coolcross  Harriers  from 
County  Tipperary,  running  in  bare  feet,  retained 
the  championship  of  Ireland,  Pat  Fitzgerald  of  the 
titleholders  finishing  first. 

The  classic  Boston  Marathon  on  April  19  served 
as  the  final  American  Olympic  Marathon  tryout  and 
Gerard  Cote  of  St.  Hyacinthe,  Quebec,  won  by  250 
yards.  Johnny  Kelley  of  West  Acton,  Mass.,  ran 
fourth,  but  reversed  the  tables  on  September  12  in 
New  York  when  he  carried  off  the  national  A.A.U. 
marathon  crown,  Cote  being  fourth  on  that  occa- 
sion. The  team  title  was  won  by  the  Millrose  A.A. 
See  OLYMPIC  GAMES.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

CUBA.  An  island  republic  of  the  West  Indies.  About 
one-fourth  of  the  surface  is  mountainous,  the  re- 
mainder being  composed  of  lowland  terraces  and 
gentle  slopes.  The  climate  is  subtropical,  with  a 
rainy  season  from  May  to  November. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  44,217  square  miles. 
Population,  5,130,000  (1947  est).  About  65  per- 
cent of  European  descent,  the  rest  mulattoes  or 
Negroes,  and  a  small  percentage  of  Asiatics.  There 
are  no  Indians  in  Cuba.  Principal  cities:  Havana 
(capital),  Santiago,  Cienfuegos,  Matanzas, 

Education  and  Religion.  The  Constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship  and  separation  of  Church 
and  State.  Roman  Catholicism  is  predominant. 
Spanish  is  the  official  language.  About  70  per- 
cent of  the  population  is  literate.  Recent  statistics 
estimated  a  total  school-age  population  (7  to  14 
years)  of  1,100,000,  of  whom  over  65  percent  were 
enrolled  in  about  6,000  primary  schools  of  all  kinds. 
There  are  more  than  200  secondary  schools  of  var- 
ious types,  with  an  enrollment  of  nearly  35,000 
students.  The  University  of  Havana  is  the  only 
complete  institution  of  higher  learning,  with  about 
15,000  students. 

Production.  Cuban  economy  rests  mainly  on  sugar, 
tobacco,  and  minerals.  Coffee,  cocoa,  cereals,  and 
fruits  are  also  grown,  With  some  2.8  million  acres 


CUBA 


145 


CUBA 


devoted  to  sugar  cane,  Cuba's  record  1947  crop 
of  52,500,000  short  tons  of  cane  yielded  6,450,000 
short  tons  of  sugar  and  299,400,000  gallons  of 
blackstrap  molasses.  Total  value  of  the  crop  was 
about  $700,000,000.  The  United  States  bought  76 
percent  of  the  1947  crop  at  a  fixed  price.  Antici- 
pated crop  in  1948  was  about  5,900,000  short  tons 
of  sugar. 

Some  155,624  acres  are  devoted  to  tobacco; 
these  yielded  84,700,000  Ib.  in  1946;  78,200,000 
Ib.  in  1947.  The  1947-48  crop  has  been  limited  to 
53,800,000  Ib.  Coffee  production  totaled  556,000 
bags  (of  60  kilos)  in  1947-^48.  Since  1946  its  ex- 
port has  been  forbidden  by  decree.  Fruit  and  vege- 
tables rank  third  in  commercial  importance;  210,- 
000  short  tons  of  pineapples  was  produced  In 
1947-48,  of  which  some  87  percent  were  export- 
ed. Vegetable  production  includes  tomatoes,  lima 
beans,  okra,  and  avacados;  exports  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  Oct.  31,  1948,  totaled  47,750,000  Ib. 

The  country  has  a  well  developed  cattle  indus- 
try (3,844,158  head  of  cattle  in  1945),  sufficient 
for  domestic  consumption  and  a  small  amount  of 
export.  Mineral  production  includes  manganese, 
copper,  iron,  chromium,  nickel,  and  asphalt.  Cuba 
has  a  wide  range  of  consumer  goods  industries, 
such  as  textiles,  cotton  and  rayon  piece  goods, 
ropes,  paint,  shoes,  cement,  beer,  rum,  cigars,  cig- 
arettes, and  agricultural  tools.  In  general,  1948 
was  a  year  of  great  economic  prosperity. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  1947  exports  were  valued  at 
$746,592,325;  imports  at  $519,890,402;  a  substan- 
tial increase  in  the  favorable  trade  balance  over 
1946%  The  United  States  furnished  74  percent  of 
Cuba's  imports  and  took  67  percent  of  her  exports. 
Cuba's  favorable  trade  balance  continued  until 
September,  1948,  when  imports  exceeded  exports 
by  some  $4  million. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  1947  placed  reve- 
nue at  349  million  pesos;  expenditure  at  200  mil- 
lion pesos.  (U.S.  dollar  equals  1.00  peso).  Failure 
of  Congress  to  enact  the  1948  budget,  calling  for 
an  expenditure  of  234.5  million  pesos,  resulted  in 
the  de  facto  adoption  of  the  1947  budget.  Currency 
in  circulation  on  Dec.  31,  1947  totaled  467  million 
pesos;  bank  deposits,  474  million  pesos;  gold  re- 
serves, 290  million  pesos.  There  is  no  exchange 
or  import  control  in  Cuba,  but  the  Government  in- 
stituted some  measures  to  regulate  the  export  of 
currency. 

Transportation.  The  country  has  3,653  miles  of 
railroad  and  2,324  miles  of  highways  and  roads. 
Motor  vehicle  registration  indicated  nearly  50,000 
cars,  or  approximately  one  vehicle  for  every  100 
persons.  Cuba  has  1,000,000  radio  receivers,  84 
radio  stations  and  70,000  telephones.  Air  trans- 
portation is  provided  by  international  companies, 
while  domestic  firms  fly  the  lines  within  the  re- 
public. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  1940, 
Cuba  is  a  centralized  republic  of  6  provinces,  with 
a  semi-parliamentary  form  of  government.  Legisla- 
tive power  rests  in  a  bicameral  Congress,  a  Senate 
composed  of  54  members  (elected  for  a  4-year 
term ) ,  and  a  House  of  Representatives  ( elected  for 
four  years,  one  for  each  35,000  inhabitants).  The 
President,  elected  for  four  years,  is  assisted  by  a 
Council  of  Ministers  who  are  politically  responsible 
to  Congress.  Dr.  Carlos  Prio  Socarras  was  elected 
President  on  June  1,  1948  and  took  office  on  Oc- 
tober 10. 

Events,  1948.  Early  in  January,  political  attention 
was  focused  on  the  Orthodox  Autenticos  headed  by 
Senator  Chibas,  who  had  withdrawn  from  Presi- 
dent Grau  San  Martin's  party.  The  opposition  was 


trying  to  form  a  united  front  and  names  were  men- 
tioned for  their  presidential  candidate.  Some  were 
looking  toward  Florida,  where  ex-President  Ful- 
gencio  Batista  was  residing,  and  there  were  rumors 
that  he  would  actively  participate  in  the  campaign. 
Batista  finally  agreed  to  run  for  Senator  for  the 
Liberal  Party,  and  gave  this  group  his  support. 

Among  the  Autenticos  were  three  or  four  can- 
didates for  the  nomination,  but  the  great  question 
was  what  action  President  Grau  would  take.  The 
Cuban  Constitution  prohibits  reelection,  but  there 
was  talk  of  a  constitutional  amendment  to  allow 
him  to  succeed  himself.  An  agreement  was  later 
reached  and  Dr.  Carlos  Prio  Socarras  was  nomi- 
nated presidential  candidate  for  the  Autentico 
Party,  with  President  Grau's  endorsement.  During 
the  election  campaign  no  serious  incidents  were 
registered,  although  it  was  marked  by  violent  lan- 
guage and  mutual  accusations. 

Before  elections,  the  political  forces  were  divided 
into  four  main  coalitions:  the  Autentico  Party,  in 
an  alliance  with  the  Republicans,  supported  Prio 
Socarras;  the  Liberals  and  Democrats,  backed  Dr. 
Ricardo  Nunez  Portuondo;  the  so-called  Orthodox 
Autenticos  ( Partido  del  Pueblo  Cubano )  with  Sen- 
ator Eduardo  Chibas;  and  the  Communists  (So- 
cialist Popular  Party)  who  had  nominated  Senator 
Juan  Marinello. 

Victory  of  Prio  Socarras.  Elections  were  held  in 
an  orderly  way  on  June  1,  with  an  unusually  high 
number  of  ballots  cast.  The  Autenticos  received  an 
overwhelming  majority  and  Dr.  Prio  Socarras  was 
elected.  Noteworthy  was  the  large  number  of  votes 
(320,000)  received  by  Senator  Chibas.  The  Com- 
munists lagged  behind  with  only  140,203  votes. 
Prio  Socarras,  a  lawyer,  served  as  Prime  Minister 
and  Minister  of  Labor  during  the  Grau  administra- 
tion. 

Shortly  before  liis  inauguration  on  October  10, 
he  announced  his  first  Cabinet,  among  whom  it  is 
important  to  mention  Carlos  Hevia,  as  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs.  Hevia,  one  of  the  few  Latin  Ameri- 
can graduates  of  the  U.S.  Naval  Academy  at  An- 
napolis, has  been  active  in  politics  for  a  number  of 
years.  The  appointments  of  Dr.  Alberto  Oteiza  as 
Minister  of  Public  Health  and  Dr.  Aureliano  San- 
chez Arango  as  Minister  of  Education  were  well 
received;  the  former  is  President  of  the  Cuban 
Medical  Association,  the  latter  a  well-known  pro- 
fessor at  Havana  University. 

labor  Crisis.  A  serious  split  continued  to  exist 
within  the  C.T.C.  ( Cuban  Confederation  of  Work- 
ers). It  was  caused  by  groups  who  either  preferred 
to  follow  the  Communist  political  line,  or  were 
adherents  of  the  government  party.  This  situation 
was  aggravated  by  labor  protests  and  strikes  moti- 
vated by  conflicts  with  employers.  There  was  un- 
rest among  die  sugar  and  railroad  workers,  an  espe- 
cially serious  strike  of  textile  operatives,  and  a 
strike  of  streetcar  conductors  of  Havana.  The  most 
important  strike  was  the  one  caused  by  the  in- 
crease, in  September,  of  the  bus  fare  in  Havana; 
from  5  to  10  cents.  There  were  public  protests  en- 
livened by  the  intervention  of  University  students 
who  overturned  some  of  the  buses,  after  having 
requested  the  passengers  to  alight. 

New  Government  Platform.  On  October  10,  Presi- 
dent Prio  Socarras  was  formally  inaugurated  and 
his  political  platform  summarized  as  follows:  re- 
spect for  the  democratic  principle  of  separation  of 
power;  creation  of  a  National  Bank;  creation  of 
a  Labor  Code,  civil  liberty  program,  and  measures 
against  inflation  and  black  market;  intensification 
of  agricultural  production  and  the  creation  of 
agrarian  cooperatives. 


CURACAO 


146 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


International  Front.  President  Prfo  Socarras  stated 
he  would  continue  President  Grau's  foreign  policy 
and  would  pledge  his  country  to  the  defense  of 
democracy.  Cuba  took  an  active  part  in  the  Ninth 
Inter-American  Conference  of  American  States 
held  at  Bogota,  Colombia,  in  April  (see  PAN  AMER- 
ICAN AcxrvrrrjEs).  — MIGUEL  JORRIN 

CURACAO.  A  territory  in  the  Netherlands  West  In- 
dies comprising  two  groups  of  islands  500  miles 
apart.  One  group,  just  north  of  Venezuela,  includes 
Aruba  (69  sq.  mi.,  pop.  39,138);  Bonaire  (95  sq. 
mi.,  pop.  5,500);  and  Curacao  (210  sq,  ml,  pop. 
88,323).  The  other  group,  Just  east  of  the  Virgin 
Islands,  includes  Saba  (5  sq.  mi,  pop.  1,143);  St. 
Eustatius  (7  sq.  mi.,  pop.  970);  and  the  southern 
part  of  St.  Martin  (17  sq.  ml,  pop.  1,609).  Total 
area:  403  square  miles.  Population  (Jan.  1,  1947): 
136,733  (1948  est.,  180,000).  Capital:  Willemstad 
(pop.  39,678  in  1947)  on  the  island  of  Curacao. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  refining  of  imported 
crude  oil  is  the  chief  industry,  and  114,732,942 
barrels  of  refined"  oil  were  exported  in  1946.  Ap- 
proximately 100,000  tons  of  calcium  phosphate  are 
produced  yearly.  Other  products  are  straw  hats 
and  salt.  Foreign  trade  ( 1945 ) :  472,391,122  guild- 
ers; exports  442,615,122  guilders. 

Government.  Budget  estimates  (1948):  revenue 
38,834,758  guilders  (1947;  31,380,023  guilders); 
expenditure  37,714,386  guilders  (1947;  29,738,198 
guilders).  Curacao  is  administered  by  a  governor 
assisted  by  a  council  of  5  members  and  a  States 
Council  of  15  members  (10  elected  and  5  nomi- 
nated). Governor:  P.  A.  Kasteel. 

CUSTOMS,  Bureau  of,  A  somewhat  smaller  volume  of 
imports  accompanied  by  a  reduction  in  rates  of 
duty  resulted  in  smaller  customs  collections  during 
1948  than  for  either  of  the  two  preceding  fiscal 
years.  Of  the  $542,078,499  total  collected  in  1948, 
$425,825,964  consisted  of  duties  and  other  customs 
collections,  $112,880,326  of  internal  revenue  taxes 
on  imported  distilled  liquors  and  wines,  and  the 
balance  of  head  taxes  on  incoming  immigrants  and 
various  other  collections  for  other  governmental 
agencies. 

The  lower  volume  of  imports  was  in  part  due  to 
the  high  level  of  prices,  so  that  the  total  value  of 
imported  materials,  $6,271,580,000,  was  the  great- 
est in  the  history  of  the  Customs  Service.  The  re- 
duction in  the  rates  of  duty  was  the  result  of 
General  Agreement  on  Tariffs  and  Trade  negotiated 
at  Geneva  in  1947,  a  considerable  portion  of  which 
became  effective  Jan.  1,  1948,  with  subsequent 
reductions  in  rates  of  duty  on  other  articles  as  other 
signatory  nations  agreed  to  the  pact.  In  some  in- 
stances rates  of  duty  were  cut  the  full  50  percent 
of  the  existing  rate  which  had  already  been  reduced 
50  percent  from  the  original  rate  under  the  Tariff 
Act  of  1930.  This  made  the  new  rates  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  rates  specified  by  the  tariff  act.  That 
this  reduction  in  rates  produced  no  greater  volume 
of  importations  than  it  did  was  due  in  part  to  the 
high  unit  prices  and  in  part  to  the  continued  scar- 
city abroad  of  goods  for  which  the  demand  in  the 
American  market  was  greatest.  In  addition,  some 
of  the  most  important  types  of  goods  from  the 
revenue  viewpoint,  such  as  raw  wool,  encountered 
a  slower  American  market  than  during  either  of 
the  two  preceding  years,  and  on  other  commodities, 
such  as  distilled  liquors,  the  reduced  demand  was 
accompanied  by  sharp  reductions  in  rates  of  duty. 

Customs  activities  as  a  whole  were  at  a  some- 
what higher  level  than  in  1947.  More  automobiles 
and  buses  crossed  the  border  than  ever  before  in 


Customs  history,  and  more  people  entered  the 
United  States  by  various  means  than  ever  before. 
There  were  more  entries  of  merchandise  made  in 
1948  than  at  any  time  in  the  history  of  the  country. 
Seizures  of  merchandise  as  a  result  of  attempts  to 
smuggle  in  goods  by  returning  tourists  and  for 
other  customs  violations  remained  at  a  high  level, 
considerably  exceeding  the  number  of  seizures 
made  during  the  previous  year.  The  seizures  in 
1948  were  effected  largely  by  regular  customs  offi- 
cers since  the  force  of  mobile  patrolmen  along  the 
Canadian  border  was  disbanded  when  the  year  be- 
gan and  a  similar  force  of  patrolmen  along  the 
Mexican  border  was  demobilized  as  the  year  ended. 
Due  to  the  establishment  of  new  roads  or  new 
businesses,  customs  stations  were  established  dur- 
ing the  year  at  Morgan  City,  Louisiana;  Bremerton 
and  Port  Orchard,  Washington;  Taku  Inlet,  Alaska; 
Estcourt,  Quebec;  and  Boquillas,  Texas,  while  the 
stations  at  Quebec,  Canada,  and  Perry's  Mill,  New 
York,  were  discontinued.  — C.  A.  FREEMAN 

CYPRUS.  A  British  island  colony  in  the  eastern  Med- 
iterranean, 40  miles  from  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
and  60  miles  from  Syria.  Area:  3,572  square  miles. 
Population  (1946  census):  450,114  (excluding 
military  forces),  of  whom  361,199  were  Greek 
Orthodox  and  80,548  Moslems.  Chief  cities:  Ni- 
cosia (capital),  34,485  inhabitants;  Limassol,  22,- 
799;  Famagusta,  16,194.  Education  (1946-47): 
478  Greek  elementary  schools  with  48,327  pupils; 
208  Moslem  schools  with  11,413  pupils.  Secondary 
schools  include  28  Greek,  2  Turkish,  and  4  Catho- 
lic. There  is  a  separate  educational  system  for  each 
religion.  Greek,  Turkish,  and  English  are  the  offi- 
cial languages. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  country's  economy  is 
based  on  agriculture.  Chief  products  (1946)  were: 
wheat  (2,206,492  bushels),  barley  (2,283,975 
bushels),  vetches,  olives,  carobs,  potatoes,  raisins, 
cotton,  cheese,  flax,  hemp,  citrus  fruits,  and  oil. 
Wine  production  (1946):  3,375,576  gallons.  Min- 
erals produced  include  iron  pyrites,  asbestos,  gyp- 
sum, umber,  and  chrome  concentrates.  Foreign 
trade  (1946):  imports  £8,131,831  (first  6  months 
of  1948,  £8,678,499);  exports  £4,202,300  (first 
6  months  of  1948,  £1,931,011). 

Government.  Budget  estimates  for  1948  placed 
revenue  at  £4,444,466  (1947;  £3,550,703);  ex- 
penditure at  £4,356,971  (1947;  £3,510,868). 
Public  debt  (Jan.  1,  1947),  £3,274,633.  Adminis- 
tration of  the  colony  rests  with  a  governor  assisted 
by  an  Executive  Council  and  a  newly  reestablished 
Legislature.  A  new  Constitution  for  Cyprus  was 
adopted  by  the  Consultative  Assembly  on  May  21, 
1948.  Governor:  Lord  Winster. 

CZECHOSLOVAKIA.  A  republic  in  central  Europe 
composed  of  two  related  Slav  nations:  (1)  the 
Czechs  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia  in  the 
west,  and  (2)  the  Slovaks  of  Slovakia  in  the  east. 
Total  area,  49,330  square  miles;  total  population 
(est.  July  1,  1948),  12,338,000.  The  decline  in 
population  of  about  two  million  since  the  end  of 
the  war,  in  spite  of  a  large  natural  increase,  is  ac- 
counted for  by  the  expulsion  of  the  Sudeten  Ger- 
mans. Capital,  Praha  (Prague),  921,800  (1947). 
Other  important  cities:  Brno  (Briinn),  266,000; 
Moravska  Ostrava,  172,000;  Bratislava,  166,000; 
Plzeii  (Pilsen),  126,000.  Vital  statistics  in  1947 
(rate  per  1,000):  births,  23.8;  deaths,  11.9. 

Education  'and  Religion.  The  population  is  predom- 
inantly Catholic,  an  estimated  9,300,000  of  whom 
are  Roman  Catholic,  and  900,000  members  of  the 
Czechoslovak  Church. 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


147 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


During  1948,  the  universities  had  a  total  en- 
rollment of  50,755  students.  A  total  of  1,056,874 
students  attended  11,482  elementary  schools,  and 
387,909  students  were  enrolled  in  1,955  high 
schools  in  1945. 

Production.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry,  with 
41  percent  of  the  total  land  area  under  cultivation. 
About  one  third  of  the  population  is  engaged  in 
farming  and  forestry.  Principal  crops  in  1947  were: 
wheat  and  rye,  2,716,400  tons;  other  grain  crops, 
2,141,180  tons.  Meat  production  averaged  36,000 
tons  and  butter  production  1,600  tons  monthly  in 
1947.  Livestock  (1947  estimate):  cattle,  3,941,000; 
swine,  2,940,000;  goats,  1,113,000;  and  horses, 
651,000. 

The  number  of  factories  in  1947  was  19,695. 
Of  these  2,286  were  textile  mills;  2,588  glass  works 
and  stone  factories;  1,789  food  production;  1,164 
furniture  and  wood  manufacture;  2,827  machinery 
and  metals.  Number  of  industrial  workers  (1947): 
textile,  189,100;  glass  and  stone,  109,900;  food, 
65,000;  wood,  44,500;  machinery  and  metals,  412,- 
000. 

Industrial  production,  in  metric  tons  (1947): 
coal  (bituminous),  16,216,000;  lignite,  22,362,000; 
iron  ore,  1,363,000;  pig  iron,  1,422,000;  steel, 
2,286,000;  copper  and  alloys,  6,000;  lead  and  al- 
loys, 8,000;  phosphate  fertilizers,  344,000;  nitrate 
fertilizers,  132,000;  soda,  89,000;  staple  fiber,  14,- 
000;  rayon,  4,000;  hollow  glass,  120,000;  plate 
glass,  126,000;  small  glassware,  8,000;  kaolin,  608,- 
000;  sanitary  ceramic  appliances,  5,000;  paper, 
227,000;  cotton  yarn,  59,000;  worsted  yam,  7,000; 
carded  yarn,  24,000;  flax  yarn,  9,000.  Timber  sawn, 
2,965,000  cubic  meters;  plywood,  51,000  cubic 
meters;  veneer,  6,485,000  square  meters.  Produc- 
tion of  footwear,  50  million  pairs.  Production  of 
electricity,  6,663  million  kwh  in  1947. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  (28,609  million  crowns) 
and  imports  (28,633  million  crowns)  balanced  al- 
most evenly  in  1947,  as  compared  with  10,308  mil- 
lion crowns  of  imports  and  14,280  million  crowns 
of  exports  in  1946. 

In  Prague  on  December  12  there  was  announced 
a  4,500  million  crown  textile  deal  with  the  Soviet 
Union,  under  which  the  U.S.S.R.  will  supply  45,- 
000  tons  of  raw  cotton  and  will  receive  8,000  to 
10,000  tons  of  finished  textile  products  from  Czech- 
oslovakia in  payment.  Other  agreements,  on  wool, 
camel  hair,  flax  fiber,  Jute,  animal  hair,  and  skins, 
contributed  to  making  this  the  largest  single  deal 
in  the  history  of  Czechoslovak  foreign  trade. 

Government.  A  new  Constitution,  replacing  that 
of  1920,  went  into  effect  on  June  10,  1948.  It  con- 
centrates all  power  in  the  300-man  National  As- 
sembly. Element  Gottwald,  a  Communist,  was 
elected  President  of  the  republic  on  June  14,  1948. 
Antonin  Zapotocky,  also  a  Communist,  is  Premier 
(for  details,  see  below  under  Events). 

Events,  1948.  For  the  second  time  in  a  decade, 
Czechoslovakia  lost  her  democratic  liberties  and 
was  submerged  under  a  totalitarian  regime  by  the 
will  of  a  foreign  power.  What  Nazi  Germany  had 
done  to  the  little  country  in  1938-39,  Communist 
Russia  did  to  it  again  ten  years  later,  except  that 
no  changes  of  the  territorial  status  quo  were  in- 
volved, as  yet.  In  every  other  respect,  Czechoslo- 
vakia by  the  end  of  1948  was  as  thoroughly  sub- 
jugated to  the  policies  and  to  the  ideology  of 
Soviet  Russia  as  it  had  been  to  those  of  the  Third 
Reich,  immediately  prior  to  the  outbreak  of  World 
War  II.  It  is  true  that  Moscow's  intervention  in 
Czechoslovakia's  internal  affairs  was  not  nearly  as 
overt  and  brutal  as  had  been  Hitler's,  yet  the  final 
result  was  practically  the  same.  Where  the  Nazis 


had  conquered  by  the  mere  display  of  overwhelm- 
ing military  might,  the  Russians  triumphed  through 
a  political  maneuver,  Trojan  Horse  style,  that  made 
Hitler's  fifth  column  pale  by  comparison. 

T&e  Five  Days  That  Shook  Prague.  Ever  since  the 
Czechoslovak  Government,  in  a  flurry  of  inde- 
pendent action,  had  attempted  to  join  the  Marshall 
Plan,  in  July,  1947,  it  was  clear  that  the  Kremlin 
would  take  no  further  chances  with  the  coalition 
regime  then  in  power  in  Prague.  When  Communist 
Premier  Element  Gottwald  came  back  from  Mos- 
cow, where  he  had  been  called  on  the  carpet  for 
his  government's  stand  on  the  Marshall  Plan,  he 
knew  that  he  must  get  rid  of  his  bourgeois  coalition 
partners  at  the  first  opportunity. 

That  opportunity  arose  in  mid-February,  1948. 
For  some  time,  the  non-Communist  members  of 
Gottwald's  Cabinet  had  shown  .restiveness  at  the 
complete  control  exercised  over  the  national  police 
by  the  Communist  Interior  Minister  Vaclaw  Nosek. 
On  February  13  they  demanded  that  Nosek  recall 
his  appointment  of  several  more  Communists  to  key 
police  posts. 

When  Nosek  failed  to  take  notice  of  the  demand, 
although  it  was  backed  by  a  majority  of  the  mem- 
bers of  Parliament,  and  Premier  Gottwald  also  re- 
fused to  take  action,  twelve  non-Communist  mem- 
of  the  Cabinet  resigned  in  protest  on  February  20. 

Thus  began  the  dramatic  sequence  of  events 
which  came  to  be  known  as  the  "Five  Days."  Im- 
mediately after  the  announcement  of  the  Cabinet 
crisis,  the  Communists  organized  mass  demonstra- 
tions throughout  the  country.  Addressing  a  huge 
rally  in  Prague,  Premier  Gottwald  denounced  the 
twelve  members  of  his  government  who  had  re- 
signed as  "agents  of  foreign  reaction,"  and  vowed 
that  they  would  never  be  permitted  to  return  to 
their  posts.  He  publicly  demanded  that  President 
Benes  let  him  form  what  he  called  a  "people's  gov- 
ernment," in  other  words  a  Cabinet  composed  of 
Communists  and  their  sympathizers  only.  Benes 
replied  that  while  he  recognized  the  right  of  the 
Communists,  the  strongest  party  in  Parliament,  to 
head  the  Government,  he  could  not  approve  the 
formation  of  a  Cabinet  excluding  some  of  the  other 
important  groups. 

On  February  22  the  executive  council  of  the 
Communist-led  General  Federation  of  Labor  met 
and  threw  the  full  weight  of  the  trades  union 
movement  behind  Gottwald's  demands.  "Action 
committees"  were  formed  with  a  view  to  solving 
the  crisis  by  direct,  revolutionary  action.  The  next 
day,  the  Prague  headquarters  of  the  National  So- 
cialist party  was  occupied  by  heavily  armed  police, 
as  other  police  units  marched  through  the  streets 
of  Prague  with  automatic  rifles  at  the  ready.  From 
Interior  Minister  Nosek  came  a  statement  that  the 
National  Socialist  party  (President  Benes"  own 
group)  had  planned  an  armed  revolt  against  the 
state. 

On  February  24  the  "action  committees"  formed 
by  the  Communists,  with  the  blessing  of  Premier 
Gottwald  and  under  the  protection  of  Nosek's 
police,  practically  took  over  the  administrative 
machinery.  They  seized  all  ministries  formerly  run 
by  non-Communists,  searched  the  headquarters  of 
other  political  groups,  including  the  allied  Social- 
Democratic  party's,  and  occupied  opposition  news- 
paper plants.  The  General  Confederation  of  Labor 
announced  plans  for  a  general  strike  should  Benes 
persist  in  his  refusal  to  appoint  the  Government 
demanded  by  Gottwald  and  the  Communists. 

By  the  morning  of  February  25  the  Communists 
were  in  physical  control  of  practically  all  govern- 
ment agencies,  communications,  industrial  plants, 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


148 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


streets  and  public  squares.  In  the  early  afternoon 
their  marching  columns  converged  on  trie  Wen- 
ceslas  Square  in  Prague  for  a  decisive  show  of 
strength.  At  about  4  o'clock,  Benes  gave  in  to  the 
Communists*  clamor  and  threats,  which  amounted 
to  an  ultimatum.  In  Gottwald's  own  words,  the 
President  "did  not  arrive  at  his  decision  easily/' 
but  £*had  to  accept  the  will  of  the  people." 

The  new  Government,  which  Beneg  thus  reluc- 
tantly approved,  was  composed  exclusively  of  Com- 
munists and  fellow-travelers,  with  one  notable  ex- 
ception: Jan  Masaryk,  son  of  the  founder  and  first 
President  of  Czechoslovakia,  again  accepted  the 
post  of  Foreign  Minister. 

The  Communist  coup  had  strong  reverberations 
throughout  the  world.  While  Moscow  rejoiced, 
though  disclaiming  all  responsibility  for  what  had 
happened,  the  western  democracies  deplored  and 
condemned  the  events  in  Prague.  World  opinion 
was  unanimous  in  its  verdict:  those  events  had 
been  inspired,  if  not  actively  directed,  by  the 
Kremlin.  It  was  not  so  generally  understood,  per- 
haps, that  Czechoslovakia,  one  of  the  truly  demo- 
cratic nations  of  Europe,  had  fallen  a  victim  to  the 
"cold  war."  But  for  the  relentless  deterioration  in 
Russia's  relations  with  the  western  powers,  and 
worldwide  fears  of  a  new  armed  conflict,  Russia 
might  have  tolerated  the  democratically  constituted 
regime  in  Prague/ at  least  for  some  time.  The  Soviet 
rulers,  in  this  case,  were  not  so  much  concerned 
with  "communizing"  the  Czechoslovak  people  as 
they  were  with  establishing  a  strongly  held  eco- 
nomic and  military  outpost  in  the  heart  of  Europe. 
(See  COMMUNISM.) 

Death  of  Masaryk.  What  made  Jan  Masaryk,  a 
tested  democrat  with  an  indisputably  "western" 
frame  of  mind,  accept  an  important  role  in  an  oth- 
erwise all-Communist  regime?  For  three  weeks  a 
puzzled  world  tried  to  figure  out  this  enigma.  Then 
the  object  of  all  this  wondering  and  guessing  ended 
the  enigma  by  substituting  an  even  greater  mys- 
tery: he  committed  suicide,  without  leaving  any 
conclusive  clue  as  to  his  real  motive. 

But,  was  it  really  suicide?  According  to  the  offi- 
cial version,  Masaryk  on  the  morning  of  March  10 
— the  day  he  was  due  for  his  first  appearance  in 
Parliament  as  Foreign  Minister  in  the  new  Govern- 
ment— leaped  from  the  bathroom  window  of  his 
apartment  on  the  third  floor  of  the  Foreign  Office 
in  Prague.  The  sole  explanation  of  this  startling  act 
offered  by  the  Gottwald  Government  was  that 
Masaryk  had  taken  his  life  in  despair  over  the  re- 
proaches addressed  to  him  by  former  friends  in 
England  and  America,  who  resented  his  collabora- 
tion with  the  new  regime. 

Masaryk's  suicide — for,  in  the  absence  of  any 
evidence  to  substantiate  rumors  of  foul  play,  one 
cannot  but  accept  this  version — produced  an  even 
greater  shock  in  the  outside  world  than  that  of  the 
"Five  Days."  In  Washington,  Secretary  of  State 
George  Marshall  commented:  "The  affair  today  of 
Masaryk  .  »  .  indicates  very  plainly  what  is  going 
on.  It  is  a  reign  of  terror  in  Czechoslovakia."  This 
was  the  keynote  of  press  comments  and  utterances 
of  leading  statesmen  throughout  the  world. 

More  Czechoslovak  diplomatic  representatives 
broke  with  the  new  regime  in  Prague.  (The  am- 
bassadors in  Washington  and  Ottawa  already  had 
resigned  after  the  Communist  coup  in  February). 
At  Lake  Success,  the  Czechoslovak  delegate  to  the 
United  Nations,  Jan  Papanek,  not  only  cut  connec- 
tions with  Prague  but  moved  to  bring  the  Moscow- 
inspired  change  of  regime  before  the  Security 
Council.  When  the  Secretary  General  refused  to 
accept  the  note  from  Papanek,  who  by  resigning 


his  post  had  become  a  private  citizen,  the  delegate 
of  Chile  moved  to  have  the  matter  put  on  the 
Council's  agenda.  However,  the  Western  powers, 
lacking  positive  evidence  of  Russian  intervention 
in  the  Czechoslovak  crisis,  gave  only  half-hearted 
support  to  the  Chilean  charges  and  nothing  came 
of  the  Council  debate. 

A  New  Constitution,  and  an  "Election"  The  new 
Gottwald  Government,  now  more  homogeneous 
than  ever  after  Vladimir  Clementis,  a  Communist 
sympathizer,  had  taken  over  the  foreign  ministry, 
immediately  set  about  revising  the  constitution  in 
a  sense  that  opened  the  door  to  totalitarianism.  On 
May  9,  the  draft  of  the  new  fundamental  charter 
was  railroaded  through  Parliament  and  then  pre- 
sented to  the  President  for  his  signature.  Benes 
immediately  made  known  his  unwillingness  to  sign 
a  document  lacking  an  adequate  division  of  powers 
and  sufficiently  guaranteed  civil  rights,  and  he  of- 
fered to  resign.  However,  he  was  prevailed  upon  by 
the  Government  to  wait  until  after  the  new  election 
set  for  May  30. 

The  preparations  for,  and  modalities  of  this  elec- 
tion followed  a  pattern  already  familiar  in  Eastern 
Europe.  Instead  of  being  able  to  make  his  choice 
among  a  variety  of  competing  political  parties,  as 
in  the  past,  the  Czech  or  Slovak  voter  on  May  SO 
was  confronted  with  a  single  slate  of  candidates 
nominated  by  the  action  committees.  Out  of  the 
total  list  of  candidates  for  the  300-member  Parlia- 
ment, 211  were  Communists  and  the  remainder 
sympathizers. 

The  only  opportunity  that  was  afforded  the 
voters  for  expressing  disapproval  of  the  single  slate, 
or  any  part  of  it,  was  to  turn  in  a  white  ballot.  Sev- 
eral weeks  before  the  election,^sources  close  to^the 
Government  forecast  that  the  "National  Front,"  as 
the  single  list  of  candidates  was  called,  would  get 
90  percent  of  the  vote.  When  the  returns  were  in, 
this  forecast  turned  out  to  have  been  remarkably 
accurate,  for  the  list  got  89.3  percent  of  the  valid 
votes  cast.  According  to  the  official  figures  released 
by  the  Ministry  of  Interior  on  May  31,  6,431,- 
693  persons  voted  for  the  regime,  and  772,293 
against  it. 

Benes  designs — and  Dies.  Immediately  after  the 
poll,  reports  from  various  sources  indicated  that 
the  President  would  resign.  While  the  opposition 
looked  to  such  a  move  as  a  gesture  of  protest,  Gov- 
ernment circles  cited  ill  health  as  the  reason.  Ac- 
tually both  sides  were  correct.  Benes  had  been  a 
very  sick  man  for  some  time  and  the  march  of 
events  obviously  did  nothing  to  improve  his  state 
of  health.  However,  when  the  President  finally 
stepped  down,  he  left  no  doubt  as  to  his  compelling 
motive. 

On  June  7,  one  day  before  the  deadline  for  the 
presidential  signature,  BeneS  announced  his  resig- 
nation. In  a  letter  to  Premier  Gottwald,  he  confirmed 
what  previously  had  been  rumored:  that  his  deci- 
sion had  been  taken  as  early  as  May  4.  "We  have 
discussed  at  that  time  this  decision  of  mine  in  con- 
nection with  the  problem  of  the  over-all  political 
situation,"  he  wrote,  and  went  on,  "I  also  an- 
nounced to  you  that  my  doctors  recommended  to 
me  that  I  take  into  consideration  the  recent  state 
of  my  health." 

In  the  afternoon  of  that  day  the  Cabinet,  after 
accepting  Benes'  resignation,  empowered  Gottwald 
to  sign  laws,  including  the  new  constitution.  He 
promptly  did  so  the  following  day,  On  June  10,  the 
new  Parliament  convened  in  Prague  and  four  days 
later  it  elected  Gottwald  President,  as  had  been 
expected.  Antonrn  Zapotocky,  Communist  Deputy 
Premier  in  the  former  Cabinet  and  head  of  the 


DAMS 


149 


DAMS 


General  Confederation  of  Labor,  was  picked  to  suc- 
ceed Gottwald  as  Premier. 

In  the  meantime,  former  President  Benes  had  re- 
tired to  his  country  estate  at  Sezimovo  Usti,  where 
Ills  condition  continued  to  worsen  rapidly.  After 
suffering  a  third  stroke,  he  died  at  6:10  p.m.  on 
September  3,  at  the  age  of  64.  His  passing  brought 
forth  an  outburst  of  national  sorrow  unmatched 
since  the  death  of  the  elder  Masaryk.  The  Commu- 
nist heads  of  the  new  regime  could  not  but  partici- 
pate in  the  universal  tribute.  A  week  of  official 
mourning  was  proclaimed  and  a  state  funeral  was 
held  on  September  8.  In  order  to  guard  against  all 
contingencies,  the  ceremony  was  surrounded  by  an 
unprecedented  display  of  armed  might.  Heavily 
armed  military,  police  and  Communist  militiamen 
watched  over  every  phase  of  the  funeral  procession, 
as  250,000  paid  their  last  homage  to  a  truly  beloved 
president  His  body  was  laid  to  rest  in  a  simple 
grave  at^  Sezimovo  Usti,  as  he  had  requested. 

Bene§'  death,  following  so  soon  after  his  resigna- 
tion, removed  the  last  moral  as  well  as  political 
obstacle  to  the  establishmnet  of  a  Communist  dic- 
tatorship. There  being  no  longer  any  possibility  of 
organized  opposition  at  home,  scores  of  prominent 
Czech  politicians  fled  abroad  to  organize  resistance 
movements  in  Paris,  London,  and  New  York.  On 
September  10,  Hubert  Eipka,  former  Minister  of 
Foreign  Trade,  announced  the  formation  of  a 
"Council  of  Free  Czechoslovakia"  in  Paris,  which 
had  all  the  tTinimings  of  a  new  government-in-exile. 

Meanwhile,  the  new  regime  was  busy  uncovering 
alleged  foreign  spy  plots  and  purging  its  armed 
forces  of  suspected  Western  sympathizers.  On  Sep- 
tember 22  an  Army  captain  was  sentenced  to  death 
.as  a  British  spy.  Three  days  later,  several  arrests 
and  convictions  of  alleged  U.S.  secret  agents  were 
announced  by  the  Prague  regime.  Discovery  of  an- 
other "widespread  underground  plot"  resulted  in 
heavy  jail  sentences  for  fifty  persons  on  October  8. 
Early  in  December,  Premier  Zapotocky,  at  the  head 
of  a  large  delegation,  paid  a  state  visit  to  Moscow. 
He  was  received  by  Stalin  on  December  8.  Secrecy 
surrounded  the  subject  and  scope  of  the  talks. 
— JOACHIM  JOESTEN 

DAMS.  Among  the  basic  studies  of  dams  made  this 
year  are  those  relating  to  compaction  of  earth 
dams,  the  studies  of  percolation,  and  structural 
analyses  of  foundations.  Research  has  been  an- 
nounced which  will  utilize  the  analogy  of  the  flow 
of  viscous  fluids  between  parallel  plates  to  de- 
termine flow  of  water  through  permeable  founda- 
tion material.  The  development  of  satisfactory  pro- 
cedures for  allocating  costs  of  multiple-purpose  hy- 
draulic projects  has  been  reported. 

Excavations  for  the  foundations  have  been  made 
for  the  Davis  Dam,  sixth  of  a  series  built  by  Fed- 
eral agencies  for  control  of  waters  of  the  lower 
Colorado  River.  It  will  be  a  3,800,000  cu.  yd. 
rolled-earth  rock-filled  dam,  and  will  cost  $70  mil- 
lion. It  will  provide  1,700,000  acre  feet  of  storage 
for  regulation  and  will  permit  development  of 
225,000  kv-a  of  power.  It  is  located  between  Hoo- 
ver Dam  and  Parker  Dam.  The  Utah  Construction 
Company  was  the  low  bidder  in  1946  when  work 
was  resumed  following  the  war. 

Construction  of  several  new  dams  forming  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  Grand  Coulee  Irrigation  Project 
of  the  U.S.  Reclamation  Bureau  made  progress 
during  the  year  1948  ( ground  was  broken  for  the 
great  dam  and  power  plants  in  December,  1933). 
The  ultimate  goal  is  3,920,000  acre  feet  of  irriga- 
tion water  to  be  delivered  annually  to  more  than  a 
million  acres  and  an  ultimate  power  development 


of  2,800,000  kw.  Of  especial  interest  now  to  report 
is  that  on  July  1,  1948  the  South  Dam  forming  the 
equalization  reservoir  at  the  pumping  plant  was  88 
percent  complete,  total  cost,  $3,820,000;  the  Long 
Lake  Darn  and  Reservoir  was  70  percent  complete, 
total  cost  $2,276,000;  ^and  the  Potholes  Dam  and 
Reservoir,  renamed  O'Sullivan  Dam  was  80  per- 
cent complete,  total  cost  $10,983,000. 

The  "left"  power  plant  on  the  main  river  is  com- 
plete andjs  able  to  furnish  1  million  kw.  The  "ini- 
tial stage"  of  the  pumping  plant  was  complete  in 
1947.  Projects  have  received  "approval  in  prelim- 
inary form"  for  the  construction  of  the  Hell's  Can- 
yon Dam  on  the  Snake  River,  a  tributary  of  the 
Columbia.  It  will  be  710  feet  high  with  a  power- 
house to  develop  810,000  kw  and  form  a  lake  89 
miles  long. 

The  huge  McNary  dam  on  the  Columbia  River 
extending  between  the  states  of  Washington  and 
Oregon  and  located  upstream  from  the  Bonneville 
Dam  was  started  in  August.  The  original  contract 
was  let  for  $21.7-million  but  the  total  cost  of  the 
project  will  be  $227  million  at  1947  prices.  It  will 
be  8,725  ft.  long,  and  158  ft  high  and  it  has  been 
designed  by  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  It  will  develop 
about  a  million  kw  of  power.  A  unique  feature  of 
the  project  is  a  lock  which  will  be  the  world's  larg- 
est— 675  ft.  x  86  ft.  in  horizontal  cross-section  and 
with  a  lift  of  92  feet.  A  huge  fish  ladder  will  also 
be  provided. 

The  second  largest  contract  to  be  signed  in  the 
46-year  history  of  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  was 
for  $48.4-million  to  construct  the  Hungry  Horse 
Dam  in  Montana.  This  is  only  about  10  percent  less 
than  the  huge  contract  signed  with  the  Six  Com- 
panies, Inc.,  for  the  Hoover  Dam. 

The  first  major  unit  in  the  Missouri  Basin  plan 
began  operation  this  year.  The  Kanapolis  Dam  was 
dedicated.  It  consists  of  an  earthen  structure  3 
miles  long,  rising  131  feet  above  the  river  bed  and 
it  will  create  a  lake  12  miles  long  in  the  Smoky  Hill 
river  valley.  Another  earth-filled  dam  to  be  built  by 
the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  in  the  Missouri  Basin 
for  which  bids  are  called  is  the  Cedar  Bluff  dam 
also  on  the  Smoky  Hill  River.  It  will  be  an  earth- 
filled  structure  approximately  134  feet  high,  and 
12,500  feet  long.  The  Army  Engineers  announced 
in  July  a  program  to  spend  $1,200  million  in  the 
succeeding  12  months. 

Among  the  dams  to  be  built,  beside  the  McNary 
Dam  already  listed,  were  the  following:  Garrison 
Reservoir,  North  Dakota;  cost  $26  million;  Ft 
Randall  Reservoir,  South  Dakota,  cost  $18  million; 
Bull  Shoals  Reservoir,  Arkansas,  cost  $14  million; 
Wolf  Creek  Reservoir,  Kentucky,  cost  $12.4  mil- 
lion; Bugs  Island  Reservoir,  Virginia,  cost  $9  mil- 
lion; Center  Hill  Reservoir,  Tennessee,  cost  $9 
million;  Harlan  County  Reservoir,  Nebraska,  cost 
$8  million;  Allatoona  Reservoir,  Georgia,  cost  $8 
million;  a  number  of  other  earth-filled  dams  to  be 
built  this  year  in  the  Missouri  Basin  project  have 
been  announced  by  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation. 

The  Watauga  Dam  in  Tennessee,  an  earth-filled 
structure  320  feet  high  is  being  completed  by  the 
Tennessee  Valley  Authority.  The  Center  Hill  Dam 
near  Cookeville,  Term.,  a  masonry  structure,  240 
feet  high  is  being  completed  by  the  Corps  of  En- 
Leers.  The  Dairyland  Power  Cooperators,  Inc., 


ginecra.     me    i^auyraiiu    JTUWCJL    v_A>vjMc*aix».D>    ju~»^., 

has  recently  begun  to  build  a  $3.1  million  dam  and 
hydroelectric  power  plant,  near  Ladysmith,  Rusk 
County,  Wis.  Construction  has  begun  of  a  $27  mil- 
lion dam  on  a  branch  of  the  Trinity  River  near 
Lewisville,  Tex.  The  Engineering  Corps  approval 
has  been  granted  for  a  $58  million  dam  on  Blue 
River  at  Topeka,  Kans. 


DANUBE  CONFERENCE 


150 


DANUBE  CONFERENCE 


Among  the  foreign  dams  mentioned  in  the  news 
this  year  is  the  following;  The  Genissiat  Dam 
which  was  to  be  completed  in  December  of  1948. 
It  is  located  on  the  Rhone  River  and  except  for  the 
Dnieperstroy  Dam,  it  will  be  the  largest  hydraulic 
project  in  Europe,  its  ultimate  capacity  to  total 
470,000  kw. 

A  dam  projected  for  India  across  the  Kpsi  River 
near  Barahkshetra  in  Nepal  territory  will  rise  750 
to  850  feet  above  bedrock  and  this  will  be  the  tall- 
est in  the  world  ( Hoover  Darn,  now  the  highest,  is 
730  feet  high).  It  will  make  possible  the  develop- 
ment of  1.8  million  kw  of  power  and  the  irrigation 
of  3  million  acres  of  land  which  in  rum  will  add  a 
million  tons  of  food  annually  to  the  area.  Needed 
flood  protection  will  also  be  afforded.  The  cost 
will  be  $300  million. 

Another  dam  to  be  built  is  on  the  Godavari 
River  in  Madras  Province,  to  cost  $250  million,  to 
be  420  feet  high  and  6,000  feet  long,  and  which 
will  provide  100,000  kw  of  power  and  will  irrigate 
2  million  acres.  The  $150  million  Hirakud  Dam  on 
the  Mahanadi  River  in  Orissa  has  been  started.  It 
will  be  150  feet  high  and  3  miles  long  and  will 
furnish  350,000  kw  of  power  and  irrigate  1  million 
acres  of  land.  Several  other  projects  are  under  con- 
sideration. — W.  E,  HOWLAND 

DANUBE  CONFERENCE.  The  "Conference  to  consider 
Free  Navigation  on  the  Danube"  was  held  in  Bel- 
grade, the  Yugoslav  capital  on  the  Danube,  during 
July  and  August  of  1948.  farticipants  were:  the 
four  Big  Powers  (France,  Great  Britain,  U.S.S.R. 
and  U.S.A.)  and  the  riparian  states,  Bulgaria, 
Czechoslovakia,  Hungary,  Rumania,  Ukraine,  and 
Yugoslavia.  A  British-U.S.A.  motion  to  grant  vot- 
ing rights  to  Austria's  observer  was  defeated  by  all 
other  votes.  It  was  the  only  major  international 
conference  of  "Western"  and  "Eastern*'  nations 
since  the  end  of  the  war  in  which  the  "Western" 
nations  were  outvoted. 

Background.  The  Danube,  one  of  Europe's  princi- 
pal waterways,  flows  through  or  forms  the  border 
of  German,  Austrian,  Hungarian,  Czechoslovak, 
Yugoslav,  Bulgarian,  Rumanian,  and  Ukrainian  ter- 
ritory. At  the  Paris  Peace  Conference  of  1946,  the 
demand  for  a  "free"  Danube  caused  one  of  the 
main  arguments.  The  U.S.A.  wanted  "free  naviga- 
tion" in  order  to  counteract  Russian  preponderance 
in  the  Danubian  states*  Russia  and  the  two  Da- 
nubian  Allies,  Czechoslovakia  and  Yugoslavia,  ar- 
gued that  a  "free  navigation"  clause  would  inter- 
fere with  the  right  of  Danubian  states  to  organize 
the  Danube  regime  and  expose  them  to  too  strong 
economic  and  political  influence  from  the  U.S.A. 
In  essence,  the  American  standpoint  prevailed, 
when  the  following  identical  article  was  inserted 
in  the  Peace  Treaties  with  Hitler's  wartime  allies, 
Bulgaria,  Hungary,  and  Rumania: 

Navigation  on  the  Danube  shall  be  free  and 
open  to  the  nationals,  vessels  of  commerce  and 
goods  of  all  states  on  a  footing  of  equality  in 
regards  to  port  and  navigation  charges  and  con- 
ditions for  merchant  shipping.  The  foregoing 
shall  not  apply  to  traffic  between  parts  of  the 
same  state. 

Issues  and  Decisions.  At  Belgrade,  the  only  ques- 
tion was  how  to  implement  this  rule — i.e.  what 
"free  navigation"  on  the  Danube  was  to  mean. 

After  three  weeks  of  sometimes  very  acid  discus- 
sions, the  Soviet  draft  convention  was  adopted 
with  minor  changes. 

Art.  1  provides  for  free  navigation  in  the  same 


words  as  in  the  just  quoted  article  of  the  peace 
treaties. 

The  United  States  considered  that  these  provi- 
sions on  non-discriminatory  treatment  did  not  go 
far  enough.  It  criticized,  especially,  articles  pro- 
viding that  otherwise  commerce  was  to  be  "subject 
to  regulations  established  by  the  Danube  states 
concerned"  viz.,  "on  the  basis  of  agreements  con- 
cluded with  the  appropriate  transportation  and  ex- 
peditionary agencies."  These  clauses  would  per- 
petuate the  privileged  position  of  the  Soviet-Hun- 
garian and  Soviet-Rumanian  companies.  Instead, 
the  U.S.A.  demanded  the  right  for  American  and 
any  other  navigation  companies,  once  and  for  ever, 
to  establish  and  maintain  agencies  and  acquire  the 
necessary  buildings  and  business  facilities  along 
the  river  in  those  various  states — rather  than  hav- 
ing to  use  the  facilities  of  "privileged"  companies 
or  being  otherwise  under  the  legislation  of  the  re- 
spective Danube  state. 

Russia  and  the  Danubian  states  insisted  that  this 
would  be  an  entering  wedge  for  the  U.S.A.  to  use 
its  superior  economic  strength  for  dominating  the 
Danube  area;  that  it  would  deprive  the  countries 
directly  concerned  of  the  right  to  organize  their 
economic  life  with  the  necessary  flexibility;  and 
that  the  U.S.A.  would  never  agree  to  a  similar  re- 
gime on,  say,  the  St.  Lawrence. 

The  Western  Powers  also  moved  unsuccessfully 
to  have  the  four  big  Powers  represented  on  the 
Danube  Commission.  U.S.A.  participation  was  re- 
quested because,  and  for  such  a  period  as,  the 
U.S.A.  represented  the  interests  of  Southern  Ger- 
many, and  part  of  Austria,  as  occupying  Power, 
and  because  these  two  territories  participate  in  the 
Marshall  Plan.  But  the  Balkan  states  repeated  their 
argument  of  the  Paris  Peace  Conference  of  1946, 
namely,  that  their  past  experiences  with  similar 
arrangements  were  too  unfavorable.  As  adopted, 
the  Treaty  provides  for  a  Danube  Commission 
composed  of  one  representative  of  each  riparian 
state. 

Another  U.S.A.-British  Proposal  was  to  link  the 
Danube  Commission  with  the  United  Nations;  and 
to  have  the  detailed  arrangements  not  decided  by 
this  Conference  but  worked  out  later,  between  the 
Danube  Commission  and  UN.  The  Danubian  states 
declined,  because  in  this  way  they  would  have  to 
negotiate  in  a  body  where  they  would  be  hopelessly 
outvoted. 

Again1  arguing  that  they  would  not  yield  their 
hard-won  national  sovereignty  on  the  jurisdiction 
over  their  main  artery  of  communication,  they  re- 
jected the  proposal  that  disputes  about  the  Treaty 
should  finally  go  before  the  International  Court  of 
Justice  in  The  Hague.  As  adopted,  the  Treaty  pro- 
vides, instead,  for  a  Conciliation  Commission  com- 
posed of  one  representative  of  each  party  to  the 
dispute,  and  one  representative  appointed  by  the 
Chairman  of  the  Danube  Commission  from  among 
the  nationals  of  a  State  involved  in  the  dispute,  the 
third  Conciliator  to  be  appointed  by  the  whole 
Danube  Commission. 

All  in  all,  the  U.S.  position  was  to  give  the  "free 
regime"  an  extensive  interpretation,  practically 
amounting  to  internationalization  of  the  river.  This 
would  have  prevented  the  Danubian  states  from 
legislating  on  Danube  commerce,  and  from  enter- 
ing into  preferential  treaties  among  themselves  and 
with  third  states  (e.g.  Russia).  The  Danubian 
countries  east  of  Austria,  while  guaranteeing  "free 
and  equal  navigation"  obtained  a  Treaty  which 
permits  them  to  carry  out  their  intentions  of  or- 
ganizing Danube  traffic  within  the  framework  of 
their  planned  economies. 


DEFENSE  TRANSPORTATION 


151 


DELAWARE 


The  U.S.A.  and  the  British  delegates  did  not 
sign  the  Convention  as  adopted  by  the  majority  of 
the  Conference.  The  U.S.  State  Department  for- 
mally declared  that  the  U.S.A.  "will  not  recognize 
any  commission  set  up  to  rule  over  areas  of  the 
river  flowing  through  Americanroccupied  Austria 
and  Germany/7  — JOHN  H.  E.  FRIED 

DEFENSE  TRANSPORTATION,  Office  of  (ODT).  During 
the  year  1948  the  Office  of  Defense  Transportation 
was  concerned  with  a  number  of  problems  arising 
from  acute  shortages  of  domestic  railway  freight 
cars.  Efforts  were  continued  to  secure  maximum 
utilization  of  the  limited  number  of  domestic 
freight  cars  available,  and  to  accelerate  the  con- 
struction of  such  equipment. 

The  inadequate  supply  of  domestic  railway 
freight  cars  has  made  it  necessary  to  continue  some 
"wartime"  controls  over  rail  traffic.  These  controls 
consist  of  heavy  loading  requirements  on  carload 
freight,  the  loading  of  cars  containing  mechandise 
( less-than-carload  freight)  to  a  weight  not  less 
than  20,000  lb.,  and  restrictions  on  carload  freight 
moving  by  rail  to  port  areas  for  further  movement 
by  water.  The  removal  of  these  controls  would  re- 
sult in  considerable  increases  in  freight  car  short- 
ages. 

In  the  early  part  of  1947  a  voluntary  program 
was  undertaken  which  had  as  its  objective  the  con- 
struction of  a  minimum  of  10,000  domestic  freight 
cars  per  month  and  the  prompt  repair  of  railroad 
rolling  stock.  With  the  enactment  of  Public  Law 
395  on  Dec.  30,  1947,  steps  were  taken  to  f  ormalize 
under  that  law  the  then  existing  plan  covering  the 
voluntary  allocation  of  steel  products  for  the  con- 
struction of  domestic  freight  cars  and  the  repair 
of  railroad  rolling  stock.  The  plan  was  formally 
approved  on  Mar.  30,  1948. 

Under  the  plan  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  de- 
termines the  over-all  quantities  of  steel  products  to 
be  furnished  for  the  car  building  and  repair  pro- 
gram. The  individual  car  builders  participating  in 
the  program  submit  to  the  Office  of  Defense  Trans- 
portation schedules  showing,  by  plants,  the  number 
and  types  of  domestic  freight  cars  scheduled  for 
production  monthly.  Participating  car  builders, 
component  parts  manufacturers,  railroads,  and  pri- 
vate car  lines  each  submit  quarterly  estimates  of 
their  steel  products  requirements  for  the  car  build- 
ing and  repair  program.  The  Office  of  Defense 
Transportation  reviews  the  individual  car  building 
schedules  and  quarterly  estimates  submitted,  and 
relates  the  estimated  requirements  to  the  over-all 
program.  The  quantities  and  types  of  steel  products 
to  be  made  available  under  the  program  to  each 
individual  consumer  from  steel  rollings  in  each 
quarterly  period  are  determined  by  the  Office  of 
Defense  Transportation  and  an  equitable  distribu- 
tion of  the  steel  products  tonnage  required  in  the 
program  is  made  among  the  various  steel  producers 
participating  in  the  program.  Each  individual  con- 
sumer makes  its  own  arrangements  for  securing  the 
steel  products  assigned  to  it.  Approximately  §50,- 
000  tons  of  steel  products  per  month  are  required 
under  the  program. 

In  the  first  10  months  of  1948  the  construction 
of  domestic  freight  cars  totaled  93,383,  or  an  aver- 
age of  9,338  cars  per  month.  During  the  year  1947, 
68,507  domestic  freight  cars  were  built,  or  an  av- 
erage of  5,709  per  month.  Although  the  increase  in 
domestic  freight  car  construction  during  1948  is 
encouraging,  the  heavy  rate  of  retirements  of  worn- 
out  cars  and  increases  in  <ebad  order"  cars  have 
prevented  any  substantial  increase  in  the  number 
of  serviceable  freight  cars  since  Jan.  1,  1948.  Of 


the  93,383  domestic  freight  cars  built  during  the 
first  10  months  of  1948,  80,599  were  delivered  to 
Class  I  railroads.  Retirements  of  worn-out  cars  by 
Class  I  railroads  during  the  same  period  totaled 
58,131  cars.  Bad  order  cars  of  Class  I  railroads  rose 
from  71,636  on  Jan.  1,  1948,  to  78,401  on  Nov.  1, 
1948,  an  increase  of  6,765.  The  net  gain  in  service- 
able freight  cars  of  Class  I  railroads  from  Jan.  1, 
1948,  to  Nov.  1,  1948,  was  only  15,703  cars,  or 
an  average  of  1,570  per  month  at  a  time  when  the 
construction  of  domestic  freight  cars  averaged 
9,338  cars  per  month.  More  than  one-fifth  of  the 
freight  cars  in  service  at  the  beginning  of  1948 
were  over  30  years  old  and  a  high  rate  of  freight 
car  retirements  may  be  anticipated  for  the  next 
several  years. 

In  addition  to  the  freight  car  program  the  Office 
of  Defense  Transportation  has  developed  a  pro- 
gram relating  to  the  voluntary  allocation  of  steel 
products  for  the  construction,  repair,  and  conver- 
sion of  domestic  freight-carrying  barges  and  towing 
vessels  of  3,000  gross  tons  or  less.  The  proposal  for 
a  barge  program  gained  its  impetus  originally  from 
studies  made  by  the  National  Petroleum  Council  on 
steel  requirements  of  the  oil  industry  to  meet  great- 
ly increased  demands  for  petroleum  products.  The 
objective  of  the  program  is  the  construction  of  ap- 
proximately 75  barges  per  month  and  a  necessary 
complement  of  towing  vessels,  as  well  as  making 
available  sufficient  steel  products  to  permit  the 
prompt  repair  and  conversion  of  barges  and  tow- 
boats.  As  in  the  case  of  the  freight  car  program, 
the  Office  of  Defense  Transportation,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  industry  advisory  committees,  recom- 
mends steel  products  tonnages  to  be  made  avail- 
able for  the  program  by  each  participating  steel 
producer  and  establishes  monthly  steel  products 
quotas  for  each  consumer  participating  in  the  pro- 
gram. At  the  present  time  approximately  20,000 
tons  of  steel  products  per  month  are  being  made 
available  for  the  barge  program.  It  is  expected  that 
this  will  be  increased  to  approximately  25,000  tons 
per  month  early  in  1949. 

The  Office  of  Defense  Transportation  has  repeat- 
edly recommended  an  enlargement  of  the  present 
freight  car  construction  program.  It  is  felt  that 
such  action  is  warranted  in  spite  of  the  present 
acute  shortage  of  steel.  Shortages  of  freight  cars 
adversely  affect  the  domestic  economy  and  present 
serious  implications  from  a  standpoint  of  national 
security.  Although  freight  car  loadings  for  1948 
were  3.7  percent  below  those  for  1947,  they 
approximated  those  of  1944 — the  peak  war  year. 
At  the  end  of  1948  there  were  approximately  25,- 
000  fewer  serviceable  freight  cars  in  operation  than 
were  in  operation  on  V-J  Day.  — J.  M.  JOHNSON 

DELAWARE.  A  south  Atlantic  State,  Area:  2,370  sq. 
mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  297,000,  compared 
with  (1940  census)  266,505.  Chief  cities:  Dover 
(capital),  5,517  inhabitants  in  1940;  Wilmington, 
112,504.  See  AGBJCULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS 
AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COL- 
LEGES, VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  "amounted  to  $19,819,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $19,605,000. 

Elections.  Dewey  won  the  State's  3  electoral  votes 
by  receiving  69,633  votes  to  Truman's  67,921.  The 
State's  single  seat  in  the  lower  house  remained  Re- 
publican. Other  contests  went  to  the  Democrats. 
Incumbent  Republican  Senator  Buck  lost  his  race 
for  reelection  to  J.  Allen  Frear,  Jr.;  and  Democrat 
Elbert  N.  Carvel  beat  Hyland  P.  George  for  the 
governorship.  Democrats  won  the  following:  Lieu- 


DENMARK 


152 


DENMARK 


tenant  Governor,  Alexis  du  Pont  Bayard;  Treasurer, 
Willard  D.  Boyce;  Auditor,  James  W.  W.  Baker. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Walter  W.  Bacon;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Elbert  N.  Carvel;  Secretary  of  State, 
William  J.  Storey;  Attorney  General,  Albert  W. 
James;  State  Treasurer,  Benjamin  "F.  Johnson;  State 
Auditor,  Benjamin  I.  Shaw. 

DENMARK.  A  kingdom  of  northwestern  Europe, 
comprising  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  the  two  main 
islands  of  Zealand  and  Fyn,  and  about  200  smaller 
adjacent  islands  in  the  Baltic.  Capital  of  Denmark, 
Copenhagen.  King,  Frederik  IX,  who  succeeded  to 
the  throne  Apr.  21,  1947. 

Area  and  Population.  Total  area,  excluding  out- 
lying possessions,  16,575  square  miles.  Estimated 
population  (July  1,  1947),  4,146,000,  as  compared 
with  3,844,300  at  the  census  of  Nov.  5,  1940. 
Birth  rate  (1947):  22.1  per  1,000  inhabitants; 
death  rate,  9.7;  marriage  rate,  9.6.  Chief  cities 
( 1946  pop. ) :  Copenhagen  ( with  suburbs )  1,079,- 
000;  Aarhus,  107,393;  Odense,  97,436;  Aalborg, 
60,880. 

Education  and  Religion,  There  is  no  illiteracy.  In 
1946  there  were  4,171  elementary  schools  with 
471,748  pupils  and  388  secondary  schools  with 
76,800  pupils.  The  number  of  registered  students 
at  the  two  universities— Copenhagen  and  Aarhus 
—in  1946  was  about  7,000,  including  1,700 
women.  While  there  is  full  religious  liberty,  the 
Lutheran  Church  is  the  Established  Church  of 
Denmark,  supported  by  the  state.  At  the  time  of 
the  last  census,  in  November  1940,  all  but  about 
70,000  persons — who  were  mostly  Roman  Catho- 
lics— belonged  to  the  Lutheran  Church. 

Production.  Denmark  is  essentially  a  land  of  in- 
tensive dairy  farming.  Industry,  however,  is  also 
important,  despite  an  almost  complete  lack  of  min- 
erals and  water  power.  Shipbuilding  and  engineer- 
ing, in  particular,  are  leading  Danish  industries. 
Before  the  war,  35  percent  of  the  working  popula- 
tion was  employed  in  agriculture  and  dairying  and 
33  percent  in  industry.  Commerce  and  fishing  were 
the  other  important  occupations. 

The  1948  harvest  was,  on  the  whole,  good.  Ac- 
cording to  preliminary  estimates,  the  grain  crop 
amounted  to  about  3,400,000  tons,  or  about  265,- 
000  tons  more  than  in  1947.  Other  crops  also  were 
better  than  in  the  preceding  year. 

Meat  production  in  1947  averaged  16,700  tons 
of  beef  and  16,900  tons  of  pork  monthly.  Butter 
production  was  10,400  tons  monthly.  Livestock 
in  1948  included  2,830,000  head  of  cattle;  1,462,- 
000  pigs;  23,800,000  poultry. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports,  in  1947  amounted  to 
3,087  million  crowns;  exports,  2,316  million 
crowns.  Thus  the  import  surplus  was  771  million 
crowns  against  1,230  million  in  1946.  Exports  of 
agricultural  products,  especially  butter,  eggs,  ba- 
con, and  meat,  were  substantially  higher  both  in 
quantity  and  value  than  in  1946. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  the  fiscal  year  1949-50 
balances  at  1,900  million  crowns,  showing  a  sur- 
plus of  11  million  crowns.  Expenditure  and  reve- 
nue are  approximately  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
fiscal  year. 

Transportation.  On  Jan.  1,  1947,  Denmark  had 
5,057  miles  of  road,  3,031  miles  of  railway.  The 
merchant  marine,  hard  hit  by  the  war,  declined 
from  1,210,000  gross  register  tons  in  1939  to  921,- 
000  tons  in  1946;  at  the  same  time,  the  number  of 
registered  ships  increased  slightly  from  1,902  to 
1,961. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  June  5,  1915,  as 
amended  Sept.  10,  1920,  vests  executive  power  in 


the  King  acting  through  a  cabinet  responsible  to 
the  Rigsdag  (Parliament).  Legislative  power  rests 
jointly  in  the  King  and  Rigsdag.  The  Folketing 
(lower  chamber  of  the  Rigsdag)  consists  of  149 
members  elected  for  four  years  by  proportional  rep- 
resentation. The  Landsting  (upper  chamber)  com- 
prises 76  members  serving  for  eight  years;  its  pow- 
ers are  very  limited.  Prime  Minister:  Hans  Hedtoft, 
(appointed  Nov.  12,  1947), 

Events,  1948.  It  was  an  uneventful  year  for  the 
Danes,  the  quietest  yet  since  the  end  of  the  war. 
There  were  no  changes  in  government,  no  polit- 
ical battles  to  speak  of,  no  quarrels  with  foreign 
powers.  The  only  happenings  worth  mentioning 
were  new  developments  in  the  unfinished  busi- 
ness carried  over  from  the  preceding  year. 

South  Schleswig:  T/ie  Debate  Goes  On.  The  unsolved 
South  Schleswig  issue  remained  in  the  forefront  of 
public  attention.  It  continued  to  tax  Danish  re- 
lations with  Great  Britain  as  well  as  with  the  Ger- 
man state  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  even  though 
nothing  dramatic  was  done  by  either  side. 

In  a  note  delivered  to  the  Danish  Ambassador 
in  London  on  Dec.  8,  1947,  and  made  public  ten 
days  later,  British  Foreign  Secretary  Ernest  Bevin 
censured  the  South  Schleswig  Association  (SSV), 
the  political  and  cultural  organization  of  the  Dan- 
ish minority  in  Germany,  for  its  separatist  activ- 
ities. He  declared  that  official  recognition  of  the 
group  by  the  British  Military  Government  would 
be  withheld  if  it  continued  its  "intimate  connec- 
tion" with  organizations  outside  Germany.  The 
note  went  on  to  say  that  if  the  SSV  were  recog- 
nized, Britain  would  consider  it  improper  for  the 
group  to  advocate  the  transfer  of  part  of  German 
territory  of  another  country — Denmark — or  the 
creation  of  an  independent  territory. 

The  note,  which  was  generally  regarded  as  a 
triumph  for  the  German  viewpoint,  caused  disap- 
pointment and  irritation  in  Denmark.  It  put  a 
damper  on  the  agitation  around  Schleswig,  but  not 
for  long.  In  April,  a  new  campaign  for  changing 
the  status  quo  in  Schleswig  got  "under  way  in  the 
Danish  press  and  certain  political  circles.  The 
idea  began  to  take  root  that  Denmark,  instead  of 
seeking  outright  annexation  of  South  Schleswig, 
should  strive  for  separation  of  the  contested  ter- 
ritory from  the  purely  German  Holstein,  as  the 
first  step  toward  a  plebiscite  to  be  held  perhaps 
in  five  years.  Even  tfie  Social-Democratic  Govern- 
ment of  Premier  Hans  Hedtoft  favored  this  view. 

Accordingly,  the  SSV  changed  its  tack.  In  June, 
the  organization  divided  itself  into  two  groups,  one 
limiting  itself  to  cultural  matters  and  relief  work 
(under  the  old  name  of  SSV),  while  the  other 
("South  Schleswig  Voters  Union"  or  SSW)  ap- 
plied to  the  British  Military  Government  for  recog- 
nition as  a  German  political  party.  In  doing  so,  the 
SSW  announced  a  12-point  program  calling,  among 
other  things,  for  administrative  separation  of 
Schleswig  from  Holstein  and  equal  rights  for  the 
Danish  language  in  the  former  state,  which  was  to 
remain  within  the  framework  of  Germany  and  the 
British  zone  of  occupation,  at  least  until  further 
notice. 

The  Danish  Government,  for  its  part,  gave 
strong  diplomatic  support  to  this  program.  On 
June  28,  the  British  Military  Governor  for  Ger- 
many, Gen.  Sir  Brian  Robertson,  arrived  in  Co- 
penhagen for  talks  with  Foreign  Minister  Gustav 
Rasmussen  on  this  and  related  issues.  A  month 
later,  on  August  3,  Rasmussen  went  to  Germany. 
He  conferred  with  the  British  regional  governor 
for  Schleswig-Holstein,  Mr.  William  Asbury,  and 
with  the  German  Minister-President  of  that  state, 


DENMARK 


153  DENMARK 


Hermann  Luedemann,  in  Kiel.  Then  he  continued 
to  Berlin,  where  he  saw  representatives  of  the  So- 
viet as  well  as  of  the  Western  Allied  military 
governments. 

The  upshot  of  Rasmussen's  travels  was  that  the 
British  licensed  the  SSW  as  a  political  party  (on 
August  6 )  and  promised  to  take  up  the  question  of 
Schleswig's  administrative  future  at  a  special  con- 
ference in  the  fall.  The  conference  was  opened  in 
London  on  October  18,  a  few  days  before  the 
Schleswig-Holstein  municipal  elections,  (at  which 
the  SSW  and  another  Danish  group  together  polled 
92,000  votes,  or  7.4  percent  of  the  total  cast).  On 
October  23  a  statement  was  issued  which  forecast 
a  special  status  to  the  Danish-minded  minority  in 
South  Schleswig  in  order  to  "secure  to  them  in 
addition  to  their  normal  civic  rights  the  freedom 
to  enjoy  their  ancient  Danish  culture,"  but  not 
administrative  separation. 

The  Refugees  Go  Home.  While  comparatively  little 
progress  was  made  on  the  Schleswig  issue,  Den- 
mark's No.  2  postwar  problem,  that  of  the  German 
refugees,  was  all  but  completely  settled  during  the 
year.  Of  more  than  250,000  German  nationals 
stranded  in  Denmark  at  the  time  of  the  surrender, 
about  one-fifth  were  still  left  at  the  start  of  1948. 
Their  fate  was  the  subject  of  protracted  talks  in 
London  in  April  and  May.  But  it  was  not  until 
after  Foreign  Minister  Rasmussen's  trip  to  Ger- 
many (see  above)  that  a  final  solution  was  found. 
In  August,  the  repatriation  of  25,000  more  refu- 
gees into  the  American-British  bizone  began  and 
early  in  September  the  French  Military  Govern- 
ment agreed  to  admit  15,000  into  its  zone  of  occu- 
pation. However,  Rasmussen's  efforts,  during  his 
stay  in  Berlin,  to  obtain  admission  into  the  Soviet 
zone  for  a  comparatively  small  number  of  refu- 
gees remained  without  result.  By  the  end  of  the 
year,  only  a  hard  core  of  about  5,000  unrepatri- 
ables  remained  in  Denmark. 

Nordic  Cooperation.  The  natural  bonds  with  the 
neighboring  Scandinavian  states,  which  the  war 
years  had  loosened,  were  strengthened  again  at 
a  number  of  conferences  held  during  the  year  ( see 
also  SWEDEN  ) .  The  question  of  a  Northern  customs 
union,  analogous  to  "Benelux,"  was  the  object  of 
two  meetings  in  Copenhagen,  on  April  24  and 
June  3,  by  a  permanent  inter-Scandinavian  com- 
mittee of  experts.  Recommendations  were  drafted 
for  a  detailed  study  of  all  problems  inherent  to  the 
establishment  of  such  a  customs  union  and  it  was 
decided  to  maintain  close  contact  with  the  Benelux 
countries  for  this  purpose. 

The  touchy  question  of  a  Scandinavian  military 
alliance  was  approached  by  all  sides  with  under- 
standable caution.  Observers  noted  with  interest, 
however,  that  Denmark,  which  in  prewar  years 
had  been  the  least  responsive  to  proposals  of  mili- 
tary alliance,  now  appeared  to  favor  such  a  course, 
while  Sweden  was  holding  back. 

DenmarJc  and  the  "Cold  War."  The  world-wide 
propaganda  war  between  Russia  and  the  West  was 
not  without  its  repercussions  in  peaceful  Denmark. 
Reckless  charges  of  a  secret  military  alliance  and 
American  bases  on  Danish  soil  were  bandied  about 
by  the  Soviet  press  and  radio.  When  the  Danish 
Government  in  March  took  certain  precautions 
against  subversive  activities,  Moscow  interpreted 
tiiis  as  a  move  designed  to  cover  tip  military  ne- 
gotiations with  the  United  States  and  the  Western 
Union.  On  April  7,  the  Soviet  mouthpiece  in  for- 
eign affairs,  "New  Times,"  charged  once  again  that 
Denmark  was  about  to  turn  over  Greenland  to  the 
United  States. 

Otherwise,  however,  Greenland  did  not  figure 


as  prominently  in  tibe  news  as  it  had  in  the  pre- 
ceding year.  On  July  9,  the  Danish  Communist 
party  issued  an  appeal  to  the  Government  to  "take 
effective  steps"  in  order  to  ensure  a  complete  with- 
drawal of  American  military  forces  from  Green- 
land, "if  necessary  through  United  Nations  inter- 
vention." In  July  and  August,  Premier  Hans 
Hedtoft  visited  both  Danish  oversea  possessions, 
Greenland  and  the  Faeroe  Islands. 

In  September,  unauthorized  flights  of  Russian 
military  planes  over  the  Danish  island  of  Bom- 
holm  were  reported  on  several  occasions.  One  of 
these,  on  September  9,  happened  to  coincide  with 
a  Scandinavian  Foreign  Ministers'  meeting  in 
Stockholm.  At  the  same  time  Soviet  warships  were 
sighted  off  the  coast  of  the  island,  adding  to  the 
impression  that  this  was  an  intentional  warning. 

War  Crimes  and  Punishment  The  long-expected 
trial  of  the  Nazi  war  criminals  in  Denmark  finally 
was  held  during  the  year.  In  mid- June,  the  four  top 
men  in  the  German  occupation  regime  were  ar- 
raigned before  a  Copenhagen  court  on  225  charges 
of  war  crimes  and  terroristic  acts.  The  trial  ended 
on  September  20  with  death  sentences  against 
Werner  Best,  Hitler's  "plenipotentiary"  (actually 
civil  governor)  in  Denmark  and  the  Gestapo  chief 
Otto  Bovensiepen.  Gen.  Hermann  von  Hanneken, 
commander  of  the  occupation  forces,  and  SS  Gen. 
Guenther  Pancke,  head  of  the  Security  Police, 
were  sentenced  to  8  and  20  years  in  prison,  respec- 
tively. The  sentences  were  appealed. 

The  Economic  Situation,  Economic  conditions  in 
Denmark  in  1948  showed  a  marked  improvement 
over  the  preceding  year.  A  good  harvest  and  the 
beneficial  effects  of  the  Marshall  Plan  combined  to 
ease  shortages  and  bring  prices  down.  Gas  ration- 
ing and  certain  restrictions  on  the  use  of  electric 
power  were  lifted  on  September  1.  At  the  same 
time,  the  bread  ration  was  restored  to  the  rather 
generous  level  of  the  period  before  the  1947  crop 
failure  (see  1947  YEAR  BOOK).  Clothing  coupons 
were  made  freely  available. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  year  a  tight  situation 
prevailed  in  industry,  due  to  sharply  curtailed  de- 
liveries of  coal  from  the  Ruhr,  when  Danish  im- 
porters fell  behind  in  their  payments  of  scarce 
dollars.  In  July,  however,  funds  from  the  ERP  be- 
came available  for  this  purpose  and  coal  deliveries 
were  resumed  on  an  increased  scale.  From  Eng- 
land, too,  considerably  more  coal  was  forthcoming 
than  at  any  time  since  the  war.  As  a  result,  alloca- 
tion of  coal  to  Danish  industry  was  increased  by 
25  percent  in  September  and  stocks  for  winter 
home  use  were  brought  to  a  satisfactory  level  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  year. 

Denmark's  foreign  commerce  also  took  a  favor- 
able turn.  New  trade  agreements  were  concluded 
with  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  Belgium,  among 
other  countries.  With  each  of  the  three  divisions  of 
Germany  (bizonal,  Soviet,  and  French)  a  separate 
arrangement  was  made.  The  bizonal  trade  agree- 
ment, signed  on  September  3,  provided  for  an  ex- 
change of  $21.5  million  worth  of  goods. 

The  agreement  with  Britain,  announced  on  Feb- 
ruary 22,  gave  Danish  exporters  much  of  the  price 
increases  sought  by  them,  ranging  from  3  percent 
on  butter  to  40  percent  on  bacon  and  48  percent  on 
.eggs.  An  18-month  trade  pact  with  Russia,  signed 
on  July  10,  called  for  $31  million  worth  of  goods 
to  be  exchanged  between  the  two  countries. 

In  September  a  new  trade  pact  with  Britain  was 
concluded  for  the  period  Oct.  1,  1948  through 
Sept.  30,  1949.  Under  its  terms,  90  percent  of 
Denmark's  exportable  surplus  of  bacon  and  60  per- 
cent of  the  butter  were  reserved  for  the  British  con- 


DENTISTRY 


154 


D/SCIPtf  S  OF  CHRIST 


sumer,  at  current  prices.  Britain  agreed  to  deliver 
1.6  million  tons  of  coal,  or  about  twice  the  amount 
shipped  to  Denmark  in  the  preceding  year. 

— JOACHIM  JOESTEN 

DENTISTRY.  A  critical  analysis  of  dentistry  and  its 
problems  points  to  the  probable  course  that  dental 
practice  will  follow  in  the  foreseeable  future.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  recognition  of  the  importance  of 
dental  health  at  the  national  level  and  secondly 
that  the  practicing  dentist  must  be  prepared  to 
utilize  more  fully  the  preventive  measures  that  are 
being  made  available. 

At  the  national  level,  the  80th  Congress  has  pro- 
vided funds  for  the  establishment  of  a  National 
Dental  Health  Institute  at  a  cost  of  some  $2  mil- 
lion, with  some  $750,000  additional  to  be  expended 
on  various  research  problems  involving  dental  dis- 
ease. The  two  predominant  diseases  to  be  studied 
are  dental  decay  and  periodontal  disease.  There  are 
17  Federal  dental  research  studies  being  made;  one 
by  the  Army,  four  by  the  Navy,  and  twelve  by  the 
Public  Health  Service. 

A  clearcut  exposition  of  this  program  is  pre- 
sented in  an  address  by  Dr.  Leonard  A.  Scheele, 
Surgeon  General,  U.S.  Public  Health  Service,  and 
published  in  the  December,  1948,  issue  of  the 
Journal  of  the  American  Dental  Association.  Dr. 
Scheele  develops  the  thesis  that  research  develops 
the  technique  for  the  mass  prevention  of  dental 
disease  and  through  consultations  requested  by  the 
various  State  Health  departments  develops  pro- 
grams for  the  individual  States  to  inaugurate  and 
project  to  the  community  level. 

The  American  Dental  Association,  through  the 
various  State  dental  societies,  has  pursued  an  ex- 
tensive campaign  acquainting  the  dental  practi- 
tioner with  the  most  efficient  methods  of  applying 
topically  sodium  fluoride  to  the  teeth,  the  use  of 
carbamide  and  ammonium  compounds  in  tooth 
powders,  and  the  revived  use  of  silver  nitrate  and 
zinc  chloride  as  preventive  agents. 

Dental  Manpower.  The  success  of  any  program  is 
the  availability  to  provide  sufficient  manpower. 
The  present  dental  directory,  the  first  published  in 
25  years,  indicates  that  there  are  slightly  over  70,- 
000  practicing  dentists  in  the  United  States,  one 
dentist  to  every  2,000  inhabitants — with  a  marked 
concentration  in  the  urban  areas  and  a  marked  de- 
ficiency in  the  rural  areas,  and  this  is  an  unfortu- 
nate distribution.  Of  this  number,  some  3,500  are 
serving  with  the  Federal  Government  in  the  Army, 
Navy,  and  Public  Health  Service,  while  an  estimat- 
ed additional  1,000  are  employed  by  State  and 
local  institutions  and  departments  of  health. 

Dental  Schools.  The  enrollment  of  dental  students 
is  continuing  at  a  capacity  level  with  a  majority  of 
the  students  still  in  the  G.I.  category.  Some  7,244 
are  in  predental  training,  and  7,314  in  the  dental 
schools.  There  is  still  an  acute  shortage  of  dental 
personnel  in  the  Armed  services.  Definite  efforts 
are  being  made  to  make  this  service  more  attractive 
by  furthering  the  autonomy  of  the  Dental  Corps, 
by  increasing  the  base  pay  of  dental  officers  in 
recognition  of  their  increased  investment  in  time 
and  expense  in  getting  dental  training,  and  by  the 
granting  of  deferments  by  Selective  Service  to  bo- 
na-fide  predental  and  dental  students. 

There  has  been  established  a  new  School  of 
Dentistry  at  the  University  of  Alabama,  two  new 
schools  of  oral  hygiene  at  New  York  State  Colleges 
of  Arts  and  Sciences  in  Brooklyn  and  in  Buffalo, 
and  a  predental  course  project  for  North  Dakota. 
The  following  dental  schools — Baylor  University, 
Howard  University,  University  of  Kansas  City,  Lo- 


yola University  (Chicago),  University  of  Oregon, 
University  of  Tennessee,  University  of  Texas,  Tufts 
College  Dental  School,  Medical  College  of  Vir- 
ginia, University  of  Washington,  and  the  Eastman 
Dental  Dispensary  are  undertaking  extensive  build- 
ing and  rehabilitation  programs  which  will  im- 
prove their  teaching  facilities  and  provide  for  en- 
larged research  programs  that  have  been  so  lamen- 
tably underdeveloped. 

Dental  Teaching.  Two  important  adjuncts  to  the 
.  dissemination  of  dental  information  were  inaugu- 
rated in  1948.  First,  the  use  of  long-distance  tele- 
phone lines  to  transmit  a  series  of  postgraduate 
courses  to  Scranton,  Pa.,  dentists  by  instructors 
speaking  in  distant  cities  to  groups  gathered  before 
a  loudspeaker;  secondly,  the  use  of  radio  by  means 
of  which  an  instructor  confined  to  his  home,  lec- 
tured to  his  students  assembled  in  a  lecture  hall  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  and  thirdly,  the 
application  of  video — the  first  dental  meeting  to 
be  televised  was  held  in  Philadelphia  in  February, 
and  the  first  demonstration  of  technique  in  perio- 
dontia  presented  to  a  large  group  at  Creighton  Uni- 
versity. 

What's  New  in  Dentistry.  The  outstanding  contri- 
bution of  the  year  for  the  practicing  dentists  was 
the  introduction  of  an  absorbable  cellulose  packing 
that  could  be  placed  in  the  tooth  socket  following 
post-operation  which  prevented  the  entrance  of  in- 
fection, and  reduced  bleeding  to  a  minimum. 

During  the  past  year  a  number  of  popular  arti- 
cles have  been  written  on  dentistry  for  the  layman, 
in  such  magazines  as  the  Saturday  Evening  Post, 
Colliers,  Life,  Cosmopolitan.,  and  Scientific  Amer- 
ican. These  emphasize  the  three  channels  of  mass 
prevention  of  dental  decay: 

(1)  Fluorine — the  use  of  sodium  fluoride  in 
drinking  water.  Fluorine  is  also  used  in  direct  ap- 
plication to  children's  teeth,  though  experts  are  at 
variance  as  to  the  time  between  treatments. 

(2)  The  use  of  a  tooth  powder  containing  carbo- 
mide  and  ammonia  which  tends  to  reduce  the 
acid-producing  powers  of  the  mouth  flora. 

(3)  The  reintroduction  of  zinc  chloride  and 
silver  nitrate  as  caries  resistants  when  topically  ap- 
plied. 

In  New  York  City  there  is  a  tremendous  under- 
taking in  the  prevention  of  dental  caries  where 
50,000  children  are  receiving  topical  applications 
of  sodium  fluoride. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  innovation  of  the 
year  is  the  establishment  of  a  caries-control  clinic 
at  the  dental  school  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, at  which  dentists  living  within  100  miles  of 
Philadelphia  can  have  individual  patient  saliva  ex- 
amined for  potential  acid-producing  bacteria.  Such 
examination  and  report  includes  the  determination 
of  methods  suggested  for  control  Significant  in  the 
service  are  the  suggestions  for  dietary  control. 

This  year  has  seen  the  first  accrediting  of  Hos- 
pital Dental  Departments.  About  30  hospitals  in 
10  States  and  4  Army  and  5  Navy  hospitals  have 
been  certified  to  have  dental  service  acceptable  to 
the  standards  adapted  by  the  American  Dental  As- 
sociation. 

Two  important  observations  have  been  made: 
first,  that  dental  schools  are  taking  a  more  definite 
place  in  initiating  dental  research,  and  second,  that 
they  are  providing  long-term  postgraduate  courses 
in  specialized  fields  of  dentistry'  leading  to  ad- 
vanced degrees  and  short-term  refresher  courses. 
— RAUPH  S.  VOORHEES 

DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST.  A  Christian  unity  movement 
which  had  its  beginning  during  the  revival  period 


DISTRICT  OF  COWMBIA 


153 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 


of  the  early  19th  century.  Its  leaders  were  Barton 
W.  Stone,  in  Kentucky,  and  Thomas  and  Alexander 
Campbell  in  Western  Pennsylvania.  Congregational 
in  policy,  they  believe  that  sects  are  unscriptural. 
The  communion  maintains  9  hospitals,  16  dis- 
pensaries, 6  homes  for  children,  and  355  mission 
schools.  In  1946,  25  colleges,  universities,  founda- 
tions, and  Bible  Schools  cooperated  with  the  Board 
of  Hisher  Education.  Total  church  membership 
in  the  United  States  (1948):  1,724,905.  Headquar- 
ters: 516  K  of  P  Building,  Indianapolis  4,  Ind. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA.  A  district,  co-extensive  with 
Washington,  the  national  capital  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  enclosed  by  the  State  of  Maryland,  and 
on  the  west  is  bounded  by  the  Potomac  River. 
Total  land  area:  62  square  miles,  excluding  inland 
water  of  8  square  miles.  The  population,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1940,  was  663,091,  of  whom 
474,326  were  white,  187,266  Negro,  190  Indian, 
and  724  Asiatic.  In  1940,  62.2  percent  of  the  popu- 
lation (212,118  men  and  131,915  women)  were 
gainfully  employed;  4,037  men  and  7,276  women 
were  reported  divorced;  families  numbered  170,- 
640  (of  3.9  persons).  The  estimated  population 
(July  1,  1948)  was  898,000. 

The  city  of  Washington,  with  Georgetown,  cov- 
ers about  one-seventh  of  the  area  of  the  District 
About  six-sevenths  of  the  area  is  occupied  by  farms, 
gardens,  and  suburbs.  In  1940  there  were  65  farms 
averaging  36  acres.  Flowers,  vegetables,  and  dairy 
products  were  the  principal  products  of  the  farms. 

Government.  A  board  of  three  commissioners  ad- 
ministers the  government  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia. Two  of  the  commissioners  are  appointed  from 
civil  life  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  and 
are  confirmed  by  the  United  States  Senate;  the 
third  is  detailed  (by  the  President)  from  the  En- 
gineering Corps  of  the  United  States  Army.  District 
commissioners  are  in  charge  of  ordinary  municipal 
matters.  Legislation  is  enacted  by  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States,  after  consultation  with  the  board 
of  commissioners.  Residents  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia do  not  vote. 

BOGS.  Champion  Rock  Ridge  Night  Rocket,  Bed- 
lington  terrier  belonging  to  Mr.  and  Mrs.  William 
A.  Rockefeller  of  Greenwich,  Conn.,  gained  unique 
honors  by  winning  both  the  biggest  indoor  and 
outdoor  bench  classics.  Night  Rocket  went  best  in 
show  at  the  Westminster  Kennel  Club's  seventy- 
second  fixture  in  Madison  Square  Garden  Feb- 
ruary 11—12,  taking  top  prize  for  this  blue-ribbon 
classic  after  keen  judging  of  2,540  canines. 

The  Rocket  then  repeated  his  victory  of  1947  in 
the  Morris  and  Essex  Kennel  Club  exhibition — 
largest  outdoor  dog  show — in  May.  The  1948  show 
at  Madison,  N.J.,  attracted  2,664  entries. 

An  old  English  classic  was  restored  in  October, 
and  the  first  postwar  Crufts  exhibition,  staged  in 
London,  resulted  in  a  triumph  for  Tracey  Witch, 
cocker  spaniel  bitch  shown  by  Herbert  S.  Lloyd  of 
Uxbridge.  Lloyd,  an  exhibitor  for  51  years,  saw 
his  cocker  spaniels  capture  five  awards. 

Tip  Top  Bob,  pointer  owned  by  E.  J.  Laney  of 
Daytona  Beach,  Fla.,  took  the  United  States  Field 
Trial  Association's  open  all-age  stake;  Peter  Rinsld, 
pointer  owned  by  R.  R,  Waugh  of  Peoria,  111., 
took  bird  dog  honors  and  Briscoe's  Carolina 
Doughgirl,  pointer  owned  by  P.  Briscoe  of  Okla- 
homa City,  Okla.,  was  the  amateur  field  trial  win- 
ner. — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC.  A  republic  of  the  West  In- 
dies, in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island  of  Hispan- 


iola.  More  than  two-thirds  o£  the  surface  is 
occupied  by  highlands,  the  rest  by  low  plains  and 
tropical  coastlines.  The  central  plains  receive  the 
heaviest  rainfall.  Temperature  in  the  lowlands  is 
high  throughout  the  year. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  19,332  square  miles. 
Population:  2,182,109  (1948  est),  of  whom  about 
67  percent  are  mestizos;  19  percent  Negroes;  14 
percent  of  European  descent.  The  capital  is  Santo 
Domingo  de  Guzman  (now  officially  named  Ciu- 
dad  Trujiflo),  139,090  inhabitants  in  1946.  Other 
cities  of  importance:  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros, 
San  Pedro  de  Macoris,  Barahona,  and  Bani. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  Constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  Roman  Catholicism  is 
predominant.  Spanish  is  the  official  language.  Il- 
literacy in  1946  amounted  to  35,75  percent  of  the 
population,  compared  with  75  percent  in  1930. 
In  the  1947-48  school  year  there  were  2,184  pub- 
lic primary  schools  attended  by  220,409  students; 
35  public  secondary  schools  and  13  special  ones 
with  4,531  students,  and  the  University  of  Santo 
Domingo  with  an  enrollment  of  1,558. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  Dominican  Republic  is 
an  agricultural  country,  with  a  few  industries  of 
consumer  goods.  Sugar  is  the  chief  crop,  yielding 
465,428  metric  tons  in  1946-47.  Principal  lines  of 
production  in  1947,  with  figures  representing  ex- 
port values  in  dollars,  were:  sugar,  50,424,067; 
cacao,  12,951,998;  tobacco,  4,547,867;  coffee 
beans,  4,050,355;  molasses  2,962,271;  corn,  1,135,- 
754;  roasted  coffee,  1,076,020;  refined  sugar,  873,- 
214;  and  bananas,  651,080. 

Livestock  (1945):  762,845  head  of  cattle;  783,- 
015  hogs;  468,026  goats  and  40,037  sheep.  Forest 
products  are  chiefly  cedar  and  mahogany,  and  fur- 
niture exports  in  1947  were  valued  at  $107,181. 
Local  industries  include  sugar  refineries,  rum,  pea- 
nut oil,  cigars,  cigarettes,  and  other  consumer 
goods. 

Total  exports  in  1947  were  $83,205,993;  imports, 
$48,700,000.  Principal  customers  in  order  of  im- 
portance were  Great  Britain,  the  United  States, 
Canada,  Chile,  Puerto  Rico,  and  the  Netherlands 
West  Indies.  Principal  suppliers  were  the  United 
States,  India,  Canada,  Netherlands  West  Indies, 
Mexico,  and  Argentina.  Imports  during  the  first 
six  months  of  1948  were  $28,990,000;  exports, 
$40,660,000. 

Transportation.  The  Dominican  Republic  has  245 
kilometers  of  government-owned  railroad,  plus 
about  1,000  kilometers  of  private  lines,  mostly 
owned  by  the  sugar  companies.  There  are  2,500 
kilometers  of  highway,  and  in  1947  there  were 
2,884  cars,  2,555  trucks,  and  356  buses.  Interna- 
tional air  service  is  provided  by  the  Pan  American 
Airways,  British  Airways,  and  Royal  Dutch  Air- 
lines; domestic  air  transportation  by  the  Compania 
Dominicana  de  Aviacion. 

Finance.  The  1948  budget  shows  revenue  of  $58,- 
132,600;  expenditure  of  $58,158,318.  This  is  an 
increase  in  revenue  of  $17,907,908;  in  expenditure 
of  $18,071,163,  over  the  1947  budget.  Currency  in 
circulation  on  Sept.  30, 1947,  was  $27  million;  bank 
deposits,  $35.3  million.  The  Dominican  Central 
Bank  balance  sheet  on  Apr.  30,  1948,  showed  total 
assets  of  $25,319,515.  A  system  of  exchange  con- 
trol has  been  established.  Cost  of  living  index  af 
the  end  of  1947,  was  219  (1937  =  100). 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  Jan.  10 
1947,  the  Dominican  Republic  is  a  centralized  re- 
public of  18  provinces.  It  has  a  Senate  of  19  mem- 
bers and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  of  45.  Members 
serve  for  5-year  terms,  as  does  the  President,  whc 
is  assisted  by  a  Cabinet.  On  May  16, 1947,  General 


DUKE  ENDOWMENT 


156 


ECUADOR 


Rafael  Leonidas  Trujillo  was  elected  for  the  fourth 
time  to  the  office  of  President,  thus  continuing  the 
political  control  which  he  has  maintained,  directly 
or  indirectly,  for  18  years. 

Events,  1948.  Another  year  was  added  to  Trujil- 
lo's  long  dictatorship.  Domestic  political  opposition 
was  uneventful,  as  the  Juventud  Democratica  and 
Partido  Socialista  Popular  groups  were  allowed 
little  activity.  Attention  was  focused  chiefly  on  the 
international  Caribbean  front,  and  speculation  as 
to  the  possibility  of  another  attempt  to  overthrow 
the  Government  by  means  of  an  invasion,  as  in 
1947  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  Events  of  1947,  page  138). 

Propaganda  and  Achievements.  The  administration 
intensified  its  propaganda  campaigns  in  order  to 
win  the  support  of  the  outside  world — especially 
the  United  States — and  Trujillo Js  paper.  La  Nacion, 
carried  stories  featuring  achievements  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. The  nation's  economy  profited  from  ex- 
port increases,  and  new  government  projects  were 
inaugurated,  while  various  old  ones  were  com- 
pleted. Among  administrative  developments,  one 
of  the  most  important  was  the  creation  of  a  Secre- 
tariat for  National  Economy,  set  up  to  control  vari- 
ous fields  of  industry  and  foreign  and  domestic 
commerce.  This  new  department  of  Trujillo's  ma- 
chinery is  the  official  licensing  agency  for  sugar 
exports,  and  imports  of  some  essential  products, 
It  will  also  control  the  issuance  of  bank  drafts,  thus 
strengthening  still  more  the  President's  hold  on  die 
country's  economy. 

An  important  government  project  was  the  be- 
ginning of  the  University  City  in  the  old  Universi- 
dad  de  Santo  Domingo,  at  a  cost  of  $2  million.  An- 
other  was  the  erection  of  a  $1  million  Institute  of 
Agriculture  at  San  Cristobal,  to  systematize  all 
phases  of  agricultural  instruction.  President  Tru- 
jillo also  announced  a  3-year  bridge-construction 
program  to  replace  all  wooden  bridges  with  mod- 
ern concrete  ones. 

International  Po/jf/cs.  External  affairs  were  char- 
acterized by  the  open  antagonism  of  the  peoples 
of  Venezuela,  Costa  Rica,  Guatemala,  and  Cuba 
against  the  Trujillo  regime.  There  were  rumors  of 
activities  of  the  so-called  Caribbean  Legion,  com- 
posed of  Dominican  exiles  residing  in  those  coun- 
tries, as  well  as  exiles  from  Honduras  and  Nica- 
ragua, and  the  organization  of  an  armed  invasion 
of  the  island  was  thought  possible.  An  alliance  was 
reported  between  Trujillo,  Sornoza  (Nicaragua's 
"strong  man")  and  Carias  Andino  of  Honduras, 
to  maintain  their  hold  over  their  respective  peoples. 
In  the  last  days  of  1948,  Costa  Rica  was  invaded 
from  Nicaragua;  some  considered  it  a  counter- 
measure  of  the  Nicaraguan  Government  to  prevent 
the  activities  of  the  Legion,  which  planned  to  use 
Costa  Rica  as  a  base  to  invade  Somoza's  territory. 

The  Dominican  Republic  attended  the  Ninth 
Inter-American  Conference  of  American  States 
held  in  Bogota  in  April  (see  PAN  AMERICAN  AC- 
TIVITIES), and  became  signatory  to  the  Charter  of 
the  Americas.  -  — MIGUEL  JORRIN 

DUKE  ENDOWMENT,  The.  A  foundation  created  by 
James  B.  Duke  in  1924,  known  for  its  connection 
with  Duke  University,  hospital  work,  and  a  number 
of  other  activities  in  the  Carolinas.  The  Endow- 
ment is  a  permanent  one  with  a  self-perpetuating 
board  of  15  trustees.  Except  for  the  $17,000,000 
spent  in  erecting  and  equipping  Duke  University, 
it  is  not  authorized  to  expend  any  of  its  principal. 
A  report  covering  its  first  23  years,  ending  Dec.  31, 
1947,  showed  that  the  Endowment  had  distributed 
and  allocated  $71,129,201  as  follows:  Duke  Uni- 
versity, $41,124,286;  hospitals,  $20,107,030;  Da- 


vidson College,  $1,696,792;  Furman  University, 
$1,695,620;  Johnson  C.  Smith  University,  $1,192,- 
546;  orphanages,  $2,724,628;  superannuated  Metfi- 
odist  preachers,  $548,691;  rural  churches,  $1,002,- 
157  for  building  and  $1,037,447  for  operations. 
Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  George  G. 
Allen;  Vice  Chairman,  Norman  A.  Cocke;  Secre- 
tary, Alex.  H.  Sands,  Jr.;  Treasurer,  Walter  C. 
Parker.  Headquarters:  Power  Building,  Charlotte  1, 
N.C. 

EAST  AFRICA  HIGH  COMMISSION.  An  interterritorial 
organization  which  came  into  force  on  Jan.  1,  1948. 
It  replaces  the  former  East  African  Governor's  Con- 
ference. The  High  Commission  consists  of  the  gov- 
ernors of  Kenya,  Tanganyika,  and  Uganda  and  ad- 
ministers certain  services  common  to  all,  chiefly 
economic  and  technical. 

There  is  also  an  East  African  Central  Assembly 
composed  of  10  official  and  13  unofficial  members. 
The  High  Commission  has  power  to  legislate  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Central  Assembly  in 
matters  relating  to  interterritorial  services.  Officers: 
Sir  George  Sanford,  Administrator  to  the  High 
Commission;  C.  C.  Spencer,  Economic  Secretary; 
J.  C.  Mundy,  Member  for  Finance;  Sir  Reginald 
Robins,  Member  for  Transport;  H.  C.  Wilbourn, 
Postmaster  General.  Headquarters :  Nairobi,  Kenya. 

EASTERN  ORTHODOX  CHURCHES.  There  are  in  the 
United  States  11  different  bodies  of  the  Orthodox 
church,  with  a  total  membership  of  711,287.  Two 
major  groups,  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church  (Hel- 
lenic) and  the  Russian  Orthodox  Church,  account 
for  about  600,000  of  the  total  members. 

Greek  Orthodox  Church  (Hellenic).  The  Greek- 
speaking  Orthodox  Christians  have  had  scattered 
parishes  in  the  United  States  for  the  last  70  years. 
They  were  first  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Met- 
ropolitan of  Athens,  later  under  the  Patriarchate 
of  Constantinople.  Political  changes  in  Europe  have 
been  reflected  in  all  branches  of  the  Church  in  the 
U.S.  Considerable  unity  and  order  resulted  from 
the  1931  convention  in  New  York,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Archbishop  Athenagoras,  The  Greek  Arch- 
diocese of  North  and  South  America  has  300 
churches,  325  priests,  275,000  reported  members, 
arid  500,000  communicants.  Its  many  educational 
institutions  has  an  enrollment  of  25,000  students, 
and  200  persons  are  cared  for  in  its  3  benevolent 
institutions.  Headquarters,  10  East  79th  St.,  New 
York  21,  N.Y. 

Russian  Orthodox  Church.  Entering  Alaska  in  1792, 
before  its  purchase  by  the  United  States,  the  Rus- 
sian Orthodox  Church  moved  its  headquarters  to 
San  Francisco  in  1872,  and  to  New  York  in  1905. 
Total  membership  in  the  United  States,  300,000 
(1947).  Metropolitan  of  America  and  Canada, 
Most  Reverend  Theophilus  Pashkovsky.  Headquar- 
ters, 59  East  Second  St.,  New  York  3,  N.Y. 

ECUADOR.  A  republic  of  South  America.  It  com- 

glses  three  natural  regions,  the  coast,  the  Andean 
ghlands,  and  the  Amazon.  The  climate  is  tropical 
in  the  eastern  lowlands  and  the  Amazon  region,  in- 
termediate in  the  plateaus  and  cold  in  the  high- 
lands. 

Area  and  Population.  The  exact  area  has  not  been 
determined  due  to  unsettled  boundary  claims,  but 
it  is  estimated  at  175,855  square  miles,  including 
the  Galapagos  Islands.  Population:  3,400,000  in 
1947  (54  percent  mestizos,  27  percent  Indians,  8 
percent  of  European  descent  and  11  percent  of 
other  ethnic  groups).  Chief  cities:  Quito  (capital), 


ECUADOR 


157 


EDUCATION 


211,174  (1947);  Guayaquil,  81,893;  Cuenca,  53,- 
871. 

Education  and  Religion.  Freedom  of  worship  is 
guaranteed  in  the  constitution.  Roman  Catholicism 
prevails  and  Spanish  is  the  official  language,  al- 
though the  Indians  speak  the  tongues  of  their  an- 
cestors. About  40  percent  of  the  population  is  lit- 
erate. According  to  the  census  of  1947,  there  were 
3,189  elementary  schools  with  284,052  students; 
156  secondary  schools  with  19,418  students;  66  in- 
stitutions of  intermediate  training  (normal  schools 
and  "schools  of  humanities")  with  11,843  students, 
and  four  universities. 

Production.  The  principal  lines  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction in  1946  included  rice,  2,219,000  quintals 
(46  kilos  each);  coffee,  7,360,000  kilos;  cacao, 
303,000  quintals  of  100  pounds  each;  rubber, 
1,327,000  kilos  and  tagua  nuts,  12,531,000  kilos. 
Mineral  production  for  the  same  year:  gold,  75,- 

390.000  troy  oz.;  petroleum,  97,647,000  U.S.  gal; 
kerosene,  12,271,000  U.S.  gal.;  silver,  24,073,000 
troy  oz.  The  monthly  production  of  crude  petro- 
leum in  1947  was  estimated  to  total  25,900  metric 
tons. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  imports  in  1947  amounted  to 
604,400,000  sucres  (a  sucre  equals  $0.07  U.S.  cur- 
rency). The  chief  buyers  from  Ecuador  are  the 
U.S.,  Jamaica,  Cuba,  Venezuela,  Colombia  and 
Panama;  the  chief  suppliers  are  the  U.S.,  Argen- 
tina, Great  Britain,  Colombia,  Canada  and  Costa 
Rica. 

Transportation.  Ecuador  has  800  miles  of  railways 
and  about  4,500  miles  of  all  types  of  roads.  The 
most  recent  data  on  motor  vehicle  registration  in- 
dicated a  total  of  5,898.  There  is  international  air 
service  provided  by  foreign  companies  and  a  few 
national  airlines  connect  the  larger  cities  in  the 
country.  Ecuador  has  about  30,000  radio  sets  and 
7,100  telephones. 

Finance.  In  1948  the  budget  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures were  estimated  to  balance  at  385  million 
sucres.  At  the  end  of  September,  1948,  currency 
in  circulation  amounted  to  338  million  sucres.  Bank 
deposits  on  Aug.  30,  1948,  totaled  313  million 
sucres.  The  public  debt  on  Nov.  30,  1947,  was: 
internal— 112,943,000  sucres;  external— $37,595,- 
000.  (The  sucre  was  worth  U.S.$0.0741,  Central 
Bank—official,  on  Oct.  11,  1948). 

The  Central  Bank  of  Ecuador  maintains  a  cost- 
of-living  index  based  on  market  prices  at  Quito  of 
certain  staple  foodstuffs.  At  the  end  of  September, 
1948,  the  domestic  debt  to  the  Central  Bank  was 
reduced  to  65.7  million  sucres,  against  the  high  of 

153.1  million  at  the  end  of  1946.  The  money  sup- 

Ely,  however,  was  656.6  million  against  588.7  mil- 
pn  at  the  end  of  January,  1948.  Net  gold  and  for- 
eign exchange  resources  were  306.8  million  sucres 
($24.1  million). 

Government.  Under  the  constitution  of  Dec.  31, 
1946,  Ecuador  is  a  centralized  republic  of  17  prov- 
inces. Legislative  power  rests  in  two  chambers 
(upper  and  lower).  The  Senate  is  composed  of 
two  Senators  for  each  province  of  the  Sierra  and 
the  Litoral,  one  from  the  rest  of  the  provinces,  and 
several  functional  senators  designated  by  business 
and  professional  groups.  Deputies  are  elected  by 
the  provinces  in  the  proportion  of  one  for  every 
50,000  inhabitants.  Executive  power  is  exercised 
by  a  President  elected  for  a  four-year  term.  On 
June  6,  1948,  Galo  Plaza  Lasso  was  elected  Presi- 
dent and  took  office  on  August  31. 

Events,  1948.  The  different  political  parties  started 
early  in  the  year  to  get  ready  for  the  presidential 
campaign.  The  Liberal  Radical  Party  formed  a 
coalition  with  the  Socialist  Party,  and  together 


nominated  General  Alberto  Enriquez  Gallo,  ex- 
president  of  the  republic,  as  their  presidential  can- 
didate. Dr.  Gallo  is  a  member  of  the  Liberal  Party, 
The  Conservative  Party  nominated  Dr,  Manuel 
Eliseo  Flor  Torres,  and  the  new  independent  party, 
called  the  Civic  Democratic  Movement,  nominated 
Galo  Plaza  Lasso. 

Elections,  On  June  6,  the  elections  were  held  in 
an  orderly  manner,  and  candidate  Galo  Plaza  ob- 
tained a  maiority  of  3,867  votes  over  his  nearest 
opponent,  Dr.  Flor  Torres.  The  increase  in  the 
number  of  voters  was  noteworthy,  300,000  having 
cast  their  ballots  as  compared  with  only  82,000  in 
the  1940  elections.  On  July  10,  the  President-elect 
came  to  the  United  States  for  medical  treatment, 
but  in  political  circles  it  was  rumored  that  his 
real  purpose  was  to  get  the  International  Basic  Eco- 
nomic Corporation,  through  his  friend  Nelson 
Rockefeller,  to  help  toward  the  industrial  develop- 
ment of  Ecuador,  and  to  obtain  a  loan. 

T/ie  Gran  Colombia  Conference.  The  elections  did 
not  stand  in  the  way  of  the  celebration  in  Quito  of 
an  important  economic  conference,  in  which  dele- 
gates from  Ecuador,  Colombia,  Panama,  and  Vene- 
zuela participated.  The  preparatory  sessions  were 
held  from  May  24  to  June  5,  and  on  June  24  the 
official  sessions  of  the  conference  were  inaugurated. 
The  results  were  a  step  forward  in  the  defense  of 
the  economies  of  the  countries  involved,  and  the 
Quito  Charter  was  signed  on  August  9,  setting  the 
bases  for  the  establishment  of  a  customs  union  be- 
tween the  participating  nations. 

Presidential  Inauguration.  On  August  31,  Galo 
Plaza  Lasso  took  over  the  presidency  of  the  repub- 
lic, with  Manuel  Sotomayor  as  Vice-President  The 
new  president  announced  a  progressive  program 
of  government,  and  the  people  appeared  to  be 
hopeful  of  success. 

International  front.  Ecuador  participated  in  the 
Ninth  Conference  of  American  States  held  in 
Bogota,  Colombia  in  April  (see  PAN  AMERICAN 
ACTIVITIES).  In  international  circles,  there  were 
favorable  comments  on  the  special  delegation  sent 
from  Peru  for  the  inauguration  of  the  president, 
which  was  thought  to  indicate  that  future  relations 
between  tie  two  countries  might  be  better  than  in 
the  past.  — MIGUEL  JOEIUN 

EDUCATION.  In  a  year  characterized  by  growing 
international  tensions  throughout  the  world  and  by 
several  full  scale  wars,  the  educators  of  many 
countries  continued  with  unabated  vigor  their  ef- 
forts through  educational  means  to  improve  the 
conditions  for  peace. 

UNESCO.  Disregarding  various  proposals  that  the 
third  General  Conference  of  the  United  Nations 
Educational,  Scientific,  and  Cultural  Organization 
scheduled  to  be  held  in  Lebanon,  should  be  post- 
poned or  should  be  held  in  some  other  place,  the 
organization  decided  in  an  extraordinary  session 
in  Paris  on  September  15  to  go  ahead  with  the 
plans  for  the  third  general  session.  The  third  Ces- 
sion of  the  General  Conference  opened  in  Beirut, 
Lebanon,  on  November  17  and  continued  its  work 
into  December. 

During  1948  UNESCO  sponsored  conferences, 
seminars,  and  other  meetings  of  many  educational, 
scientific,  and  cultural  organizations.  Among  the 
most  important  of  these  for  education  were  the 
three  summer  seminars  held  for  teachers  from 
many  countries  in  the  fields  of  teaching  about  the 
United  Nations,  teacher  education,  and  childhood 
education.  These  three  seminars  were  held  respec- 
tively at  Lake  Success,  in  England,  and  in  Czecho- 
slovakia. 


EDUCATION 


158 


EDUCATION 


Immediately  before  the  formal  opening  of  the 
Beirut  conference,  representatives  of  28  national 
commissions  of  UNESCO  and  of  persons  concerned 
with  setting  up  of  national  commissions  in  member 
states  which  do  not  now  have  such  organizations, 
met  in  Lebanon  to  discuss  the  role  of  national  com- 
missions and  national  cooperating  bodies  in  rela- 
tion to  their  governments  and  to  the  secretariat  of 
the  UNESCO  and  to  report  on  the  1948  programs 
of  the  national  commissions. 

Educational  Reconstruction,  The  Commission  for 
International  Educational  Reconstruction,  planned 
and  operated  a  program  of  study  and  travel  for  a 
group  of  educators  from  17  war-devastated  coun- 
tries of  Europe  and  Asia,  with  financial  aid  from 
cooperating  national  organizations  in  the  United 
States.  A  chief  feature  of  the  program  was  a  Semi- 
nar in  International  Education  conducted  for  one 
month  in  July  and  August  at  the  University  of 
Maryland.  The  American  Association  of  Colleges 
for  Teacher  Education,  The  American  Association 
of  University  Women,  The  Association  for  Child- 
hood Education,  The  American  National  Red 
Cross,  The  Canadian  Education  Association,  The 
Department  of  Classroom  Teachers  of  the  National 
Education  Association,  The  Michigan  Education 
Association,  and  The  Ohio  Education  Association 
contributed  to  the  expenses  of  the  foreign  teachers 
and  helped  formulate  the  program  of  travel  and 
study. 

The  Overseas  Teacher-Relief  Fund  of  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association  collected  more  than 
$276,000  for  the  year  1947-48.  Countries  receiving 
aid  from  the  fund  were  Albania,  Austria,  Belgium, 
Bulgaria,  Burma,  China,  Czechoslovakia,  Ethiopia, 
Finland,  France,  Germany,  Greece,  Hungary,  In- 
donesia, Italy,  Japan,  Korea,  Luxembourg,  the 
Netherlands,  Norway,  the  Philippines,  Poland, 
Slam,  the  United  Kingdom,  Corfu,  Guam,  Malta, 
and  Okinawa.  The  money  was  expended  for  CARE 
packages,  for  books,  for  surgical  instruments,  and 
for  scholarships.  In  deciding  to  continue  this  pro- 
gram of  assistance  to  teachers  in  other  countries, 
the  National  Education  Association  announced 
plans  to  bring  teachers  from  other  cQuntries  for 
short  visits  to  observe  schools  and  to  get  acquainted 
with  teachers  in  the  United  States. 

Fulbright  Act  Agreements  providing  for  educa- 
tional exchanges  under  this  act  were  signed  by 
Dec.  1,  1948,  with  nine  countries:  Belgium  and 
Luxembourg,  Burma,  China,  France,  Greece,  New 
Zealand,  the  Philippines,  and  the  United  Kingdom. 
Agreements  were  being  considered  with  the  fol- 
lowing countries:  Australia,  Austria,  Egypt,  India, 
Iran,  Italy,  the  Netherlands,  the  Netherlands  East 
Indies,  Norway3  Pakistan,  Siam,  and  Turkey.  Since 
the  only  funds  made  available  by  the  act  were  in 
foreign  currencies,  each  American  participating  in 
the  program  had  to  make  his  own  individual  ar- 
rangements for  such  dollar  balances  as  he  re- 
quired to  meet  obligations  in  the  United  States 
during  his  absence  from  the  country. 

International  Book  Exchange.  On  September  1  a 
new  national  office  for  the  exchange  of  hooks  and 
periodicals  between  the  libraries  and  scientific  and 
educational  institutions  of  the  United  States  and 
other  countries  was  established  in  the  Library  of 
Congress.  This  organization,  The  United  States 
Book  Exchange,  handled  only  printed  matter  of 
scientific  or  literary  character. 

Higher  Education.  The  Report  of  the  President's 
Commission  on  Higher  Education,  published  early 
in  the  year,  created  wide  discussion.  Chief  among 
the  Commission's  recommendations  were  a  pro- 
posal of  Federal  grants-in-aid  to  individual  needy 


students  in  their  last  two  years  of  high  school,  a 
federally  supported  program  of  scholarships  at  the 
undergraduate  level  in  all  types  of  higher  educa- 
tional institutions,  and  a  federally  administered 
plan  of  fellowships  for  graduate  study.  The  Com- 
mission envisioned  a  need  for  350,000  faculty 
members  in  1960  for  the  4.6  million  students  who 
should  be  in  the  colleges  and  universities  by  that 
time.  The  estimated  cost  of  education  given  in 
the  publicly  controlled  institutions  of  higher  edu- 
cation in  1960  was  $2,727,500,000.  The  Commis- 
sion assumed  that  the  Federal  Government  would 
contribute  heavily  toward  this  cost. 

Federal  Aid  to  Education.  The  National  Education 
Association,  local  and  state  educational  associa- 
tions, many  individual  civic  and  professional  lead- 
ers, and  numerous  organizations  of  men  and  women 
in  various  groups  carried  on  a  vigorous  and  highly 
effective  campaign  for  Federal  aid  to  education. 
For  the  first  time  a  president  of  the  United  States 
recommended  in  his  State-of-the-Union  messages 
to  the  Congress  the  urgent  need  of  such  legislation. 
A  bill  authorizing  $300  million  of  Federal  funds 
each  year  for  the  purpose  of  more  nearly  equalizing 
educational  opportunities  and  for  building  a  mini- 
mum public  school  program  for  the  youth  of  the 
nation  was  passed  by  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of  58 
to  22,  was  favorably  reported  by  a  House  sub- 
committee, was  extensively  supported  by  the  press 
and  the  radio,  but  was  blocked  by  the  House  ma- 
jority leadership  which  refused  to  allow  the  bill  to 
come  to  a  vote  in  that  chamber.  Under  the  same 
Congressional  leadership  appropriations  for  Euro- 
pean Federal  aid  were  made  with  $265  million  ear- 
marked for  tobacco  and  about  $70  million  specified 
for  liquor. 

Teacher  Supply  and  Demand.  The  National  Com- 
mission on  Teacher  Education  and  Professional 
Standards  of  the  National  Education  Association 
reported  that  only  72  percent  as  many  college  and 
university  students  were  completing  standard  cer- 
tificate requirements  for  elementary  teaching  in 
1948  as  had  completed  the  requirements  in  1941. 
The  comparable  figure  for  high-school  teachers 
completing  standard  certificate  requirements  in 
1948  was  90  percent  of  those  in  1941.  In  certain 
high  school  teaching  fields,  however,  supply  had 
already  achieved  balance  with  demand  by  1948. 
The  situation  in  the  elementary  field  was  very  seri- 
ous. It  was  generally  estimated  that  the  country 
would  need  about  100,000  new  elementary  teach- 
ers annually  for  the  period  1948-1958.  The  colleges 
which  prepared  elementary  teachers  in  1948  grad- 
uated about  20,000  students,  of  whom  less  than 
12,000  were  4-year  college  graduates.  More  than 
4  million  children  of  school  age  in  the  United  States 
in  1948  were  not  enrolled  in  any  school.  More 
than  8  million  persons,  14  years  of  age  and  older, 
had  less  than  a  fifth-grade  education,  and  almost 
3  million  of  these  persons  were  illiterate. 

Teachers  salaries  at  the  beginning  of  the  aca- 
demic year  1948-49  appeared  to  show  a  much 
smaller  annual  increase  than  in  the  previous  year. 
According  to  estimates  of  the  United  States  Office 
of  Education,  based  on  statements  from  State  De- 
partments of  Education,  13  states  expected  no  sal- 
ary increase  on  the  average  during  the  coming 
year.  Twelve  states  predicted  some  increases  and 
21  states  expected  an  approximate  increase  of  8 
percent  over  those  in  effect  in  the  academic  year 
1947-48.  In  1947—48  the  average  increase  in 
teachers  salaries  over  1946-47  was  approximately 
21  percent  in  a  total  of  43  states  reporting. 

In  1948,  furthermore,  a  decided  slackening  of 
the  wave  of  resignations  from  teaching  positions 


EDUCATION 


159 


EDUCATION 


was  noted.  For  the  year  ending  June,  1948,  only 
half  as  many  teachers  resigned  from  the  New  York 
City  school  system  as  in  either  of  the  preceding  two 
years. 

Various  teacher  education  institutions  and  or- 
ganizations studied  the  problem  of  recruitment  of 
teachers  and  made  attempts  to  interest  high  school 
and  college  students  in  teaching  as  a  profession. 
The  School  of  Education  of  the  University  of  In- 
diana, in  a  bulletin  by  Richey  and  Fox,  reported 
that  freshman  students  were  more  likely  to  decide 
to  enter  teaching  when  they  were  older,  men  stu- 
dents, men  who  had  been  in  the  armed  services, 
younger  women  students,  women  from  rural  areas, 
villages,  and  large  cities  rather  than  from  small 
cities,  men  from  rural  areas,  villages,  and  small 
cities  rather  than  from  large  cities,  students  whose 
parents  were  in  the  lower  income  bracket,  students 
who  had  attended  small  high  schools,  students 
whose  fathers  were  fanners,  skilled  or  unskilled  la- 
borers, or  school  teachers  or  administrators,  and 
students  who  had  had  previous  experience  of  a 
teaching  nature.  The  students  who  had  decided  not 
to  enter  teaching  gave  as  their  reasons  poor  salaries, 
lack  of  appeal  in  the  profession,  and  the  restricted 
personal  life  and  limited  social  contacts  of  teachers. 
The  College  of  Education  of  Ohio  State  University 
issued  a  recruitment  booklet  which  described  the 
jobs  available  to  teachers,  gave  an  account  of  the 
shortage  in  the  £eld,  and  discussed  the  advantages 
of  teaching.  The  American  Association  of  Colleges 
for  Teacher  Education  issued  a  statement  by  its 
president,  Walter  Hager,  pointing  out  the  great  ca- 
reer opportunities  which  will  be  offered  to  the 
teaching  profession  during  the  next  decade. 

Curriculum.  The  American  Automobile  Associa- 
tion reported  that  in  1948,  238,000  students  com- 
pleted driver-training  courses  in  high  school  com- 
pared with  70,000  in  1947.  States  listed  by  the 
Association  as  having  made  progress  in  the  pro- 
motion of  driver  education  were  North  Dakota, 
Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Vir- 
ginia, West  Virginia,  Arizona,  and  Delaware. 

The  Classical  Association  of  the  Middle  West 
and  South  began  an  experiment  with  Latin  teach- 
ing based  on  die  2-year  course  on  the  Aeneid  which 
was  expected  to  feature  a  greater  emphasis  on  the 
study  of  Latin  culture  and  a  lesser  emphasis  on 
language  structure. 

Along  with  the  Zeal  for  Democracy  program 
sponsored  by  the  United  States  Office  of  Education, 
were  many  developments  in  social  studies  teaching 
in  tiie  schools.  Emphasis  in  many  schools  was 
placed  on  a  new  attention  to  the  study  of  democ- 
racy and  its  competitors,  the  ideals  and  principles 
of  American  democracy,  the  relationship  of  Ameri- 
can history  and  politics  to  those  of  other  countries, 
and  education  for  world  understanding. 

In  many  high  schools  of  the  country  a  new  em- 
phasis was  placed  on  the  study  of  home  and  fam- 
ily living.  Courses  for  boys  as  well  as  for  girls  were 
established  to  include  study  of  family  finances, 
budgeting,  mental  hygiene  problems,  and  child 
development. 

Professional  Relations.  Accompanying  the  activi- 
ties of  the  House  Committee  on  Un-American  Ac- 
tivities, various  state  and  local  agencies  hunted 
assiduously  for  "red"  elements  in  teaching  staffs.- 
The  Ohio  State  University  adopted  a  new  require- 
ment that  each  member  of  the  faculty  must  sign 
an  affidavit  that  he  did  not  belong  to  any  political 
party  or  organization  which  advocated  the  over- 
throw of  either  the  Federal  or  the  State  Govern- 
ment by  force  or  violence.  Investigation  of  various 
teachers'  organizations,  notably  those  affiliated  with 


labor  organizations,  was  made  in  various  parts  of 
the  country.  The  CIO  teachers'  local  in  New  York 
City  was  investigated  by  a  sub-committee  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  Committee  on  Education 
and  Labor.  Teachers  were  discharged  in  various 
parts  of  the  country  for  being  members  of  the 
Communist  Party,  although  a  vigorous  minority 
protested  that  so  long  as  the  Communist  Party  was 
legal,  membership  in  it  was  not  a  sufficient  cause 
in  itself  for  dismissal  of  a  teacher. 

The  Commission  for  the  Defense  of  Democracy 
through  Education  of  the  National  Education  As- 
sociation investigated  numerous  cases  of  reportedly 
unfair  dismissal  procedures  employed  by  school 
boards  against  teachers  and  administrators.  One  of 
the  most  notable  of  these  cases  was  that  in  which 
the  Board  of  Education  of  Chandler,  Arizona,  dis- 
missed 5  teachers  without  explanation,  charges,  or 
hearings.  In  a  widely  circulated  report  on  this 
case,  die  Commission  took  the  position  that  it  was 
unprofessional  for  a  school  board  to  operate  with- 
out a  carefully  organized  procedure  of  fair  dis- 
missal to  which  the  board  scrupulously  adheres. 

Federal  Legislation.  The  educational  legislation 
passed  by  the  80th  Congress  of  the  United  States 
was  fairly  small  and  inconsequential.  The  Lanham 
Act  was  amended  in  minor  administrative  details. 
The  secretaries  of  the  three  armed  services  were 
authorized  to  donate  obsolete  or  surplus  property 
to  educational  institutions.  Minor  clarifying  amend- 
ments were  made  to  the  law  commonly  called  the 
GI  Bill  of  Rights.  Federal  legislation  most  directly 
affecting  education  was  the  Selective  Service  Act 
of  1948.  This  Act  had  provisions  for  the  deferment 
from  service,  under  certain  conditions,  of  high 
school  and  college  students  and  authorized  the 
President  to  provide  for  the  deferment  of  other 
groups  of  students  when  appropriate. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1948,  the 
Federal  Government  spent  more  than  $2,000  mil- 
lion for  the  education  and  training  of  veterans.  It 
also  gave  about  $500  million  worth  of  surplus  prop- 
erty to  schools  and  colleges,  and  the  usual  regular 
Federal  appropriation  for  the  support  of  Land- 
Grant  colleges  ($5,030,000),  agriculture  experi- 
ment stations  ($8,950,000),  vocational  education 
in  the  public  schools  ($25  million),  vocational  re- 
habilitation ( $18  million),  and  school  lunches  ( $54 
million).  — HAROLD  BENJAMIN 

EDUCATION,  U.S.  Office  of.  For  the  purpose  "of  col- 
lecting such  statistics  and  facts  as  shall  show  the 
condition  and  progress  of  education  .  .  .  and  of 
diffusing  such  information  ...  as  shall  aid  the 
people  .  .  .  and  otherwise  promote  the  cause  of 
education  .  .  ."  the  Office  of  Education  was  estab- 
lished. Accordingly  the  Office  had  developed  a 
variety  of  supporting  services  to  aid  the  schools 
and  colleges  of  the  Nation. 

In  addition  to  the  publication  of  statistics  and 
facts  collected,  the  divisions  and  staff  members  of 
the  Office  serve  in  a  consultative  capacity.  Although 
not  operating  educational  systems  or  institutions, 
the  Office  has  relationships  with  agencies  that  do 
operate  educational  systems  and  institutions.  In 
this  sense,  therefore,  developments  in  American 
education  are  somewhat  keyed  to  the  work  of  the 
Office  of  Education;  and  conversely,  the  emphases 
of  the  Office  mirror  the  problems  and  achievements 
of  American  education. 

Enrollments.  The  concern  about  increases  in  school 
enrollment  derives  from  two  major  trends :  ( 1 )  the 
increased  birthrate  during  the  40's,  and  (2)  the 
re-entry  of  veterans  into  educational  systems  and 
institutions,  stimulated  by  the  GI  Bill  benefits.  The 


FDI/CA17ON 


160 


EDUCATION 


first  lias  only  begun  to  affect  the  schools  in  the  ele- 
mentary levels,  but  is  of  long-term  significance. 
The  latter  is  of  primary  concern  to  institutions  of 
higher  education.  See  SCHOOLS,  U.S.;  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES. 

Plant.  Plant  needs  are  extremely  serious  in  view 
of  (1)  deferred  maintenance  and  expansion,  (2) 
increased  building  costs,  and  (3)  increased  de- 
mand. The  Office  of  Education  has  estimated  that 
public  and  nonpublic  elementary  and^  secondary 
educational  plant  needs  were  about  7.500  million 
dollars  late  in  1947,  and  of  colleges  and  universi- 
ties, totaling  about  3.500  million  dollars. 

Federal  Legislation;  Court  Decisions.  A  number  of 
bills  relating  to  education  became  public  law  dur- 
ing the  year,  among  them  three  measures  to  facili- 
tate the  disposal  of  surplus  properties  for  educa- 
tional purposes.  In  passing  the  National  Selective 
Sendee  Act  of  1948,  Congress  provided  for  defer- 
ment from  military  service  of  high  school  and  col- 
lege students  under  certain  conditions,  and  author- 
ized the  President  to  provide  for  the  deferment  of 
other  categories  of  students. 

Supreme  Court  decisions  affecting  education 
among  the  several  States  included  the  following: 
( 1 )  The  New  Jersey  case  holding  that  the  use  of 
public  tax  funds  by  school  districts  for  paying  the 
transportation  of  children  attending  parochial 
schools  was  not  in  violation  of  any  provision  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States;  (2)  The  de- 
cision holding  that  the  State  of  Oklahoma,  in  con- 
formity with  the  fourteenth  amendment,  was  re- 
quired to  provide  qualified  Negro  applicants  with 
Erofessional  legal  education  equal  to  that  afforded 
y  the  State  institution  for  white  students;  (3)  The 
decision  rendered  in  the  case  of  McCpllum  vs.  the 
Board  of  Education  in  Champaign,  Illinois,  holding 
that  sectarian  religious  instruction  on  public  school 
premises  during  school  time  was  not  permissible 
under  the  first  amendment  of  the  Constitution. 

Rural  Education.  Primarily  because  of  financial 
limitations,  small  school  units,  common  in  most 
rural  areas,  cannot  offer  the  range  of  educational 
services  considered  necessary  today.  Consolidation, 
however,  is  not  the  whole  answer.  To  meet  present- 
day  needs  more  adequately,  rural  schools  are  forced 
to  develop  other  ways  of  broadening  their  services. 
Sometimes  this  is  done  through  sharing  teachers  on 
a  part  time  basis  with  other  schools. 

Children  of  migrant  workers  are  another  cause 
for  concern  in  rural  areas.  This  subject  has  been 
studied  at  length  by  a  committee  representing  sev- 
eral Federal  agencies,  the  recommendations  of 
which  were  placed  before  the  Congress  for  its  con- 
sideration. 

Science  in  Education.  The  understanding  of  science 
has  assumed  new  proportions  as  a  requirement  in 
American  education  from  elementary  through  col- 
lege levels.  The  new  emphasis  is  in  part  related  to 
an  understanding  of  national  security  and  world 
politics.  In  elementary  grades,  children  learn  prin- 
ciples of  the  scientific  method  by  conducting  simple 
experiments.  In  secondary  schools,  the  students 
learn  about  the  inductive  and  the  deductive  meth- 
ods, and  the  many  techniques  used  by  scientists. 
This  general  approach  is  quite  aside  from  applica- 
tion of  science  as  studied  in  many  vocational 
courses. 

Aviation  Education.  The  emphasis  on  aviation  edu- 
cation, especially  in  the  secondary  schools,  is  aimed 
at  (1)  holding  and  improving  the  technical  posi- 
tion of  the  nation,  and  ( 2 )  bringing  about  under- 
standing of  national  and  international  problems  in 
light  of  progress  in  aviation. 

Significant  Trends  in  College  Curricula.  Noticeable 


in  the  development  of  college  curricula  is  an  in- 
crease in  programs  of  general  education.  In  the 
preparation  for  various  professions,  more  emphasis 
is  being  placed  on  general  education,  especially  the 
social  sciences.  This  is  true  for  example  in  such  di- 
verse fields  as  engineering,  journalism,  and  librar- 
ianship.  The  broad  effect  is  to  devote  more  of  the 
undergraduate  years  to  general  education,  thereby 
requiring  that  technical  phases  of  professional  prep- 
aration be  gained  in  graduate  programs,  as  hap- 
pened earlier  in  medicine  and  law. 

Zeal  for  American  Democracy.  The  Office  of  Educa- 
tion, in  giving  leadership  and  stimulation  to  the 
Zeal  for  American  Democracy  program,  has  worked 
with  and  through  the  States  in  a  service  relation- 
ship. The  main  emphasis  has  been  upon  increasing 
in  the  States  the  awareness  of  the  need  for  im- 
proved citizenship  education  and  bringing  to  them 
examples  of  ways  in  which  such  improvement 
might  be  accomplished, 

Teachers.  The  supply  of  teachers  is  not  uniform 
among  various  school  levels  and  subject  fields.  In 
general  the  shortest  supply  is  at  the  elementary 
level.  Here  the  condition  is  not  improving,  nor  are 
there  prospects  for  improvement  during  the  com- 
ing year.  Shortages  also  exist  in  certain  subject 
fields  in  secondary  education,  especially  in  home 
economics. 

Teacher  Education.  Problems  of  teacher  education 
center  on  the  preparation  of  more  than  90,000 
teachers  annually,  improvement  in  qualifications  of 
several  hundred  thousand  teachers  in  service,  the 
extension  of  the  body  of  professional  subject  matter, 
and  the  improvement  of  procedures  in  teacher  edu- 
cation. 

The  Office  staff  in  teacher  education  assisted 
during  the  year  in  solving  these  problems  in  coop- 
eration with  institutions  approved  for  the  education 
of  teachers;  with  State  departments  of  education; 
with  local  schools  and  school  systems;  with  nation- 
al, regional,  State,  and  local  school  organizations; 
and  with  other  agencies. 

Education  of  Negro  leaders.  Because  of  the  grow- 
ing interest  in  the  education  of  Negro  leaders,  the 
Office  of  Education  in  1947-48  undertook  a  study 
of  the  problem,  and  a  publication  based  thereon 
was  completed. 

Citizens  Federal  Committee  on  Education.  Two  years 
ago  the  Citizens  Federal  Committee  on  Education 
was  organized  to  advise  the  Office  on  the  broad  na- 
tional aspects  of  educational  problems.  One  of  its 
first  tasks  was  to  present  the  facts  about  the  crisis 
in  education  to  the  American  people.  Through  the 
intensive  services  of  the  Advertising  Council  of 
America — a  public  service  organization  represent- 
ing all  phases  of  the  advertising  business — the 
Committee  continued  during  the  past  year  to  foster 
its  highly  successful  nationwide  "Improve  Our 
Schools"  campaign. 

Health  Services.  School  health  services  received 
increasing  attention  from  a  large  number  of  sources, 
both  educational  and  noneducational  during  1947- 
48.  The  National  Health  Assembly  held  in  Wash- 
ington in  May,  1948,  made  these,  among  other  rec- 
ommendations: That  a  national  conference  on 
school  health  be  called;  that  similar  State  Confer- 
ences be  called;  that  local  full-time  public  health 
units  be  sponsored  because  of  the  contribution  they 
can  make  to  the  health  of  the  school-age  child;  that 
teachers  be  better  trained  in  functional  health  and 
physical  education;  that  the  mental  bygiene  pro- 
gram be  extended. 

Library  Services.  At  present,  the  United  States  is 
served  by  7,500  municipal  and  county  public  li- 
braries, 1,700  college  and  university  libraries,  and 


EDUCATION 


161 


EDUCATION 


more  than  20,000  centralized  school  libraries,  ex- 
clusive of  innumerable  classroom  collections.  In 
addition,  there  are  some  250  Federal  and  State  li- 
braries, and  at  least  1,500  specialized  libraries  serv- 
ing the  business,  industrial,  financial,  and  technical 
concerns. 

Veterans'  Educational  Facilities.  The  Federal  Secu- 
rity Agency,  through  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion, and  the  Federal  Works  Agency  were  author- 
ized by  Congress  to  provide  buildings  and  equip- 
ment from  war  surplus  materials  when  they  were 
needed  to  provide  education  for  veterans.  These 
agencies  established  the  Veterans  Educational  Fa- 
cilities Program  which  had,  to  June  30,  1948,  pro- 
vided to  schools  and  colleges  more  than  100  million 
items  of  equipment,  which  had  a  War  Assets  Ad- 
ministration fair  value  of  $114,665,000,  an  amount 
that  provided  $74  worth  of  equipment  for  each 
veteran  enrolled. 

This  program  also  provided  classrooms,  labora- 
tories, and  other  instructional  facilities  to  the  ex- 
tent of  17  million  square  feet,  for  which  the  Federal 
Government  expended  approximately  $75,000,000. 
Even  larger  sums  have  been  expended  by  the  Pub- 
lic Housing  Administration  to  build  and  equip  resi- 
dential facilities  for  veterans  engaged  in  programs 
of  education  and  training.  These  emergency  pro- 
grams will  provide,  however,  for  only  approximate- 
ly 11  percent  of  the  space  college  administrators 
say  they  need  to  combat  the  shortage. 

GRANT-IN-AID  PROGRAMS 

Vocational  Education.  Total  enrollments  for  1947— 
48  in  the  federally  aided  program  of  vocational 
education,  when  State  reports  are  finally  tabulated, 
are  expected  to  exceed  the  previous  peak  enroll- 
ment of  2.6  million  in  1941-42.  After  the  passage 
of  the  George-Deen  Act  in  1936,  authorizing  a  sub- 
stantial increase  in  funds  for  allotment  to  the  States 
for  the  further  development  of  vocational  educa- 
tion, enrollments  increased  annually  until  1941-42, 
During  the  war  years,  total  enrollments  receded  to 
slightly  more  than  2  million.  During  those  years, 
however,  the  vocational  schools  were  being  used  to 
capacity  in  training  war  production  workers.  After 
the  conclusion  of  the  war,  enrollments  started  to 
climb  again  until  in  1946—47  they  had  passed  2.5 
million.  Further  increase  is  expected,  in  part  as  a 
result  of  the  passage  of  the  George-Barden  Act 
which  authorized  additional  funds  for  allotment  to 
States  and  Territories. 

The  amount  of  Federal  funds  made  available  for 
allotment  to  the  States  for  vocational  education 
during  fiscal  year  1948  increased  by  more  than  $5 
million.  This  was  due  to  the  increase  in  the  ap- 
propriation under  the  George-Barden  Act,  the  first 
important  increase  in  the  amount  of  Federal  funds 
available  for  allotment  to  the  States  since  1939. 

Agricultural  Education.  Owing  to  a  world-wide 
shortage  of  food  and  the  need  for  heavy  exports  of 
food  and  feed  to  depleted  areas  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  the  production  and  conservation  of  food  were 
emphasized  in  agricultural  classes  for  adult  farm- 
ers. School-community  canneries,  operated  under 
the  supervision  of  teachers  of  vocational  agricul- 
ture and  home  economics,  enabled  thousands  of 
families  to  conserve  a  supply  of  food  for  their  fami- 
lies. 

Membership  in  the  Future  Farmers  of  America, 
the  national  organization  of  students  of  vocational 
agriculture  in  public  secondary  schools,  increased 
during  the  year  roughly  from  240,000  to  260,000. 
The  New  Farmers  of  America,  an  organization  sim- 
ilar to  the  F.F.A.  for  farm  boys  in  high  schools  for 
Negroes,  likewise  completed  a  successful  year. 


Membership  in  the  N.F.A.  increased  roughly  from 
24,000  to  26,000. 

Distributive  Occupations  Education.  As  a  result  of  an 
increase  in  the  demand  for  training  programs  suit- 
ed to  the  needs  of  proprietors  and  employees  of 
small  business  enterprises,  State  Boards  for  Voca- 
tional Education  in  California,  Illinois,  Kentucky  3 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  Texas,  Virginia,  and  other 
States  sponsored  training  courses  for  these  groups. 
Such  courses  recently  were  introduced  into  some 
30  vocational  schools  in  New  York  City.  New  York 
University,  Syracuse  University,  the  University  of 
Houston,  Ball  State  Teachers  College,  Mississippi 
Southern  College,  and  a  number  of  other  institu- 
tions of  higher  education  are  now  offering  training 
for  men  and  women  engaged  in  small  businesses. 

Home  Economics  Education.  In  1948,  approximately 
1  million  youth  and  adults  were  attending  home 
economic  classes  in  schools  reimbursed  from  Fed- 
eral vocational  education  funds.  Home  economics 
has  moved  from  its  restricted  definition  of  cooking, 
sewing,  and  housekeeping  to  a  comprehensive  one 
built  around  homemaking  and  community  responsi- 
bilities centered  in  the  family. 

During  1946-47  the  Trade  and  Industrial  Edu- 
cation Service  worked  with  the  Union  Pacific  Rail- 
road and  the  representatives  of  a  number  of  States 
in  the  preparation  of  instructional  material  to  be 
used  in  the  training  of  apprentices  in  six  railroad 
shop  crafts. 

Occupational  Information  and  Guidance.  Alabama, 
Arizona,  Florida,  and  Tennessee,  made  provisions 
for  State  programs  of  Occupational  Information 
and  Guidance  services  during  the  current  year.  In 
addition  to  these  States,  41  States  rewrote  State 
plans  inserting  provisions  for  guidance  services  un- 
der the  George-Barden  Act. 

Land-Grant  Colleges  and  Universities.  The  Office  of 
Education  carries  on  the  activities  related  to  the 
Federal  administration  of  the  appropriations  for 
the  land-grant  colleges  and  universities  made  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Second  Merrill  Act  and  supple- 
mentary legislation.  The  Office  prepares  and  pub- 
lishes an  annual  report  on  these  institutions;  the 
most  recent  of  these  reports  is  for  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  SO,  1947.  The  land-grant  colleges  and 
universities  in  the  fall  of  1947  enrolled  458,759 
students,  which  was  approximately  20  percent  of 
the  students  enrolled  in  all  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities of  the  United  States. 

EDUCATIONAL  RELATIONS  WITH  OTHER  NATIONS 

Foreign  Student  Influx.  Although  the  shortage  of 
dollar  credits  prevented  many  foreign  students 
from  coming  to  the  United  States,  approximately 
21,000  students  from  all  parts  of  the  world  were 
enrolled  in  American  institutions  of  higher  educa- 
tion during  the  academic  year  1947-48.  This  was 
an  increase  of  about  4,000  over  the  figure  for  the 
preceding  year.  A  majority  of  the  foreign  students 
were  studying  in  the  various  scientific  and  technical 
fields  in  which  postwar  American  education  has  as- 
sumed leadership. 

Interchange  Programs.  During  the  year  1947-48, 
126  teachers  from  the  United  States  exchanged 
places  with  126  teachers  from  Great  Britain.  They 
were  from  all  levels  of  education  from  nursery- 
kindergartens  to  teachers  colleges.  The  British 
teachers  were  placed  in  31  different  States.  Among 
these  teachers,  85  were  placed  in  elementary 
schools  and  41  in  secondary  schools.  An  inter- 
change of  teachers  between  this  country  and  Can- 
ada was  also  made  this  year.  During  the  year  there 
was  also  developed  a  program  for  interchanging 
teachers  between  this  country  and  France. 


HGYPF 


162 


EGYPT 


The  Fulbright  Act,  In  full  operation,  the  program 
will  make  available  approximately  $8  million  in 
foreign  currencies  for  study,  teaching,  research, 
and  other  educational  activities.  Grants  to  United 
States  citizens  may  include  the  payment  of  tuition, 
salaries,  maintenance,  travel,  and  expenses  inci- 
dental to  educational  work.  Only  transportation 
costs  may  be  granted  to  citizens  of  participating 
countries  who  wish  to  come  to  the  United  States 
under  these  programs.  ( See  EDUCATION;  SCHOOLS, 
U.S.;  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES.) 

EGYPT.  An  Arab  constitutional  monarchy  in  north- 
east Africa. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  386,198  square  miles, 
of  which  over  9,000  are  cultivated  ( along  the  Nile 
valley  and  delta,  and  pases)  and  over  3,000  more 
cultivable,  the  rest  being  desert.  Population:  over 
19  million.  Chief  cities:  Cairo,  (capital)  more  than 
2  million;  Alexandria  (port)  close  to  1  million. 
With  one  of  the  world's  highest  population  densi- 
ties Egypt  has  one  of  the  highest  birth  rates,  40 
per  thousand,  and  one  of  the  highest  death  rates, 
26  per  thousand.  Over  90  percent  are  Moslem, 
mostly  Sunni,  and  9  percent  are  Christians,  with 
Copts  predominating. 

Education.  Education  is  free  and  compulsory  for 
all  children  from  7  to  12.  An  extensive  program  of 
government-financed  study  abroad  is  facilitated  by 
7  Education  Offices  abroad,  including  one  in  Wash- 
ington. The  intensified  literacy  campaign  resulted 
in  600,000  additional  literates  in  1948. 

EDUCATION  ESTIMATES— 1947-48 

Schools  Pupils 

Elementary  schools . , 5,7001 

Illiteracy  classes /  2,000,000 

'  ec.  and  technical 200  70,000 

!omm.,  agric.,  teaching  and  other  in- 
stitutes       630  29,000 

'oreign  schools  incl.  American  Univer- 
sity at  Cairo 600  70,000 

Iniversities  (Fouad  I  and  Farouk  I) ...  21,500 

'eople's  University  (13  centers) 9,000 

J-Azhar  (Moslem  Center) 10,000 

-tudents  abroad  (SOO  at  govt.  expense).  2,000 

Source:  Egyptian  Education  Office. 

Communications.  The  railway  system  (chiefly 
tate-owned)  comprises  almost  9,000  miles.  Rivers 
ind  canals  are  extensively  used  for  transport.  Of 
he  12,000  miles  of  roads  few  are  good.  Strategical- 
y  located,  with  a  favorable  climate,  Egypt  is  a 
senter  for  air  routes  connecting  three  continents. 
In  addition  to  the  recently  formed  Saide  Airlines 
the  (Egyptian)  Misr  Airways  operates  internal  and 
Near  Eastern  lines.  There  are  radio,  telegraph,  and 
telephone  facilities  operated  by  the  government. 
See  SUEZ  CANAL. 

Production.  Almost  all  the  cultivated  land  Is  irri- 
gated, with  an  average  of  one  and  a  half  crops  a 
year.  Chief  crop  is  cotton  (850  million  Ib.  in  1948 
compared  with  620  million  Ib.  in  1947);  then 
sugarcane,  maize,  wheat,  rice,  millet,  and  barley. 
The  spring  1948  upsurge  in  cotton  prices  was  fol- 
Ipwecf  by  an  autumn  drop  forcing  consideration  of 
limiting  cotton  acreage  again.  Industrial  production 
increase  is  indicated  by  the  following:  In  1948's 
first  quarter  cotton  factories  reached  a  record 
monthly  average  of  13.4  million  square  meters  as 
against  12.3  million  in  1947.  For  the  first  time  low 
grade  cotton  textiles  were  exported  (6,000  tons  to 
the  Near  East). 

Food  processing  output  increased  from  400  tons 
of  canned  meat  and  fish  in  1939  to  20,000  tons  in 
1945.  The  capacity  of  chemical  factories  in  1945 
was  almost  double  that  of  1939.  Electrical  output 
is  estimated  at  about  600  million  kw  yearly  com- 


pared with  300  million  in  1939;  the  Asswan  hydro- 
electric project  is  expected  to  increase  it  to  2,000 
kw  yearly.  Although  oil  production  is  small,  wells 
drilled  in  the  Sinai  Peninsula  show  promise. 
Egypt's  growing  film  industry  is  the  largest  outside 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  In  September  a  new 
Ford  plant  was  started.  The  first  example  of  sub- 
stantial American  investment  was  the  completion 
of  a  rayon  plant  built  and  directed  by  an  American 
firm. 

Foreign  Trade.  Main  exports  are  raw  cotton  and  its 
by-products  (80  percent),  foodstuffs,  non-processed 
animal  products,  phosphates,  tungsten,  manganese, 
and  mineral  oils.  The  only  important  manufactured 
item  is  cigarettes.  Imports  include  textiles,  automo- 
biles and  other  machines,  industrial  raw  materials, 
fertilizers,  and  foodstuffs  unobtainable  locally.  In 
1947  total  exports  amounted  to  £E  (Egyptian 
pounds)  89.5  million  (chiefly  to  India,  Italy,  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  France)  and  imports  to 
£E99.6  million.  The  United  Kingdom  provided 
22  percent  of  the  imports  and  the  United  States 
11  percent.  In  the  first  nine  months  of  1948,  for 
the  first  time  since  1937,  Egypt  experienced  a  fa- 
vorable balance  of  trade,  chiefly  due  to  the  increase 
in  cotton  sales.  However,  both*  exports  to  and  im- 
ports from  the  U.S.  for  January-June,  1948,  de- 
clined from  the  January-June,  1947,  levels. 

Finance.  The  revised  Egyptian  state  budget  for 
1948-9  was  the  highest  on  record,  with  estimated 
expenditure  of  £E  183.4  million  and  revenue  of 
£E141.5  million,  the  deficit  to  be  covered  from 
the  General  Reserve  Fund  and  a  public  loan  of 
£E30  million  to  cover  Palestine  military  expenses. 
The  1948  public  debt  was  £E125  million.  Notes 
in  circulation  in  November  totaled  £E153  million, 
an  all-time  high.  Although  the  high  cost  of  living 
dropped  somewhat  in  1947,  it  rose  to  280  ( 1937  = 
100 )  in  November.  In  January  a  new  Anglo-Egyp- 
tian Financial  Agreement  provided  for  release  to 
Egypt  of  £32  million  (sterling)  from  Egypt's 
blocked  holdings,  of  which  6^4  million  is  converti- 
ble into  dollars.  In  December  negotiations  were 
started  to  determine  the  1949  amounts.  The  1947- 
48  exchange  rate  of  the  Egyptian  pound  was 
$4.127. 

Government  The  monarchy  is  hereditary  in  the 
male  line,  King  Farouk  I  having  ascended  the 
throne  in  1936.  The  1923  constitution  provides  for 
a  Parliament  consisting  of  Senate  and  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  Two-fifths  of  the  former  are  appointed 
by  the  King  and  the  rest  elected  for  10-year  terms. 
The  264  deputies  are  elected  by  universal  male 
suffrage.  The  Council  of  Ministers,  appointed  by 
the  King,  is  responsible  to  the  Parliament.  Civil 
disputes  relating  to  marriage  or  inheritance  are  de- 
cided in  religious  courts.  Other  cases  involving 
Egyptians  are  decided  before  national  courts.  By 
the  1937  Montreux  Convention  the  Mixed  Courts 
are  scheduled  to  disappear  in  1949.  After  that  for- 
eigners will  be  subject  to  the  same  judicial  treat- 
ment as  Egyptians. 

Events,  1948.  The  United  Nations  General  Assem- 
bly elected  Egypt  a  non-permanent  member  of  the 
Security  Council  for  1949.  Work  started  on  a  U.S. 
Navy  Medical  Research  Center  in  Cairo  for  joint 
research  by  American  and  Egyptian  scientists.  Ne- 
gotiations proceeded  with  the  Soviet  Union  for 
trade  exchanges  with  barter  of  some  Russian  wheat 
for  Egyptian  cotton  completed.  Trade  agreements 
for  exchanges  of  goods  were  signed  with  bizonal 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  France. 

Relations  with  Britain.  Two  points  of  difference  ap- 
peared far  from  solution.  The  British  Ambassador 
announced  in  October  that  the  international  situ- 


163 


EfHF 


ation  prevented  Britain  from  withdrawing  her  re- 
maining troops,  as  the  Egyptians  were  anxious  to 
have  her  do,  the  provisions  of  the  1936  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Treaty  notwithstanding.  Following  re- 
jection by  the  Egyptian  Senate's  Foreign  Affairs 
Committee  of  British  proposals  for  Sudanese  ad- 
ministration and  the  breakdown  of  talks,  the  British 
announced  in  June  that  Sudan's  Governor-General 
was  free  to  proceed  with  the  Sudanese  self-govern- 
ment project.  Egypt  did  not  accede  to  London's  or- 
dinance creating  an  executive  council  and  legisla- 
tive assembly  in  the  Sudan.  See  ANGLO-EGYPTIAN 
SUDAN. 

Economic  Development.  The  Prime  Minister's 
speech  in  November  reaffirmed  government  plans 
for  development  projects,  including  the  Asswan 
hydro-electric  project,  railroad  and  road  construc- 
tion, irrigation,  agricultural  research  centers,  and 
measures  for  health,  education,  and  social  reform. 
The  Undersecretary  of  State  for  Industry  stated  that 
industrial  development  depended  on  encouraging 
foreign  investment  and  using  foreign-expert  assist- 
ance. The  Asswan  Dam  project,  started  by  Swiss 
contractors,  had  to  be  suspended  in  July  because 
of  a  shortage  of  Swiss  francs  but  negotiations  pro- 
ceeded for  bartering  cotton.  Plans  were  under  way 
to  stimulate  the  export  to  hard-currency  countries 
of  products  other  than  cotton.  The  Alexandria  Fu- 
tures Market  issued  a  new  regulation  that  every 
broker,  jobber,  or  head  clerk  had  to  be  an  Egyptian 
national. 

Palestine  Problem.  See  AKAB  LEAGUE  AFFAIRS, 
PALESTINE.  As  an  active  participant  in  Arab  League 
discussions  Egypt  made  certain  attempts  at  eco- 
nomic boycott  of  Israel;  government  interference 
with  shipping  destined  for  Palestinian  ports  was 
accelerated.  In  May  the  Egyptian  Senate  approved 
armed  intervention.  A  note  was  despatched  to  the 
UN  Security  Council  notifying  it  of  the  invasion 
by  two  Egyptian  columns  "to  restore  security."  By 
the  year's  end  the  invasion  had  been  roundly  re- 
pulsed by  smaller  but  better-trained  and  equipped 
Israeli  forces.  Egypt  was  active  in  UN  proceedings 
on  the  matter. 

The  year  was  marked  by  a  series  of  demonstra- 
tions, primarily  by  students,  starting  with  the  UN's 
partition  decision.  First  in  1948  was  by  4,000  Cairo 
students  against  the  United  States  and  the  Soviet 
Union  for  actively  supporting  partition.  Over  the 
year  two  attempts  were  made  on  the  life  of  Mustafa 
Nahas  Pasha,  former  Prime  Minister  and  Wafd 
Party  leader.  In  November  the  Secretary  General 
of  the  Moslem  Brotherhood,  inflammatory  and  re- 
actionary organization,  was  temporarily  arrested. 
In  December  dissatisfaction  with  Palestine  devel- 
opments reached  a  climax.  Three  days  of  student 
rioting  followed  the  assassination  of  Cairo's  police 
chief.  The  government,  directly  accusing  the  Broth- 
erhood, ordered  its  dissolution.  On  December  9 
Prime  Minister  Nokrashy  Pasha  was  reported 
pleased  over  "the  quietest  day  of  the  week."  He 
issued  a  military  order  barring  students  from  all 
non-government-approved  organizations.  On  De- 
cember 28  he  was  shot  by  a  student  member  of 
the  Brotherhood.  Nokrashy's  fellow-Wafdist,  Ibra- 
him Abdul  Hadi,  was  appointed  Prime  Minister  and 
Military  Governor  General  and  issued  a  military 
order  to  curb  terrorism. 

— DOROTHEA  SEELYE  FRANCK 

EIRE  (Ireland).  A  sovereign,  independent  state,  des- 
ignated as  a  republic  in  the  Republic  of  Ireland 
Bill  1948,  and,  as  such,  no  longer  associated  with 
the  British  Commonwealth  of  Nations.  Eire  in- 
cludes the  26  counties  of  Southern  Ireland  formerly 


called  the  Irish  Free^  State.  In  1937  the  name  was 
officially  changed  to  "Eire"  in  Gaelic  and  "Ireland" 
in  English. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  of  tlie  26  counties 
is  27,137  square  miles.  Population  ( 1946  census ) : 
2,953,452.  Chief  cities:  Dublin  (capital),  506,635 
inhabitants;  Cork,  75,361;  Limerick,  42,987;  Wa- 
terford,  28,332. 

Education  and  Religion.  Elementary  education  is 
free  and  compulsory.  The  Irish  language  is  re- 
quired in  the  national  schools.  Secondary  schools, 
which  are  private,  are  in  many  cases  religious  es- 
tablishments. There  are  two  universities:  the  Uni- 
versity of  Dublin  (Trinity  College)  and  the  Na- 
tional University  of  Ireland,  which  has  three  con- 
stituent colleges.  Publicly  supported  technical 
schools  and  agricultural  classes  are  numerous.  To- 
tal university  enrolment  in  1946-47,  7,186.  Nearly 
all  (94  percent)  of  the  people  are  Roman  Catho- 
lics, with  the  remainder  divided  among  Episcopal, 
Presbyterian,  Methodist,  and  other  churches. 

Production.  Agriculture  and  grazing  occupy  al- 
most one-half  of  the  people  and  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  total  land  area.  Acreage  in  1946:  hay, 
1,935,203;  oats,  834,206;  wheat,  662,496;  potatoes, 
387,507.  Number  of  livestock,  chief  groups  on 
June  1,  1947:  Cattle,  3,950,152;  sheep,  2,094,057. 
Value  of  chief  industrial  products  in  1945:  brew- 
ing, £13,552,000;  grain  milling,  £12,819,000; 
tobacco,  £  12,476,000.  Other  manufacture  is  wide- 
ly diversified. 

Foreign  Trade.  Eire's  trade  showed  an  exceedingly 
unfavorable  balance  in  1947  and  the  first  half  of 
1948.  The  1947  figures  were:  total  imports,  £130,- 
812,000;  total  exports,  £38,802,000;  adverse  bal- 
ance, £92,101,000.  In  the  first  half  of  1948  im- 
ports increased  and  exports  decreased,  giving  an 
adverse  balance  at  the  annual  rate  of  £110,000,- 
000,  an  all-time  record.  In  1947  the  United  King- 
dom took  90  percent  of  Eire's  exports  and  supplied 
40  percent  of  its  imports.  Imports  from  the  United 
States  rose  from  £8,476,000  in  1946  to  £29,114,- 
000  in  1947,  largely  because  of  sizable  purchases  of 
coal,  wheat,  and  flour.  Chief  exports  are  normally 
live  animals  and  chief  imports  manufactured  goods 
and  raw  materials  for  manufacture,  including  cot- 
ton and  woollen  yarns.  Eire's  trade  deficit  is  met 
by  invisible  items,  including  receipts  from  foreign 
investments,  immigrant  remittances,  receipts  from 
tourists  (chiefly  English),  and — of  late— -drawing 
on  foreign  reserves. 

Finance.  The  1947-48  accounts  showed  revenue 
of  £65,197,845,  giving  a  surplus  over  expenditure 
of  £33,177.  Budget  estimates  for  1948-49  placed 
revenue  at  £70,508,000  and  surplus  at  £25,000. 
Public  debt  on  Mar.  31,  1948,  was  £104,800,000. 

Transportation.  In  1946  Eire  had  2,481  miles  of 
railway  and  650  miles  of  navigable  inland  water- 
ways. Railways  carried  25,502,477  passengers  in 
1946  and  busses  224,011,630.  The  international  air 
line,  Aer  Lingus,  carried  156,532  passengers  in 
1947. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  proclaimed 
on  Dec.  29,  1937,  the  President  is  elected  by  popu- 
lar vote  for  7  years.  The  Oireachtas  (Parliament) 
includes  two  houses:  the  Dail  Eireann  (House  of 
Representatives)  of  138  members  and  the  Seanad 
Eireann  (Senate)  of  60  members.  Executive  power 
is  exercised  by  the  Government,  which  is  responsi- 
ble to  the  Dail.  The  President,  Sean  T.  O'Kelly,  was 
elected  in  1945. 

The  Prime  Minister,  John  A.  Costello,  was  elect- 
ed Feb.  18,  1948,  after  the  defeat  of  former  Prime 
Minister  de  Valera's  Government  Party  in  the  gen- 
eral election  on  Feb.  4,  1948.  Costello's  inter-party 


EIRE 


164  ELECTRICAL 


Cabinet  includes  Sean  MacBride  (New  Republi- 
can) as  Minister  for  External  Affairs* 

Events,  1948.  The  election  of  Feb.  4  was  hard- 
fought.  Late  in  1947  de  Valera  had  staked  his  Gov- 
ernment on  the  results  of  three  by-elections  to  the 
Bail.  His  party  (Fianna  Fail,  or  Soldiers  of  Des- 
tiny), lost  two  of  the  three;  one  of  them,  signifi- 
cantly, to  Sean  MacBride,  leader  of  the  newly 
formed  Clann  na  Poblachta,  or  New  Republican 
Party. 

In  the  election  Fianna  Fail  won  more  than  60 
seats,  or  more  than  any  other  single  party;  but  a 
majority  against  de  Valera  was  pulled  together 
from  groups  disunited  in  almost  everything  except 
their  wish  for  a  change  of  government.  Fine  Gael 
(United  Irish)  party,  which  was  fairly  conserva- 
tive, was  obliged  to  join  hands  with  the  Republi- 
can left,  Clann  na  Poblachta,  in  order  to  drive  de 
Valera  from  the  office  he  had  held  since  1937. 
Clann  na  Poblachta,  which  won  only  10  seats,  was 
nevertheless  able  to  get  the  Cabinet  portfolio  of 
external  affairs.  Costello,  the  new  Prime  Minister, 
was  the  leader  of  Fine  Gael,  the  second  largest 
party. . 

Coalition  Achievements.  Costello's  election  to  the 
post  of  Prime  Minister  by  the  Bail  and  the  prompt 
announcement  of  his  Cabinet  took  place  on  Febru- 
ary 18.  Be  Valera  used  some  of  his  new-found 
leisure  to  make  a  visit  to  his  native  land,  the  United 
States.  On  his  first  day  in  New  York,  March  8,  he 
lunched  with  Mayor  O'Bwyer  of  New  York  and 
on  March  9  was  given  a  reception  at  City  Hall. 

Costello's  Government  negotiated  a  new  trade 
treaty  with  Britain  in  June.  The  four-year  agree- 
ment, which  was  signed  in  Bublin  on  July  31  by 
Prime  Ministers  Attlee  and  Costello,  restored  high 
figures  for  agricultural  exports  from  Eire  to  Britain, 
limited  Irish  exports  of  live  cattle  to  other  coun- 
tries to  a  fraction  of  those  sent  to  Britain,  and  fixed 
favorable  prices.  Britain  promised  Eire  more  coal 
and  automobiles.  The  agreement  offered  Irish  farm- 
ers high  and  stable  prices,  and  gave  the  Eire  Gov- 
ernment some  hope  of  covering  a  part  of  its  ex- 
traordinarily large  trade  deficit. 

The  Costello  Government  also  concluded  a  Mar- 
shall Aid  agreement  with  the  United  States  and 
became  one  of  the  first  countries  to  receive  assist- 
ance. Procurement  authorizations  for  Eire  through 
October  20  were  $4,498,200. 

Separation  from  the  Commonwealth.  Although  CoS- 
tello  said  in  the  Bail  on  August  6,  when  the  Anglo- 
Irish  Trade  Agreement  was  unanimously  ratified, 
that  Eire  wanted  both  imperial  preference  and  her 
association  with  the  British  Commonwealth  of 
Nations  to  be  retained,  it  was  already  clear  that  he 
envisaged  the  repeal  of  the  External  Relations  Act 
of  1936.  This  act  provided  that  so  long  as  Eire  was 
associated  with  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  other 
Bominions  the  Irish,  like  the  rest,  would  have  the 
King  act  on  their  behalf  in  appointing  diplomatic 
representatives  and  concluding  trade  agreements. 

When  Costello  was  in  Canada  early  in  Septem- 
ber he  announced  that  Eire  was  about  to  discon- 
tinue the  use  of  the  King's  signature,  and  further 
statements  to  that  effect  were  made  after  he  re- 
turned to  Eire.  A  surprise  move  at  the  meeting  of 
Commonwealth  Prime  Ministers  in  London  Oc- 
tober 11-22  was  the  invitation  to  Eire's  Govern- 
ment from  the  Canadian,  Australian,  and  New  Zea- 
land representatives  to  come  to  Britain  to  talk  it 
over.  The  meeting  took  place  at  Chequers  on  Oc- 
tober 17,  with  Britain's  Prime  Minister  Attlee  also 
present.  Eke  sent  Sean  MacBride,  Minister  for  Ex- 
ternal Affairs,  and  Patrick  McGilligan,  Finance 
Minister. 


Almost  no  information  was  released  about  the 
Chequers  meeting,  and  observers  decided  that  the 
other  Bominions  brought  up  some  knotty  questions 
about  continuing  trade  preferences  for  Eire  after 
she  cut  her  last  link  with  the  Commonwealth.  This 
impression  was  reinforced  when  a  second  meeting 
of  the  same  Ministers  was  held  in  Paris,  Novem- 
ber 15  and  16,  and  again  no  real  news  was  given 
out. 

On  November  17  the  first  constitutional  step  was 
taken  and  the  Republic  of  Ireland  Bill,  1948,  was 
introduced  in  the  Bail  Eireann.  At  the  time  of  the 
second  reading  of  the  bill  on  November  25  the 
debate  was  interrupted  by  MacBride's  announce- 
ment of  news  that  was  most  welcome  to  the  Bail: 
that  of  the  decision  of  Britain,  Canada,  and  South 
Africa  to  continue  trade  preferences  and  reciprocal 
citizenship  rights  after  the  separation  was  com- 
plete. The  most  disturbing  question  still  remaining 
for  Eire  was  the  sharpening  of  the  division  from 
Northern  Ireland  and  the  decreased  chance  of 
Eire's  annexing  the  6  Ulster  counties  which  were 
a  part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  On  Bee.  21,  1948, 
the  Republic  of  Ireland  Bill  was  signed  by  Presi- 
dent Sean  T.  O'Kelly  but  the  final  act  of  proclaim- 
ing the  republic  was  delayed  until  some  time  in 
1949.  — ALZADA  COMSTOCK: 

ELECTIONS.  See  U,S»  ELECTIONS,  each  State  article, 
and  articles  on  countries, 

ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES.  The  electrical  manufacture 
ing  industry  in  the  United  States  continued  to  show 
substantial  gains  during  the  year  over  the  records 
that  had  been  established  in  1947,  but  the  gains 
were  less  than  had  been  registered  in  1947  over 
1946.  Nevertheless,  the  industry  continued  in  a 
leading  position  with  a  gain  of  more  than  10  per- 
cent over  1947  as  compared  with  a  gain  in  total  in- 
dustrial production*  of  somewhat  more  than  3  per- 
cent. 

An  increase  in  production  of  electric  appliances 
of  about  30  percent  made  the  best  showing,  but 
was  a  decided  decrease  from  the  gain  of  120  per- 
cent that  was  recorded  in  1947.  As  appliances  be- 
came more  available  following  the  wartime  dearth, 
consumers  again  became  able  to  be  more  selective 
and  to  have  a  definite  influence  on  the  industry. 
Substantial  gains  were  shown  by  household  refrig- 
erators and  electric  washing  machines  with  sales  of 
4.5  and  4.3  million  units,  respectively,  as  compared 
with  sales  of  3.4  and  3.6  rnimon  in  1947.  However, 
sales  of  vacuum  cleaners  decreased  from  3.8  million 
to  3.4  million. 

Next  highest  increase  was  shown  by  transmission 
and  distribution  apparatus,  which  reflected  the  ex- 
pansion in  the  facilities  of  the  electric  utilities. 
Here  the  index  figure,  with  the  year  1940  taken  as 
100,  rose  from  250  to  334,  but  again  was  less  than 
the  1947  increase  from  124  to  250. 

Relation  of  industry  data  to  other  significant  fig- 
ures may  be  shown  by  relative  index  figures,  with 
the  year  1940  taken  as  100.  U.S.  population  was 
111  compared  with  109  for  1947;  sale  of  electric 
energy  was  203  compared  with  184;  electrical 
manufacturing  industry  production  was  300  com- 
pared with  270* 

Several  gas-turbine  power  plants  for  power  gen- 
eration were  under  construction  in  sizes  of  3,500 
kw  and  5,000  kw.  Some  are  planned  for  the  use  of 
fuel  oil  and  others  for  natural  gas.  Fuel  economy  is 
expected  to  be  competitive  with  steam  plants  of 
comparable  size. 

Along  .  the  lines  of  more  conventional  power 
units,  electric  power  companies  in  the  United  States 


ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES 


165 


ELECTRIC  UGHT  AND  POWER 


added  about  4  million  kw  in  new  generators  which 
included  some  notable  advances.  The  Public  Serv- 
ice Electric  and  Gas  Company  of  New  Jersey 
placed  a  100,000-kw,  3,600-r.p.m.,  machine  in  its 
Essex  station  which  was  designed  for  operation 
with  steam  at  1,250  lb.  per  square  inch  and 
1,000°  F.  The  23-inch-long  last-stage  buckets 
reach  a  tip  speed  of  1,390  feet  per  second,  10  per- 
cent higher  than  previous  3,600-r.p.m.  machines 
were  capable  of  attaining.  A  few  months  later  the 
same  company  installed  another  100,000-kw  ma- 
chine in  its  Sewaren  station  to  operate  at  a  higher 
temperature.  The  3,600-r.p.m.  turbine  takes  steam 
at  1,500  lb.  per  square  inch  and  1,050°  F. 

Six  large  Diesel-engine-driven  generators  were 
installed  by  the  Mexican  Light  and  Power  Com- 
pany. They  were  designed  for  operation  at  an  alti- 
tude of  7,450  feet,  and  each  is  rated  6,000  kw  at 
167  r.p.m.,  is  22  feet  in  diameter,  and  weighs  54 
tons. 

In  the  United  States  studies  continued  on  experi- 
mental lines  operated  at  500  kv.  A  circuit  breaker 
similar  to  that  developed  for  500  kv  was  used  in 
an  unprecedented  series  of  switchgear  tests  in 
which  the  maximum  short-circuit  capacity  of  the 
Grand  Coulee  power  plant  and  the  Northwest 
power  pool  was  interrupted  in  less  than  three  cy- 
cles and  the  circuit  reclosed  in  less  than  ten  cycles. 
The  230-kv  switchgear  units  were  designed  with  an 
interrupting  rating  of  10,000,000  leva,  a  great  in- 
crease over  the  previous  high  of  3,500,000  kva. 

A  new  step  in  high  voltage  rectifiers  was  re- 
ported in  the  use  of  a  single  3,000-kw  3,000-volt 
unit  to  supply  power  to  mining  locomotives  in 
Utah.  A  battery  of  24  high-voltage  pumped  igni- 
irons  was  provided  for  service  on  a  European  rail- 
way system,  eight  of  them  being  arranged  as  in- 
verters to  pump  braking  energy  back  into  the  a-c 
system. 

A  railroad  gas-turbine  power  plant  was  demon- 
strated and  installed  for  trial  in  an  experimental 
locomotive.  Rating  of  the  power  plant  is  4,800  h.p. 
at  6,700  r.p.m.  with  turbine  inlet  temperature  of 
1,400°. 

Reports  indicated  that  attention  was  turned  to 
battery-driven  electric  automobiles  in  both  England 
and  France  with  the  appearance  of  vehicles  having 
speeds  of  approximately  30  m.p.h,  and  operating 
for  a  total  distance  of  40  miles  on  a  single  charge. 
In  Switzerland  an  experimental  model  of  a  railway 
vehicle  was  built  in  which  energy  is  stored  in  a 
heavy  high-speed  flywheel.  A  motor  connected  to 
an  outside  source  of  power  accelerates  the  flywheel 
which  then  drives  the  motor  as  a  generator  to  op- 
erate the  traction  motors  until  the  next  stop  is 
reached.  A  charging  time  of  one  minute  provides 
for  6  to  9  miles  of  travel. 

Automatic  elevators  advanced  to  a  system  with 
an  automatic  dispatcher  which  enables  from  one 
to  four  cars  to  be  operating  depending  on  the 
density  of  the  traffic.  A  call  is  answered  by  the  car 
closest  to  the  call.  In  answering  calls  a  car  auto- 
matically reverses  at  the  highest  call  and  auto- 
matically answers  all  corridor  calls  on  the  way 
down. 

One  of  the  largest  transformers  ever  built  from 
the  standpoint  of  electrical  rating  was  furnished  to 
the  Buffalo  Niagara  Electric  Corporation.  Weigh- 
ing 142  tons,  it  has  a  capacity  of  110,000  kva.  At 
the  smaller  end  of  the  size  scale  were  several  de- 
velopments of  unusual  interest.  A  single-phase 
watt-hour  meter  was  introduced  in  which  the  ro- 
tating element  is  suspended  by  small  magnets  to 
provide  a  "bearing"  which  does  not  wear  and  re- 
quires no  lubrication.  The  National  Bureau  of 


Standards  announced  development  of  a  magnetic 
fluid  clutch  in  which  the  degree  of  coupling  be- 
tween the  plates  is  varied  by  changing  the  strength 
of  a  magnetic  field  applied  to  a  fluid  such  as  iron 
powder  mixed  with  oil. 

An  all-electric  camera  was  developed  by  the 
U.S.  Navy  in  which  the  shutter  operates  SO  fast 
that  light  travels  only  ten  feet  during  the  time  of 
one  exposure.  This  speed  is  attained  through  the 
use  of  an  electro-optical  Kerr  cell  which  is  placed 
between  polarizing  filters  crossed  so  that  no  light 
is  transmitted.  Application  of  high  voltage  to 
electrodes  in  the  cell  alters  the  polarization  of  the 
light,  and  by  controlled  timing  photographic  rec- 
ords with  an  effective  exposure  time  of  0,01  mil- 
lionth of  a  second  have  been  made. 

A  new  scheme  was  developed  for  measuring  very- 
large  direct-currents  such  as  are  used  in  electrolytic 
plants.  A  special  current  transformer  of  the  through 
type  is  applied  with  a  winding  energized  by  alter- 
nating current.  Changes  in  direct-current  affect  the 
reluctance  of  a  magnetic  circuit,  and  hence  the 
flow  of  alternating  current.  The  latter  may  be  meas- 
ured in  terms  of  the  direct-current. 

G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER.  Early  in  the  year  tihe 
electric  power  situation  in  the  United  States  was 
studied  by  the  National  Security  Resources  Board 
and  was  described  as  tight  by  Arthur  M.  Hill, 
chairman  of  NSRB.  Spare  capacity  had  reached 
new  low  points,  and  system  expansion  was  limited 
by  the  Capacity  of  equipment  manufacturers  to  de- 
liver new  equipment.  Thus  did  the  industry  enter 
into  a  year  which  was  to  set  new  record  peaks. 

By  the  end  of  the  year  record  growth  was  shown 
in  physical  plant,  production,  number  of  custom- 
ers, and  new  financing,  and  the  industry  was 
placed  in  the  position  of  a  continuing  advance  to 
new  peaks.  In  the  first  11  months  of  the  year  about 
$1,812,500,000  of  construction  expenditures  were 
financed,  and  about  4  million  kilowatts  of  new  gen- 
erating capacity  were  added,  the  largest  addition 
in  a  single  year  on  record.  Installed  capacity 
reached  55  million  kilowatts  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  and  with  the  addition  of  2  million  new  cus- 
tomers, power  generation  rose  about  10  percent 
above  1947  figures  to  reach  282,000  million  kilo- 
watt-hours. 

Average  yearly  residential  consumption  reached 
a  new  peak  of  1,550  kilowatt-hours,  with  service 
available  to  97  percent  of  all  homes  and  in  use  in 
94  percent.  Average  yearly  consumption  on  farms 
was  about  1,900  kw-hr,  with  about  75  percent  of 
the  nation's  farms  supplied.  About  12  percent  more 
are  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  power  lines,  and 
the  industry  plans  continued  expansion  of  service. 

Production.  The  all-time  record  of  255,000  million 
kw-hr  of  electric  energy  produced  was  eclipsed 
easily  by  the  1948  production  of  282,037  million 
kw-hr,  an  increase  of  14  percent.  Slightly  greater 
than  average  amounts  of  increase  were  shown  in 
the  early  months  of  the  year,  and  somewhat  less 
than  average  in  months  toward  the  end. 

There  were  indications,  however,  of  a  slowing 
up  of  the  increase  in  energy  sales.  While  the  larg- 
est increase  in  consumption  in  the  history  of  the 
industry  was  the  26,800  million  kw-hr  in  1947,  ex- 
ceeding even  the  increase  in  the  war  year  of  1943., 
the  year  1948  saw  an  increase  of  only  22,400  mil- 
lion kw-hr.  Large  industrial  customers  were  the 
chief  factor  in  the  decrease,  as  residential  sales 
continued  an  upward  trend  and  small  industrial 
light  and  power  sales  showed  only  a  smaller  in- 
crease than  in  tke  preceding  year. 


QECTRfC  I/GHT  AMD 


166 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER 


Production  of  electric  energy  by  water  power  in- 
creased only  slightly  as  compared  to  1947,  hence 
the  great  bulk  of  the  increased  generation  was  in 
fuel-burning  plants.  Their  proportion  of  the  total 
was  boosted  to  71,5  percent,  the  highest  since  1940 
and  well  above  the  69.4  percent  in  1947  and  65,3 
in  1946.  The  corresponding  percentages  of  electric 
power  produced  in  hydroelectric  generating  plants 
were  28.5,  30.6,  and  34.7,  respectively.  Classifica- 
tion of  the  source  of  electric  power  by  type  of  own- 
ership produced  figures  practically  identical  with 
similar  figures  in  1947  and  1946;  81  percent  of  the 
total  was  generated  by  privately  owned  utility 
plants,  12.4  percent  by  Federal  power  projects,  and 
6.6  percent  by  miscellaneous  municipal  and  other 
public  plants.  Other  selected  comparative  statistics 
are  given  in  Table  1. 


consumption  in  1935  was  672  kw-hr,  at  4.99  cents 
per  kw-hr. 

The  total  number  of  customers  at  the  end  of  the 
year  1948  was  set  tentatively  at  40,774,900.  One 
fact  revealed  by  the  geographical  distribution  of 
the  figures  was  that  regions  with  the  most  rapid 
growth  in  total  number  of  customers  did  not  show 
the  fastest  growth  in  commercial  and  industrial 
customers.  Data  pertaining  to  electric  power  sales 
and  revenues  for  various  classes  of  customers  are 
shown  in  Table  2. 

Gross  operating  revenue  of  $3,875  million  was 
estimated  to  yield  a  net  income  of  $663  million, 
compared  to  the  1947  final  net  income  of  $656  mil- 
lion, which  came  from  final  gross  operating  revenue 
of  $3,480  million.  The  changed  ratio  between  in- 
come and  revenue  was  the  result  of  the  effect  of 


TABLE  1— ELECTHIC  POWER  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
(millions  of  kilowatt-hours] 


U.S.  plant  ownership 

Year                                                          Private  Govt. 

1948  ° 227,800  54,300 

1947* 208,100  47,600 

1937 113,400  8,400 

1932 87,500  4,900 

1929 91,200  4,700 


Energy  source 
Hydro 
80,700 
78,400 
44,500 
33,300 


Fuel 
201,300 
177,300 
77,300 
49,100 
62,700 


33,200 


From 
Canada 
1,200 
1,300 
1,700 
0,400 
1,000 


Gross 

Total 

283,200 

257,000 

123,500 

82,800 

96,900 


Uses  and  Available] 

losses  for  sale 

43,200  240,000 

39,400  217,600 

24,200  

19,100 


21,600 


99,300 
63,700 
75,300 


*  Preliminary  figures.    b  Revised  figures. 

finances  For  1948  the  estimated  gross  revenue 
from  the  sale  of  electric  power  in  the  United  States 
was  reported  as  nearly  4,300  million  dollars  as  com- 
pared with  the  1947  final  revised  figure  of  nearly 
3,852  million.  This  figure  now  is  almost  a  1,000  mil- 
lion dollars  higher  than  the  1945  total  of  3,340 
million,  and  is  far  above  the  boom  year  of  1929 
with  its  total  of  1,940  million. 

To  produce  the  revenue  for  1948,  an  estimated 
240,000  million  kilowatt-hours  were  sold.  The  dif- 
ference between  total  generation  and  sales,  of 
course,  is  accounted  for  by  losses  and  energy  used 
by  the  producer.  While  sales  showed  a  large  in- 
crease over  the  final  figure  of  217,581  million  kw-hr 
for  1947,  it  represented  a  smaller  increase  tihan  did 
the  gain  of  nearly  27,000  million  kw-hr  between 

1946  and  1947.  Large  industrial  electric  light  and 
power  users  accounted  for  almost  124,000  million 
of  the  total,  an  increase  of  only  10,300  million  over 

1947  compared  to  the  previous  year's  increase  of 
16,600  million  over  1946. 

The  average  residential  customer  continued  to 
use  increasing  amounts,  and  the  number  of  new 

TABLE  2— ELECTRIC  POWER  SALES  AND  REVENUE 


the  increased  output  on  the  several  factors  compris- 
ing operating  expenses.  Fuel  costs  increased  to 
take  19.5  percent  of  gross  revenues  as  compared 
with  16.4  percent  in  1947.  In  addition  to  an  in- 
crease in  the  price  of  coal,  the  shortage  of  water  in 
some  areas  caused  the  substitution  of  power  from 
fuel-burning  plants  for  power  from  hydroelectric 
plants,  a  condition  that  was  particularly  serious  in 
the  first  half  of  the  year.  Capital  charges  remained 
about  the  same  as  in  1947,  but  taxes  increased  7 
percent  because  of  the  greater  property  value.  Ta- 
ble 3  shows  the  distribution  of  the  average  dollar 
among  the  several  items  for  selected  years. 

TABLE    3— DISTRIBUTION    OF    AVERAGE    DOLLAR 
(Percentage) 


Urban  Residential 
1948  «     . 

Total  number 
of  customers 

.     33  551  100 

Energy  sales 
(millions  of 
kw-hr) 

50,550 
44,171 
+6,379 

6,500 
5,551 
+949 

182,950 
167,859 
+15,091 

240,000 
217,581 

+22,419 

Revenue 
(1,000's  of 
dollars) 

1,525,000 
1,366,498 
+158,502 

146,000 
123,748 
+22,252 

2,616,000 
2,362,519 
+253,481 

4,287,000 
3,852,765 
+434,235 

1947  6.         .    .. 

31  622  000 

Change  , 

..    +1,929,100 

Rural 
1948  a 

1  711  500 

1947* 

1  522  136 

Change            .  . 

-M  SQ  2fiA 

Commercial  and  Industrial 
1948°  .-      Ksia.snn 

1947*  

5,287,855 

Change  . 

4-224  445 

Total  U.S. 
1948  a.         ... 

40  774  900 

1947  *  

.  .     38  431,950 

Change  

..    +2,342,950 

Item 
Fuel                   .     . 

1941 
9  6 

1946 
13  1 

1947 
16  4 

1948" 
19  5 

Salaries  and  wages 

.     16  1 

18  5 

20  6 

20  6 

Other  operating  expenses  .  . 
Depreciation  

.     10.8 
.     10.8 

10.9 
9.9 

10.2 
9.4 

10.3 
9.1 

Fixed  charges     , 

120 

80 

6  8 

6  1 

Taxes 

200 

19  6 

18  4 

17  8 

Dividends  and  surplus  .... 

.     20.7 

20.0 

18.2 

16.6 

Totals  

.   100,0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

a  Preliminary  figures. 

a  Preliminary  figures.    6  Revised  figures. 

customers  added  in  1948  set  another  record.  From 
the  1947  final  average  consumption  of  1,438  kw-hr 
the  estimate  for  1948  rose  to  1,550.  Meanwhile  the 
average  revenue  per  kilowatt  hour  for  this  service 
dropped  from  3.09  cents  to  3.01  cents,  thereby 
continuing  its  long-time  trend.  For  comparison, 


Operation.  For  the  12-month  period  ending  Oct. 
31,  1948,  the  coal,  oil,  and  gas  consumed  for  the 
production  of  electric  power  amounted  to  the  esti- 
mated gross  equivalent  of  128  million  tons  of  coal 
as  compared  to  the  1947  equivalent  consumption 
of  115,67  million  tons. 

Although  output  grew  14  percent  during  1948, 
new  generating  capacity  grew  only  5  percent.  Be- 
sides the  obvious  decrease  in  reserve  capacity,  the 
situation  was  reflected  in  the  cost  of  generating  a 
kilowatt-hour  of  electricity  because  of  the  need  for 
operating  old  equipment;  few  units  that  were  op- 
erating 20  years  ago  have  been  retired.  Further- 
more, new  equipment  in  some  instances  had  to  be 
operated  beyond  its  point  of  maximum  efficiency. 
The  result  was  the  continued  leveling  off  of  the 
curve  of  improvement  of  fuel  efficiency  which  by 
1942  had  reached  the  figure  of  1.3  Ib.  of  coal  per 
kilowatt-hour.  The  figure  for  1948  was  the  same — 
L3 — although  equipment  currently  being  installed 
is  able  to  generate  a  kilowatt-hour  on  one  Ib.  or  less. 


EtECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER 


167 


EL  SALVADOR 


Statistics  compiled  by  the  Federal  Power  Com- 
mission for  the  12  months  ending  Oct.  31,  1948, 
show  the  actual  consumption  of  99.08  million  tons 
of  coal,  42.94  million  barrels  of  oil,  and  461,020 
million  cubic  feet  of  gas  in  the  production  of  elec- 
tric power.  In  comparison  with  1947,  the  figures 
show  the  consumption  of  10  percent  more  coal,  5 
percent  less  oil,  and  27  percent  more  gas.  The  en- 
ergy generated  in  the  period  ending  Oct.  SI,  1948, 
is  given  as  197,215  million  kw-hr. 

The  decrease  in  hydroelectric  generation  was 
shown  in  figures  reporting  the  yearly  output  per  kw 
of  capacity.  Fuel-burning  plants  were  credited 
with  5,246  kw-hr  for  1948  as  compared  with  the 
final  figure  of  4,870  kw-hr  for  1947,  while  hydro- 
electric stations  were  credited  with  only  5,279  kw- 
hr  per  kw  of  capacity  as  compared  with  the  final 
figure  of  5,442  kw-hr  for  1947.  The  over-all  figure 
was  estimated  as  5,258  kw-hr;  final  figure  for  1947 
was  4,983. 

Generating  Capacity.  Forecasts  for  the  year  1948 
as  published  in  Electrical  World  called  for  the  in- 
stallation of  4,409,044  kw  of  new  capacity.  Actual 
accomplishment  fell  only  slightly  short  of  this  fig- 
ure, with  4,012,166  kw  of  new  capacity  divided  be- 
tween 3,132,036  kw  in  fuel-burning  plants  and 
880,130  kw  in  hydroelectric  plants.  The  total  elec- 
tric generating  capacity,  after  deduction  of  retired 
equipment,  was  brought  to  54,968,000  kw  on  Nov. 
1,  1948,  with  39,398,000  kw  in  fuel-burning  plants 
and  15,570,000  in  hydroelectric  plants. 


Budget.  In  general,  the  expenditures  for  new  con- 
struction in  1948  fell  below  the  figures  that  had 
been  projected.  Expenditures  in  millions  of  dollars 
were  as  follows  (projected  figures  for  1949  given 
in  parentheses } :  813  ( 952 )  for  fuel-burning  power 
plants;  86  (141)  for  hydroelectric  power  plants: 
280  (325)  for  electric  power  transmission  lines; 
822  (862)  for  electric  power  distribution  facili- 
ties; and  76  ( 84 )  for  miscellaneous  plant  improve- 
ments. Only  the  last  two  items  surpassed  the  figures 
that  had  been  projected  for  them  in  1947. 

Rural  Electrification.  Privately  owned  electric  util- 
ity companies  erected  more  miles  of  rural  lines  dur- 
ing 1948  than  had  been  projected  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year;  nevertheless,  the  total  of  52,377  miles 
was  considerably  less  than  the  1947  total  of  59,- 
127  miles.  Actual  expenditures  on  these  lines  in 
1948  totaled  $113,610,000,  bringing  the  cost  to 
less  than  $2,200  per  mile;  in  1947  the  cost  averaged 
$2,400  per  mile. 

REA  lines  in  operation  at  the  end  of  the  year 
were  estimated  to  total  750,000  miles,  as  compared 
with  the  final  figure  at  the  end  of  1947  of  603,064 
miles.  The  increase  of  some  147,000  miles  greatly 
overshadowed  the  1947  gain  of  about  96,000  miles. 
Generation  in  1948  was  estimated  at  694  million 
kw-hr,  far  higher  than  the  final  1947  total  of  433,- 
282,290,  which  itself  exceeded  preliminary  figures. 
Far  larger  than  the  REA  generated  power  was  the 
power  purchased  from  outside  sources,  which  in- 
creased from  almost  3,721  million  kw-hr  in  1947  to 


TABLE  4— ADDITIONS  TO  U.S.  ELECTRIC  GENERATING  CAPACITY 


Year 
1948 

Fuel  plants  or  systems                                        Hydn 
Public                   Private                   Total                   Public 
No.  Kilowatts  No.  Kilowatts    No.    Kilowatts    No.  Kilowatts 
13     180  430    62    2  951  606     105    3  132  036      4    689  700 

'^electric  plants  or  systems 
Private               Total 
No.  Kilowatts    No.  Kilowatts 
S    190,430      12    880,130 
5      54,750        7    419,750 
24§  200 

Grand  total  of 
fuel  and  hydro 
No.    Kilowatts 
117    4,012,166 
78    2,203,849 
2  330  500 

1947  

10    218,600     61     1*565499      71     1*783  '399      2    365*000 

1929        .    . 

$            2  081  300 

The  decreasing  margin  between  capacity  and  de- 
mand was  shown  by  the  rise  to  61  percent  of  the 
average  hours  use  of  over-all  capacity,  which  means 
that  each  typical  kilowatt  (rated)  of  generating 
capacity  operated  at  its  full  capacity  for  61  hours 
out  of  every  100.  The  1947  figure  was  57.5,  and  in 
1934  it  was  as  low  as  30.3.  Predictions  call  for  the 
delivery  of  an  average  of  more  than  6  million  kw 

TABLE  5— DISTRIBUTION  OF  GENERATING 
CAPACITY 


Fuel0 

Hydroelectric 

No.  of 

Kilowatts 

No.  of 

Kilowatts 

Area  —  State  Groups  . 

plants 

(thousands) 

idants 

(thousands') 

6  New  England  .  .  . 

98 

2,566 

216 

914 

3  Mid.  Atlantic  

164 

9,572 

197 

1,590 

5  E.  No.-Central,.  . 

384 

11,764 

292 

744 

7  W.No.-Central... 

771 

3,370 

128 

564 

8  So.  Atlantic  

228 

4,865 

158 

2,221 

4E.  So.-CentraL... 

93 

1,408 

39 

2,253 

4  W.  So.-Central.  .  . 

367 

2,909 

36 

385 

8  Mountain 

220 

787 

198 

2,057 

3  Pacific  

76 

2,157 

212 

4,842 

Totals  

2.401 

39,398 

1,476 

15,570 

Over-all  U.S.  Total:  3,877  plants;  54,968,075  kw.  capacity 
a  Includes  both,  steam  and  iaternal-combustion-engine  plants. 

of  new  capacity  in  each  of  the  years  1949-51,  after 
which  the  necessity  for  the  addition  of  new  ca- 
pacity is  expected  to  become  less  urgent. 

Data  relative  to  additions  to  generating  capacity 
are  presented  in  Table  4.  Table  5  shows  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  generating  capacity  as  of 
Nov.  1,  1948,  according  to  statistics  published  by 
the  Federal  Power  Commission.  The  U.S.  total  of 
3,877  plants  compared  with  the  1947  total  of  3,860 
shows  continuation  of  a  trend  toward  larger  units 
in  fewer  plants  as  noted  in  last  year's  YEAH  BOOK. 


5,052  million  in  1948.  The  number  of  systems  in 
operation  continued  a  steady  growth — 869  in  1946, 
911  in  1947,  and  955  in  1948.  The  number  of  sys- 
tems generating  power  was  reported  as  87,  a 
marked  increase  from  the  81  in  1947  and  79  in 
1946.  Generating  plant  capacity  for  the  three  years 
was  217,000  kw,  184,050  kw,  and  114,678  kw,  re- 
spectively. 

Public  funds  allocated  to  REA  by  the  U.S.  Treas- 
ury increased  during  the  year  by  almost  $400  mil- 
lion to  bring  the  total  to  $1,590  million.  This  in- 
crease was  almost  double  the  increase  in  1947, 
when  loans  increased  from  $958  million  to  $1,190 
million.  Thus  in  a  two-year  period  an  increase  of 
about  50  percent  in  the  number  of  consumers  was 
accompanied  by  an  increase  of  about  85  percent 
in  funds,  based  on  2,515,000  consumers  served  in 
1948  and  1,683,901  in  1946. 

— G.  Ross  HENNINGER. 

EL  SALVADOR.  The  smallest  of  the  Central  Ameri- 
can republics.  Although  entirely  within  the  tropics, 
the  greater  part  of  tne  surface  consists  of  fairly 
high  plateaus  and  mountain  valleys,  which  makes 
the  climate  mostly  temperate. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  13,176  square  miles. 
Population:  2,047,000  in  1947  (72  percent  mesti- 
zos, 20  percent  Indians  and  8  percent  of  European 
descent).  Principal  cities:  San  Salvador  (capi- 
tal), 123,143  in  1946;  Santa  Ana,  98,942;  La  Li- 
bertad,  37,879. 

Education  and  Religion,  Freedom  of  worship  is 
guaranteed  by  the  Constitution.  Catholicism  is  pre- 
dominant. Spanish  is  the  official  language,  but  the 
Indians  speak  their  own  language.  According  to 
recent  statistics,  some  100,000  pupils  attended 


EL  SALVADOR 


168 


EMPLOYMENT  SECURITY  OPERATIONS 


nearly  1,600  elementary  schools  of  all  kinds.  In 
1944  there  were  63  secondary  schools  with  4,765 
students.  Higher  education  is  provided  by  the 
National  University  of  El  Salvador. 

Production.  The  country  is  almost  completely  agri- 
cultural, and  coffee  is  the  most  important  export. 
Production  of  coffee  in  1947-48  was  1,035,000 
bags  of  60  kilos.  Coffee  exports  during  the  first 
part  of  that  crop  year  amounted  to  863,892  bags. 
The  same  year,  the  cotton  crop  was  the  largest 
on  record,  totaling  over  19,000  bales.  The  sugar 
crop  was  estimated  at  525,000  quintals  and  pro- 
duction of  tobacco  leaf  was  over  a  million  Ib. 
Other  crops  were  rice,  corn,  hennequen  and  beans. 
Balsam,  indigo,  gold,  silver  and  hardwoods  are  ex- 
ported. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  in  1947  amounted  to  $40,- 
100,000  and  imports  to  $35,900,000.  Exports  dur- 
ing the  first  five  months  of  1948  were  valued  at 
81,810,000  colones  (colon  equals  U.S.$0.40)  and 
imports  at  only  40,290,000  colones.  The  principal 
countries  for  exports  were:  the  United  States,  Can- 
ada, Honduras,  and  Guatemala,  The  most  impor- 
tant exporters  to  El  Salvador  were  the  United 
States,  Mexico,  Honduras,  Great  Britain,  and 
Canada. 

Transportation.  The  country  had  388  miles  of  rail- 
way, and  3,691  miles  of  roads.  Most  recent  figures 
showed  4,074  motor  vehicles  registered.  There 
were  11,000  radio  sets  and  4,411  telephones.  In- 
ternational companies  provide  air  transportation  in 
El  Salvador. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  ( 1948 ) :  revenue,  57,- 
702,571  colones;  expenditure  57,552,571  colones. 
Public  debt  (1946)  amounted  to  $17,263,000.  Cur- 
rency in  circulation  at  the  end  of  1947  was  55,440,- 
000  colones;  bank  deposits  on  the  same  date  were 
29,940,000  colones  and  gold  reserves  $15,000,000. 
Total  cost  of  living  in  June,  1947,  was  199  ( 1940  = 
100).  Due  to  the  favorable  balance  of  trade,  the 
foreign  exchange  holdings  on  June  30,  1948, 
amounted  to  $21,200,000.  There  were  no  import 
restrictions  or  exchange  control  in  El  Salvador, 

Government.  Under  the  constitution  of  1886,  re- 
adopted  with  amendments  in  1945,  El  Salvador  is 
a  centralized  republic  of  14  departments.  Legisla- 
tive authority  is  vested  in  the  National  Assembly  of 
Deputies,  a  unicameral  body  whose  members  are 
elected  by  popular  vote.  The  Chief  Executive  is 
the  President,  assisted  by  a  Cabinet  of  Ministers  of 
State  (whom  the  President  appoints).  Early  in 
1947,  the  Congress  created  three  new  ministries: 
Labor  and  Social  Welfare,  Social  Assistance,  and 
Agriculture  and  Industry.  In  January,  1945,  Gen- 
eral Castaneda  Castro  was  elected  President.  On 
December  14,  a  military  coup  d'etat  overthrew  the 
government  of  President  Salvador  Castaneda 
Castro. 

Events,  1948,  In  February,  a  large  group  of 
University  students  filed  a  serious  protest  with  the 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  to  the  effect  that  the  ad- 
ministration was  unnecessarily  prolonging  the  state 
of  seige  previously  declared.  The  students  com- 
plained that  there  was  no  political  freedom  and 
that  party  activities  were  curtailed,  They  were  sup- 
ported by  the  "Diario  Latino,"  a  San  Salvador 
newspaper,  which  added  that,  although  it  was 
against  the  law,  the  government  continued  to  ap- 
point municipal  authorities,  using  the  outward  ap- 
pearance of  elections,  that  were  in  reality  ineffec- 
tive. 

Cabinet  Change  and  Economic  Measures.  Late  in 
February,  the  Minister  of  Finance  resigned  and 
was  succeeded  by  Dr,  Carlos  Alberto  Lu&vano, 
former  private  secretary  to  the  President  The  ap- 


pointment of  a  personal  friend  of  the  President's 
roused  criticism  by  the  opposition.  Shortly  after, 
the  Federation  of  Coffee  Growers  announced  that 
they  would  not  sell  the  grain  at  a  lower  price  than 
quoted  in  the  market  in  January.  The  Federation 
also  approved  a  motion  asking  for  protection  of 
their  product,  and  appointed  a  delegation  to  rep- 
resent their  interests  at  the  Bogota.  Conference. 

Military  Revolf.  The  uprising  that  deposed  Presi- 
dent Castaneda  Castro  on  December  14  was  com- 
posed of  younger  officers  of  the  army  who 
immediately  formed  a  military  junta. 

Internationalism.  A  distinguished  Salvadorean  jur- 
ist, Dr.  Jose  Gustavo  Guerrero,  continued  to  pre- 
side during  the  year  over  the  International  Court  of 
Justice,  and  his  compatriots  were  highly  pleased 
when  the  Institute  of  International  Law  recom- 
mended Dr.  Guerrero  as  their  candidate  for  the 
Nobel  Peace  Prize  of  1948. 

On  July  18,  Col.  Jose  Figueres,  head  of  the  de 
facto  government  of  Costa  Rica,  visited  the  coun- 
try. He  was  received  by  the  President  and  other 
government  functionaries.  It  was  disclosed  that  the 
purpose  of  his  visit  was  to  strengthen  the  Central 
American  Union. 

El  Salvador  attended  the  Ninth  Inter-American 
Conference  of  American  States,  held  in  Bogota  in 
April  (see  PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES). 

— MIGUEL  JOKRIN 

EMPLOYEES'  COMPENSATION,  Bureau  of.  This  bureau 
was  created  within  the  Federal  Security  Agency  to 
perform  the  functions  of  the  former  United  States 
Employees*  Compensation  Commission  (abolished 
by  Reorganization  Plan  II),  which  were  trans- 
f erred  to  the  Federal  Security  Agency  (Reorgani- 
zation Plan  II  of  1946,  effective  July  16,  1946). 
The  Bureau  administers  the  Federal  laws  estab- 
lishing workmen's  compensation  programs  for  em- 
ployments within  Federal  jurisdiction.  Director: 
William  McCauley, 

EMPLOYMENT  SECURITY  OPERATIONS.  As  the  calendar 
year  of  1948  ended,  the  Federal-State  employment 
service  and  the  Federal- State  unemployment  pro- 
gram (UI)  had  completed  six  months  of  unified 
operations  under  the  Bureau  of  Employment  Se- 
curity, Social  Security  Administration,  Federal  Se- 
curity Agency.  The  United  States  Employment 
Service  (USES)  was  transferred  from  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  July  1,  1948. 

The  Bureau  of  Employment  Security,  through 
the  USES,  promotes  and  develops  a  nation-wide 
system  of  public  employment  offices,  and  maintains 
a  veterans  employment  service.  The  bureau  also 
has  the  obligation  of  providing  leadership  in  de- 
veloping the  Federal-State  program  for  protecting 
workers  against  the  risk  of  unemployment,  through 
unemployment  insurance.  The  bureau  is  respon- 
sible for  making  recommendations  to  the  Commis- 
sioner for  Social  Security  regarding  funds  for  ad- 
ministration of  State  employment  services  and  State 
unemployment  insurance  programs.  During  the  cal- 
endar year  of  1948,  the  Bureau  recommended  a 
total  of  $133,244,355  in  administrative  grants  to 
the  States  for  operation  of  the  State  employment 
services  and  the  State  unemployment  insurance 
programs.  These  grants  exclude  postage  costs 
which  are  computed  and  paid  at  the  federal  level. 

Employment  Service.  The  responsibilities  of  the 
United  States  Employment  Service  and  the  48 
State  employment  services  were  increased  by  the 
return  on  Jan.  1,  1948,  of  the  farm  placement  func- 
tion which  had  been  performed  by  the  public  em- 
ployment service  before  World  War  II.  The  return 
of  this  function  coincided  with  the  termination  of 


EMPLOYMENT  SECURITY  OPERATIONS 


the  Emergency  Farm  Labor  Supply  program  of  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Dec.  31, 1947. 

During  the  calendar  year  o£  1948,  the  State  em- 
ployment services  placed  approximately  6  million 
workers  in  farm  and  food  processing  employment 
with  the  result  that  the  record  crops  of  the  year 
were  grown,  harvested,  and  processed  with  no 
losses  chargeable  to  manpower  shortages.  A  com- 

Earatively  small  number  of  foreign  workers  were 
rought  in  for  agricultural  employment,  particu- 
larly in  the  cotton  and  beet  fields — approximately 
60,000    during   the   year,    Nonagricultural   place- 
ments were  more  than  5  million. 

During  the  fourth  quarter  of  1948,  the  situation 
confronting  the  employment  service  was  in  sharp 
contrast  to  that  existing  in  1940  when  there  were 
some  8  million  unemployed  persons.  In  some  re- 
spects the  manpower  situation  was  similar  to  that 
of  1941-42  when  certain  skills  were  at  a  premium, 
All  of  the  services  of  the  employment  service  were 
intensified  to  meet  the  needs  of  both  workers  and 
employers.  These  services  facilitated  the  return  of 
veterans  to  the  labor  market,  assisted  youth  entering 
the  labor  market  for  the  first  time,  promoted  the 
employment  of  the  physically  handicapped,  and 
helped  workers  transferring  from  job  to  job. 

Through  its  interviewing,  counseling,  and  inter- 
state labor-clearance  functions  the  employment 
service  aided  millions  of  workers  find  job  adjust- 
ment. During  the  year  the  local  offices  made  16,- 
670,500  referrals  of  job  applicants  to  employers, 
and  made  2,682,300  calls  on  employers.  In  the 
same  period  the  local  offices  made  placements  of 
1,650,300  veteran  applicants. 

Placements  of  handicapped  job  applicants  to- 
taled 229,000,  of  which  125,000  were  handicapped 
veterans.  The  Veterans  Employment  Service  con- 
ducted an  aggressive  year-round  program  to  aid 
disabled  veterans  secure  suitable  employment,  and 
cooperated  with  schools  and  colleges  to  facilitate 
placement  of  veteran  students  completing  their 
studies. 

The  use  of  employment  service  tests,  especially 
the  General  Aptitude  Test  Battery,  was  expanded 
greatly  during  the  year.  Many  schools  and  colleges 
added  aptitude  testing  to  their  programs  and  re- 
quested assistance  from  the  employment  service. 

A  technical  tool — an  occupational  guide  series 
—providing  information  as  to  the  economic  char- 
acteristics of  jobs  and  methods  of  entering  jobs, 
was  introduced  into  the  field  of  counseling  for  the 
first  time.  Although  primarily  intended  for  use  of 
employment  service  counselors,  the  Veterans  Ad- 
ministration printed  several  thousand  copies  of 
each  occupational  guide  for  its  own  counseling  pro- 
gram. Also,  vocational  advisors,  college  and  high 
schools,  corporations,  and  prisons  purchased  the 
guides  through  the  Superintendent  of  Documents. 

A  revision  of  the  Dictionary  of  Occupational 
Titles,  first  published  in  1939,  was  completed  dur- 
ing the  year  for  release  to  public  employment  offi- 
ces in  February  or  March,  1949.  The  new  edition 
will  present  an  expanded  occupational  coverage  in 
numerous  industries,  with  more  than  1,600  new 
job  definitions  and  more  than  500  revisions  of  old 
job  definitions. 

A  Federal  Advisory  Council,  consisting  of  rep- 
resentatives of  the  public,  labor  and  management, 
and  veterans,  was  appointed  to  advise  an  over-all 
national  policy  of  the  United  States  Employment 
Service  and  Unemployment  Insurance  programs. 
Unemployment  Insurance.  The  Bureau,  through  the 
unemployment  insurance  program,  reviews  State 
laws  and  appraises  State  administration  from  the 
standpoint  of  conformity  with  Federal  requirements 


169  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

and  eligibility  for  grants  and  certification  for  tax 
credits.  It  also  provides  assistance  to  the  States  in 
developing  legislation,  rules  and  regulations,  inter- 
pretations, and  administrative  procedures  dealing 
with  the  unemployment  insurance  program.  The 
Federal  Government  grants  the  entire  amount  of 
funds  for  State  administrative  costs,  as  is  presently 
practiced  in  the  case  of  the  State  employment  serv- 
ices. Each  State  administers  its  own  unemployment 
insurance  program  and  employment  service. 

Under  its  own  unemployment  insurance  law  each 
State  collects  contributions  from  employers  (2 
States  also  have  employee  contributions),  which 
are  deposited  in  the  U.S.  Treasury  to  the  credit  of 
the  individual  State.  The  Bureau's  responsibility 
includes  ascertaining  that  State  laws  include  pro- 
visions that  benefits  be  paid  through  public  em- 
ployment offices  or  other  approved  agencies;  and 
that  the  worker's  right  to  benefits  be  safeguarded 
when  he  refuses  a  job  which  fails  to  meet  the 
standards  of  suitability  of  employment  provided  in 
Federal  and  State  laws.  Provision  is  also  made  for 
an  opportunity  for  a  fair  hearing  in  all  cases. 

During  the  course  of  the  1948  calendar  year* 
45.6  million  workers  earned  some  wage  credits  un- 
der State  unemployment  insurance  systems,  3,5 
million  less  than  under  old-age  and  survivors  in- 
surance. During  the  year,  about  6  million  workers 
filed  claims  for  unemployed  insurance.  Of  this 
number  about  5.1  million  workers  had  sufficient 
wage  credits  to  qualify  for  benefits  under  State  sys- 
tems. About  4.0  million  workers  actually  drew 
some  unemployment  insurance  benefits. 

State  employment  security  agencies  paid  out 
$790  million  in  unemployment  insurance  benefits 
to  eligible  workers,  many  of  whose  skills  did  not 
match  specifications  for  available  jobs,  or  to  workers 
who  were  difficult  to  place  in  jobs  even  in  a  period 
of  unusually  high  employment  such  as  prevailed  in 
1948,  The  average  weekly  benefit  payment  for  the 
country  as  a  whole  was  $18.05,  and  slightly  higher 
than  in  1947.  As  a  result  of  legislative  action  dur- 
ing the  year,  New  Jersey  became  the  third  State 
which  provides  unemployment  benefits  for  tempo- 
rary disability.  The  two  others  are  California  and 
Rhode  Island. 

A  total  of  $1,000  million  was  collected  by  the 
States  in  1948  from  employers  subject  to  State  un- 
employment insurance  laws,  and  in  two  States—- 
Alabama and  New  Jersey — from  employees  based 
on  a  one  percent  payroll  tax. 

Interest  on  investments  in  the  Unemployment 
Trust  Fund  in  the  U.S.  Treasury  amounted  to  $155 
million,  and  State  balances  in  the  fund  at  the  end 
of  the  year  amounted  to  about  7,600  million  dol- 
lars. 

Temporary  reconversion  unemployment  benefits 
for  officers  and  members  of  crews  employed  by  the 
United  States  through  the  War  Shipping  Adminis- 
tration or  its  successor,  the  Maritime  Commission, 
totaled  $3,769,000  between  July,  1947,  and  Sept. 
30,  1948.  This  program  is  scheduled  to  expire  June 
SO,  1949.  —ROBERT  C.  GOODWIN 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  The  great  scarcity  of  book  ma- 
terials was  slightly  eased  in  1948,  but  publishers 
had  to  use  most  of  the  increase  of  paper  to  revive 
standard  works  which  had  fallen  out  of  print.  An 
increasing  number  of  English  books  were  published 
in  America,  often  remaining  unavailable  to  English 
readers.  In  literature  1948  seemed  to  be  a  bound- 
ary line.  Most  of  the  older  generation  of  writers 
were  played  out;  none  of  the  established  writers 
in  the  various  fields  produced  a  happy  surprise, 
and  few  lived  up  to  the  level  of  their  reputations. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


170 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


The  younger  generation  of  writers  was  still  in  a 
state  of  flux,  placing  emphasis  largely  on  experi- 
mental treatment  and  psychological  approach.  In 
all  branches  of  literature  the  war,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, was  the  most  powerful  shaping  force. 

Biography.  Among  biographies  of  recent  figures 
were  R.  L.  Collins'  Lord  Wavell  1888-1941,  a  mil- 
itary biography;  Roy  Jenkins'  Mr.  Attlee,  an  interim 
treatment;  and  Margaret  Cole's  collection  of  Mak- 
ers of  the  Labour  Movement.  Other  English  figures 
include  Garrick  by  Margaret  Barton;  Beau  Brurn- 
mell  by  Kathleen  Campbell;  The  Great  Dr.  Burney 
by  Percy  A.  Scholes;  and  William  Temple,  Arch- 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  by  F.  A.  Iremonger. 

Clare  Leighton's  charming  Tempestuous  Petti- 
coat was  about  her  mother  Mrs.  Leighton,  the  Ed- 
wardian novelist.  Cardinal  Newman  was  the  sub- 
ject of  Masie  Ward's  Young  Mr.  Newman  and 
Robert  Sencourt's  The  Life  of  Newman.  In  Two 
Quiet  Lives  David  Cecil  \yrote  about  Dorothy  Os- 
borae  and  Thomas  Gray.  J.  H.  Whitfield's  Machia- 
vetti  was  an  attempt  to  make  him  plain.  Angus 
Armitage's  Sun,  Stand  Thou  Still  was  about  Coper- 
nicus. 

In  autobiography  Osbert  SitwelTs  Laughter  in 
the  Next  Room  was  the  fourth  volume  of  his  in- 
clusive work.  Beatrice  Webb's  Our  Partnership 
and  Henry  Handel  Richardson's  Myself  When 
Young  were  both  posthumous  and  unfinished.  Rich 
lives  were  described  in  Harold  Acton's  urbane  Mem- 
oirs of  an  Aesthete;  Sir  James  Grigg's  Prejudice 
and  Judgment,  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War, 
1942-45;  Phyllis  Bottome's  Search  for  a  Soul 

literary  History  and  Criticism.  The  emphasis  in  lit- 
erary scholarship  was  more  on  interpretation  than 
biography.  Siegfried  Sassoon's  Meredith  and  W. 
A.  M.  Peters'  Gerard  Manley  Hopkins  were  out- 
standing critical  appreciations,  as  was  Joan  Ben- 
nett's George  Eliot  and  Lord  GorelFs  John  Keats. 
Laura  L.  Hincldey's  The  Brontes  treated  family 
life,  while  Katherine  Anthony's  The  Lambs  em- 
phasized Mary.  Other  literary  studies  included 
Esther  Mevnell's  Portrait  of  William  Morris;  R.  W. 
Chapman's  Jane  Austen;  Florence  B.  Lennon's  psy- 
choanalysis of  Lewis  Carroll;  and  F.  Brittain's  bio- 
graphical Arthur  Quitter-Couch.  Sir  William  James 
edited  The  Order  of  Release,  the  letters  of  John 
Ruskin  and  Effie  Gray.  John  Cowper  Powys  inter- 
preted Rabelais,  while  Barker  Fairley's  A  Study  of 
Goethe  was*  psychological.  R.  L.  Chambers  dis- 
cussed The  Novels  of  Virginia  Woolf,  while  Ber- 
nard Blackstone's  Virginia  Woolf^  was  a  general 
analysis.  B.  Rajan  edited  a  collection  of  studies  of 
T.  S.  Eliot.  Other  literary  studies  included  H.  S. 
Bennett's  Chaucer  and  the  Fifteenth  Century;  J. 
W.  H.  Atkins*  English  Literary  Criticism:  The 
Renascence;  and  Elizabeth  F.  Rogers'  edition  of 
The  Correspondence  of  Sir  Thomas  More. 

Collections  of  essays  included  Geoffrey  Grigson's 
The  Harp  of  Aeolus,  on  esthetics;  Virginia  Woolf  s 
posthumous  The  Moment;  and  W.  R.  Inge's  The 
End  of  an  Age.  Ernest  Gower's  official  pamphlet, 
Plain  Words,  became  a  popular  guide  to  the  use 
of  English.  Alex  Comfort's  Art  and  Social  Respon- 
sibility and  Herbert  Read's  The  Grass  Roots  of 
Art  discussed  the  artist's  relation  to  society.  Other 
books  on  art  included  Robert  Ironside's  well-illus- 
trated Pre-Raphaelite  Painters  and  James  Lees- 
Milne's  TJie  Age  of  Adam,  on  architecture.  Frank 
Howes  discussed  the  philosophy  of  music  in  Man, 
Mind,  and  Music.  Wilfred  Mellers  wrote  Studies  in 
Contemporary  Music  against  a  background  of  na- 
tional traditions.  The  Master  Musicians  Series  and 
the  Music  of  the  Masters  Series  dealt  with  individ- 
ual musicians. 


Hisfory.  Recent  history  was  a  popular  subject  but 
other  periods  received  scant  attention.  English 
history  was  treated  in  Sir  Tresham  Lever's  The 
House  of  Pitt,,  the  18th  century;  Douglas  Terrold's 
An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  England,  to  the 
end  of  the  12th  century;  F.  C.  Turner's  James  II; 
and  John  Harvey's  The  Plantagenets  1154-1485. 
In  The  First  Europe  C.  Delisle  Bums  drew  an  anal- 
ogy between  our  times  and  that  of  medieval  Chris- 
tianity, while  John  Bowie's  The  Unity  of  European 
History  was  a  political  and  cultural  survey.  More 
recent  events  were  the  subject  of  L.  B.  Namier's 
Diplomatic  Prelude,  1938-1939,  and  J.  W.  Wheel- 
er-Bennett's Munich:  Prologue  to  Tragedy, 

Formal  chronicles  of  the  war  were  beginning 
to  emerge,  the  most  important  being  The  Gather- 
ing Storm,  the  first  volume  of  Winston  Churchill's 
The  Second  World  War.  Lord  Montgomery's  El 
Alamein  to  the  River  Sangro  traced  the  military 
campaign  in  Africa,  Sicily,  and  Italy.  Taprell  Dar- 
ling covered  the  Western  Mediterranean  1942— 
1945,  a  commentary  rather  than  a  narrative.  Lord 
Tedder  discussed  Air  Power  in  War,  and  B.  H.  Lid- 
dell  Hart  treated  the  conduct  of  the  war  from  the 
German  side  in  The  Other  Side  of  the  Hill  R.  H. 
Bruce  Lockhart's  Comes  the  Reckoning  and  Dudley 
Clarke's  Seven  Assignments  were  personal  remi- 
niscences by  official  figures.  More  informal  accounts 
included  Michael  Packe's  First  Airborne,  a  com- 
bination of  history  and  fiction;  Julian  Amery's 
Sons  of  the  Eagle,  guerrilla  war  in  Albania;  Roy 
Farran's  exciting  Winged  Dagger;  Philip  Stibbe's 
Return  Via  Rangoon,  jungle  warfare  with  Wingate; 
and  David  James'  A  Prisoner's  Progress  and  A.  S. 
B.  Arkwright's  Return  Journey,  two  accounts  of 
escape  from  prison. 

The  Contemporary  Scene.  Contemporary  problems 
exercised  many  minds.  Barbara  Ward's  brilliant 
The  West  at  Bay  analyzed  the  modern  impasse  and 
advocated  union  of  the  Western  powers.  Arnold  J. 
Toynbee's  Civilization  on  Trial  discussed  man's 
past  and  future,  while  John  Middleton  Murry's 
The  Free  Society  was  concerned  with  foreign  and 
domestic  policies.  John  Parker  in  Labour  Marches 
On  and  Quintin  Hogg  in  The  Case  for  Conserva- 
tism presented  opposite  points  of  view.  Other  books 
on  current  problems  included  John  Jewkes'  Ordeal 
by  Planning,  a  defense  of  free  enterprise;  Lord 
Vansittart's  vigorous  Events  and,  Shadows;  and 
The  Challenge  of  Our  Time,  a  group  of  broadcast 
talks  on  the  impact  of  the  atomic  revolution  on 
human  relations. 

The  American  scene  inspired  two  scintillating 
books:  Geoffrey  Gorer's  The  Americans,  on  our 
customs  and  manners;  and  Harold  J.  Laski's  The 
American  Democracy,  a  gloomy  look  at  our  cul- 
ture and  politics.  D.  W.  Brogan  continued  his  study 
of  this  country  in  American  Themes.  Wyndham 
Lewis  in  America  and  Cosmic  Man  stated  that 
America  is  evolving  a  world  man  for  the  world 
state.  Books  on  other  parts  of  the  world  included 
Sacheverell  SitwelTs  The  Netherlands,  on  art  and 
social  life;  E.  Lucas  Bridges*  Uttermost  Part  of  the 
Earth,  Tierra  del  Fuego;  Robert  Gibbings'  Over 
the  Reefs,  the  Polynesian  Islands;  Dane  Chandos' 
Village  in  the  Sun,  daily  Me  in  Mexico;  George 
Millar's  Isabel  and  the  Sea,  a  Mediterranean  trip; 
and  H.  W.  Tilman's  magnificently  illustrated  Mt. 
Everest  1938,  the  official  account  of  the  5th  Everest 
expedition.  Dragon  Fangs  by  Claire  and  William 
Band  described  two  years  with  the  Chinese  guer- 
rillas. John  Bagot  Glubb  told  the  Story  of  the  Arab 
Legion.  Several  volumes  were  published  in  The 
New  Naturalist  Series,  which  will  be  a  complete 
survey  of  Britain's  natural  history*  L.  Dudley 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


171 


Stamp's  The  Land  of  Britain,  Its  Use  and  Misuse 
was  a  standard  work  on  agricultural  geography. 
John  Moore's  The  Blue  Field  was  another  Bren- 
sham  book  on  English  village  life, 

The  Novel  The  novel  received  a  new  spurt  of 
vigor  in  1948.  Veteran  writers  turned  out  their 
usual  reliable  product,  among  them  being  A.  J. 
Cronin's  Shannons  Wag;  Angela  ThirkelTs  Love 
Among  the  Ruins^  L.  A.  G.  Strong's  Trevannion; 
P.  G.  Wodehouse's  Spring  Fever;  James  Hilton's 
Nothing  So  Strange;  Nevil  Shute's  No  Highway; 
Howard  Spring's  There  Is  No  Armour;  Margery 
Sharp's  The  Foolish  Gentlewoman;  G.  B.  Stern's 
No  Son  of  Mine;  R.  C.  Sheriff's  Another  Year; 
and  Frank  Swinnerton's  Faithful  Company.  Eng- 
lish family  life  was  the  subject  of  Phyllis  Bentley's 
Life  Story;  Sheila  Kaye-Smith's  The  Lardners  and 
the  Laurelwoods;  Humphrey  Paldngton's  TJie 
Washbournes  of  Otterley;  and  I.  Compton-Bur- 
nett's  Bullwant  and  the  Lambs. 

Aspects  of  the  war  were  treated  in  Robert  Kee's 
A  Crowd  Is  Not  Company,  about  a  prisoner-of-war 
camp;  Alexander  Baron's  From  the  City,  From  the 
Plow;  Christopher  Sylces'  Answer  to  Question  33, 
a  tragic  wartime  romance;  and  Howard  Cleaves* 
The  Unforgiven,  about  the  partisans.  Storm  Jame- 
son in  The  Black  Laurel  and  Francis  Stuart  in  The 
Pillar  of  Cloud  dealt  with  postwar  Europe,  while 
Stuart  B.  Jackman's  Portrait  in  Two  Colours  and 
Winston  Clewes'  Journey  into  Spring  treated  post- 
war England.  Evelyn  Waugh  in  The  Loved  One 
and  Aldous  Huxley  in  Ape  and  Essence  satirized 
aspects  of  modern  Me,  while  Humphrey  Slater  in 
The  Conspirator  dealt  with  national  and  party  pol- 
itics. 

Historical  novels  included  Margaret  Irwin's  Eliz- 
abeth, Captive  Princess,  about  her  19th  year;  Sylvia 
Townsend  Warner's  The  Corner  That  Held  Them, 
set  in  a  medieval  nunnery;  Nigel  Balchin's  modern 
treatment  of  The  Borgia  Testament;  Georgette 
Heyer's  pleasant  The  Foundling;  C.  S.  Forester's 
The  Sky  and  the  Forest,  about  19th  century  Congo 
natives;  Somerset  Maugham's  Spanish  Catalina; 
and  Jane  Lane's  treatment  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 
in  Parcel  of  Rogues.  Timothy  Pember's  The  Nee- 
dle's Eye  and  Robert  LiddelTs  The  Last  Enchant- 
ments were  set  in  the  1930's. 

Among  successful  fantasies  were  T.  H.  White's 
The  Elephant  and  the  Kangaroo,  an  Anglo-Irish 
Noah;  Barbara  Goolden's  Jig-Saw;  Ronald  Frazer's 
Maia;  and  Shamus  Frazer's  witty  Rarbary  Court. 
Among  unusual  backgrounds  were  the  Welsh  vil- 
lage of  Elizabeth  Inglis-Jones*  Aunt  Albinia;  the 
London  slum  of  Gerald  Kersr/s  The  Song  of  the 
Flea;  the  India  of  Aubrey  Menen's  first  rate  The 
Prevalence  of  Witches;  the  ballet  school  of  Rumer 
Godden's  A  Candle  for  St.  Jude;  the  Ceylon  of 
Robert  StandisFs  Elephant  Walk;  and  the  witch- 
burning  of  Edith  Pargeter's  By  Firelight.  Ian  Mc- 
Leish  in  Adam  in  the  Woodpile  and  Elspeth  Huxley 
in  Walled  City  wrote  about  the  relationship  be- 
tween white  and  colored  people. 

Psychological  themes  and  treatment  were  used 
in  Peter  dePolnay's  The  Moot  Point  and  his  dis- 
jointed The  Fat  of  the  Land;  John  Pudney's  sensi- 
tive Estuary;  Jack  Lindsay's  existential  The  Subtle 
Knot;  and  Anna  Kavan's  novel  of  a  woman's 
dreams,  Sleep  Has  His  House.  Graham  Greene's 
powerful  The  Heart  of  the  Matter  dealt  with  the 
religious  conscience,  as  did  Ethel  Mannin's  Late 
Have  I  Loved  Thee. 

The  handful  of  promising  first  novels  included 
Peter  Vansittart's  Enemies;  John  Cousins*  The  Des- 
olate Market;  Jack  R.  Clerno's  Cornish  Wilding 
Graft;  Dodie  Smith's  I  Capture  the  Castle;  J.  D. 


ESPERANTO 

Scott's  novel  of  psychological  suspense,  The  Cellar; 
Elizabeth  Wood's  romantic  Afterglow;  and  John 
Prebble's  The  Edge  of  the  Night,  about  a  British 
soldier  in  Germany.  Ian  Mall's  violent  No  Resting 
Place  was  followed  by  his  Tune  on  a  Melodeon, 
about  the  same  group  of  tinkers. 

Short  Stories.  Collections  by  veteran  writers  in- 
cluded Lord  Dunsany's  The  Fourth  Book  of  Jor- 
kens;  M.  P.  ShieFs  posthumous  Best  Short  Stories; 
Christine  Weston's  There  and  Then,  with  an  Indian 
background;  and  Laurence  Housman's  Strange 
Ends  and  Discoveries,  William  Sansorn's  Something 
Terrible,  Something  Lovely,  and  L.  T.  C.  Rolfs 
Sleep  No  More  were  vivid  horror  stories,  while 
Reginald  Moore's  Silence  Comes  After  and  T.  O. 
Beachcroft's  Malice  Bites  Back  had  technical  abil- 
ity. G.  F.  Green's  original  Land  Without  Heroes 
was  a  first  collection,  as  was  Hallam  Tennyson's 
The  Wall  of  Dust.  Olivia  Manning's  Growing  Up 
dealt  with  the  development  of  a  woman. 

Poetry.  1948  was  not  a  memorable  year  in  poetry. 
Familiar  names  appearing  with  collections  includ- 
ed Louis  MacNeice,  with  Holes  in  the  Sky,  poems 
1944-1947;  C.  Day  Lewis,  with  Poems  1943-1947; 
Sir  John  Squire,  with  Selected  Poems;  John  Betje- 
man,  with  Selected  Poems;  and  Edith  Sitwell,  with 
The  Song  of  the  Cold.  Among  other  collections  of 
distinction  were  Lilian  Bowes-Lyon's  austere  Col- 
lected Poems;  Lawrence  DurrelTs  accomplished 
On  Seeming  to  Presume,  with  an  Aegean  back- 
ground; Norman  Nicholson's  promising  Rock  Face; 
Redwood  Anderson's  philosophic  Pillars  to  Remem- 
brance; and  Terence  Tiller's  sophisticated  Unarm, 
Eros.  An  anthology  Poems  of  the  War  Years  was 
compiled  by  Maurice  Wollman. 

Philosophy  and  Science.  In  philosophy  Bertrand 
Russell's  Human  Knowledge  related  man  to  the 
universe,  while  C.  E.  M.  Joad  analyzed  Decadence. 
Christopher  Dawson  emphasized  the  importance 
of  religion  in  Religion  and  Culture.  George  S.  Dun- 
can's Jesus,  Son  of  Man  was  a  modem  portrait. 
Maurice  Collis  traced  the  effect  of  Confucius  in 
The  First  Holy  One.  Werner  Jaeger  wrote  on  The 
Theology  of  the  Early  Greek  Philosophers.  In  sci- 
ence Sir  James  Jeans  traced  The  Growth  of  Physi- 
cal Science  from  the  15th  century,  while  Sir  Artnur 
Keith  explained  his  radical  group  theory  in  A  New 
Theory  of  Human  Evolution.  (See  AMERICAN  LIT- 
ERATURE.) — ARTHUR  E.  JENSEN 

ENGRAVING  AND  PRINTING,  Bureau  of  A  Bureau  of 
the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Treasury  which  de- 
signs, engraves,  and  prints  the  U.S.  currency  and 
other  engraved  work  for  governmental  use.  Direc- 
tor: Alvin  W.  Hall. 

ERITREA.  A  former  Italian  colony  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  under  British  Military  ad- 
ministration since  its  conquest  by  Allied  forces  in 
1941.  Area  about  15,754  square  miles.  Population: 
700,000,  of  whom  48,718  were  Italians  (1944). 
The  natives  are  racially  and  linguistically  akin  to 
the  Ethiopians. 

Asmara  (the  capital:  pop.  85,000)  and  the  sea- 
port Massowah  are  the  only  towns  of  any  impor- 
tance. Chief  agricultural  products  are  coffee,  bar- 
ley, tobacco,  sesame,  skins,  and  hides.  Pearls,  gold, 
and  potassium  salts  are  found. 

ESPERANTO,  Increased  support  for  the  practical  use 
of  Esperanto  as  a  neutraf  and  easy-to-leam  Inter- 
language  has  become  evident  through  the  gather- 
ing of  more  than  12%  million  signatures  for  &  peti- 
tion requesting  the  United  Nations  to  give  "urgent 
and  serious  consideration9*  to  the  language  ques- 


ESPERANTO 


172 


ESPERANTO 


tion  and  to  promote  the  use  of  Esperanto  by  "en- 
couraging its  teaching  in  schools  .  .  .  and  devel- 
oping its  use  in  travel,  international  commerce,  and 
correspondence/*  A  total  of  9,829,070  signatures 
were  processed  up  to  Dec.  1, 1948.  Signers  included 
the  President  of  France,  the  Prime  Ministers  of 
the  Netherlands,  Czechoslovakia,  and  Poland,  271 
members  of  national  legislatures,  1,823  lawyers, 
35,110  teachers,  1,584  clergymen,  1,343  scientists, 
523  labor  union  officials,  and  1,849  hotel  managers, 

Shortwave  news  broadcasts  in  Esperanto  aver- 
aged more  than  150  a  month.  At  the  beginning  of 
1948,  the  French  Government  radio  started  a  daily 
program  in  Esperanto  for  a  world- wide  audience, 
At  the  beginning  of  1949  the  schedule  was:  Prague, 
twice  a  day;  Paris,  daily;  Stockholm,  3  times  a 
week;  Bern,  twice  a  week;  Sofia,  twice  a  week; 
Vienna,  twice  a  week;  Warsaw,  weekly;  Munich, 
twice  every  second  week.  In  Europe,  an  "under- 
ground" station  calling  itself  "Radio-Esperanto" 
was  heard  four  times  every  Sunday.  Its  location  re- 
mained unknown.  There  were  many  hundreds  of 
longwave  broadcasts  in  Esperanto  in  1948, 

Scholarly  journals  printing  summaries  of  major 
articles  in  Esperanto  included  in  1948:  medical 
journals  in  France,  the  Netherlands,  and  Japan;  an 
ornithological  journal  in  France;  publications  on 
zoology?  in  Norway;  on  botany,  in  the  Netherlands; 
on  plant  pathology,  in  Denmark;  on  physics  and 
earth  magnetism,  in  Japan;  on  geography  and  sta- 
tistics, in  Brazil 

Esperanto  is  taught  in  hundreds  of  schools 
throughout  the  world,  but  no  comprehensive  fig- 
ures are  available.  In  Athens,  Greeces  the  Inter- 
language  was  taught  last  year  in  8  high  schools,  2 
teachers*  colleges,  and  the  experimental  school  of 
Athens  University  to  a  total  of  1,036  students.  In 
Japan,  Esperanto  is  being  taught  in  about  85 
schools,  in  6  of  them  on  a  compulsory  basis,  In  the 
western  occupation  zones  of  Germany,  95  Peoples* 
Colleges  (Adult  Education  Centers)  featured  Es^ 
peranto  classes.  In  England,  attendance  at  Espe- 
ranto classes  was  compulsory  in  9  schools,  optional 
in  6  (or  more)  schools.  In  die  United  States,  Indi- 
ana University  added  a  course,  ^Esperanto — ^An 
Introduction  to  Basic  Language,"  to  the  home  study 
courses  of  its  Division  of  Adult  Education  and  Pub- 
lic Services,  At  the  Missouri  School  of  Mines,  a 
charter  was  granted  in  February  1948  to  an  ex- 
tremely active  Esperanto  Club. 

Approximately  40  international  Esperanto  con- 
ferences and  national  conferences  with  foreign 
guests  were  held  in  1948.  They  included:  the  33rd 
Universal  Congress  of  Esperanto,  Malmo,  Sweden, 
with  over  2,000  delegates;  the  Workers'  Esperanto 
Congress,  Amsterdam,  with  1,800  delegates;  inter- 
national Esperanto  youth  camps  at  Garmisch- 
Partenkirchen  (American  zone  of  Germany)  and 
at  Groet  ( Netherlands ),  with  more  than  400  partic- 
ipants; the  Danube  Valley  Esperanto  Conference, 
Budapest;  the  38th  Congress  of  the  Esperanto  As- 
sociation of  North  America,  Toronto,  Canada. 

About  70  books  in  and  about  Esperanto  were 
published  in  1948.  The  most  important  were;  Es- 
peranto: The  World  Interlangwge,  by  G.  A.  and 
D.  T.  Connor,  W.  Solzbacher,  and  J.  B.  Se-Tsien 
Kao,  an  encyclopedic  handbook  of  the  language 
problem  and.  the  practical  uses  of  Esperanto,  in 
English;  Sinopse  Estatistica  do  Erasil,  a  volume 
published  by  the  Brazilian  Government's  Institute 
of  Geography  and  Statistics?  with  text  in  Portu- 
guese, English,  and  Esperanto;  Sep  Fratoj  (Seven 
Brothers), 'by  Aleksis  Kivi,  Esperanto  translation 
of  a  strikingly  interesting  Finnish  novel,  published 
at  Helsinki;  LeterQj  de  JU  £.  Zomenhof  (tetters 


of  L.  L,  Zamenhof ),  first  volume,  with  comments 
by  Professor  G.  Waringhien,  Paris,  containing  val- 
uable  documents  on  the  early  history  of  Esperanto, 

The  network  of  "delegates"  of  the  Universal 
Esperanto  Association  (UEA),  with  headquarters 
at  Rickmansworth,  England,  and  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land, consisted  in  1948  of  2,438  delegates  in  56 
countries.  "Delegates'*  render  practical  services  in 
connection  with  travel,  business,  or  any  other  field 
of  interest  where  the  language  barrier  is  acutely 
felt.  The  United  States  is  represented  on  the  "Kom- 
itato  de  UEA"  by  George  Alan  Connor,  New  York 
City. 

As  in  former  years,  several  governments  used 
Esperanto  to  make  their  countries  better  known 
abroad  or  to  advertise  the  particular  brand  of  poli- 
tics which  they  represent.  The  New  Zealand  Gov- 
ernment and  the  Danish  Government  issued  film 
strips  with  Esperanto  text,  the  Brazilian  Govern- 
ment and  the  Brazilian  State  of  Santa  Catarina 
various  statistical  publications.  The  Prague  Gov- 
ernment had  the  new  Czechoslovak  Constitution 
translated  into  Esperanto  and  had  15,000  copies 
printed  for  world- wide  distribution.  The  Polish 
Government  subsidized  a  book  in  Esperanto  on 
Poland  Today  (Nuntempa  Pollando);  {he  Bulgar- 
ian Government  a  richly  illustrated  magazine,  In~ 
ternacia  Kulturo.  On  the  other  hand,  "people's 
democracy,"  Eastern  style,  was  being  vigorously 
denounced  by  such  periodicals  as  Ukrajna  Espe<- 
mntisto,  published  by  Ukrainian  anti-Communist 
refugees. 

The  use  of  Esperanto  for  religious  purposes  has 
increased  considerably.  Several  Protestant  organi- 
zations distributed  the  Bible  in  Esperanto.  A  Cath- 
olic Esperanto  Conference  held  at  Rome  Sept,  28, 
1948,  received  a  message  of  encouragement  from 
Pope  Pius  XII.  The  International  Committee  for 
the  Holy  Year  1950  (which  is  expected  to  draw 
millions  of  Catholics  from  all  over  the  world  to  the 
capital  of  Catholicism)  decided  to  issue  its  Pilgrim's 
Quide-Eook  and  other  literature  in  Esperanto  as 
well  as  in  other  languages.  Religious  literature  in 
Esperanto  published  during  1948  represented  Cath- 
olics, Protestants,  Jews,  Spiritualists,  Moslems,  Bud- 
dhists, Shintoists,  and  Bahais. 

The  linguistic  institutions  of  the  Esperanto  move- 
ment were  streamlined  in  1948  by  the  merger  of 
the  former  Lingvo,'  Kornitato  and  Esperantista  Aka- 
demio  in  a  new  body  called  Akademio  de  Bspe>- 
ranto.  It  supervises  the  linguistic  development  of 
Esperanto,  decides  on  the  official  acceptance  of 
new  words,  etc,  It  has  headquarters  at  The  Hague 
and  numbers  at  present  47  members  including 
three  Americans:  Dr.  Walter  S.  Lippmann,  New 
York;  Dr.  Ivy  Kellerman  Reed,  Arlington,  Va.;  and 
Joseph  R.  Scherer,  Los  Angeles. 

Esperanto  is  the  only  constructed  Interlanguage 
in  practical  use.  Several  projects  such  as  Occiden- 
tal, Panamane,  Latino  Sine  Flexione,  and  Inter- 
glossa  were  advocated  by  their  authors  and  a  few 
supporters  on  various  occasions  during  1948.  There 
were  also  occasional  suggestions  that  Esperanto 
should  change  its  spelling  or  one  or  the  other  of  its 
grammatical  features. 

Those  using  Esperanto  have  persistently  replied 
to  all  such  suggestions  by  the  same  argument  which 
was  stated  as  early  as  1922  in  the  League  of  Na- 
tions Report  on  "Esperanto  as  an  International 
Auxiliary  Language"  (adopted  by  the  Third  As- 
sembly of  the  League ) :  "A  study  of  the  history  of 
the  proposed  reforms  .  .  .  which  are  ia  many 
points  contradictory,  leads  to  a  fear  that  if  a  new 
committee  of  theorists  met  today  .  .  ,  it  would 
propose  further  modifications  which,  in,  their  turn, 


ESTONfA 


173 


ETHIOPIA 


would  be  criticized  at  the  end  of  a  few  years,  and 
so^pn  indefinitely. 

"It  is  in  the  interest  of  the  world  to  have  one 
auxiliary  language,  not  two  or  three,  and,  from  a 
practical  point  of  view,  there  is  less  risk  in  taking 
one  of  which  some  experience  has  been  gained  and 
which  has  already  attained  some  tradition  and  a 
guarantee  of  lasting  unity." 

— WILLIAM  SOLZBACHEH 

ESTONIA.  A  Baltic  country  in  northeastern  Europe, 
admitted  into  the  Soviet  Union  on  Aug.  3,  1940. 
Its  status  as  the  Estonian  Soviet  Socialist  Repub- 
lic has  not  been  recognized  either  by  Great  Britain 
or  the  United  States.  Total  area  (1945):  18,525 
square  miles.  Population  (1944  est.):  1,131,000. 
Capital,  Tallinn,  population,  147,000  (1944). 
About  70  percent  of  the  population  is  engaged  in 
fanning  and  dairying.  Chief  crops  are  potatoes, 
rye,  oats,  barley,  and  wheat.  Butter  is  produced  for 
export.  The  most  important  industrial  products  are 
textiles,  paper,  cement,  and  shale-oil.  In  the  fourth 
Five-Year  Plan,  3,500,000  rubles  were  appropriated 
for  the  development  of  Estonian  industries.  Finance 
( 1947  est ) :  revenue  849,619,000  rubles;  expendi- 
ture 922,601,000  rubles. 

ETHIOPIA.  An  empire  in  northeast  Africa,  compris- 
ing the  Abyssinian  highlands  and  adjacent  lowland 
areas  to  the  east,  south  and  west.  Its  area  is  around 
350,000  square  miles — some  of  the  country's 
boundaries  have  not  yet  been  delimited  exactly. 

Population.  Estimates  of  Ethiopia's  population 
vary  widely,  for  there  has  never  been  a  proper 
census.  The  figure  is  probably  somewhere  around 
10  to  15  million.  Addis  Ababa  (population  300,- 
000)  is  the  capital.  Other  important  cities  are 
Harar  (pop.  25,000),  Dire  Dawa  (pop.  80,000), 
Gondar,  and  Dessye.  The  Amharas,  who  have  long 
constituted  the  ruling  element  in  the  empire,  prob- 
ably number  less  than  3,000,000.  They  speak  vari- 
ous derivatives  of  the  ancient  Ge'ez,  a  Semitic  lan- 
guage introduced  from  Southern  Arabia.  Amharic, 
the  most  widely  used  of  these  modem  tongues,  is 
the  official  language  of  the  Imperial  Government. 
However,  various  other  languages  are  spoken  by 
the  majority  of  the  people;  Galla,  Somali,  DanaJdl3 
Arabic,  etc. 

Religion.  The  Amharas  are  Coptic  Christians,  as 
are  some  of  the  Gallas.  The  Somali,  Danaldl,  many 
of  the  Gallas,  and  some  of  the  peoples  of  south- 
west Ethiopia  profess  Islam.  The  city  of  Harar  is 
the  center  of  Moslem  culture  for  the,  entire  Horn 
of  Africa.  The  Coptic  Church  is  politically  power- 
ful and  owns  considerable  tracts  of  lancL  The 
clergy  is  numerous,  and  in  the  aggregate  represents 
a  force  opposing  progress.  Hitherto  the  Abuna,  or 
head  of  the  Ethiopian  Church,  has  always  been  an 
Egyptian  appointed  and  consecrated  by  the  Coptic 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria.  In  the  future,  however, 
the  archbishop  will  be  a  native  Ethiopian.  Non- 
Christian  religions  are  not  only  tolerated,  but  the 
Government  supports  several  Mohammedan  schools. 

Education.  Elementary  education  is  provided,  pri- 
marily for  boys,  by  government  and  mission  schools 
in  the  principal  cities.  So  great  had  been  the  dis- 
ruption wrought  by  the  Italian  occupation  that 
Ethiopia's  educational  facilities  have  had  to  be 
rebuilt  virtually  from  the  ground  up.  Many  of  the 
educated  young  men — perhaps  as  many  as  80  per- 
cent of  them — were  killed  py  the  Fascists  as  a 
matter  of  policy,  In  addition  to  numerous  old-style 
Church  schools,  there  were,  ty  September,  1945, 
171  modern  government  schools:  28  in  Addis 
Ababa  and  143  in  the  provinces.  Those  in  the 


capital  included  arts  and  crafts,  teacher  training, 
technical  and  commercial  schools.  The  students  at- 
tending government  schools  numbered  31,542. 

Production.  The  small  scale  production  of  min- 
erals includes  platinum,  gold,  iron,  mica,  and  rock 
salt.  From  time  to  time  explorers  and  promoters 
have  reported  the  discovery  of  deposits  of  coal, 
iron  and  oil.  There  is  considerable  potential  water 
power  in  the  rivers,  notably  the  Blue  Nile,  but  this 
can  be  harnessed  only  by  sinking  large  amounts  of 
capital — and  the  Ethiopian  Government  has  been 
loath  to  open  the  country  to  foreign  speculators. 

Stock-raising  and  agriculture  form  the  main  oc- 
cupations of  the  people.  Both  are  conducted  on 
rather  primitive  levels  except  where  European  in- 
fluences have  made  themselves  felt.  Very  little  ag- 
ricultural produce  is  exported,  each  region  being 
largely  self-sufficient.  The  Ethiopian  Ministry  of 
Agriculture  provided  the  following  estimates  in 
1945:  wheat,  1,700,000  hectares  and  420,000  tons 
of  grain;  barley,  1,300,000  hectares  and  800,000 
tons;  maize,  1,500,000  hectares  and  1,800,000  tons; 
giant  millet,  3,000,000  hectares  and  4,500,000 
tons;  cattle,  12,000,000;  sheep  and  goats,  2,000,- 
000;  horses  and  mules,  2,000,000;  camels,  500,000. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1946-47  imports  were  valued  at 
£6,899,684;  exports  at  £6,905,372  (excluding 
specie).  Chief  exports  were  cereals,  coffee,  hides 
and  skins.  Cotton  goods  accounted  for  40  percent 
of  all  imports,  others  being  salt,  sugar,  building 
materials,  and  manufactured  goods. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  Sept.  10,  1945, 
revenue  amounted  to  £3,933,803  (including  a 
subsidy  of  £191,576  from  die  British  govern- 
ment) and  expenditure  to  £4,098,330. 

Transportation.  The  only  railway  goes  from  Addis 
Ababa  to  Jibuti  in  French  Somaliiand,  a  distance 
of  486  miles.  It  is  owned  and  operated  by  a  French 
company.  There  are  over  7,000  miles  of  roads. 

Government.  Ethiopia  merits  the  title  of  empire 
because  it  consists  of  several  ancient  kingdoms 
(such  as  Tigre,  Amhara,  Shoa  and  Gojjam)  and 
comprises  peoples  who  are  alien  in  race  and  cul- 
ture to  the  politically  dominant  Abyssinians  of  the 
plateau.  The  creation  of  this  empire  was  the  work 
of  several  generations,  reaching  its  apogee  under 
Emperor  Menelik  II  (1889-1913). 

The  political  and  social  structure  of  Ethiopia  is 
still  largely  feudal,  though  the  present  ruler— Ern- 
peror  Haile  Selassie  I — has  been  making  some 
headway  against  the  entrenched  conservatism  of 
the  aristocracy  and  the  clergy.  At  least  a  nominal 
modification  was  introduced  into  the  system  of  ab- 
solute monarchy  when  in  July,  1931,  Haile  Selassie 
decreed  the  creation  of  a  Parliament,  This  body, 
first  convened  in  November,  1932,  consisted  of  two 
houses — a  Senate  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies'—all 
of  whose  members  were  nominated  and  whose 
functions  were  merely  advisory.  The  Senate  con- 
sisted of  27  members  chosen  from  the  hereditary 
chiefs  of  the  provinces,  while  the  Deputies  were 
selected  by  the  Emperor  from  among  civil  and 
military  officials.  Prime  Minister:  Bitwoded  Ma- 
konnen  EndaDcatchou. 

Since  his  return  from  exile  (May  5, 1941),  Haile 
Selassie  has  resumed  the  process  of  strengthening 
the  central  administration  and  reforming  that  in 
the  provinces,  He  ha?  also  called  in  numerous  ex- 
perts from  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  Soviet 
Russia  and  other  countries  to  give  advice  in  vari- 
ous technical  fields.  He  has  further  sought  to  cre- 
ate a  corps  of  trained  Ethiopians,  especially  from 
among  the  younger  men,  who  will  be  loyal  to  him 
rather  than  to  the  feudal  chiefs,  and  on  whom  he 
can  rely  to  modernize  his  state 


ETHIOPIA 


174 


EUROPEAN  RECOVERY  PROGRAM 


Events,  1948.  According  to  the  Italian  peace  treaty 
that  came  into  force  on  Sept.  15,  1947,  the  four 
principal  Powers  (the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  the  U.S.S.R.)  were  given  a  year  in 
which  to  agree  on  the  disposition  of  the  colonies  in 
Africa  to  which  Italy,  in  that  treaty,  had  renounced 
sovereignty.  A  four-Power  commission  was  there- 
fore despatched  to  Somalia,  Eritrea,  and  Libya  to 
investigate  conditions  on  the  spot  and  report  back, 
preferably  with  recommendations  on  which  the 
Council  of  Ministers  could  act.  This  commission 
returned  from  its  survey  and  drew  up  reports  dur- 
ing the  summer.  However,  they  were  unable  to 
agree  either  as  to  the  facts  or  on  what  recommen- 
dations to  make.  There  were  thus  four  separate  re- 
ports submitted  to  the  Council  of  Ministers. 

This  latter  body  met  in  Paris  just  before  the 
September  15  deadline  but  was  unable  to  reach 
any  settlement.  The  issue  was  therefore,  under  the 
treaty  stipulations,  thrown  into  the  lap  of  the  Unit- 
ed Nations  General  Assembly.  No  action  was  taken, 
however,  by  this  body  at  its  Paris  meeting  in  the 
fall. 

The  Ethiopian  government  was,  of  course,  in- 
tensely concerned  that  the  two  adjacent  colonies 
of  Eritrea  and  Somalia  not  be  returned  to  Italy, 
either  as  an  outright  cession  or  by  conferring  on 
her  a  United  Nations  trusteeship  for  these  two 
areas.  Not  only  was  Ethiopia  opposed  to  Italy's 
return  to  East  Africa  in  any  form,  but  she  herself 
demanded  that  both  colonies  be  ceded  to  her. 
Haile  Selassie  in  particular  protested  against  "ap- 
peasing Italy  by  returning  Eritrea  and  Somaliland 
to  it/"  On  July  30  the  Ethiopian  representative, 
speaking  before  the  four-Power  commission  in 
London,  threatened  that,  if  Italy  were  given  the 
trusteeship  to  Eritrea  and  Somalia,  his  government 
would  rearm  and  close  her  frontiers.  Similar  warn- 
ings were  issued  to  the  United  Nations  by  Addis 
Ababa  when  the  question  went  to  the  General  As- 
sembly. 

In  September  reliable  reports  indicated  that 
there  was  general  agreement  among  the  four  Pow- 
ers on  allowing  Italy  to  have  a  trusteeship  over  So- 
malia and  permitting  Ethiopia  to  acquire  an  outlet 
to  the  Red  Sea  through  the  Danakil  country  and 
the  port  of  Assab.  The  British  were  said  to  favor 
giving  most,  if  not  all,  of  Eritrea  to  Ethiopia  under 
some  form  of  international  supervision.  The  French 
and  the  Russians  apparently  wanted  all  of  Eritrea 
except  Assab  and  the  Danakil  area  to  become  an 
Italian  Trusteeship,  with  the  Americans  proposing 
the  same  solution  except  that  Ethiopia  be  given  a 
larger  part  of  Eritrea. 

Russian  intentions  toward  Ethiopia  remained 
somewhat  of  an  enigma.  A  Soviet  hospital,  with 
21  Russian  doctors,  operated  in  Addis  Ababa,  and 
feeble  attempts  at  propaganda  were  observed.  The 
Ethiopian  government  employed  no  Soviet  advis- 
ers. Neveraieless,  there  were  evidences  that  the 
Soviet  government  was  feeling  out  the  ground, 
economically  and  politically, 

American  relations  with  Ethiopia  were  compli- 
cated by  two  incidents.  On  September  13  the 
Ethiopian  Minister  in  Washington,  Ras  Imru,  was 
requested  to  leave  the  diplomatic  section  in  Con- 
stitution Hall  at  a  session  of  the  American  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science  addressed  by 
President  Truman.  The  Ethiopian  Legation  pro- 
tested this  insult  and  refused  to  accept  the  U.S. 
State  Department's  official  explanation — that  it 
was  all  just  a  "mistake."  Earlier,  in  August,  Gover- 
nor Dewey  had  aroused  the  ire  of  the  Ethiopian 
Legation  by  proposing  that  the  former  colonies  of 
Italy  be  returned  to  her* 


In  general,  however,  relations  between  the  two 
countries  were  cordial.  Ethiopia  naturally  looked 
toward  the  United  States  for  technical  and  financial 
assistance  in  addition  to  that  which  she  was  already 
receiving.  She  watched  closely  the  development  of 
the  Stettinius  scheme  in  Liberia,  Meanwhile,  the 
Sinclair  Petroleum  Company  was  preparing  to  drill 
for  oil  in  the  Ogaden.  The  Ethiopian  government 
recruited  a  number  of  American  ana  Canadian 
school  teachers  for  its  rapidly  growing  school  sys- 
tem during  the  year. 

United  Nations  agencies  also  lent  a  hand  to  im- 
prove conditions  in  -the  country.  In  January  the 
Food  and  Agriculture  Organization  (FAQ)  was 
preparing  to  send  out  three  experts  in  an  effort  to 
control  animal  diseases  there.  The  Director  General 
of  this  body,  Sir  John  Boyd  Orr,  stated  that  "Ethi- 
opia is  one  of  the  countries  ripe  for  development. 
The  application  of  modern  science  to  open  up  the 
natural  resources  of  Ethiopia  would  lead  to  a  rapid 
increase  in  food  production  and  a  rise  in  the  stand- 
ard of  living  of  the  people."  The  World  Health 
Organization  (WHO),  another  UN  agency,  con- 
tinued its  very  important  work  of  surveying  health 
and  sanitary  conditions  in  the  country,  and  trying 
to  improve  them.  In  October  it  announced  that 
the  Ethiopian  government  had  asked  that  the 
WHO  mission  stay  through  1949. 

By  October  15  the  British  Administration  of 
Italian  Somaliland  had  completed  the  evacuation 
of  the  Ogaden  which  it  had  occupied  under  treaty 
with  Ethiopia.  Thenceforth,  the  Ethiopian  govern- 
ment was  responsible  for  administering  the  area, 
which  was  an  integral  part  of  its  territory.  Early 
in  the  fall  the  authorities  at  Addis  Ababa  had  to 
move  troops  into  the  northern  part  of  Tigre  prov- 
ince, adjacent  to  Eritrea,  in  order  to  quell  an  up- 
rising said  to  have  been  caused  by  protests  at  high 
taxes.  — ROBERT  GALE  WOOLBERT 

EUROPE.  A  continent  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere, 
with  an  area  of  about  2,079,000  square  miles  (ex- 
cluding European  U.S.S.R.)  and  a  population  esti- 
mated at  402,550,000  (excluding  the  population 
of  European  U.S.S.R.)  on  Jan.  1,  1940. 

EUROPEAN  RECOVERY  PROGRAM  (Marshall  Plan).  On 

Apr.  3,  1948,  President  Truman  signed  into  law 
the  Foreign  Assistance  Act  of  1948,  based  on  cer- 
tain proposals  outlined  by  Secretary  of  State  Gen. 
George  C.  Marshall  in  an  address  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity ten  months  before.  The  80th  Congress, 
".  .  .  Recognizing  the  intimate  economic  and  oth- 
er relationships  between  the  United  States  and  the 
nations  of  Europe,  and  recognizing  that  disruption 
following  in  the  wake  of  war  is  not  contained  by 
national  frontiers  .  .  ."  had  found  that  the  existing 
situation  in  Europe  "endangered  the  establishment 
of  a  lasting  peace,  [and]  the  general  welfare  and 
national  interest  of  the  United  States  .  .  ."  and 
had  sent  the  bill  (now  Public  Law  472)  to  the 
President  after  four  months*  consideration. 

The  United  States  was  now  pledged  "to  sustain 
and  strengthen  principles  of  inolividual  liberty,  free 
institutions,  and  genuine  independence  in  Europe 
through  assistance  to  those  countries  of  Europe 
which  participate  in  a  joint  recovery  program 
based  upon  sell-help  and  mutual  cooperation."  The 
destitute  nations  of  western  Europe,  hungry  for^ 
bread,  lined  up  to  accept  (1)  emergency  food,  (2) 
money  for  economic  and  industrial  reconstruction, 
and  (3)  marriage  with  the  United  States,  for  better 
or  for  worse,  in  all  decisions  political,  ideological, 
and  economic.  Less  than  three  years  after  the  end 
of  actual  ighting  in  World  War  II,  Europe  was  in 


EUROPEAN  RECOVERY  PROGRAM 


175 


EUROPEAN  RECOVERY  PROGRAM 


fact  split  east  and  west,  the  countries  clinging  ei- 
ther to  the  Communist  ideological  line  or  to  the 
United  States  money  life-line. 

The  Economic  Cooperation  Administration 
(ECA)  was  the  agency  created  to  implement  the 
Act,  ECA  "has  the  responsibility  to  promote 
through  provision  of  aid  under  the  Act  and  co- 
operation with  the  Organization  for  European  Eco- 
nomic Cooperation  (OEEC)  and  other  interna- 
tional organizations  the  most  effective  use  of  the 
economic  resources  of  the  participating  countries, 
looking  toward  their  mutual  economic  recovery." 
ECA's  first  administrator  was  sworn  in  on  April  9: 
Paul  G.  Hoffman,  president  of  the  Studebaker 
Corp.  and  a  Republican,  was  given  Cabinet  rank. 

One  week  later  the  temporary  organization  of 
the  European  countries,  the  CEEC  (Committee 
for  European  Economic  Cooperation,  organized  in 
the  summer  of  1947),  was  terminated  and  repre- 
sentatives of  16  nations  and  the  occupying  powers 
of  western  Germany  signed  at  Paris  a  multilateral 
agreement  for  economic  cooperation.  A  permanent 
body,  the  Organization  for  European  Economic 
Cooperation,  was  immediately  created,  with  head- 
quarters in  Paris,  to  develop  and  carry  through 
with  the  assistance  of  the  United  States  the  com- 
bined program  for  the  economic  rehabilitation  of 
the  European  nations.  OEEC  is  an  intergovern- 
mental organization  headed  by  a  council  of  min- 
isters— representatives  of  the  western  European 
governments  participating  in  the  Recovery  Pro- 
gram. The  council  is  a  policy-making  body,  under 
which  is  an  executive  committee  consisting  of 
elected  experts  from  ERP  countries. 

The  Program.  ERP  manifests  three  broad  aims: 

1.  To    promote    industrial    and    agricultural 
production  in  the  participating  countries; 

2.  To  further  the  restoration  or  maintenance 
of  the  soundness  of  European  currencies,  budg- 
ets, and  finances;  and 

SL  To  facilitate  and  stimulate  the  growth  of 
international    trade    of   participating    countries 
with  one  another  and  with  other  countries  by 
appropriate    measures,    including    reduction    of 
barriers  which  may  hamper  trade. 
The  Program  thus  embraces  the  whole  range  of 
economic  activities  involved  in  the  effort  of  partici- 
pating nations  to  achieve  a  status  of  self-support. 
The   attainment   of  this   economic    goal   requires 
many  fundamental  and  far-reaching  actions  on  the 
part    of    the    European    governments — including 
some    readjustments    which,    while    bringing   the 
countries  to  U.S.  ground  economically,  will  mean 
serious  rupture  of  ideologies  perhaps  native  to  the 
countries,  certainly  strange  to  the  United  States, 
and  probably  not  worth  a  World  War  III. 

Under  the  Program  each  nation  determines  its 
goals  within  the  framework  of  a  common  plan  tak- 
ing into  account  the  economic  capacity  of  Europe 
as  a  whole.  Each  country  assumes  the  responsibility 
for  planning  for  comprehensive  and  cooperative 
action  with  respect  to  agricultural  and  industrial 
production,  finance,  and  trade. 

Specific  Aims.  Improvement  in  the  European 
standard  of  living  is  the  most  important  element  in 
the  reconstruction  project.  Also  upon  the  living 
standard  hinges  the  productive  capacity  of  the 
workers,  and  price  stability  is  closely  related  to  it. 
Although  under  ERP  plans  consumption  levels  of 
the  populations  were  to  remain,  in  1948-1949,  still 
appreciably  below  the  prewar  figures,  there  was 
anticipated,  on  the  whole,  a  slight  improvement 
over  1947,  and  the  position  of  countries  whose 
consumption  level  was  seriously  low  in  1947  was  to 
be  somewhat  alleviated. 


1.  Per  capita  consumption  of  bread  grains  was 
expected  to  increase  by  an  average  of  19  percent  in 
relation  to  1947,  while  still  remaining  10  percent 
lower  than  that  of  1935-1938.  The  position  of  cer- 
tain countries,  such  as  France  or  Belgium,  whose 
position  was  particularly  bad  in  1947  (when  per 
capita  consumption  had  fallen  to  50  percent  of  the 
prewar  level ) ,  was  expected  to  be  improved, 

2.  There  was  to  be  practically  no  change  com- 
pared with  1947  in  the  consumption  level  of  meat, 
which  would  remain  35  percent  lower  than  that  of 
prewar.  Certain  countries  whose  situation,  again, 
was  particularly  bad  in  1947  should  show  an  im- 
provement, e.g.  Austria  where  the  level  was  only 
30  percent  of  that  before  the  war,  and  Italy  where 
it  was  only  60  percent.  Consumption  of  meat  in 
the  Bizone  would  continue  at  about  25  percent  of 
prewar. 

3.  For  fats  and  oils,  an  average  increase  of  15 
percent  over  1947  consumption  would  still  leave 
the  general  consumption  level  at  20  percent  below 
that  of  1935-1938.  The  increase  would  be  more 
marked  in  Austria  and  Belgium  whose  1947  con- 
sumption levels  were  only  35  and  60  percent,  re- 
spectively, of  prewar.  The  Bizone  consumption  of 
fats  and  oils  was  to  be  increased  by  50  percent 
compared  with  1947  and  would  thus  reach  a  level 
approximately  32  percent  of  prewar. 

4.  Consumption  of   sugar,   generally   speaking, 
was  to  remain  the  same  as  in  1947.  It  would  in- 
crease in  Austria,  the  Bizone,  and  Iceland,  where 
the  consumption  in  1947  was  30,  65,  and  80  per- 
cent, respectively,  of  prewar. 

5.  For  tobacco,  an  increase  in  average  consump- 
tion per  head  was  expected  to  reach  a  level  above 
the  prewar  average.  There  was  to  be  a  marked  in- 
crease in  the  Bizone,  Austria,  and  Belgium,  where 
consumption  in  1947  was  25,  35,  and  70  percent  of 
prewar. 

6.  There   was    anticipated   no   increase  in   the 
consumption  of  textiles  in  1948-1949  as  compared 
with  1947. 

Progress  in  1948.  As  1948  closes,  an  analysis  of  re- 
ports from  the  17  participating  countries  reveals 
that: 

1.  Total  output  of  mines  and  factories  in  ERP 
countries  during  the  third  quarter  of  1948  was  10 
percent  above  the  1947  rate  and  nearly  equal  to 
the  1938  rate. 

2.  Excluding  the  depressed  output  of  western 
Germany,  steel  operations  were  well  above  the 
1938  rate,  and  equaled  the  prewar  high  of  1937. 

3.  Production  of  cement,  a  basic  construction 
material,  is  far  ahead  of  prewar  in  every  country 
except  Italy  and  western  Germany. 

4.  Total  electric-power  production  in  ERP  coun- 
tries, excluding  Germany,  is  50  percent  above  pre- 
war, and  railway  freight  traffic  is  up  about  one 
third. 

5.  Agricultural  crop  yields  in  1948  are  estimated 
at  20  percent  above  1947,  though  still  below  pre- 
war. 

The  position  of  the  consumer  has  not,  however, 
improved  as  much  as  the  over-all  increase  in  out- 
put might  indicate.  A  larger  proportion  of  available 
resources  is  now  being  channeled  into  investment 
than  before  the  war.  Consequently,  the  increases 
in  output  have  been  greater  in  the  capital-goods 
industries  than  in  the  consumer-goods  industries, 
In  addition,  part  of  the  farm  output  is  being  used 
to  build  up  depleted  herds  and  to  reduce  imports. 

The  supply  of  food  and  clothing,  while  greater 
than  a  year  ago,  remains  below  prewar.  In  contrast 
to  the  gains  in  such  industries  as  steel  and  cement, 
textile  output  falls  short  of  the  prewar  average  by 


EUROPEAN  RECOVERY  PROGRAM 


176  EXPLORATION 


25  percent.  The  food  supply  has  improved  over 
the  preceding  year  but  in  calorie  content  is  about 
5  percent  below  prewar.  In  terms  of  quality  and 
variety  the  comparison  with  prewar  is  still  more 
unfavorable. 

While  postwar  trade  recovery  has  lagged  behind 
production,  the  ability  of  western  Europe  to  pay 
for  imports  is  improving,  as  exports  in  1948  gen- 
erally increased  along  with  production.  Excluding 
western  Germany,  the  volume  of  exports  and  im- 
ports now  approximates  prewar  levels.  Exports  of 
the  most  important  trading  nation,  the  United 
Kingdom,  have  expanded  rapidly  over  the  year, 
reaching  a  level  of  40  percent  above  prewar  in  the 
third  quarter  of  1948.  Imports  have  been  held  to 
18  percent  below  the  prewar  volume.  In  other 
countries,  however,  exports  have  increased  less  or 
have  actually  declined,  and  the  total  remains  con- 
siderably smaller  than  before  the  war.  Imports  of 
these  countries  have  generally  been  falling  off  over 
the  past  year,  but  are  still  above  prewar  levels. 

These  shifts  in  trade  are  reflected,  in  part,  in 
some  reduction  in  trade  deficits  through  the  first 
three  quarters  of  1948.  An  outstanding  develop- 
ment was  the  narrowing  of  the  very  large  trade 
deficit  with  the  United  States.  This  was  mostly  due 
to  a  reduction  in  imports,  but  a  small  increase  in 
much-needed  exports  to  the  United  States  helped. 
Expansion  and  redirection  of  trade  among  the  par- 
ticipating countries  and  with  other  parts  of  the 
world  remains  a  major  obstacle  to  recovery. 

ERP  ALLOTMENTS  AND  PROCUREMENT 
(Thousands  of  dollars] 


Country 
Total,  all  countries  ... 

Allotments 
made  through 
»March,  1949 
$4  901  400 

Procurement 
Authorizations, 
through 
Dec.  31,  1948 
$4  044  800 

220  800 

212  500 

Belgium-Luxembourg.  .  . 

T)f*ntti?ir1c 

218JOO 
100  000 

138,900 
91  100 

France  . 

1  058  500 

951  000 

Germany 
Blzone 

416  100 

336  900 

French.  Zone 

92300 

63  300 

Greece  

172  000 

145*700 

Iceland 

10  300 

5  400 

Ireland  

89  000 

51  600 

Italy  

571  500 

494  200 

Netherlands             t 

475  500 

371  700 

Norway  ,  .  .  . 

81,800 

68000 

Sweden 

40  800 

10  000 

Trieste  

18  200 

9  500 

Turkey  

15  700 

1  700 

United  Kingdom  

1,320  800 

1  093  400 

Progress  toward  monetary  stability  and  the  more 
efficient  use  of  manpower  have  contributed  to  the 
improvement  in  production  and  trade.  With  few 
exceptions,  the  participating  countries  have 
achieved  some  success  in  coping  with  the  disrup- 
tive effects  of  inflation.  Rises  in  both  prices  and  the 
money  supply  slowed  down  significantly  in  most 
countries  during  1948.  Improvements  in  living  con- 
ditions, transportation,  and  supplies  of  materials 
and  fuels  are  permitting  increased  output  per 
worker,  although  productivity  has  not  generally  re- 
gained prewar  levels.  The  wartime  dislocation  of 
the  labor  force  has  been,  largely  overcome,  but 
scattered  labor  shortages  hinder  expansion  in  pro- 
duction. On  the  other  hand,  unemployment  is  seri- 
ous in  Italy  and  Greece  and  among  displaced  per- 
sons. 

^The  gains  achieved  by  the  participating  coun- 
tries in  the  early  phases  of  the  European  Recovery 
Program  must  be  set  against  the  longer-run  task  of 
recovery  and  stability.  To  realize  this  goal,  new 
levels  and  relationships  between  production,  trade, 
and  consumption  are  required.  While  the  recovery 


trends  are  encouraging,  the  participating  countries 
still  have  many  difficulties  to  overcome  before  a 
satisfactory  balancing  of  international  accounts  is 
achieved, 

EXECUTIVE  OFFICE  OF  THE  PRESIDENT.  Under  author- 
ity of  the  Reorganization  Act  of  1939  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  President's  Reorganization  Plans 
No.  I  and  No.  II,  various  agencies  were  transferred 
to  the  Executive  Office  of  the  President.  The  Office 
now  includes:  The  White  House  Office,  Bureau  of 
the  Budget,  Liaison  Office  for  Personnel  Manage- 
ment, Office  for  Emergency  Management,  Council 
of  Economic  Advisers,  National  Security  Council, 
and  the  National  Security  Resources  Board.  Execu- 
tive Order  No.  8248  of  Sept.  8,  1939,  established 
the  divisions  and  defined  their  functions  with  the 
exception  of:  The  Council  of  Economic  Advisers 
which  was  established  by  Public  Law  304— 79th 
Congress;  the  National  Security  Council  and  the 
National  Security  Resources  Board  which  were  es- 
tablished by  Public  Law  253 — 80th  Congress. 

EXPLORATION.  The  year  saw  numerous  expeditions 
in  the  field;  scientific  expeditions  in  search  of  pre- 
historic man,  archaeological  expeditions  to  copy 
the  text  of  the  Rosetta  Stone,  and  marine  expedi- 
tions for  the  study  of  the  ocean  floor.  The  Antarc- 
tic had  expeditions  from  nearly  all  the  countries  in- 
volved in  the  Falkland  Islands  dispute,  and  Den- 
mark had  14  groups  exploring  in  Greenland. 

Africa.  One  of  the  largest  scientific  expeditions 
ever  undertaken  is  the  University  of  California  ex- 
pedition in  Africa.  The  group  of  40  scientists,  or- 
ganized by  Wendell  Phillips,  a  young  paleontolo- 
gist on  the  staff  of  the  university's  Museum  of 
Paleontology,  represents  an  investment  of  $500,000. 
The  scientists  are  divided  into  three  groups  for 
study  in  South  Africa,  the  Kalahri  Desert,  and 
North  and  East  Africa.  A  progress  report  of  14 
months'  work  in  the  field,  made  in  November, 
1948,  reveals  numerous  finds  to  shed  added"  light 
on  early  civilizations  and  the  origin  of  man.  Among 
them  were  a  school  of  fossil  whales,  a  primitive 
Kenya  tribe  that  lived  on  a  diet  of  blood  and  milk, 
and  pygmies  and  Watusi  warriors  8  ft.  tall  living 
within  a  few  miles  of  each  other.  Evidence  was 
also  found  that  Moses  did  not  lead  the  Exodus 
across  the  Red  Sea,  but  across  Reed  Sea,  to  the 
north.  Skeletons  of  Stone  Age  man  were  found  in 
Turkana. 

Scientists  from  Greenwich  Observatory  reported 
a  solar  eclipse  in  Kenya  on  Nov.  1,  1948.  A  bril- 
liant, long-tailed  comet  was  seen  by  RAF  observers 
during  the  totality. 

The  Belgian  Congo  expedition  from  the  N.Y. 
Zoological  Society  yielded  rare  specimens  for  their 
collections,  including  3  Congo  peafowl  (afropavos) 
and  2  elephant  shrews.  The  Carpenter  Expedition 
worked  in  the  Lake  Victoria  region;  its  animal 
specimens  go  to  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Nat- 
ural Sciences. 

Asia.  Dr.  Dillon  Ripley  of  Yale  University  headed 
an  expedition  to  Nepal,  in  search  of  mammals, 
birds,  and  fresh-water  fish  to  complete  the  Amer- 
ican collection  relating  to  the  zoology  of  the  Indian 
continent.  Jointly  sponsored  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  and  the  National  Geographic  Society, 
the  expedition  planned  to  be  in  the  field  for  six 
months.  Dr.  Ripley  left  for  India  Oct.  6,  1948. 

An  expedition  sponsored  jointly  by  the  American 
Schools  of  Oriental  Research  and  the  University  of 
Michigan  went  to  Iran  for  the  purpose  of  copying 
and  photographing  the  inscriptions  of  the  Rosetta 
Stone  of  Western  Asia.  The  expedition  leader  is 


EXPLORATION 


177 


EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK  OF  WASHINGTON 


Dr.  George  C.  Cameron,  professor  of  Near  Eastern 
Culture  at  the  University  of  Michigan. 

Australia.  The  1948  Archbold  Cape  York  Expedi- 
tion  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  left  for 
Australia  on  Jan.  24,  1948.  This  is  the  Museum's 
first  major  expeo!ition  to  the  Cape  York  area. 

Arctic.  Most  exciting  news  from  the  Arctic  dur- 
ing the  past  year  was  the  discovery,  on  Aug.  33 
1948,  of  a  cairn  at  Cape  Sheridan  on  EUismere 
Land,  left  by  Comdr.  Peary  in  1905.  A  joint  Cana- 
dian-American weather  expedition,  Task  Force  80, 
made  the  discovery  of  the  cairn  from  a  helicopter. 
The  find  included  a  bottle  with  notes  signed  by 
Comdr.  Peary  and  Sir  George  Nares. 

A  party  of  Canadians  headed  by  Paul  Serson 
went  to  the  Axctic  to  determine  the  exact  position 
of  the  magnetic  pole.  Their  observations  seemed  to 
confirm  the  observations  made  in  the  previous 
year,  that  the  magnetic  pole  is  on  the  northwestern 
part  of  Prince  of  Wales  Island.  A  Canadian  survey 
expedition  discovered  two  hitherto  unknown  islands 
off  the  west  coast  of  Baffin  Land,  in  the  Fox  Basin. 
This  discovery  adds  some  5,000  square  miles  to 
Canadian  territory. 

Expeditions  to  Greenland  included  the  27th  Arc- 
tic trip  by  Donald  B.  Macmillan  to  the  northwest 
coast,  where  he  and  his  University  of  Michigan  co- 
workers  continued  their  meteorological  stucSes.  Of 
the  14  expeditions  sponsored  by  Denmark  for 
mapping  and  scientific  purposes,  the  most  impor- 
tant was  that  led  by  the  veteran  Greenland  ex- 
plorer Dr.  Lauge  Koch  to  the  northeast  coast.  In 
the  region  of  King  Oscar  Fjord  at  Lat.  72°  N., 
uranium  deposits  in  large  enough  amounts  for  ex- 
ploitation were  found.  Pure  lead  ore  was  also  found 
in  a  deposit  estimated  at  1  million  tons. 

Paul-Emile  Victor  headed  a  large  French  expedi- 
tion to  the  west  coast  of  Greenland.  Preliminary 
work  was  done  along  the  west  coast  in  the  summer 
of  1948.  A  permanent  base  will  be  established  on 
the  icecap  in  1949.  The  3-year  program  is  termed 
purely  scientific  and  includes  traversing  the  icecap 
between  Lat.  60°  N.  and  80°  N. 

Antarctic.  A  French  expedition  left  France  on 
November  26  for  Adelie  Land.  Organized  by  Vic- 
tor and  led  by  Andre  Liotard,  the  48-man  party 
will  survey  the  coast  and  explore  the  interior  of  the 
plateau.  During  the  year  the  British  Falkland  De- 
pendencies Survey  completed  work  on  its  seven 
permanent  bases  and  laid  plans  for  the  construction 
of  an  eighth  base  on  Alexander  I  Land. 

In  January  a  Chilean  naval  expedition  left  for 
Antarctica  to  establish  a  base  on  Graham  Land, 
Chile's  third  base  in  the  Antarctic  territory  claimed 
by  Great  Britain.  Meanwhile  the  Argentine  High 
Seas  Fleet  sent  its  Task  Force  I  to  Antarctic  wa- 
ters for  maneuvers.  Chile's  president,  Gabriel  Gon- 
zales  Videla,  went  to  Deception  Island  in  February, 
and  with  appropriate  ceremonies  claimed  for  Chile 
land  now  under  dispute  between  Great  Britain, 
Argentina,  and  Chile. 

£1  August,  the  United  States  Government  pro- 
posed the  establishment  of  international  control 
over  Antarctica  to  solve  the  long-standing  interna- 
tional problem  created  by  the  overlapping  claims  of 
seven  nations.  Informal  discussions  have  been  held 
with  the  respective  countries,  namely  Argentina, 
Australia,  Chile,  France,  Great  Britain,  New  Zea- 
land, and  Norway. 

The  Ronne  Antarctic  Expedition  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  April.  During  the  year's  sojourn  on 
the  Palmer  Peninsula,  the  party  mapped  some 
450,000  square  miles  along  the  southern  shore  of 
Weddell  Sea  and  established  that  Antarctica  is  a 
solid  continent. 


South  America.  The  International  Institute  of  the 
Hylean  Amazon  was  set  up  by  UNESCO  in  1948. 
Headquarters  of  the  Institute  were  established  at 
Manaos,  the  former  wild-rubber  center  of  Brazil. 
Preliminary  investigations  were  to  include  physical 
geography,  biology,  social  sciences,  agriculture, 
and  nutrition. 

An  ethnological  expedition  to  French  Guiana 
was  co-sponsored  by  the  French  Government  and 
UNESCO.  Captain  Hassoldt  Davis  and  his  wife 
returned  in  November,  1948,  from  their  six-month 
trip,  during  which  they  had  made  a  500-mile  trek 
to  the  headwaters  of  the  Maroni  River. 

Marine.  The  Swedish  Deep  Sea  Expedition  led 
by  professor  Hans  Pettersson  in  the  M/S  Albatross 
completed  (in  September)  a  15-month  worldwide 
study  of  the  deep  sea.  This  was  the  first  such  ex- 
pedition since  that  of  the  British  in  the  Challenger 
(1871-76).  The  journey  covered  about  44,000 
nautical  miles,  sediment  cores  were  taken  from 
ocean  bottoms,  and  soundings  exceeding  25,000 
feet  taken  over  the  Romanche  Deep  near  the  At- 
lantic Ridge,  Trawling  was  carried  out  below  the 
5,500  fathom  line  and  new  specimens  were  taken. 

Accompanied  by  5  Belgian  and  French  scientists 
the  Piccard-Cosyns  expedition  left  Antwerp  on 
September  15.  In  a  so-called  "bathyscope"  Piccard 
and  Cosyns  planned  to  descend  some  2^  miles  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  sea  in  the  Gulf  of  Guiana, 
ofl  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  The  first  descent  was 
made  by  Professor  Piccard  and  a  companion  on  Oc- 
tober 26,  when  a  depth  of  82  feet  was  attained  dur- 
ing an  18-minute  submersion.  In  a  second,  and  un- 
manned dive,  the  bathyscope  successfully  reached 
a  depth  of  47250  feet,  but  serious  damage  to  the 
superstructure  prevented  any  further  experiments, 
and  the  expedition  was  terminated. 

EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK  OF  WASHINGTON  (ESE).  Cre- 
ated in  1934,  the  Bank  operates  as  an  independent 
agency  of  the  U.S.  Government  under  the  Export- 
Irnport  Bank  Act  of  1945,  as  amended.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  Bank  is  to  aid  in  the  financing  of  the 
exports  and  imports  of  the  United  States. 

The  Act  of  1945  vested  the  management  of  the 
Bank  in  a  board  of  directors  consisting  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  and  four  full-time  directors  appoint- 
ed by  the  President  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate.  It  also  authorized  an  increase 
in  the  limit  on  outstanding  loans  and  guaranties 
from  $700  million  to  $3,500  million  and  removed 
the  prohibition  on  loans  by  the  Bank  to  govern- 
ments in  default  on  their  obligations  to  the  U.S. 
Government. 

This  increase  in  the  lending  authority  of  the 
Bank  enabled  it  during  the  early  postwar  period 
to  extend  long-term  reconstruction  credits  to  lib- 
erated and  war-devastated  countries  to  assist  them 
in  purchasing  from  the  United  States  the  equip- 
ment, materials  and  services  required  for  the  res- 
toration of  their  economies. 

The  Bank  is  authorized  to  do  a  general  banking 
business  in  the  field  of  United  States  foreign  trade; 
aiding,  supplementing  and  not  competing  with 
private  capital.  It  can  extend  credits  to  domestic 
and  foreign  private  entities  and  to  foreign  govern- 
ments where  United  States  trade  is  involved. 

The  Bank  finances  specific  export  and  import 
transactions  on  application  of  U.S.  exporters  and 
importers  where  the  nature  of  the  risk  involved 
is  such  that  private  credit  cannot  be  obtained.  It 
makes  loans  to  assist  in  financing  the  export  of  U.S. 
materials  and  equipment  required  for  development 
projects  in  foreign  countries.  It  also  arranges  in 
favor  of  foreign  purchasers  credits  which  are  avail- 


EXTENSION  SERVICE 


178 


fARM  CREDIT  ADMINISTRATION 


able  on  equal  terms  to  all  qualified  U.S.  exporters 
to  finance  the  sale  of  export  staples  such  as  raw 
cotton. 

The  cumulative  total  of  credit  authorizations  in- 
creased from  approximately  $4,134  million  at  the 
close  of  1947  to  approximately  $4,272  million  at 
the  close  of  1948.  Disbursements  during  1948  were 
approximately  $429  million  and  repayments  were 
approximately  $261  million.  Accordingly,  the  out- 
standing loans  of  the  Bank  increased  from  approx- 
imately $1,971  million  at  the  end  of  1947  to  ap- 
proximately $2,139  million  at  the  end  of  1948. 
— SIDNEY  SHERWOOD 

EXTENSION  SERVICE.  A  branch  of  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  functioning  in  accordance 
with  the  Act  of  May  8,  1914  (Smith-Lever  Act). 
The  Extension  Service  office  is  composed  of  admin- 
istrative and  professional  personnel  serving  as  the 
haison  between  departmental  research  and  action 
agencies  and  the  administrative  and  extension  sub- 
ject-matter staffs  at  the  respective  State  land-grant 
colleges.  County  agricultural,  home  demonstration, 
and  4-H  club  agents  are  located  in  nearly  all  the 
agricultural  counties  of  the  United  States.  These 
county  extension  agents  make  available  to  farmers, 
farm  homemakers,  and  rural  youth  the  results  of 
research  conducted  by  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  the  land-grant  colleges,  and  other 
research  agencies.  Of  the  total  money  that  is  put 
into  the  cooperative  Extension  Service  the  Federal 

fovernment  furnishes  about  46  percent  and  the 
tates  and  counties  supply  the  balance.  Director 
of  Extension  Work:  M.  L.  Wilson. 

FAEROES.  A  group  of  21  islands  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  north  of  Scotland,  constituting  a  self-gov- 
erning community  of  the  Danish  Commonwealth. 
Chief  islands:  Bordo,  Kalso,  Ostero,  Sando,  Stromo, 
Sudero,  Vaago,  and  Videro.  Total  area:  540  square 
miles.  Population  (1945  census):  29,198.  Capital, 
Thorshavn  (on  Stromo),  3,611  inhabitants.  Fish- 
ing is  the  principal  occupation.  Exports  include 
fish,  whale  oil,  woolen  goods,  lambskins,  feathers. 
Events,  1948.  The  great  event  of  the  year  for  the 
Faeroese  was  the  granting  of  home  rule  to  the 
islands  in  April  Henceforth,  laws  concerning  the 
islands  exclusively  must  be  passed  by  the  local 
Lagting  (parliament)  before  being  signed  by  the 
King,  The  Faeroes  will  continue  to  send  2  repre- 
sentatives to  the  Danish  Riksdag  (parliament). 
The  Faero  language  has  been  declared  official  and 
the  islands  will  have  their  own  flag. 

FALK  FOUNDATION,  The  Maurice  and  Laura.  Estab- 
lished by  Maurice  Falk  in  1929  with  the  provision 
that  principal,  as  well  as  income,  must  be  used 
within  35  years  for  such  efforts  to  advance  general 
welfare  as  the  Foundation's  Board  of  Managers 
might  select.  The  Foundation  concentrates  on  eco- 
nomic research  grants  for  studies  of  specific  prob- 
lems affecting  the  progress  of  the  domestic  econ- 
omy of  the  United  States. 

In  1948  grants  totaled  $390,500.  The  principal 
appropriations  in  1948  were  allotments  of  $225,- 
000  to  the  American  Law  Institute  for  studies  to 
recommend  changes  in  the  legal  structure  of  the 
Federal  income-tax  law;  and  $75,000  to  the  Alfred 
P.  Sjoan  Foundation,  Inc.,  to  share  that  organiza- 
tion's support  of  efforts  to  develop  motion-picture 
techniques  for  presenting  economic  information. 
Grants  outside  the  field  of  economics  included  al- 
lotments to  the  American  Red  Cross,  United  Jew- 
ish Fund,  and  the  Community  Chest  of -Allegheny 
County,  Pa. 


Economic  studies  published  in  1948,  under 
grants  made  in  earlier  years,  included:  Govern- 
mental Costs  and  Tax  Levels,  Industry-Wide  Bar- 
gaining, Economic  Systems,  Our  National  Debt 
and  Life  Insurance)  and  Our  National  Debt  and 
the  National  Welfare.  Chairman  of  the  Board  of 
Managers,  Leon  Falk,  Jr.;  Executive  Director, 
J.  Steele  Gow.  Offices:  1911  Farmers  Bank  Build- 
ing, Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS.  A  British  crown  colony  in  the 
South  Atlantic,  480  miles  northeast  of  Cape  Horn, 
South  America.  Area,  4,618  square  miles;  popula- 
tion (1946  census)  2,239.  Capital;  Stanley  (on 
East  Falkland),  1,250  inhabitants.  Chief  occupa- 
tion of  the  people  is  sheep  farming.  Wool  is  the 
principal  product  but  tallow  and  hides  are  also  ex- 
ported. The  number  of  sheep  in  1946  totaled  619,- 
449.  Imports  (1946)  totaled  £221,559;  exports, 
£293,913.  Finance  (1946):  £198,879  for  reve- 
nue and  £222,164  for  expenditure.  The  adminis- 
tration is  headed  by  a  governor,  assisted  by  an 
Executive  Council  and  a  Legislative  Council.  Gov- 
ernor: G.  Miles  Clifford  (appointed  1946). 

Dependencies.  These  includ'e  all  islands  and  terri- 
tories between  20°  and  50°  W.,  south  of  50°  S., 
and  between  50°  and  80°  W.,  south  of  58°  S.  The 
chief  divisions  are  South  Georgia  (1,450  sq.  mi.; 
pop.  360,  in  1944),  South  Shetlands,  South  Ork- 
neys, South  Sandwich  Islands,  and  Graham  Land. 
Estimated  population  (1944)  360.  Whaling  is  the 
chief  industry.  During  1946,  exports  from  the 
dependencies  totaled  £931,176,  more  than  50  per- 
cent of  which  went  to  the  United  Kingdom.  Fi- 
nance (1946):  revenue  £119,084;  expenditure 
£83,660. 

FARM  CREDIT  ADMINISTRATION  (FCA).  This  branch 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
supervises  a  complete  and  coordinated  cooperative 
credit  system  for  fanners  and  farmers'  business  co- 
operatives in  the  United  States  and  Puerto  Rico. 
The  United  States  is  divided  into  12  farm  credit 
districts.  In  one  city  in  each  district  are  a  Federal 
land  bank,  a  Federal  intermediate  credit  bank,  a 
production  credit  corporation,  and  a  bank  for  co- 
operatives. The  island  of  Puerto  Rico  is  included  in 
the  Baltimore  Farm  Credit  Administration  district. 

Farmers  obtain  long-term  farm  mortgage  (land 
bank )  loans  through  local  national  farm  loan  asso- 
ciations (except  in  Puerto  Rico  where  loans  are 
made  direct);  and  loans  for  production  of  crops 
and  livestock  from  local  production  credit  associa- 
tions. Loans  to  farmers*  cooperatives  for  operating 
capital,  to  finance  commodities  stored,  and  for  fa- 
cilities are  made  by  the  12  district  banks  for  co- 
operatives or,  if  large  regional  cooperatives,  by  the 
Central  Bank  for  Cooperatives  in  Washington,  D.C. 

In  the  year  ended  Dec.  31,  1948,  farmers  and 
farmers'  cooperatives  in  the  United  States  and 
Puerto  Rico  obtained  $1,749,949,000  in  credit  from 
the  institutions  and  associations  operating  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Farm  Credit  Administra- 
tion. Included  in  this  amount  were  loans  totaling 
$924,314,000  made  by  the  production  credit  as- 
sociations, long-term  farm  mortgage  loans  amount- 
ing to  $150,530,831  made  by  Federal  land  banks 
through  local  national  farm  loan  associations,  and 
$494,678,000  in  credit  extended  by  the  13  banks 
for  cooperatives.  The  12  Federal  intermediate 
credit  banks  acting  as  banks  of  discount  for  the 
production  credit  associations,  banks  for  coopera- 
tives, and  other  lenders  on  agricultural  security, 
made  loans  and  discounts  totaling  $1,546,083,000 
in  1948. 


FARMERS  HOME  ADMINISTRATION 


179 


FASHIONS 


A  fanner  who  obtains  a  land  bank  loan  through 
a  national  farm  loan  association  becomes  a  mem- 
ber and  buys  stock  in  the  association  equal  to  5 
percent  of  his  loan.  The  association,  in  turn,  invests 
this  money  in  land  bank  stock.  Borrowers  in  Puerto 
Rico  buy  stock  directly  in  the  Baltimore  Federal 
Land  Bank.  Borrowers  from  production  credit  as- 
sociations also  must  be  members  and  own  stock 
in  their  associations  equal  to  5  percent  of  their 
loans.  A  farmer  cooperative  borrowing  from  one  of 
the  13  banks  for  cooperatives  also  must  own  stock 
in  the  bank  from  which  it  obtains  its  loan. 

Capital  stock  owned  by  farmers  and  farmers' 
cooperatives  in  all  Farm  Credit  institutions  and  as- 
sociations went  from  $116,459,698  on  Dec.  31, 
1947,  to  $128,138,804  on  Dec.  31,  1948,  an  in- 
crease of  10  percent.  Capital  stock  owned  by  mem- 
bers of  production  credit  associations  went  from 
$46,488,483  on  Dec.  31,  1947,  to  $56,842,038  on 
Dec.  31,  1948.  At  the  end  of  the  year  52  production 
credit  associations  were  completely  farmer-owned. 
Capital  stock  in  the  13  banks  for  cooperatives 
owned  by  farmers*  cooperatives  in  the  year  went 
from  $13,016,700  to  $15,379,000.  Capital  stock  of 
the  12  Federal  land  banks  totaled  $55,917,766  on 
Dec.  31,  1948,  all  of  which  was  owned  by  farmer- 
borrowers  either  direct  or  through  their  national 
farm  loan  associations. 

Aside  from  the  credit  extended  through  the  dis- 
trict offices  and  associations  and  by  the  Central 
Bank  for  Cooperatives,  the  Regional  Agricultural 
Credit  Corporation  of  Washington,  D.C.,  and  the 
Agricultural  Marketing  Act  Revolving  Fund  have 
some  loans  outstanding.  The  Farm  Credit  Admin- 
istration also  has  a  Cooperative  Research  and  Serv- 
ice Division  which  is  engaged  in  research  and  serv- 
ice activities  helpful  to  Farmers'  cooperatives.  Gov- 
ernor in  1948:  I.  W.  Duggan. 

FARMERS  HOME  ADMINISTRATION.  This  agency  of 
the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  makes  loans 
to  assist  farm  families  who  cannot  obtain  credit 
elsewhere  on  reasonable  rates  and  terms.  Veter- 
ans have  preference. 

In  1948,  through  October,  112,000  farm-operat- 
ing loans  were  made  for  livestock,  machinery  and 
other  essentials,  and  2,000  loans  were  made  for 
the  purchase,  enlargement  or  development  of 
family-type  farms.  Also,  430  farm  ownership  loans 
advanced  by  private  lenders  were  insured  by  the 
agency.  Water  facilities  loans  were  made  in  the 
West  to  786  individual  farmers  and  24  farmers* 
groups.  Two  hundred  emergency  loans  were  made 
from  a  special  appropriation  to  aid  farmers  who 
suffered  losses  from  the  1948  floods. 

Veterans  who  are  becoming  established  in  agri- 
culture received  45  percent  of  the  money  loaned. 
The  amount  paid  by  all  borrowers  on  past  loans 
far  exceeded  the  $81,500,000  advanced  during  the 
ten  months. 

County  supervisors  assisted  borrowers  to  plan 
and  carry  out  successful  farming  operations  and 
provide  a  better  living  for  their  families.  Their  re- 
ports showed  gains  in  crop  diversification,  new 
sources  of  income,  and  widespread  adoption  of 
modern  practices  on  the  farms.  The  average  bor- 
rower has  more  working  capital  and  higher  net 
worth  than  before  receiving  a  loan. 

FASHIONS.  The  year  1948  saw  designers  adapting 
1947*s  New  Look  along  practical  lines,  modifying 
it,  preserving  the  grace,  but  not  the  cumbersome- 
ness  of  the  previous  year's  models.  Skirts  grew 
slimmer  and  daytime  hemlines  rose  from  the  rad- 
ical 11  inches  to  a  more  sensible  13  or  14  inches 


from  the  ground.  Evening  hemlines  on  the  popular 
semiformal  gowns  still  hovered  over  the  ankles, 
however. 

In  general,  1948  was  a  year  of  dress-up  fashions. 
Stress  on  femininity  in  styling,  richness  of  fabrics, 
and  elegance  in  accessories  predominated.  Neck- 
lines plunged,  occasionally  to  the  waist,  or  were 
scooped  out  into  the  "bateau"  or  boat-shaped  out- 
line. Shoulders  were  rounded  and  narrow — the 
"sloping  shoulder"  completely  replaced  squared- 
off,  masculine  padding.  Back  fullness  was  a  notable 
feature  of  coat  and  dress  styles.  Dresses  and  suits 
had  a  maximum  of  tasteful  detailing — graceful 
drapings  of  fabric,  shawl  necklines,  unusual  button 
treatments,  accordion  pleatings.  Hemline  flounces 
recalled  the  frills  of  Gay  Nineties'  dress.  Elaborate 
fabrics,  e.g.  iridescent  taffetas,  bengalines,  satins, 
tissue  failles  and  tie  silks,  achieved  almost  universal 
popularity. 

Hats  again  became  important  after  the  no-hat 
trend  of  previous  years.  Small  bejewelled  hats  were 
the  rule,  perhaps  to  accommodate  the  new  short 
hairdos,  cropped  and  curled  about  mid-ear.  Spring 
hat  specialty  was  the  straw  ^rooftop  of  Paris"  hat 
— a  small,  flat  ledge  of  a  bonnet,  veiled  and  bowed 
under  the  chin.  Berets  were  the  biggest  all-year 
fashion,  usually  brightened  by  a  jewelled  emblem 
or  tiny  pins  added  by  the  wearer  herself.  Velour, 
satin,  and  velvet  hats  were  common,  with  feathers 
almost  indispensable  on  fall  and  winter  styles, 

Victorian  influence  was  strong  in  early-year 
fashions.  The  stole  completely  captured  feminine 
imagination  and  was  adopted  for  casual  and  formal 
wear.  Fur  stoles  were  all-important;  wool,  chiffon, 
silk,  and  rayon  stoles  were  so  popular  as  separate 
accessories  that  dress  manufacturers  made  dresses 
with  stoles  to  match.  Many  women  knitted  their 
own  stoles.  Scarfs,  too,  were  worn  in  every  shape 
and  manner;  small  scarfs  were  considered  smartest. 

The  Victorian  influence  was  also  apparent  in 
handbags.  Dainty  tapestry  and  brocade  bags  were 
important  even  for  daytime  wear.  Women's  um- 
brellas took  on  a  nineteenth  century  air.  The  long 
slim  walking-stick-handle  umbrella  was  the  most 
chic;  parasol  umbrellas  with  ruffles  galore  were  the 
gayest.  Borrowed,  too,  from  grandmother's  day 
were  petticoats  deliberately  designed  to  hang  be- 
low the  fuller  skirts.  These  were  concocted  of 
bright  plaid  taffetas,  of  lacy  and  beribboned  cot- 
tons, of  silks  and  rayons. 

The  1948  cosmetic  colors  were  predominantly 
pinks.  Demure  feminine  fashions  made  the  brazen 
reds  passe;  the  sought-after  "fragile  look"  called 
for  pale-hued  lipstick,  nail  polish,  and  the  faintest 
blush  of  rouge. 

Shoe  silhouettes  really  introduced  innovations. 
Unusually  low-cut  vamps  were  the  rage,  best  typi- 
fied by  the  "shell  shoe,"  a  minimum  of  shoe  whit- 
tled down  almost  to  the  toes.  The  curved  Louis 
heel  (copied  from  the  Louis  XIV  court  shoe)  was 
a  favorite  feature  of  higher  priced  shoes,  but  was 
not  much  in  evidence  in  the  lower  price  lines.  Bal- 
lerina shoes  modeled  after  ballet  slippers  were  a 
favorite  until  fall,  when  their  advocates  weakened, 
probably  due  to  general  masculine  disapproval. 
The  opera  pump  with  a  pointed  toe  was  die  most 
widely  accepted  shoe  of  the  year.  Low  heels  were 
popular  wioa  all  age  groups — usually  in  dressy 
styles  with  low-cut  V-vamps,  scalloped  insteps, 
leather  lacings.  The  ankle-strap  shoe  remained  a 
best-seller;  open-toe  shoes  disappeared  almost  com- 
pletely. 

Straw  basket  handbags  with  fabric  drawstring 
tops  were  an  outstanding  spring  and  summer  fash- 
ion, especially  appropriate  when  worn  with  casual 


FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION 


180 


FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION 


bareback-plus-bolero  dresses.  Summer  brought 
such  a  wave  of  gold  accessories  that  the  season  was 
often  tagged  "The  Gold  Rush  of  1948."  Gold  hand- 
bags, shoes,  and  belts  were  worn  in  the  cities  as 
well  as  resort  areas,  by  day  and  by  night.  Even 
bathing  suits  were  shot  with  gold-colored  threads. 
Silver  and  bronze  accessories  appeared. 

Tiny  scatter  pins  were  the  biggest  jewelry  fad 
of  the  year.  Flowers  and  geometries  of  simulated 
pearl  and  gold,  stone-studded  bugs,  butterflies,  and 
animals  were  important  motifs.  Women  wore 
groups  of  them  on  suits,  hats,  handbags,  and  scarfs. 
In  tune  with  the  elegance  and  party-like  atmos- 
phere of  most  dresses,  simulated  pearl  jewelry  was 
enormously  popular.  Long  rope  necklaces  and  high 
chokers  were  the  smartest,  but  almost  every  style — 
and  color — of  pearl  jewelry  was  worn. 

New  emphasis  on  ladylike  manners  greatly 
curbed  the  bareleg  boom  which  had  harassed 
stocking  manufacturers  during  recent  years.  Most 
every  woman  wore  her  nylon  stockings  all-year- 
round.  Dark  shades — off  black,  particularly — were 
in  demand,  Colored  nylons,  especially  navy  and 
green,  were  popular  in  some  sections. 

September  brought  an  onrush  of  bogus  leopard 
accessories.  Leopard-stencilled  velvet,  silk,  and 
cotton  plush  was  employed  in  every  conceivable 
form.  Imitation  leopard  scarfs,  stoles,  muffs, 
gloves,  belts,  and  ear-muffs  flooded  the  fashion 
scene.  Entire  skirts  bore  the  leopard  imprint — 
raincoats,  even  lounging  robes,  showed  their  spots, 

Fall  and  winter  dress  fashions  were  inspired  to 
a  great  extent  by  the  French  Empire  period.  The 
high  waistline,  low-cut  neckline,  and  emphasized 
bosom  which  Napoleon's  Josephine  popularized 
returned  to  grace  daytime  and  evening  gowns. 
Needless  to  say,  lingerie  played  its  part  in  creat- 
ing the  Empire  illusion.  Half -bras  and  waistlets 
were  important  props  for  the  new  silhouette. 

Introduction  of  tweed  into  fall  dress  styles  was 
immediately  popular.  Wool  or  wool-and-rayon 
tweeds  were  usually  enriched  with  velveteen  trim. 
Wool  jersey  was  in  great  demand  for  casual  wear. 
Blouse  interpretations  varied  from  one  extreme — 
the  plunging  neckline  jersey — to  the  other,  the 
high  "stove-pipe"  neckline  blouse  that  buttoned 
tightly  under  the  chin. 

Fall  and  winter  coats  were  often  overshadowed 
by  their  own  collars.  Large  shawl  collars,  some- 
times proportioned  to  cape  size,  swept  elegantly 
about  fur  and  cloth  coats.  The  reverse  fashion, 
tiny-fur-collar  styles,  were  equally  in  vogue.  Typ- 
ical of  these  were  the  poised,  small  ermine  col- 
lar and  cuff  coats.  Recent  experimentation  in  mink 
mutations  produced  an  amazing  range  of  new  mfnk 
shades — from  blue  toned  to  platinum  mink.  Black 
Persian,  however,  was  unchallenged  as  the  year's 
most  popular  fur.  The  stole,  the  short  cape,  and 
the  three-quarter  coat  were  highly  featured  fur 
silhouettes. 

Paris  continued  to  dictate  fashion  news,  In  No- 
vember of  1948,  however,  Christian  Dior,  a  leading 
French  designer,  opened  a  New  York  office  to 
wholesale  his  American-designed  fashions.  Fashion 
analysts  considered  the  event  significant  of  the 
growing  importance  of  New  York  City  as  an  inde- 
pendent fashion  center.  — JAOT  E.  COLUNS 

FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION  (FBI).  This  Bu- 
reau, established  in  1903  by  Attorney  General 
Charles  J.  Bonaparte,  is  the  investigative  arm  of 
the  U.S.  Department  of  Justice.  Originally  known 
as  the  Bureau  of  Investigation,  on  July  1,  1935,  by 
Congressional  enactment,  the  name  Federal  Bureau 
of  Investigation  was  adopted. 


The  jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of  In- 
vestigation extends  generally  to  all  Federal  crimes 
not  specifically  assigned  to  another  agency  of  the 
Federal  Government.  Specifically,  it  is  charged  with 
the  duty  of  investigating  violations  of  the  laws  of 
the  United  States,  collecting  evidence  in  cases  in 
which  the  United  States  is  or  may  be  a  party  in 
interest,  and  performing  other  duties  imposed  upon 
it  by  law. 

The  headquarters  of  the  FBI  is  located  in  the 
Department  of  Justice  Building  in  Washington, 
D.C.  Field  offices  are  located  in  strategic  cities 
throughout  the  United  States  and  its  Territorial 
Possessions.  In  addition  to  the  administrative  offices 
it  maintains  in  Washington  its  Identification  Divi- 
sion, the  FBI  Laboratory,  the  FBI  National  Acad- 
emy, and  the  Uniform  Crime  Reporting  facilities. 

The  Identification  Division  serves  as  a  repository 
for  identification  data  and  today  maintains  the 
largest  collection  of  fingerprint  records  in  the  world. 
Established  in  1924  with  a  nucleus  of  810,188  sets 
of  fingerprints,  the  Division  as  of  December,  1948, 
contained  more  than  111  million  sets.  The  number 
of  fingerprints  received  in  the  Division  increased 
from  87,918  in  the  fiscal  year  1924  to  28,733,286 
in  the  peak  year  of  1943.  A  total  of  5,134,307  sets 
of  fingerprints  were  received  from  12,080  contrib-* 
utors  during  the  1948  fiscal  year.  Seventy-eight  for- 
eign countries,  Territories,  and  Possessions  of  the 
United  States  cooperated  in  the  International  Ex- 
change of  fingerprint  data  during  the  1948  fiscal 
year.  At  the  end  of  that  year  the  Division  had  no- 
tations in  its  files  indicating  that  97,798  fugitives 
were  "wanted"  by  law  enforcement  agencies. 

The  FBI  Laboratory,  established  on  Nov.  24, 
1932,  with  one  technician  and  a  single  microscope, 
now  utilizes  valuable  precision  equipment  and  em- 
ploys technicians  schooled  in  88  branches  of  sci- 
ence or  its  subdivisions.  The  FBI  Laboratory  serves 
as  a  scientific  aid  in  crime  detection,  its  facilities 
being  available  without  charge  to  duly  constituted 
law  enforcement  agencies  which  may  submit  evi- 
dence to  it  for  scientific  examination  and  analysis. 
Research  is  conducted  to  further  aid  law  enforce- 
ment. Techniques  developed  and  perfected  in  con- 
nection with  wartime  work  are  presently  being 
adapted  to  the  examination  of  evidence  in  criminal 
cases. 

During  the  1948  fiscal  year  17,471  requests  for 
assistance  were  made  of  the  Laboratory,  11,343 
being  in  connection  with  FBI  investigations,  368 
from  other  Federal  agencies,  and  the  remaining 
5,760  from  non-Federal  law  enforcement  agencies 
throughout  the  nation  in  connection  with  the  in- 
vestigation of  criminal  matters.  In  connection  with 
these  requests  the  Laboratory  received  63,868 
specimens  of  evidence  for  examination,  46,420  of 
them  in  connection  with  FBI  work,  1,659  of  them 
from  other  Federal  agencies,  and  15,789  from  non- 
Federal  agencies.  These  specimens  required  74,596 
scientific  examinations  of  various  types,  the  sub- 
mission of  written  reports,  testimony  in  207  cases, 
and  depositions  in  lieu  of  testimony  in  7  cases. 

The  FBI  National  Academy,  founded  in  July, 
1935,  is  concerned  primarily  with  the  training  of 

Eolice  instructors  and  administrators.  Applicants 
Dr  attendance  are  carefully  selected  from  local, 
county,  and  state  law  enforcement  agencies.  The 
Academy  offers  a  12-week  course  three  times  each 
year.  The  faculty  ^and  facilities  used  in  the  train- 
ing of  FBI  Agents  are  utilized,  and,  in  addition, 
persons  in  highly  specialized  fields  serve  as  guest 
lecturers. 

The  first  ten  weeks  of  training  are  devoted  to 
a  general  course  in  law  enforcement.  In  the  final 


FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION 


181 


FEDERAL  BUREAU  OF  INVESTIGATION 


two  weeks  the  men  take  specialized  training  in 
subjects  selected  by  the  heads  of  their  respective 
departments.  Among  the  graduates  of  the  Academy 
are  representatives  from  every  state  in  trie  Union, 
from  the  United  States  Territorial  Possessions  and 
from  several  foreign  countries.  With  the  graduation 
of  the  Thirty-ninth  session  of  the  Academy  in  Oc- 
tober, 1948,  the  total  number  of  graduates  reached 
1,913.  It  is  estimated  that  the  training  given  these 
men  has  been  made  available  locally  to  more  than 
100,000  police  officers. 

The  type  of  training  afforded  in  the  FBI  Na- 
tional Academy  is  made  available  locally  to  law 
enforcement  officers  through  the  medium  of  FBI 
Field  Police-Training  Schools.  In  all  51  field  divi. 
sions  of  the  FBI  there  are  specially  trained  agents 
who,  in  addition  to  their  regular  investigative  du- 
ties, act  as  instructors  and  course  planners  for  train- 
ing schools  established  by  municipal,  county,  or 
state  law  enforcement  agencies, 

The  initiative  in  setting  up  schools  is  taken  by 
the  local  agencies  and  the  FBI  participates  only 
upon  specific  request.  Normally  most  of  the  in- 
struction is  given  by  FBI  agents  and  FBI  National 
Academy  graduates.  In  a  number  of  instances 
schools  devoted  exclusively  to  fingerprint  work 
were  conducted  by  special  agents  who  are  experts 
in  this  field.  In  the  1948  fiscal  year  the  FBI  par- 
ticipated in  1,237  local  police-training  schools  with 
an  estimated  attendance  of  61,850  officers. 

In  its  Uniform  Crime  Reporting  project  the  FBI, 
at  the  request  of  the  International  Association  of 
Chiefs  of  Police  and  pursuant  to  an  Act  of  Con- 
gress, acts  as  a  central  clearinghouse  for  police  sta- 
tistics on  a  nation-wide  basis".  Monthly  and  annual 
crime  reports  forwarded  to  the  FBI  reflecting  in- 
formation as  to  the  number  of  persons  arrested,  the 
number  found  guilty,  and  related  crime  data,  are 
summarized  and  published  in  the  Uniform  Crime 
Reports  bulletin.  The  bulletin,  which  is  published 
semiannually,  also  contains  information  concerning 
the  age,  sex,  race,  and  previous  criminal  history  of 
persons  arrested  throughout  the  United  States  as 
reflected  by  the  fingerprint  cards  received  in  the 
Identification  Division. 

The  responsibility  of  the  FBI  in  the  criminal 
field  includes  the  enforcement  of  such  laws  as  the 
Federal  Bank  Robbery  Act,  National  Motor  Vehicle 
Theft  Act,  Federal  Kidnaping  Act,  National  Stolen 
Property  Act,  White  Slave  Traffic  Act,  Theft  from 
Interstate  Shipment  Statute,  and  many  others. 

All  of  the  33  kidnaping  cases  over  which  the 
FBI  had  jurisdiction  during  the  1948  fiscal  year 
were  solved.  Sentences  of  462  years,  2  days,  and 
1  life  term  resulted  from  the  51  convictions  in  this 
category.  Since  the  passing  of  the  Federal  Kidnap- 
ing Statute  in  June,  1982,  the  FBI  has  investigated 
351  kidnapings.  Of  tills  number  349  have  been 
solved  and  the  remaining  two  are  still  under  active 
investigation. 

During  the  1948  fiscal  year  there  were  84  rob- 
beries, 77  burglaries,  and  31  larcenies  in  banks 
within  the  FBI  investigative  Jurisdiction.  During 
this  period  there  were  99  convictions,  and  sen- 
tences imposed  totaled  954  years,  11  months,  and 
21  days.  Fines  amounting  to  $31?673  were  levied. 
Savings  and  recoveries  effected  amounted  to  $184,- 
517. 

During  the  1948  fiscal  year  there  were  11,262 
automobiles  recovered  in  National  Motor  Vehicle 
Theft  eases  investigated  by  the  FBI.  This  Act, 
which  became  effective  on  Oct.  29,  1919,  provides 
punishment  for  persons  who  transport  in  interstate 
commerce  any  motor  vehicle  which  they  know  to 
be  stolen.  On  Sept.  24, 1945,  the  Act  was  amended 


to  include  aircraft.  A  total  of  4,452  convictions  re- 
sulted from  cases  in  this  category  investigated  by 
the  FBI.  Sentences  totaled  12,155  years,  6  months, 
and  18  days.  Fines  in  the  amount  of  $82,831  were 
levied  and  savings  and  recoveries  amounted  to 
$13,403,893. 

Criminal  activities  involving  theft  from  interstate 
shipment  continued  to  be  a  serious  menace  during 
the  1948  fiscal  year.  The  investigation  of  crimes  in 
this  category  by  the  FBI  resulted  in  973  convic- 
tions during  this  period.  Total  sentences  imposed 
amounted  to  2,359  years  and  20  days.  Fines  of 
$62,797  were  levied  and  savings  and  recoveries 
totaled  $608,561. 

The  National  Stolen  Property  Act  makes  it  a 
Federal  offense  to  transport  in  interstate  or  foreign 
commerce  any  stolen  goods  valued  at  $5,000  or 
more.  It  also  provides  punishment  for  the  interstate 
transportation  of  any  altered,  falsely  made,  forged, 
or  counterfeit  security  of  any  value,  and  it  has  a 
pledging  section  covering  stolen  property  valued 
at  $500  or  more,  which  is  transported  across  state 
lines  and  pledged.  The  number  of  convictions  dur- 
ing the  1948  fiscal  year  more  than  doubled  that  of 
the  previous  year. 

Among  those  brought  to  trial  in  FBI  cases  were 
many  professional  confidence  men,  jewel  thieves, 
and  fraudulent  check  artists  who  were  operating  on 
a  nation-wide  basis.  There  were  345  convictions  in 
the  past  fiscal  year,  with  prison  sentences  totaling 
1,071  years,  10  months,  and  19  days.  Fines  totaled 
$24,652.  Savings  and  recoveries  effected  amounted 
to  $192,186. 

The  Federal  Extortion  Statute  makes  it  a  Fed- 
eral offense  to  send  through  the  mail  or  to  transmit 
interstate  by  any  means  a  comunication  threaten- 
ing to  kill,  kidnap,  or  injure  an  individual  or  his 
property,  or  demanding  ransom  for  the  release  of 
a  kidnaped  person.  Since  the  Act  was  passed  on 
July  8,  1932,  1,284  convictions  have  resulted  from 
investigations  conducted  by  the  FBI.  During  the 
1948  fiscal  year  there  were  89  convictions,  with 
sentences  totaling  282  years,  6  months,  and  5  days. 
Fines  levied  amounted  to  $3,401. 

The  FBI,  since  September,  1939,  has  had  the 
primary  responsibility  of  collecting  information  re- 
lating to  the  general  internal  security  of  the  Nation, 
During  the  1948  fiscal  year,  the  FBI  handled  an 
unusually  large  volume  of  work  in  this  field,  col- 
lecting and  disseminating  to  other  government 
agencies  security  information  relating  to  their  offi- 
cial interest.  Special  security  operations  handled  by 
the  FBI  largely  involve  applicant  and  employee  in- 
vestigations. The  bulk  of  the  work  derives  from 
Acts  of  Congress  or  Presidential  Orders  in  which 
the  FBI  is  specifically  designated  to  make  security, 
character,  or  loyalty  checks.  Most  notable  of  these 
are  the  Atomic  Energy  Act  of  1946  and  the  Federal 
Employee  Loyalty  Program. 

The  Atomic  Energy  Act  of  1946  approved  by 
the  President  on  Aug.  la  1946,  gives  the  FBI  re- 
sponsibility for  determining  the  character,  associa- 
tion, and  loyalty  of  all  Atomic  Energy  Commission 
employees  and  applicants  and  of  all  other  persons 
having  access  to  restricted  Atomic  Energy  data. 
The  FBI  is  also  responsible  for  investigating  all 
alleged  criminal  violations  of  the  Act.  At  the  close 
of  the  1948  fiscal  year  the  program  of  investigating 
incumbent  employees  of  the  Atomic  Energy  Cam- 
mission  and  of  contractors*  employees  who  had 
access  to  restricted  data  was  more  than  95  percent 
complete. 

On  Mar.  21,  1947,  the  President  signed  Execu- 
tive Order  Number  9385  outlining  procedures  foi 
the  administration  of  a  Loyalty  Program  covering 


FE&ERAl  COMMUNICATIONS  COMMISSION 


182 


FEDERAL  COMMUNICATIONS  COMMISSION 


all  civilian  employees  and  applicants  in  the  Execu- 
tive Branch  of  the  Government.  This  order  was 
implemented  by  a  Congressional  Act  on  July  24, 

1947.  The  FBI  was  required  to  search  through  its 
files  the  names  and  fingerprints  of  all  employees 
and   applicants    for   positions    in    the   Executive 
Branch  of  the  Government  and  to  report  any  infor- 
mation indicating  disloyalty  to  the  American  form 
of  government  which  is  found.  If  a  search  discloses 
information  of  this  type,  the  FBI  conducts  full  field 
investigations.   The  facts   collected   are  reported 
without  bias,  conclusions,  or  recommendations. 

It  is  the  responsibility  of  the  employing  agency 
and  the  Loyalty  Hearing  Boards  to  weigh  the  facts 
and  to  take  or  decline  administrative  action.  In  the 
11  month  period  from  Aug.  1,  1947,  to  June  30, 

1948,  a  total  of  2,020,975  loyalty  forms  on  employ- 
ees and  applicants  were  processed.  Full  field  in- 
vestigations were  ordered  in  5,510  cases.  Of  the 
2,632   investigations   completed   there   were   438 
cases  where  employees  resigned  during  investiga- 
tion. Processing  forms  on  individuals  applying  for 
government  jobs  will  continue. 

As  a  result  of  FBI  investigations  during  the  1948 
fiscal  year,  there  were  a  total  of  9,966  convictions. 
These  resulted  in  sentences  of  24,671  years,  4 
months,  and  14  days.  In  addition  there  were  6 
death  and  10  life  sentences.  There  were  5,250  fugi- 
tives located  in  all  cases  investigated  by  the  FBI. 
Of  all  persons  brought  to  court  in  FBI  cases,  97.1 
percent  were  convicted,  93.3  percent  of  the  convic- 
tions being  on  pleas  of  guilty.  During  the  1948 
fiscal  year  as  a  result  of  FBI  investigative  activity 
returns  to  the  taxpayers  totaling  $54,327,283  were 
effected  in  fines,  savings,  recoveries,  and  Renego- 
tiation Act  claims  adjusted  in  favor  of  the  govern- 
ment. This  figure  exceeds  by  more  than  $5  million 
the  entire  cost  of  all  FBI  operations  during  the 
1948  fiscal  year.  — JOHN  EDGAR  HOOVER 

FEDERAL  COMMUNICATIONS  COMMISSION  (FCC).  Fed- 
eral Communications  Commission  activities  in  1948 
were  highlighted  by  review  and  revamping  of  ex- 
isting radio  services  in  an  effort  to  find  spectrum 
space  to  meet  mounting  demands  for  frequencies. 
The  Commission  also  played  an  increasingly  active 
role  in  world  conferences  to  standardize  practices 
and  usages  in  international  communications. 

International  interest  was  focused  on  35  radio 
and  other  sessions,  held  or  proposed,  to  enable 
various  nations  to  work  out  mutual  communica- 
tions problems.  Most  of  these  stem  from  the  In- 
ternational Telecommunications  Conferences  of 
1947,  which  rewrote  previous  world  agreements  in 
the  light  of  developments.  Besides  doing  a  large 
share  of  the  preliminary  work,  the  Commission 
furnished  delegates  or  advisers  to  these  sessions. 

Domestic  regulation  involved  676,000  radio  au- 
thorizations of  all  kinds.  Of  this  number,  535,000 
were  radio  operators,  and  141,000  were  radio  sta- 
tions. Not  included  in  the  station  figures  were 
about  150,000  mobile  units  associated  with  vari- 
ous nonbroadcast  services.  Applications  relating  to 
radio  exceeded  200,000. 

Broadcast  authorizations  exceeded  4,000.  The 
older  standard  (AM)  commercial  service  led  with 
more  than  2,100,  followed  by  nearly  1,000  frequen- 
cy modulation  (FM)  stations,  and  125  television 
(TV)  stations.  The  remainder  comprised  interna- 
tional, educational,  facsimile,  experimental  and 
developmental  stations,  Texas  and  California  led 
all  States  in  the  number  of  commercial  broadcast 
station  authorizations. 

The  period  since  Jan.  1,  1948,  witnessed  a  sud- 
den surge  in  TV  applications.  The  latter  exceeded 


the  presently  available  frequencies.  As  a  result, 
the  Commission  on  September  29  withheld  action 
on  TV  applications  pending  a  determination  of  the 
possible  use  of  higher  frequencies  for  television 
and  to  resolve  current  interference  to  TV  stations 
in  the  present  band. 

FM  service  continued  to  expand  with  the  result 
that  its  static-free  high-fidelity  programs  can  now 
be  heard  in  most  of  the  populous  areas  of  the 
country. 

AM  broadcast  income  in  1947  (the  most  recent 
year  for  which  statistics  were  available)  was  less 
than  the  year  previous,  though  the  major  networks 
showed  a  gain.  Slightly  more  than  1,100  AM  sta- 
tions were  affiliated  with  the  four  nation-wide  net- 
works, and  there  were  more  than  a  score  of  re- 
gional AM  networks.  Under  the  impetus  of  re- 
broadcast  opportunities  and  expanding  coaxial 
cable  and  microwave  facilities,  FM  and  TV  net- 
works were  developing.  Broadcast  receivers  of  all 
types  were  nearing  the  75,000,000  mark. 

Noncommercial  educational  broadcast  station 
authorizations  were  nearing  50,  and  international 
broadcast  stations  (under  State  Department  super- 
vision) remained  at  37.  Rules  to  permit  low-pow- 
ered educational  FM  broadcasting  became  effec- 
tive September  27. 

Facsimile  made  its  debut  as  a  regular  broadcast 
service  on  July  15,  1948,  when  its  operation  over 
FM  stations  was  authorized.  It  had  previously  been 
on  an  experimental  basis. 

Safety  and  special  radio  services  numbered  some 
136,000  authorizations,  including  over  81,000  ama- 
teur stations.  A  new  highway  maintenance  service 
was  inaugurated  during  the  year.  The  largest  in- 
crease took  place  in  the  aeronautical  field,  which 
had  some  25,000  stations.  Marine  services  account- 
ed for  17,200  ship  and  shore  stations.  Public  safety 
stations — such  as  police,  fire,  forestry,  highway  and 
special  emergency,  numbered  5,150.  There  were 
about  3,600  railroad  transit,  utility,  bus  and  taxi- 
cab  stations.  Petroleum,  lumber  and  other  indus- 
tries accounted  for  3,500. 

A  proposed  Citizens  Radio  Service,  which  will 
permit  the  use  of  small  transmitter-receivers  by 
individuals,  awaited  final  rule-making.  New  classes 
of  Industrial  and  Land  Transportation  services  are 
in  prospect. 

Common  carrier  services  had  more  than  a  thou- 
sand radio  authorizations,  including  27  fixed  public 
telephone  and  56  public  telegraph  stations.  Com- 
mon carrier  regulation  by  the  Commission  covers 
interstate  and  international  service.  More  than 
3,100  applications  and  nearly  30,000  tariff  and 
other  filings  were  received  by  the  Commission  in 
connection  with  this  phase  of  its  work. 

Telephones  in  service  exceeded  36,000,000.  The 
Bell  system  handled  36,000,000,000  calls. 

There  were  no  material  interstate  rate  reduc- 
tions during  the  year.  However,  State  utility  com- 
missions had  since  the  war  granted  increases  of 
$138,000,000  in  interstate  rates,  and  requests  for 
increases  totaling  $66,000,000  were  pending  be- 
fore those  state  bodies. 

During  the  year  the  FCC  authorized  the  use 
of  telephone  recording  devices,  with  appropriate 
tone-warning  signal,  for  interstate  and  internation- 
al service. 

Nearly  8,000  miles  of  coaxial  cable,  representing 
an  investment  of  $170,000,000,  had  been  author- 
ized for  the  BeU  system.  This  cable  can  accommo- 
date many  types  of  communication  services,  in- 
cluding television. 

Telephone  carriers  had  made  or  were  making 
mobile  telephone  service  available  in  nearly  100 


fEDERAL  CQUHCll 


183 


FEDERAL  DEPOSIT  INSURANCE  CORPORATION 


cities,  and  highway  service  was  operating  or 
planned  in  more  than  130  areas. 

Overseas  telephone  service  was  reestablished 
with  four  countries  and  inaugurated  for  the  first 
time  with  seven  other  countries.  About  570,000 
overseas  radiotelephone  calls  were  handled  as  com- 
pared with  50,000  before  the  war. 

Telegraph  regulation  dealt  mainly  with  Western 
Union,  which  now  has  a  monopoly  in  that  field, 
and  with  international  radio  and  cable  telegraph 
carriers.  Western  Union  was  carrying  out  its  $72,- 
000,000  mechanization  program,  including  a  mi- 
crowave triangle  connecting  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, Washington  and  Pittsburgh. 

Repeal,  during  the  year,  of  the  Post  Koads  Act 
resulted  in  the  Federal  Government  losing  the 
benefits  of  special  telegraph  rates  on  its  domestic 
traffic. 

Cable  and  radio  telegraph  carriers  handled  more 
than  656,000,000  paid  words,  of  which  more  than 
half  was  outbound. 

To  meet  the  urgent  revenue  needs  of  interna- 
tional telegraph  carriers,  the  Commission  granted 
two  outbound  rate  increases  totaling  $8,673,000. 
The  revised  rates  do  not  exceed  30  cents  a  word. 

Radio  operators  in  commercial  service  numbered 
363,000  and  amateurs  exceeded  80,000.  Special 
aircraft  operator  authorizations  amounted  to  over 
91,000.  As  a  convenience  to  private  flyers,  the  lat- 
ter are  issued  at  air  fields. 

Field  engineering  and  monitoring  activities,  con- 
ducted through  33  field  offices  and  21  monitoring 
stations,  dealt  primarily  with  technical  supervision 
of  radio  operation.  Nearly  30,000  ship  and  land 
stations  were  inspected;  17,000  violation  and  other 
notices  served;  22,000  interference  cases  handled, 
and  153  illicit  operations  detected  and  closed.  Op- 
erator examinations,  largely  given  in  the  field,  ap- 
proximated 100,000. 

Technical  studies  covered  possibilities  of  using 
higher  frequencies,  effects  of  wave  propagation, 
skywave  reflections,  ground  conductivity,  signal 
intensity,  harmonics,  directional  antennas,  etc. 

Laboratory  work  centered  on  the  testing  of  new 
equipment  submitted  by  manufacturers  for  type 
approval  prior  to  being  placed  on  the  market.  In 
this  way,  many  potential  interference  problems  are 
dealt  with  before  they  materialize.  Commission 
membership  change  during  the  year  saw  the  in- 
duction of  the  first  woman  to  serve  as  a  member 
of  the  FCC— Miss  Frieda  B.  Hennock. 

— GEORGE  O.  GUJLINGHAM 

FEDERAL  COUNCIL  OF  THE  CHURCHES  OF  CHRIST  IN 
AMERICA.  An  organization  established  in  1908  by 
28  Protestant  denominations  to  act  for  them  in 
matters  of  common  interest.  The  Council  now  in- 
cludes most  of  the  major  Protestant  denominations 
of  the  United  States,  and  also  3  branches  of  the 
Eastern  Orthodox  Church. 

Through  Church  World  Service,  Inc.,  created  by 
joint  action  of  the  Council  and  the  Foreign  Mis- 
sions Conference  of  North  America,  shipments  of 
about  one  million  dollars  a  month  were  made  to 
Europe  and  Asia  for  distribution  by  church  agen- 
cies. A  new  department  of  the  Church  and  Eco- 
nomic Life  was  created.  This  was  the  outgrowth 
of  a  national  study  conference  held  in  1947, 

Religious  broadcasting  over  3  national  networks 
continued  to  be  an  important  responsibility  of  the 
Council.  In  evangelism,  special  emphasis  was  given 
to  interdenominational  missions  on  college  and  uni- 
versity campuses.  In  the  social  service  field  major 
attention  was  given  to  family  problems.  A  survey 
of  the  work  of  the  Protestant  churches  for  aged 


was  begun.  The  relation  of  the  churches  to  inter- 
national issues  was  a  prominent  objective  of  educa- 
tional effort  in  the  Council  Interracial  cooperation 
and  the  rights  of  minority  groups  was  also  a  main 
point  of  interest, 

Publications:  Information  Service,  Federal  Coun- 
cil Bulletin  (monthly),  Interracial  News  Letter  (bi- 
monthly), and  Town  and  Country  Church. 

Officers:  President,  Charles  P.  Taft.  Vice  Presi- 
dent, Bishop  John  S.  Stamm.  Treasurer,  Harper 
Sibley.  General  Secretary,  Rev.  Samuel  McCrea 
Cavert.  National  offices:  297  Fourth  Ave.,  New 
York  10,  N.Y.;  also  Woodward  Building,  Washing- 
ton 5,  D.C. 

FEDERAL  CROP  INSURANCE  CORPORATION,  The  Fed- 
eral Crop  Insurance  Corporation,  an  agency  of  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  is  developing  a 
system  of  insurance  protection  for  farmers  against 
major  crop  losses  from  unavoidable  production 
risks  such  as  weather,  insects,  and  plant  diseases. 

Considerable  latitude  is  given  the  Corporation 
to  experiment  with  plans  and  methods.  The  basic 
problem  in  developing  a  sound  system  of  crop  in- 
surance is  to  attain  the  proper  relationship  on 
a  long-range  basis  between  protection  provided  and 
premiums  paid.  Premiums  paid  by  farmers  are  used 
only  to  pay  indemnities  on  crop  losses  with  admin- 
istrative funds  provided  by  direct  appropriation. 
Coverage  on  a  farm  for  any  crop  may  not  exceed 
75  percent  of  the  average  yield  established  for  the 
farm  or  the  general  level  of  the  cost  of  producing 
the  crop  in  the  area. 

The  80th  Congress  amended  the  Federal  Crop 
Insurance  Act  to  establish  a  maximum  number  of 
counties  in  which  insurance  on  each  commodity 
may  be  offered.  These  maximums  are  200  counties 
for  wheat,  56  for  cotton,  50  for  com,  50  for  flax, 
35  for  tobacco,  and  20  for  any  new  trial  programs 
that  may  be  initiated. 


FEDERAL    DEPOSIT   INSURANCE   CORPORATION  . 

An  independent  agency  of  the  U.S.  Government, 
organized  under  the  Banking  Act  of  1933  to  insure 
the  deposits  of  all  banks  which  are  entitled  to  the 
benefits  of  insurance  under  die  law.  The  major 
functions  of  the  Corporation  are  to  pay  off  the  de- 
positors of  insured  banks  closed  without  adequate 

f  revision  having  been  made  to  pay  claims  of  their 
epositors,  to  act  as  receiver  for  all  suspended  na- 
tional banks  and  for  suspended  State  banks  when 
appointed  by  State  authorities,  and  to  prevent  the 
continuance  or  development  of  unsafe  and  un- 
sound banking  practices.  The  Corporation  may  also 
make  loans  to  or  purchase  assets  from  the  insured 
banks  when  such  loans  or  purchases  will  facilitate 
a  merger  or  consolidation  and  will  reduce  the  prob- 
able loss  to  the  Corporation. 

On  June  30,  1948,  total  assets  of  the  Corpora- 
tion amounted  to  $1,023,383,000.  Liabilities 
amounted  to  $5,966,000.  Total  capital  and  surplus 
of  $1,017,417,000  consisted  of  $22,604,000  balance 
of  the  original  capital  of  $289,300,000  and  an  ac- 
cumulated surplus  of  $994,813,000.  The  original 
capital  stock  of  the  Corporation  which  had  no 
vote  and  was  not  entitled  to  receive  dividends,  has 
been  retired  under  provisions  of  Public  Law  363 
from  the  surplus  of  the  Corporation  in  excess  of 
$1,000  million.  On  Sept  9,  1947,  the  original  sub- 
scription by  the  Federal  Reserve  banks,  amount- 
ing to  $139,300,000  was  retired  in  full  and  in  ad- 
dition, $7,396,000  out  of  $150  million  of  stock 
held  by  the  United  States  Treasury  was  repaid* 
Additional  payments  in  multiples  of  $10  million 
were  made  as  the  money  became  available.  On 


FEDERAL  MEDIATION  4WD  CONCILIATION 


184  FEDERAL  RESERVE  SYSTEM 


Aug.  30,  1948,  final  payment  of  $12,604,000  was 
made. 

Of  the  14,772  operating  commercial  banks  and 
trust  companies  in  the  United  States  and  posses- 
sions on  June  30,  1948,  deposits  in  13,420  banks 
were  insured  by  the  Federal  Deposit  Insurance 
Corporation.  Of  the  532  mutual  savings  banks, 
193  were  insured  by  the  Corporation. 

Federal  credit  unions  were  supervised  by  the 
Federal  Deposit  Insurance  Corporation  from  May 
16,  1942,  to  July  29,  1948,  when  the  supervision 
of  all  Federal  credit  unions  was  transferred  to  the 
Federal  Security  Agency.  On  June  30,  1948,  there 
were  3,942  operating  Federal  credit  unions.  Share 
balances  in  credit  unions  have  never  been  insured 
by  the  Corporation.  Chairman  in  1948:  Maple  T. 
Harl. 

FEDERAL    MEDIATION    AND    CONCILIATION    SERVICE. 

The  Federal  Mediation  and  Conciliation  Service, 
an  independent  agency,  was  created  by  the  Labor 
Management  Relations  Act,  1947.  Principle  ob- 
jective of  the  Service  is  to  prevent  or  minimize  in- 
terruptions of  the  free  flow  of  commerce  growing 
out  of  labor-management  disputes  by  assisting  the 
parties  to  settle  such  disputes  through  conciliation 
and  mediation. 

In  carrying  out  its  duties  the  Service  places  pri- 
mary emphasis  upon  the  prevention  of  disputes 
and  the  promotion  of  the  collective  bargaining 
process.  Normally,  the  Service  provides  mediation 
and  conciliation  services  in  specific  disputes  only 
when  there  is  threatened  such  a  significant  inter- 
ruption of  commerce  as  clearly  to  require  Federal 
intercession.  Employers  and  unions  are  encouraged 
to  resolve  industrial  differences  by  themselves  with- 
out the  aid  of  the  Federal  Government. 

Under  section  8(d)  of  the  Labor  Management 
Relations  Act,  1947,  employers  and  unions  are  re- 
quired to  file  with  the  Service  a  notice  of  every 
dispute  affecting  commerce  not  settled  within  30 
days  after  prior  service  of  a  notice  to  terminate  or 
modify  an  existing  contract.  The  parries  are  re- 
quired at  the  same  time  to  notify  the  respective 
state  or  territorial  agency  of  the  existence  of  such 
a  dispute.  The  Service  cooperates  fully  with  state 
and  other  conciliation  agencies  and  suggests  to 
the  parties  the  utilization  of  such  facilities  to  the 
greatest  possible  extent. 

The  Labor  Management  Relations  Act,  1947, 
also  established  the  National  Labor-Management 
Panel,  the  duty  of  which  is  to  advise  the  Director 
of  the  Service  on  the  avoidance  of  industrial  con- 
troversies and  the  manner  in  which  mediation  and 
voluntary  adjustment  shall  be  administered,  par- 
ticularly with  reference  to  controversies  affecting 
the  general  welfare  of  the  country. 

The  Service  has  a  staff  of  about  240  active  con- 
ciliators operating  through  twelve  regional  offices 
under  the  guidance  of  a  very  small  national  office 
staff. 

During  the  calendar  year  1948  the  Service  re- 
ceived approximately  20,000  calls  for  its  services. 
Of  this  number  only  about  12,000  cases  were  prop- 
erly within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Service. 

FEDERAL  POWER  COMMISSION  (FPC).  An  independent 
agency  of  the  United  States  Government,  first 
established  in  1920,  which  has  jurisdiction  to  li- 
cense hydroelectric  power  projects  on  navigable 
waters  of  the  United  States  or  on  public  lands,  to 
regulate  electric  utilities  engaged  in  the  transmis- 
sion or  sale  at  wholesale  of  electric  energy  in  inter- 
state commerce  and  natural-gas  companies  en- 
gaged in  the  transportation  or  sale  of  natural  gas 


for  resale  in  interstate  commerce.  The  Commission 
also  has  miscellaneous  authority  with  respect  to 
public  power  projects  under  the  Bonneville  Act,  the 
Fort  Peck  Act,  various  rivers  and  harbors  and  flood 
control  acts  and  other  statutes  and  executive  orders. 
Chairman:  Nelson  Lee  Smith. 

FEDERAL  RESERVE  SYSTEM,  Board  of  Governors: 
Thomas  B.  McCabe,  chairman;  Marriner  S.  Eccles, 
M*  S.  Szymczak,  Ernest  G.  Draper,  R.  M.  Evans, 
James  K.  Vardaman,  Jr.,  Lawrence  Clayton.  Ad- 
dress: Washington  25,  D.C.  Reserve  Banks  are 
maintained  in  Boston;  New  York;  Philadelphia; 
Cleveland;  Richmond;  Atlanta;  Chicago;  St.  Louis; 
Minneapolis;  Kansas  City,  Mo.;  Dallas;  and  San 
Francisco. 

The  Federal  Reserve  System  was  established 
(1913)  under  an  Act  of  Congress  for  the  purpose 
of  providing  a  central  supervisory  authority  over 
banking  and  currency.  The  System  comprises  the 
Board  of  Governors;  the  Federal  Open  Market 
Committee;  12  Federal  Reserve  Banks  and  their 
24  branches  situated  in  different  sections  of  the 
country;  and  the  Federal  Advisory  Council.  All 
national  banks  are  members,  and  State  banks  and 
trust  companies  which  apply  for  and  are  admitted 
to  membership  upon  complying  with  certain  pre- 
scribed conditions. 

The  Board  is  composed  of  seven  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  and  representing  finan- 
cial, agricultural,  industrial  and  commercial  in- 
terests from  various  sections  of  the  country.  No 
two  members  may  be  from  the  same  Federal  Re- 
serve district.  The  principal  duties  of  the  Board 
consist  of  exerting  an  influence  over  credit  condi- 
tions, in  order  to  avoid  injurious  credit  expansion 
or  contraction,  and  supervising  the  Federal  Re- 
serve Banks  and  member  banks.  It  is  authorized 
to  change  the  requirements  governing  reserves 
maintained  by  member  banks  against  deposits,  and 
to  review  and  determine  the  discount  rates  charged 
by  the  Federal  Reserve  Banks  on  their  discounts 
and  advances.  To  curb  undue  diversion  of  funds 
into  speculative  operations,  the  Board  has  author- 
ity to  regulate  the  amount  of  credit  that  may  be 
initially  extended  and  subsequently  maintained  on 
any  security  (with  certain  exceptions)  registered 
on  a  national  securities  exchange.  Until  June  30, 
1949,  the  Board  has  authority  to  regulate  the  use 
of  credit  for  instalment  buying, 

Other  duties  of  the  Board  include  supervision 
of  the  issue  and  retirement  of  Federal  Reserve 
notes;  regulation  of  interest  payments  by  member 
banks  on  time  and  savings  deposits;  and  regulation 
of  international  or  foreign  banking  by  member 
banks.  It  has  authority  to  remove  officers  and  di- 
rectors of  member  banks  for  continued  violations 
of  law  or  unsafe  or  unsound  practices  in  conduct- 
ing the  business  of  their  banks.  It  also  may  suspend 
member  banks  from  the  use  of  the  credit  facilities 
of  the  Reserve  System  for  making  undue  use  of 
bank  credit  for  speculative  purposes  or  for  any 
other  purpose  considered  inconsistent  with  the 
maintenance  of  sound  credit  conditions.  To  meet 
its  expenses  and  pay  the  salaries  of  its  members, 
the  Board  makes  semiannual  assessments  upon  the 
Reserve  Banks  in  proportion  to  their  capital  stock 
and  surplus. 

The  capital  stock  of  the  Reserve  Banks  is  all 
"owned"  by  the  member  banks,  as  required  by 
law,  and  may  not  be  transferred  or  hypothecated. 
Member  banks  are  required  to  buy  stock  of  the 
Reserve  Bank  of  their  district  in  an  amount  equal 
to  3  percent  of  the  subscribing  bank's  paid  up 
capital  and  surplus.  The  Federal  Reserve  Banks 


FEDERAL  SECURITY  AGENCY  185 


FEDERAL  SECURITY  AGEMCY 


are  primarily  bankers'  banks.  Their  principal  ac- 
tivities consist  of  holding  the  reserves  which  mem- 
ber banks  are  required  to  maintain,  supplying 
banks  with  currency  and  coin  as  needed,  providing 
a  nationwide  check  clearing  and  collection  system, 
making  loans  to  member  banks,  engaging  in  open 
market  operations  as  referred  to  below,  making 
transfers  of  funds  by  wire,  and  acting  as  deposi- 
taries and  fiscal  agents  of  the  United  States. 

Federal  Open  Market  Committee.  All  members  of 
the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
System  also  serve  on  the  Federal  Open  Market 
Committee,  whose  membership  also  includes  five 
representatives  of  the  Reserve  Banks.  The  Com- 
mittee regulates  open  market  operations  conducted 
by  the  Reserve  Banks  with  a  view  to  accommo- 
dating commerce  and  business  and  with  regard 
to  their  bearing  upon  the  general  credit  situation 
of  the  country.  These  open  market  operations 
consist  of  the  purchase  and  sale  in  the  open  mar- 
ket of  Government  obligations,  certain  other  se- 
curities, and  bills  of  exchange  and  bankers*  ac- 
ceptances eligible  for  discount  by  the  Reserve 
Banks. 

Federal  Advisory  Council.  The  Council  is  composed 
of  12  representative  bankers,  one  from  each  Fed- 
eral Reserve  District,  who  are  selected  annually 
by  the  boards  of  directors  of  the  respective  Federal 
Reserve  Banks.  It  meets  in  Washington  at  least 
four  times  a  year  and  confers  with  the  Board  of 
Governors  on  business  conditions  and  makes  ad- 
visory recommendations  to  the  Board  regarding  the 
affairs  of  the  System. 

FEDERAL  SECURITY  AGENCY  (FSA),  An  Agency  of  the 
U.S.  Government,  established  in  1939  to  promote 
"social  and  economic  security,  educational  oppor- 
tunity, and  the  health  of  the  citizens  of  the  Na- 
tion." The  constituent  organizations  of  the  Agency 
are  the  Office  of  Education;  the  Public  Health 
Service  (including  Freedmen's  Hospital);  the  So- 
cial Security  Administration;  the  Office  of  Special 
Services,  which  includes  the  Food  and  Drug  Ad- 
ministration, Office  of  Vocational  Rehabilitation, 
and  .Bureau  of  Employees*  Compensation;  and 
Saint  Elizabeths  Hospital.  The  Agency  also  par- 
ticipates in  the  work  of  Howard  University,  the 
Columbia  Institution  for  the  Deaf,  and  the  Ameri- 
can Printing  House  for  the  Blind.  Operations  of 
the  Agency  are  under  the  direction  of  the  Federal 
Security  Administrator. 

On  July  1,  1948,  the  United  States  Employment 
Service  was  transferred  from  the  Department  of 
Labor,  and  on  July  29,  the  Federal  Employees* 
Credit  Unions  from  the  Federal  Deposit  Insurance 
Corporation,  to  become  part  of  the  Social  Security 
Administration. 

A  reorganization  of  the  regional  offices  of  all 
the  constituent  units  resulted  in  the  establishment 
on  July  1,  1948,  of  a  single  system  of  10  Federal 
Security  Agency  Regional  Offices,  each  under  the 
direction  of  a  Federal  Security  Regional  Director. 

The  FSA's  Office  of  Education  is  charged  by 
Congress  "to  collect  and  diffuse  educational  facts 
and  statistics  to  show  the  condition  and  progress 
of  education"  and  "to  promote  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion throughout  the  country."  For  the  fall  of  1948, 
it  reported  a  record  school  and  college  enrollment 
of  nearly  32  million.  Peak  enrollments  will  continue 
through  1956,  when  high  birth-rates  during  and 
after  the  war  will  swell  die  total  by  7  million.  High 
schools  graduated  1,056,000  this  year,  the  highest 
number  since  before  the  war. 

Emphasis  in  elementary  schoota  was  on  building 
curricula  around  the  needs  of  the  children  rather 


tiban  around  formal  discussion  matter.  At  the  sec- 
ondary school  level,  the  stress  was  on  "life  adjust- 
ment education  for  youth"  to  reach  the  60  percent 
of  high  school  students  not  going  on  to  college  or 
into  a  skilled  trade.  There  was  also  stimulation  of 
citizenship  education  through  a  Nation-wide  Zeal 
for  American  Democracy  program,  and  promotion 
of  school  health,  guidance,  and  adult  education 
programs.  The  Federal- State  program  of  aid  to  vo- 
cational education  continued  during  the  year. 

Progress  was  impeded  by  the  teacher  shortage, 
which  was  especially  acute  at  the  elementary  level 
and  in  rural  areas.  The  need  for  more  buildings  to 
accommodate  growing  school  and  college  enroll- 
ments, and  for  properly  lighted,  well-equipped 
classrooms  to  serve  modern  education  needs  was 
emphasized.  There  was  continued  effort  to  make 
the  public  more  aware  of  school  conditions,  to  re- 
cruit more  and  better-qualified  teachers,  and  to 
improve  education  generally. 

For  the  operations  of  the  FSA's  Public  Health 
Service  during  fiscal  1947-48,  Congress  provided 
almost  $192.5  million.  Of  this  amount,  almost 
$114.5  million  was  for  grants-in-aid  to  States;  $3.6 
million  to  schools  of  nursing;  $12.3  million  to  uni- 
versities and  institutions  for  research  and  fellow- 
sliip  programs;  $2.7  million  to  initiate  construction 
of  a  clinical  research  center;  and  nearly  $60  million 
for  programs  operated  directly  by  the  Service. 

The  Water  Pollution  Control  Act,  approved  June 
30,  1948,  established  a  Federal-State-municipal 
program  to  combat  the  increasing  pollution  of  in- 
terstate waters,  Among  its  provisions  is  authoriza- 
tion for  the  next  five  years  of  an  annual  appropria- 
tion of  $22,5  million  to  be  used  for  loans  for  the 
construction  of  necessary  sewage  treatment  works. 

During  the  year,  a  major  control  program  was 
initiated  in  mental  health.  This  supplemented  the 
special  control  programs  already  active  in  cancer, 
venereal  disease,  tuberculosis,  and  industrial  hy- 
giene, and  the  general  control  programs  supported 
with  grants-h>aid  money.  As  a  part  of  the  tubercu« 
losis  control  program,  assistance  was  given  in  a 
series  of  mass  case-finding  surveys,  in  which  over 
a  million  X-rays  were  taken. 

Emphasis  in  the  venereal  disease  control  pro- 
gram was  in  assisting  States  in  the  operation  of 
rapid-treatment  centers  employing  penicillin  ther- 
apy, and  in  improving  case-finding  methods.  In 
dental  health,  the  effectiveness  of  the  topical  fluo- 
ride technique  in  reducing  dental  caries  in  children 
was  established.  As  a  result,  Congress  appropriated 
$1  million,  beginning  July  1,  1948,  to  provide  for 
a  number  of  topical  fluoride  demonstration  units 
in  the  States. 

The  expansion  of  research  activities  in  particular 
diseases  resulted  in  changing  the  name  of  the  Na- 
tional Institute  of  Health  to  "National  Institutes  of 
Health."  These  now  include  the  National  Heart  In- 
stitute and  National  Institute  of  Dental  Research, 
which  were  established  by  Congress  in  1948,  as 
well  as  the  National  Cancer  Institute  and  the  Ex- 
perimental Biology  and  Medicine  Institute.  For 
fiscal  year  1947-48,  Congress  increased  the  Cancer 
Institute's  appropriation  to  $14  million,  compared 
with  $4.3  million,  the  previous  year.  A  new  provi- 
sion provided  for  expanded  Federal  aid  for  teach- 
ing about  cancer  in  professional  schools. 

Among  the  achievements  of  research  workers  in 
the  Service  during  the  year  were  the  isolation  of 
one  specific  virus  causing  the  common  cold;  dem- 
onstration that  the  addition  of  niacin  to  the  diet  of 
animals  resulted  in  the  correction  of  certain  blood 
diseases;  development  of  promising  drugs  and  anti- 
biotics for  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis;  discovery, 


FEDERAL  SECUR/TY  AGENCY 


186 


FEDERAL  TRADE  COMMISSION 


in  the  testing  of  many  synthesized  chemical  com- 
pounds, of  50  chemotherapeutic  agents  that  pro- 
duced destructive  effects  on  tumors  in  mice;  and 
demonstration  of  significant  reductions  in  the  inci- 
dence of  diarrhea  through  effective  fly  control. 

During  the  year,  the  National  Mental  Hygiene 
Program  was  enabled  to  increase  its  assistance  to 
schools  for  the  training  of  psychiatrists,  psycholo- 
gists, and  other  personnel. 

In  1948,  the  construction  phase  of  the  program 
authorized  by  the  Hospital  Survey  and  Construc- 
tion Act  of  1946  gained  momentum.  Plans  of  52 
States  and  Territories  had  been  submitted  and  ap- 
proved. The  Act  authorizes  approximately  $75 
million  annually  to  assist  States  and  communities  in 
the  survey  and  construction  of  hospitals  and  health 
centers. 

Under  the  social  security  program,  there  was  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  recipients  of  old-age  and 
survivors  insurance,  which  is  financed  by  payroll 
deductions  on  both  employers  and  workers.  In 
July,  1948,  the  number  of  recipients  was  2,182,000, 
compared  with  1,855,000  at  the  same  time  in  1947. 
About  37  million  workers  are  in  jobs  covered  by 
the  law;  about  23  million  are  still  in  uninsured  jobs. 

Principally  because  of  the  high  cost  of  living,  the 
number  of  recipients  of  public  assistance,  which  is 
financed  jointly  by  the  Federal  Government  and 
the  States,  remained  high.  Many  recipients  of  old- 
age  and  survivors  insurance  found  it  necessary  to 
turn  to  public  assistance  for  supplemental  help. 
Recipients  of  the  three  types  of  public  assistance 
(old-age  assistance,  aid  to  dependent  children,  and 
aid  to  the  blind)  in  September,  1948,  totaled 
3,691,517,  compared  with  3,415,282,  one  year 
prior.  During  1947-48,  some  3.8  million  workers 
received  benefits  under  the  unemployment  insur- 
ance program,  averaging  around  $18  a  week  for 
11  weeks. 

The  Children's  Bureau  continued  its  function  of 
investigating  and  reporting  "upon  all  matters  per- 
taining to  the  welfare  of  children  and  child  life 
among  all  classes  of  our  people,"  and  of  adminis- 
tering Federal  grants  to  the  States  to  assist  them  in 
developing  State  and  local  services  for  children. 
In  1948,  these  grants,  which  supplement  State  and 
local  expenditures  for  this  purpose,  totaled  $22 
million,  which  included  $11  million  for  maternal 
and  child  health  services;  $7.5  million  for  services 
for  crippled  children;  and  $3.5  million  for  child 
welfare  services.  The  Bureau  published  a  widely 
used  series  of  bulletins  for  parents,  including  Infant 
Care,  Jour  Child  From  One  to  Six,  Your  Child 
From  Six  to  Twelve,  and  Guiding  the  Adolescent. 

The  year  1948  was  the  most  successful  in  the 
28-year  history  of  the  State-Federal  program  of 
vocational  rehabilitation.  A  record  high  of  53,000 
disabled  men  and  women  were  fully  rehabili- 
tated to  gainful  employment;  another  9,000  were 
awaiting  only  a  final  decision  that  they  and  their 
employers  were  mutually  satisfied;  and  a  third 
group  of  over  7,000  were  ready  to  enter  self-sus- 
taining employment.  Earnings  of  rehabilitants  rose 
from  $17  million  annually  before  to  $86  million 
the  first  year  after  rehabilitation  services.  In  the 
past  five  years,  these  services  resulted  in  an  esti- 
mated increase  of  $900  million  in  earned  income 
for  rehabilitated  persons,  who  paid  an  estimated 
$75  million  into  the  Federal  Treasury  in  income 
taxes  alone. 

During  fiscal  year  1947-48,  the  FSA's  Food  and 
Drug  Administration  examined  nearly  50,000  sam- 
ples of  foods,  drugs,  and  cosmetics  shipped  in  in- 
terstate commerce  and  conducted  some  13,000  fac- 
tory inspections  to  determine  compliance  with  the 


law.  It  initiated  over  1,600  court  actions  through 
the  Department  of  Justice,  involving  food  adultera- 
tion, harmful  drugs,  and  cosmetics,  and  false  and 
misleading  labeling.  It  reported  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  substantial  fines  ever  assessed  by  Federal 
courts  in  such  cases.  Of  particular  importance  were 
a  Supreme  Court  decision  in  January,  1948,  and  an 
amendment  to  the  Food,  Drug,  and  Cosmetic  Act 
in  June,  1948,  which  established  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Act  to  carry  its  protective  features  through 
to  die  ultimate  consumer. 

The  continuing  concern  of  the  Federal  Security 
Agency  is  for  the  conservation  and  development  of 
the  human  resources  of  the  Nation.  Its  success  is 
measured  by  the  extent  to  which  the  Nation  can 
provide  for  its  citizens  opportunities  for  education, 
safeguards  against  sickness  and  disease,  and  pro- 
tection against  the  uncertainties  of  employment 
and  the  economic  hazards  of  disability  and  old  age. 

— OSCAR  R.  EWING 

FEDERAL  SUPPLY,  Bureau  of.  A  Bureau  of  the  U.S. 
Treasury  Department  which  determines  policies 
and  methods  of  procurement,  warehousing,  and 
distribution  of  supplies,  materials,  equipment,  and 
services  for  Federal  establishments.  It  procures, 
inspects,  stores  and  distributes  such  items  for  Fed- 
eral establishments  through  its  central  office  in 
Washington  and  its  nine  Supply  Centers  and  two 
branch  Supply  Centers  located  in  Boston,  New 
York,  Atlanta,  Cleveland,  Chicago,  Kansas  City, 
Fort  Worth,  Denver,  Los  Angeles,  San  Francisco 
and  Seattle.  In  adoption  it  prepares  purchasing 
standards,  such  as  Federal  Specifications,  and 
standard  forms  of  contract,  for  use  of  Federal  es- 
tablishments; purchases  strategic  and  critical  ma- 
terials for  inclusion  in  the  National  stockpile  and 
controls  the  distribution  of  surplus  personal  prop- 
erty of  Federal  establishments.  The  Bureau  also 
makes  purchases  of  a  large  variety  of  commodities 
for  the  relief  and  rehabilitation  of  countries  devas- 
tated by  the  war.  Director,  Bureau  of  Federal 
Supply:  Clifton  E.  Mack. 

FEDERAL  TRADE  COMMISSION  (FTC).  An  administrative 
agency  of  the  U.S.  Government,  established  in 
1914,  and  consisting  of  five  Commissioners  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate.  It  administers  the  Federal  Trade 
Commission  Act;  certain  sections  of  the  Clayton 
Antitrust  Act,  as  amended  by  the  Robinson-Patman 
Act;  the  Wool  Products  Labeling  Act;  the  Export 
Trade  Act;  and  certain  sections  of  the  Lanham 
Trade-Mark  Act.  Under  these  statutes,  the  duties 
of  the  Commission,  in  general,  are:  (1)  to  promote 
free  and  fair  competition  in  interstate  trade  in  the 
interest  of  the  public  through  prevention  of  price- 
fixing  agreements  or  combinations,  boycotts,  inju- 
rious price  and  other  unlawful  discriminations,  and 
other  practices  which  are  in  restraint  of  trade  or 
which  otherwise  constitute  unfair  methods  of  com- 
petition or  unfair  or  deceptive  acts  or  practices; 
( 2 )  to  safeguard  the  consuming  public  by  prevent- 
ing the  dissemination  of  false  advertisements,  in- 
cluding those  relating  to  food,  drugs,  cosmetics 
and  therapeutic  devices  which  may  be  injurious 
to  health;  (3)  to  protect  industry,  trade  and  the 
consumer  against  the  unrevealed  presence  of  sub- 
stitutes and  mixtures  in  wool  products;  (4)  to 
supervise  the  operations  of  export  trade  associa- 
tions granted  exemption  from  the  antitrust  laws; 
(5)  to  apply  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  for 
cancellation  of  trade-marks  obtained  fraudulently 
or  in  violation  of  other  provisions  of  law;  and  ( 6; 
to  conduct  investigations  of  economic  conditions 


FEDERAl  WORKS  AGENCY 


187 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW 


in  interstate  and  foreign  commerce  and  to  malce 
the  resulting  facts  available  to  the  President,  the 
Congress  and  the  public. 

During  the  fiscal  year  1948  the  Commission  is- 
sued 70  formal  complaints  alleging  violations  of 
the  laws  under  its  jurisdiction,  entered  73  orders  to 
cease  and  desist  from  proved  violations,  and  ac- 
cepted 110  stipulations  in  which  respondents  vol- 
untarily agreed  to  discontinue  unlawful  practices. 
Trade  practice  rules,  by  which  unfair  practices 
may  be  eliminated  voluntarily  on  an  industry-wide 
basis,  were  promulgated  for  the  watcli  case,  office 
machine  marketing,  wholesale  confectionery  and 
hand  knitting  yarn  industries. 

Reports  to  Congress  covered  investigations  of 
the  merger  movement;  steel  cartels;  international 
electrical  equipment  cartel;  and  manufacture  and 
distribution  of  farm  implements.  The  Commission 
also  continued,  in  collaboration  with  the  Securities 
and  Exchange  Commission,  the  publication  of 
quarterly  reports  disclosing  the  financial  character- 
istics and  operating  results  of  American  manufac- 
turing corporations.  Chairman  (1948):  Robert  E. 
Freer.  Other  Commissioners:  Garland  S.  Ferguson, 
Ewin  L.  Davis,  William  A.  Ayres  and  Lowell  B. 
Mason. 

FEDERAL  WORKS  AGENCY  (FWA).  An  agency  of  the 
U.S.  Government  comprising  three  constituents 
which  are  concerned  with  the  provision  and  financ- 
ing of  public  works  and  services,  namely,  Public 
Buildings  Administration,  Public  Roads  Adminis- 
tration, and  the  Bureau  of  Community  Facilities. 
Six  projects  of  the  former  Public  Works  Adminis- 
tration are  now  in  process  of  liquidation  in  the 
Office  of  the  Federal  Works  Administrator.  Admin- 
istrator in  1948:  MaJ.  Gen.  Philip  B.  Fleming. 

FENCING.  Spirited  competition  in  sectional  and  na- 
tional meets,  which  served  as  trials  for  the  Olym- 
pics, marked  the  sport  in  1948.  See  OLYMPIC 
GAMES. 

Nathaniel  Lubell  of  the  Fencers  Club,  New 
York,  won  national  foil  honors.  Norman  Lewis  of 
Salle  Santelli,  New  York,  led  the  epee  stars  and 
Dean  Cetralo  of  Salle  Santelli  took  the  saber 
crown.  Team  champions  were  New  York  A.C.,  foil; 
Salle  Santelli,  epee,  saber,  and  three-weapon. 

Mrs.  Helena  Dow  of  the  Fencers  Club  retained 
the  women's  national  title,  the  Faulkner  School  of 
Fencing,  Hollywood,  Calif.,  capturing  team  hon- 
ors. Diane  Greenberg,  New  York  University  star, 
won  national  intercollegiate  laurels  as  Hunter  Col- 
lege kept  the  team  championship.  Estelle  Osher 
of  Brooklyn  College  successfully  defended  her  In- 
tercollegiate Women's  Fencing  Association  laurels. 

City  College  of  New  York  and  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy Just  about  monopolized  the  men's  intercol- 
legiate trophies.  In  the  National  Collegiate  Athletic 
Association  championships,  the  winners  were  Al- 
bert Axelrod,  C.C.N.Y.,  foil;  Bill  Bryan,  Navy, 
epee;  Jim  Day,  Navy,  saber,  and  C.C.N.Y.,  team. 
Intercollegiate  Fencing  Association  victors  were 
Axelrod,  foil;  C.C.N.Y.,  foil  team;  Bob  Kaplan, 
New  York  University,  epee;  Navy,  epee  team;  Day, 
saber;  Navy,  saber  team,  and  C.C.N.Y.,  three- 
weapon.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

FIJI.  A  British  colony  in  the  South  Pacific,  due  east 
of  northern  Australia,  consisting  of  some  250  is- 
lands, about  80  of  which  are  inhabited,  and  the  de- 
pendent island  of  Rotuma.  Total  area:  7,083  square 
miles,  of  which  Viti  Levu,  the  largest  island,  occu- 
pies 4,053  square  miles.  Population  (1946  census) : 
259,638  (incl  Rotuma).  Capital:  Suva  (pop.  15,- 


522).  Education  (1946):  450  schools  of  all  kinds, 
with  36,804  pupils.  The  European  and  Fijian  pop- 
ulation is  predominantly  Christian,  with  the  Meth- 
odist Church  numerically  the  strongest.  Most  of 
the  Indians  (120,414)  are  Hindus. 

Bananas,  coconuts,  maize,  sugar  cane,  rice,  and 
tobacco  are  the  principal  products.  Valuable  woods 
are  obtained  in  some  of  the  southern  islands.  A 
number  of  factories  process  the  island's  products, 
but  it  is  necessary  to  import  clothing,  tools,  and 
machines.  Trade  (1947):  imports  £5,078,272;  ex- 
ports £6,067,989.  Finance  (1948  est):  revenue 
£2,157,000;  expenditure  £1,982,000. 

Fiji  is  administered  by  a  governor,  assisted  by 
an  Executive  Council  and  a  Legislative  Council. 
The  governor  is  High  Commissioner  for  the  West- 
ern Pacific.  Self-government  is  maintained  through 
the  Council  of  Chiefs.  Governor:  Sir  B.  Freeston. 

FILIPINO  REHABILITATION  COMMISSION.  A  Commis- 
sion created  by  Act  of  Congress,  approved  June  29, 
1944,  to  investigate  and  formulate  recommenda- 
tions on  all  matters  affecting  postwar  economy, 
trade,  finance,  economic  stability,  and  rehabilita- 
tion of  the  Philippine  Islands,  including  the  matter 
of  damages  to  public  and  private  property  and  to 
persons  occasioned  by  enemy  attack  and  occupa- 
tion. Chairman,  Millard  E.  Tydings  (United  States); 
Vice  Chairman,  Brig.  Gen.  Carlos  P.  Romulo. 

FINANCIAL  REVIEW.  The  financial  situation  in  1948 
was  again  dominated  by  the  business  boom  and 
the  continued  upward  trend  of  commodity  prices 
for  a  good  part  of  the  year.  As  a  result,  the  require- 
ments of  business  for  capital  for  plant  and  equip- 
ment, inventories,  and  credit  to  customers  was  al- 
most at  the  high  level  of  the  preceding  year.  The 
major  part  (65  percent)  of  the  funds  needed  by 
business  for  expansion  and  working  capital  con- 
tinued to  come  from  internal  resources,  in  the  form 
of  undistributed  profits  and  depreciation  allow- 
ances. 

Of  the  external  sources,  bonds  were  more  im- 
portant and  bank  loans  and  stock  issues"  less  im- 
portant than  in  1947.  A  large  proportion  of  the  out- 
side financing  came  from  institutional  investors, 
principally  insurance  companies,  which  sold  gov- 
ernment bonds  to  the  Federal  Reserve  Banks  and 
used  the  proceeds  to  buy  corporate  and  municipal 
issues  and  mortgages.  The  support  of  the  govern- 
ment bond  market  by  the  monetary  authorities  re- 
sulted in  a  continued  low  level  of  interest  rates  and 
bond  yields. 

The  Stock  Market.  As  during  the  preceding  year, 
stock  prices  in  1948  continued  to  move  within  a 
narrow  range  and  to  exhibit  a  number  of  temporary 
swings  in  either  direction.  Favorable  influences  on 
prices  included  the  reduction  in  Federal  income  tax 
rates,  larger  expenditures  for  foreign,  aid,  and  the 
prospects  of  increased  outlays  for  national  defense. 
These  factors  were  largely  offset,  however,  by  the 
deflationary  influences  of  the  disturbed  internation- 
al situation,  further  anti-inflationary  measures  of 
the  monetary  authorities,  and  the  renewed  fears  of 
a  business  recession. 

The  average  closing  prices  were  somewhat  less 
than  at  the  end  of  1947,  and  on  the  whole,  the  ra- 
tio of  prices  to  earnings  remained  surprisingly  low. 
The  yield  on  industrial  common  stocks  in  Decem- 
ber (as -measured  by  Standard  and  Poor's  index) 
was  6.19  percent,  the  highest  in  six  years.  This 
figure  was  50  percent  above  the  average  return  on 
preferred  stocks  and  more"  than  twice  the  yield  on 
high  grade  bonds.  The  ratio  of  stock  to  bond  yields 
was  nearly  the  highest  on  record. 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW 


188 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW 


After  showing  a  decline  early  in  the  year,  stock 
prices  rose  by  about  a  fifth  between  February  and 
June  and  then  retreated  about  a  tenth  during  the 
following  three  months.  A  rally  in  October  lifted 
prices  about  5  percent,  but  the  liquidation  that 
took  place  after  election,  because  of  the  expecta- 
tion of  unfavorable  repercussions  on  the  stock  mar- 
ket, again  caused  a  sharp  decline.  Together  with 
the  customary  year-end  selling  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  losses  for  income  tax  deductions,  it 
brought  about  a  drop  of  nearly  10  percent  in  one 
month.  In  December  the  trend  was  again  reversed, 
resulting  in  recovery  of  about  half  of  the  losses. 

In  the  early  months,  the  volume  of  trading  on 
the  New  York  Stock  Exchange  generally  averaged 
less  than  one  million  shares  daily  but  during  the 
subsequent  period  of  rising  prices  it  increased, 
reaching  an  average  of  nearly  two  million  shares  a 
day  in  May.  The  turnover  then  fell  off,  remaining 
at  about  a  million  shares  or  under  during  most  of 
the  summer.  During  the  upturn  in  October,  the  de- 
cline in  November  and  the  subsequent  improve- 
ment the  volume  was  maintained  at  about  one 
million  shares  a  day  or  slightly  higher. 

For  the  year  as  a  whole,  the  volume  of  trading, 
302  million  shares,  was  19  percent  above  the  total 
recorded  in  1947  but  considerably  below  the  1945 
and  1946  figures.  Stock  transactions  on  the  New 
York  Curb  Exchange  totaled  75  million  shares, 
somewhat  above  the  volume  of  the  previous  year. 

Although  on  the  whole  stock  values  showed  a 
slight  decline  during  the  year,  several  industry 
groups  registered  substantial  advances.  For  the 
most  part,  these  were  in  the  heavy  industry  or 
transportation  fields,  including  railroad,  aircraft, 
shipbuilding,  electrical  equipment,  steel,  copper, 
lead  and  zinc,  petroleum,  and  coal  stocks.  The  fa- 
vorable showing  of  these  groups  reflected  the  larger 
defense  orders  and  the  heavy  demand  for  metals 
and  fuels. 


Watt  Street  Journal 


DOW-JONES  IN0USTBIAI.  AVERAGE 

Among  the  consumer  goods  industries,  radio, 
rayon  and  brewery  stocks  made  outstanding  gains. 
Groups  of  stocks  that  showed  declines  included 
drug  and  cosmetic,  apparel,  leather  and  shoe,  non- 
alcoholic beverage*  moving  picture,  air  transport, 
fertilizer,  and  agricultural  machinery  snares^  This 


trend  evidenced  the  slowed-up  demand  in  some  of 
the  consumer  goods  and  service  industries  and  the 
expectation  of  lower  farm  income  in  1949. 

The  price  range  of  active  stocks  on  the  New 
York  Stock  Exchange  is  shown  in  Table  1. 

TABLE  1— PRICES  OF  ACTIVE  STOCKS,  1948 

Stock  High        Low        Close  Net  Change 

Am.  Airlines 10              64            74             4-* 

Am.Rad.&St.S 16  J 

Am.Tel.&Tel 158| 

Anaconda  Cop 41 J 

Annour&Co lo| 

Avco  Mfg 7| 

Balt.&Ohio 161 

Beth.Steel     39- 

Canad.Pacific 19 

Celanese  Corp 39' 

Ches.&Ohio 45 

Chicago  Corp 14 

Ch.M.SP.&Pac 13- 

Chrysler  Corp 65 

Colum.Gas 14- 

Com*wlth.&South 3 

Cons.Vultee 16 

Cont.Motors 10 

Curtiss-Wright 12-. 

Du  Pont  de  N 188: 

ErieR.R 16^ 

Farns.Tel.&Rad IT 

Gen.Eleo 43 

Gen.Motors fifi 

Gen.Pub.Util 

Goodyear  T.&R.pf 105J          96f        lOOl             +1 

Graham-Paige  Mot, ......  5 " 

Greyhound  Corp 13; 

Gulf  Oil 81 

Illinois  Central 421 

Int.Nick.Can 34  J 

Int.Tel.&Tel 16* 

Kennecott  Cop 60| 

Loew's  Inc 20J 

Nash-Kelvinator 21| 

Nat.DistiUers 22  J 

N.Y.CentralR.R 18* 

N.Y.Chi.&St,L.pf 144 

No.Am.Aviation 13" 

North  Amer.Co 17 

Northern  Pacific 27 

Ohio  Oil 43 

Packard  Motor 5 

Pan.Am.Ainvays ....  t ...  11' 

ParanLPictures 26  -, 

Penn.R.R 22- 

Pepsi-Cola, . .  > 24 

Pure  Oil 42 

Radio  Corp 15 

Repub.Steel 33| 

RexallDrug «.. .  8 

Richfield  Oil 49 

SiL.San.Fran 16| 

SiRegis  Pap 13f 

Schenley  Dist 35| 

Sears  Roebuck 43f 

SinclairOil 32J 

Socony- Vacuum. ..»,....  23 

Southern  Pacific 62  f 

Stand.OilK.J 92| 

Studebaker  Corp 29  } 

SunrayOil 15| 

TexasCo 67            52"          53|           ~6 

Tide  Wat. A.Oil 32£ 

Tri-Cont.Corp t . . .  10| 

United  Corp 3| 

U.S.Steel 87f 

Warner  Bros.Pict. 14 

Westing.Elec 33 1 


The  Bond  Market.  Largely  because  of  support  of 
basic  bond  prices  by  the  Federal  Reserve  System, 
the  bond  market  was  relatively  stable  in  1948.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  year  the  drop  in  prices  that 
had  started  in  the  autumn  of  1947  came  to  an  end, 
and  for  several  months  bond  values  made  a  mod- 
erate recovery,  declining  again  in  the  second  half 
of  the  year.  Yields  on  medium-term  taxable  U.S. 
Government  bonds  fell  from  2.09  percent  in  Janu- 
ary to  1.89  percent  in  June,  while  yields  on  high- 
grade  corporate  bonds  dropped  from  2.85  percent 
to  2.73  percent,  The  strong  demand  for  high-grade 
bonds  and  the  firmness  in  prices  appeared  to  re- 
flect confidence  in  the  prospect  for  the  maintenance 
of  stable  long-term  interest  rates. 


REVIEW 


189 


WVIW 


The  decline  in  bond  prices  and  the  higher  yields 
that  started  around  the  middle  of  the  year  were 
the  result  of  a  number  of  factors,  including  the 
special  offerings  of  Savings  bonds  to  institutional 
investors  and  especially  the  anti-inflationary  meas- 
ures taken  by  the  Treasury  and  the  Federal  Re- 
serve System,  such  as  the  increases  in  reserve  re- 
quirements of  member  banks  and  the  raising  of  the 
rate  on  new  short-term  Treasury  issues.  These  fac- 
tors, as  well  as  renewed  fear  that  support  of  gov- 
ernment bonds  by  the  Federal  Reserve  at  the 
pegged  levels  might  be  removed,  led  again  to  large- 
scale  selling  of  long-term  Treasury  bonds.  As  a  re- 
sult, prices  declined  until  they  reached  support  lev- 
els for  most  issues  in  August,  where  they  remained 
through  October. 

Prices  of  high  and  medium-grade  corporate 
bonds  and  of  municipal  obligations  moved  along 
somewhat  similar  lines,  recovering  through  June, 
declining  in  the  following  two  months  and  then 
leveling  off.  The  fluctuations  in  these  issues,  how- 
ever, were  wider  than  those  of  long-term  govern- 
ment bonds,  since  they  did  not  receive  official  sup- 
port and  their  supply  was  increasing. 


DOW-JONES   40-BOND   AVERAGE 

Municipal  bonds,  in  turn,  declined  somewhat 
more  rapidly  than  corporate  issues  owing  to  the 
stronger  demand  for  the  higher-yielding  corporate 
bonds-  on  the  part  of  insurance  companies  and 
other  institutional  investors,  who  purchased  them 
with  funds  received  from  the  sale  of  their  govern- 
ment bonds  to  the  Federal  Reserve  System.  At  the 
end  of  October  yields  on  corporate  high-grade  and 
municipal  bonds  were  again  at  about  the  same 
levels  they  had  reached  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year.  The  rally  in  the  closing  months,  however, 
brought  prices  at  the  end  of  the  year  to  a  higher 
level  than  in  December  1947. 

Following  the  elections  in  November,  Treasury 
bond  prices  again  rose  above  the  Federal  Reserve 
support  levels,  where  they  had  sold  during  the 
preceding  few  months*  This  rally  was  due  pri- 
marily to  the  sudden  termination  of  the  wave  of 
selling  of  government  bonds,  which  in  the  period 
from  July  through  November  10  had  added  $4,700 
million  of  long-term  bonds  to  the  portfolios  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  Banks.  This  change  in  sentiment 
was  attributed  to  the  general  belief  that  the  elec- 
tion results  assured  a  continuance  of  the  policy  of 
the  monetary  authorities  of  guaranteeing  prices  of 
at  least  par  to  holders  of  marketable  government 


bonds.  The  decline  in  offerings  and  a  broadening 
of  demand  resulted  in  higher  prices. 

The  range  of  government,  municipal  arid  cor- 
porate bond  yields  in  1948  is  shown  in  Table  2. 

TABLE  2— BOND  YIELDS  IN  1948 
[Percent  per  annum] 


United  State 
(tan 
7-9 
Month                   years 
January  -  -  5?  OQ 

!*  (rovernmen 
able} 
15  years 
and  oner 
2.45 
2.45 
2.44 
2.44 
2.42 
2.41 
2.44 
2.45 
2.45 
2.45 
2.44 
2.44 

it 
Municipal 
(high 
grade} 
2.45 
2.55 
2.52 
2.38 
2.31 
2.26 
2.33 
2.45 
2.46 
2.45 
2.42 
2.24 

Corporate 
(high 
grade} 
2.85 
2.84 
2.81 
2.77 
2.74 
2.73 
2.80 
2.86 
2.85 
2.85 
2.86 
2.81 

February.  ...» 

.  .  208 

March  .  .    .  .  , 

.     203 

April   . 

1  99 

May 

1  89 

Jxine.  . 

1  89 

July 

1  96 

August  

..205 

September 

.     204 

October 

.  .  2  05 

November  
December 

..  2.00 

„     1  94 

In  1948,  the  increase  in  the  differential  between 
the  yields  on  corporate  and  government  bonds  that 
had  been  noted  in  the  previous  year,  due  to  the 
wider  movements  in  corporate  bond  yields,  was 
brought  to  a  halt.  The  decline  in  yields  during  the 
first  half  of  the  year  was  accompanied  by  a  shrink- 
age in  the  spread,  which  again  increased,  however^ 
as  the  weakness  appeared  in  the  bond  market  be- 
ginning in  June.  Nevertheless,  at  the  end  of  the 
year  the  differential  was  less  than  that  of  a  year 
before,  reflecting  in  part  the  heavy  demand  for 
corporate  bonds  on  the  part  of  institutional  in- 
vestors. Because  of  this  demand,  high-grade  cor- 
porate bonds  were  selling  at  prices  giving  yields 
of  under  3  percent. 

Yields  on  corporation  bonds  of  various  ratings 
are  shown  in  Table  3. 

TABLE  3— CORPORATE  BOND  YIELDS 


Rating 

AAA.. 
AA.... 


Dec.  31,  Dec.  SI, 

1948  1947 

..  2.75  2.88 

.  .  2.84  2.97 


Rating 
BAA.'.'. 


Dec.  SI,  Dec.  SI, 

1948  194? 
. .  3.13  3.22 
. .  3.50  3.50 


Bond  dealings  on  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange 
in  1948,  totaling  $1,014  million,  not  only  continued 
the  decline  of  the  past  several  years  but  were  the 
smallest  since  1915.  This  situation  was  due  to  the 
dominant  position  of  the  large  institutional  invest- 
ors in  the  field  of  high-grade  investments  and  to 
the  prevailing  practice  of  many  large  corporations 
of  selling  their  obligations  to  insurance  companies 
directly. 

New  Issues.  Flotations  of  new  securities  in  1948, 
amounting  to  approximately  $10,000  million, 
reached  about  the  same  level  as  in  the  previous 
year.  Issues  sold  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  new 
funds  for  plant  and  equipment  and  working  cap- 
ital, making  up  seven-eighths  of  the  total,  were 
considerably  in  excess  of  the  offerings  for  1947  but 
the  volume  of  refunding  issues  was  only  one  half 
the  1947  sales.  Corporation  flotations,  constitut- 
ing more  than  three-fifths  of  all  new  capital  issues, 
registered  a  substantial  gain,  corporation  bond  is- 
sues exceeding  all  former  records. 

Private  sales  by  corporations  to  insurance  com- 
panies and  other  financial  institutions  continued  to 
bulk  large  in  the  total,  representing  about  two- 
fifths  of  all  corporate  financing  for  the  year.  New 
state  and  municipal  flotations  registered  a  gain  of 
more  than  a  quarter  over  the  1947  total,  which  in 
turn  was  far  above  any  previous  record.  As  in  pre- 
ceding years,  bonds  accounted  for  the  major  part  of 
the  new  capital,  stock  offerings  making  up  less  than 
a  tenth  of  all  security  issues. 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW 


190 


FINANCIAL  REVIEW 


Among  the  various  industrial  groups,  public  util- 
ities made  up  the  most  important  class  of  new  se- 
curities offered  in  the  market,  constituting  well 
over  two-fifths  of  all  new  capital  flotations.  Within 
this  group,  electric  power  and  telephone  corpora- 
tions were  the  principal  seekers  of  new  money.  In- 


by  the  strong  competition  for  available  investment 
funds  provided  by  corporation  bond  issues. 

New  financing  for  1948  is  shown  in  Table  4. 

The  Nation's  Savings.  Consumer  income  and  ex- 
penditures both  went  up  in  1948,  but  the  rise  in 
the  income  exceeded  the  increase  in  outlays.  As  a 


TABLE  4— SUMMARY  OF  NEW  FINANCING  IN  1948 
[ In  millions  of  dollars] 


Month 

Jan 

Peb 

Mar 

Apr 

May 

June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec 

Total,  1948.. 
Total,  1947.. 


Total 

(New  & 

Refunding) 

541 

837 
1,374 

936 

652 

954 

763 

706 

660 

733 

666 

831 
9,653 
9,611° 


Total  New 
Capital 

495 

782 
1,222 

769 

591 

888 

679 

531 

571 

652 

593 

753 
8,526 
7,451  a 


Total  < 
Domestic 

495 

781 
1,221 

768 

591 

888 

679 

528 

569 

651 

583 

753 
8,507 
7,139 


State  & 
Municipal 

114 

217 

630 

156 

182 

283 

118 

237 

118 

273 

150 

126 
2,604 
2,228 


ew  Capital 

Federal       Corporate       Coporate 
Agencies  Bonds  &  Notes     Stocks 


16 
39 
31 
50 
35 
21 
67 
35 


294 
203 


323 

348 
531 
432 
293 
436 
484 
194 
364 
328 
409 
564 
4,706 
3,493 


41 

178 
29 

131 
81 

149 
10 
61 
87 
50 
24 
64 

905 
1,215 


Foreign 

'i 

2 
2 


10 


21 

68 


Total 

Refund- 

ing 

46 

56 

152 

166 

61 

66 

85 

175 

89 

81 

73 

78 

1,127 
2,160 


*  Includes  $244  million  of  issues  of  International  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Development  which  are  not  shown  separately. 
6  Excludes  the  Shell  Petroleum  Co.  issue  of  $250  million,  placed  privately. 


dustrial  and  mining  enterprises  accounted  for  over 
a  third  of  the  total,  the  leading  industrial  issuers  of 
securities  being  petroleum,  machinery,  transporta- 
tion equipment,  iron  and  steel,  and  tobacco  enter- 
E rises.  Railroad  securities  recorded  the  largest  gain 
>r  any  major  group,  reflecting  the  greatly  in- 
creased expansion  program  of  the  railways. 


result,  personal  savings  increased  more  rapidly  than 
in  1947,  amounting  to  7  percent  of  disposable  per- 
sonal income  as  against  5  percent  the  year  before. 
Liquid  savings  in  the  form  of  currency  and  bank 
deposits,  insurance  policies  and  securities  went  up 
more  than  $3,000  in  the  first  nine  months  of  the 
year,  a  slower  rate  of  gain  than  in  the  preceding 


TABLE  5— TRENDS  IN  CONSUMERS'  SAVINGS 


Year 
1939 

Disposable 
Personal 
Income 

Less:  Consumer 
Expenditures 
(Millions  of  dollars' 
67,500 
82,300 
110,400 
147,400 
164,800 
175,700 

Equals:            Percent  of 
Personal    Disposable  Income 
Savings                Saved 

70,200 

2,700" 
9,800 
35,200 
11,800 
8,800 
13,000 

3,8 
10,0 
24,2 

7,4 
5,1 
6,9 

1941                                                          

92,000 

1944 

145,600 

1946.  

159,200 

1947 

173  600 

1948  (first  three  Quarters  at  annual  rate) 

188  700 

The  volume  of  new  issues  floated  by  State  and 
local  governments,  totaling  $2,600  million,  was  17 
percent  above  the  previous  record  total  reached  in 
1947.  At  times  some  difficulty  was  experienced  in 
selling  municipal  securities  to  the  public  and  in 
general  higher  interest  rates  had  to  be  offered  in 
order  to  attract  investors.  The  situation  was  due  to 


glLUQNS  OE  DOLLARS 
2501 


BILUONS  OF  DOLLARS 
250 


^CONSUMPTION  EXPEHDITURESf 


1941    1942    1943    1944    1945     1946     1947    1948 

CONSUMER  INCOME  AND  SPENDING 

the  large  and  growing  supply  of  new  State  and 
local  government  bond  issues  floated  to  finance 
public  works  and  bonus  payments  to  veterans  and 


year.  A  larger  proportion  of  savings,  however,  was 
invested  in  housing,  farms,  durable  consumer  goods 
and  small  businesses. 

It  was  evident  that  many  people  were  drawing 
on  their  accumulated  savings  or  running  into  debt 
to  make  current  purchases.  This  was  indicated  by 
the  large  increase  in  consumer  instalment  sales  and 
loans  and  by  the  findings  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
Board's  consumer  finance  survey,  which  showed 
that  over  a  quarter  of  all  families  spent  more  than 
they  earned  in  1947,  while  one-twelfth  of  all  spend- 
ing units  broke  even.  Furthermore,  for  the  first 
time  since  the  end  of  the  war  there  was  a  decline  in 
the  proportion  of  families  owning  either  bank  ac- 
counts or  government  bonds. 

Consumers*  expenditures  and  savings  for  the 
past  several  years  are  shown  in  Table  5. 

Corporate  Working  Capital.  Financing  of  invest- 
ments by  corporations  in  plant  and  equipment,  in- 
ventories and  customer  credit  in  1948  required 
$26,000  million,  about  7  percent  less  than  in  1947. 
The  amount  spent  on  new  plant  and  equipment 
increased,  however.  Preliminary  data  for  the  year 
indicated  a  considerable  slowing  up  in  the  growth 
of  working  capital  needs,  due  to  the  reduced  rate 
of  inventory  accumulation  and  of  increase  in  ac- 
counts receivable.  On  June  30,  1948,  corporate 
liquid  assets  (cash  and  U.S.  Government  securi- 
ties) totaled  $35,000  million,  a  decline  of  1,000 
million  dollars  from  the  end  of  1947.  They  account- 
ed for  30  percent  of  total  current  assets  of  corpora- 
tions. Current  assets  as  a  whole  were  more  than 


FINS  ARTS 


191 


FINLAND 


PERCENTAGE  DISTRIBUTION 


OCC.3],  JUNE  30,  DEC  31,  JUNE  30, 

1945  1948  1945  1943 

Source:  Securities  and  Exchange  Commission. 
TOTAL  CDBBENT  ASSETS  OF  U.S.  CORPORATIONS 
(AH  U.S.  corporations  except  insurance  banks  and  in- 
surance companies) 

twice  current  liabilities,  indicating  a  strong  work- 
ing capital  position.  In  the  first  half  of  the  year 
they  rose  by  almost  $2,000  million. 

Current   assets   and   liabilities    of   corporations 
are  shown  in  Table  6. 

TABLE  6— CURRENT  ASSETS  AND  LIABILITIES' 
(Millions  of  dollars) 

Dec.  31,  June  SO, 

Current  Assets  1947           1948 

Cash  on  hand  and  in  banks 22,600  22,400 

United  States  Government  securities 13,400  12,600 

Notes  and  accounts  receivable 38,200  38,700 

Inventories 40,600  43,000 

Other  current  assets 1,600          1,600 

Total  Current  Assets 116,600      118,400 

Current  Liabilities 

Notes  and  accounts  payable 35,300 

Federal  income  tax  liabilities 10,000 

Other  current  liabilities 10,800 


33,800 
10,200 
10,500 

Total  Current  Liabilities 56,000        54,500 

Net  Working  Capital 60,600        63,900 

«A11  United  States  corporations  excluding  banks  and  in- 
surance companies. 

— SAMUEL  S.  SHIPMAN 

FINE  ARTS,  Commission  of.  The  official  advisory  body 
of  the  United  States  Government  upon  matters  of 
art  concerning  projects  of  the  Federal  Government 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  composed  of  seven 
members  appointed  by  the  President.  Expenditures 
are  administered  by  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 
Chairman:  Gilmore  D.  Clarke, 

FINLAND.  A  republic  of  Northern  Europe.  Capital, 
Helsinki  ( Helsingf ors ) . 

Area  and  Population.  Finland's  original  area  of 
149,588  sq.  mi,  including  about  11  percent  of  in- 
land water  area,  was  reduced  to  134,253  sq.  mi.  by 
the  Soviet-Finnish  peace  treaty  of  Mar.  123  1940, 
and  was  further  reduced  to  130,160  sq.  mi.  under 
the  terms  of  the  peace  treaty  of  Feb.  10,  1947, 
which  ended  the  country's  second  war  with  Soviet 
Russia.  The  population  on  Jan.  1,  1947,  was  4,053,- 
700.  About  90  percent  of  the  inhabitants  speak 
Finnish  and  9.6  percent  speak  Swedish.  Estimated 
populations  of  the  chief  cities  on  Jan.  1,  1945, 
were:  Helsinki  (Helsingf ors),  331,192;  Tampere 
(Tammerfors),  85,168;  Turku  (Abo),  78,492;  Vii- 
puri  (Viborg) — ceded  to  the  Soviet  Union — 60,- 
725;  Vaasa  (Vasa),  35,973.  Swedish  place  names 
are  given  above  in  parentheses. 

Education  and  Religion.  There  were,  in  1945,  5,458 
elementary  schools  with  419,064  pupils,  and  (in 


c*»      1946)  286  secondary  schools  with  82,549  pupils. 
-100      Finland  has  three  universities,  one  at  Helsinki  and 


two  at  Turku  (of  which  one  is  Swedish).  Helsinki 
University  had  more  than  10,000  enrolled  in  1947, 

The  E vangelical  Lutheran  religion  is  predomi- 
nant In  1944,  3,790,491  persons  belonged  to  the 
Established  Church.  About  70,000  were  Orthodox 
(Greek  Catholics)  and  11,000  belonged  to  various 
Free  Churches. 

Production.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of 
the  people  of  Finland,  although  the  cultivated  area 
covers  only  6.6  percent  of  the  land.  However,  the 
country's  principal  source  of  wealth  lies  in  its  for- 
ests, of  which  there  are  about  53,771,000  acres, 
with  productivity  on  42,206,000  acres.  The  wood- 
working industries  account  for  more  than  80  per- 
cent of  the  gross  value  of  exports. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1947  imports  were  valued  at 
46,971  million  Finnish  marks  and  exports  at  45,228 
million  marks.  Chief  export  staples  are  timber, 
woodpulp,  newsprint  and  paper. 

Finance.  In  the  1948  budget,  revenue  (65,831 
million  marks)  and  expenditure  (65,814  million) 
were  approximately  balanced.  The  public  debt  in 
March,  1947,  reached  110,420  million  marks.  Ex- 
change rate  (Official  Selling  Rate);  U.S.$  =  136.00 
marks,  1946-October,  1948. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  July  17,  1919, 
vested  executive  powers  in  a  President  elected  for 
six  years  by  300  electors,  chosen  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  members  of  the  Diet.  Legislative  power  rests 
with  the  unicameral  Diet  and  the  President  The 
200  members  of  the  Diet  are  elected  by  direct 
vote  of  all  citizens,  male  and  female,  24  years  or 
more  of  age.  The  standing  of  the  parties  in  the 
Diet  elected  on  July  1,  1948  (see  Events,  below) 
was:  Agrarians,  56;  Social-Democrats,  55;  Popular 
Democrats,  38;  Conservatives  (Coalition  party), 
32;  Swedes,  14;  Liberals  (Progressives),  5.  Presi- 
dent of  the  republic:  Julio  K.  Paasildvi,  who  suc- 
ceeded President  Mannerheim  on  Mar.  9,  1946. 
Premier,  since  July  29,  1948:  Karl  August  Fager- 
holm,  Social-Democrat. 

Events,  1948.  Almost  miraculously,  Finnish  de- 
mocracy survived  in  a  year  that  saw  the  other 
democratic  stalwart  of  the  Soviet  orbit,  Czecho- 
slovakia, succumb  to  totalitarian  pressures.  Time 
and  again,  as  the  year  went  by,  it  looked  as 
though  Finland  would  have  to  go  the  way  of 
Czechoslovakia,  but  there  was  always  a  last-minute 
reprieve.  Just  why  the  former  country  was  spared, 
while  the  latter  was  ruthlessly  sacrificed  on  the 
altar  of  the  Cold  War,  nobody  could  tell.  What 
made  the  riddle  appear  even  more  inexplicable 
was  the  fact  that  Finland,  only  a  few  years  back, 
had  been  a  belligerent  enemy  of  the  Soviet  Union, 
while  Czechoslovakia  had  been  a  friend  and  ally. 
Perhaps  the  best  explanation  of  the  paradox  was 
that  the  Kremlin  judged  Finland  safe  enough  be- 
hind the  screen  of  Scandinavian  neutrality  to  al- 
low the  little  country  some  latitude  in  internal 
affairs,  while  Czechoslovakia  was  deemed  too  ex- 
posed— being  a  neighbor  of  the  American  zone 
in  Germany — for  similar  experiments  in  democ- 
racy. 

The  Tide  Toms.  Even  in  the  last  months  of  the 
preceding  year  there  were  indications  that  the  po- 
litical tide  had  begun  to  turn  against  communism. 
On  Dec.  4-5,  1947,  local  elections  were  held  in 
cities,  towns  and  rural  communities.  The  returns 
showed  a  definite  setback  for  the  Communists 
throughout  the  country,  some  Social-Democratic 
gains  in  urban  areas  ( compensated  by  some  losses 
in  the  country)  and  generally  a  swing  to  the  right 
and  center  parties. 


FINLAND 


192 


FINLAND 


This  outcome  did  not  strengthen  the  position 
of  the  Communist-led  coalition  government,  which 
had  already  been  shaken  by  a  wave  of  unauthor- 
ized strikes  (in  November,  1947)  and  by  rising 
criticism  in  the  Finnish  press.  Early  in  January, 
the  Premier's  brother,  Eino  Pekkala,  resigned  as 
Minister  of  Justice.  A  resignation  of  the  entire 
Cabinet  was  narrowly  averted,  as  the  view  pre- 
vailed that  the  Government,  in  spite  of  all  diffi- 
culties, should  remain  in  office  until  after  the  gen- 
eral election  scheduled  for  July. 

Treaty  With  Russia.  In  February,  a  major  political 
and  diplomatic  crisis  began  to  shape  up  concur- 
rently with  the  alarming  events  in  Czechoslovakia. 
For  some  time  rumors  had  been  current  that  Mos- 
cow desired  to  strengthen  its  grip  on  Finland  by 
means  of  a  military  alliance,  which  under  the  cir- 
cumstances would  be  of  necessity  a  very  one-sided 
affair.  Reportedly  the  idea  bad  been  put  up  to 
Premier  Mauno  Pekkala  during  a  visit  to  Moscow 
in  November,  1947,  but  had  not  been  followed  up 
because  of  a  cool  reception  at  home. 

The  Soviet  approach,  when  it  came,  was  over- 
whelmingly direct  and  compelling,  though  in  an 
ostensibly  friendly  manner.  It  took  the  form  of  a 
handwritten  letter  from  Stalin  to  President  Paasi- 
kivi,  dated  February  22,  urging  the  conclusion  of 
a  Soviet-Finnish  pact  of  friendship,  cooperation 
and  mutual  assistance,  similar  to  those  recently 
signed  by  the  U.S.S.R.  with  Hungary  and  Rumania. 
Like  the  latter,  the  proposed  pact  was  to  be  aimed 
against  "possible  German  aggression"  and  was  to 
"establish  conditions  for  a  radical  improvement  in 
the  relations  between  our  countries."  In  making 
the  proposal  Stalin  left  it  up  to  the  Finns  to  decide 
whether  negotiations  should  be  carried  on  in  Mos- 
cow or  Helsinki. 

Due  to  external  circumstances,  rather  than  to  its 
tenor  and  implications  per  se,  the  Stalin  letter  ex- 
ploded in  Finland  like  a  bombshell  and  sent  strong 
reverberations  around  the  world.  There  was  no 
mistaking  the  significance  of  the  tuning.  "Written 
at  the  height  of  the  Czechoslovak  crisis,  the  letter 
was  made  public  on  February  26,  the  day  after  the 
triumphant  completion  of  the  Communist  coup  in 
Prague. 

Immediately  after  receiving  the  note,  Paasikivi 
consulted  with  his  top  diplomatic  and  military  ad- 
visors and  with  the  political  party  leaders  in  the 
Diet.  The  Communists  naturally  favored  accept- 
ance of  Stalin's  proposals.  All  other  parties  in  the 
parliament  were  opposed,  in  varying  degrees  of 
intensity,  to  a  military  alliance,  though  none  ob- 
jected to  a  friendship  pact.  The  Cabinet  was  simi- 
larly split  along  party  lines,  but  the  feeling  pre- 
vailed that  Finland  had  no  choice  but  to  accept 
and  could  only  hope  to  gain  some  concessions  by 
skillful  negotiation. 

Accordingly,  the  Cabinet  on  March  7  agreed  to 
negotiate  and  on  the  9th  Paasikivi,  in  a  personal 
letter  to  Stalin,  accepted  the  invitation  to  a  parley 
in  Moscow.  The  President  expressed  the  hope, 
though,  that  Finland  would  be  permitted  to  "re- 
main outside  international  conflicts." 

The  Finnish  reluctance,  which  had  been  appar- 
ent in  the  parliamentary  debate  and  even  in  Paa- 
sikivfs  acceptance  letter,  was  underlined  by  a 
mass  demonstration  in  Helsinki  on  March  7,  the 
only  meeting  of  its  kind,  i.e,  against  signing  a 
treaty  with  Russia,  permitted  by  the  police.  It 
was  broken  up  by  a  Communist  mob.  Two  days 
later  it  was  reported  that  Communist  flying  squads, 
calling  themselves  "workers'  committees,"  had  in- 
vaded all  newspaper  offices  in  Helsinki,  warning 
editors  against  "anti-Soviet  propaganda." 


On  March  20,  a  Finnish  delegation  headed  by 
Premier  Pekkala  and  Foreign  Minister  Carl  J.  A. 
Enckell  left  for  Moscow,  where  negotiations  began 
two  days  later.  On  March  31,  it  was  learned  that 
the  Finns  had  rejected  a  clause  in  the  proposed 
military  pact  that  would  have  permitted  the  Rus- 
sians to  decide  when  the  mutual  aid  stipulations 
should  become  operative,  or  in  other  words  when 
to  send  Soviet  troops  into  Finland.  After  several 
weeks  of  weary  negotiations,  the  Finnish  delega- 
tion was  able  to  win  important  concessions  on  this 
and  related  issues. 

The  treaty,  signed  on  April  6,  committed  Fin- 
land to  resisting  armed  attack  across  her  territory 
against  Russia  by  Germany  and  any  state  allied 
with  her  and  to  accepting  Soviet  military  assistance 
"in  case  of  necessity/'  It  was  stipulated,  however, 
that  the  terms  of  this  assistance  should  be  agreed 
on  by  the  two  countries  and  that  Finland's  armed 
forces  should  not  be  obligated  to  fight  outside 
Finnish  soil.  This  proviso  and  ?the  preamble  to 
the  treaty,  recognizing  "Finland's  desire  to  stand 
aside  from  conflicts  between  interests  of  great 
powers/'  guarantees,  at  least  theoretically,  Finnish 
neutrality  in  the  event  of  war  not  affecting  Fin- 
land's territory. 

The  treaty  was  concluded  for  a  period  of  ten 
years,  renewable  every  five  years  thereafter  unless 
terminated  by  either  party  at  a  year's  notice.  In  a 
radio  broadcast  defending  the  treaty  on  April  9, 
President  Paasikivi  vouched  that  there  were  no 
secret  clauses  of  any  kind.  The  agreement  was  rati-* 
fied  by  the  Diet  on  April  28,  by  a  vote  of  157  to 
11,  with  32  abstentions. 

Ouster  of  ieino.  Although  the  Finnish  Communists 
had  their  way,  at  least  partially,  in  the  matter  of 
the  treaty  with  the  U.S.S.R.,  they  were  losing 
ground  in  the  fight  for  political  control  at  home, 
it  soon  became  apparent.  For  all  their  oratory 
about  "following  the  example  of  Czechoslovakia" 
they  proved  unable  likewise  to  create  a  revolu- 
tionary situation  and  exploit  it.  This  failure  evi- 
dently can  be  explained  only  by  a  lack  of  direct 
and  overt  support  from  Soviet  Russia.  For,  in  the 
present  state  of  affairs,  Jiiere  can  fre  little  doubt 
that  the  Kremlin  could  "communize"  Finland  any 
time  it  wished  to. 

According  to  some  reports  the  so-called  barri- 
cade faction"  of  the  Finnish  Communist  party  did 
make  an  attempt,  in  late  April,  to  wrest  control 
from  the  Government.  In  a  letter  to  the  New  York 
Times  (June  27,  1948),  Hjalmar  Procope,  former 
Finnish  Minister  to  Washington,  gave  an  interest- 
ing account  of  this  abortive  coup.  After  raising 
the  question  why  communism  in  Finland  had 
"slowed  up,"  Mr.  Procope  wrote:  "The  answer  is 
that  the  quick  counter  action  of  the  Finnish  Army 
on  Apr.  26,  1948,  made  it  impossible  to  overthrow 
the  present  coalition  government  of  Finland.  That 
is  now  a  certain  and  historic  fact,  On  that  historic 
day  all  police  and  army  leave  permissions  were 
cancelled.  Ammunition  depots  were  confiscated 
and  transported  to  safe  places  where  police  officers 
of  Communist  stripe  could  not  get  hold  of  them. 
An  armored  battalion  was  stationed  near  Kerava, 
about  twenty  miles  from  Helsinki.  Two  gunboats 
arrived  at  Helsinki.  One  light  brigade  was  sta- 
tioned near  Hyvinkaa,  And  the  castle  of  President 
Paasikivi  was  put  under  special  guard  to  prevent 
any^  surprise  move. 

"Communist  leader  Leino  (Minister  of  Interior 
Yrjo  Leino)  asked  Gen,  Sihvo  (Gen.  Aarae  Sihvo, 
commander-in-chief  of  Finland's  armed  forces)  to 
withdraw  the  emergency  alarm  and  to  recall  all 
troops.  'This  is  action  against  Communists/  he  de- 


FINLAND 


193 


fIR£  PROTECTION 


claimed.  *A  Fascist  coup  will  result  from  it.*  .  .  . 
Prime  Minister  Pekkala  refused  to  change  the  or- 
ders. He  summoned  an  emergency  meeting  of  Par- 
liament, and  what  happened  on  that  day  marked, 
I  believe,  the  beginning  of  the  end  of  Leino's  ca- 
reer as  a  Soviet  agent  operating  inside  the  Finnish 
Government.  .  .  /* 

It  should  be  added,  however,  that  very  little 
of  the  events  referred  to  in  Mr.  Procope's  story 
appeared  at  the  time  in  the  reports  of  foreign 
correspondents  stationed  in  Finland.  One  should 
also  bear  in  mind  that  Mr.  Procope  was  affiliated 
with  the  pro-Nazi  wartime  regime  in  Finland  and 
that  his  credibility,  therefore,  is  not  beyond  ques- 
tion. 

In  any  event  it  is  certain  that  shortly  after  the 
events  referred  to  above  Finnish  communism  suf- 
fered a  severe  setback.  On  May  19,  the  Diet,  by 
a  vote  of  80  to  60,  passed  a  vote  of  censure  against 
Minister  Leino  on  the  grounds  that  he  had  ex- 
tradited twenty  people  to  the  U.S.S.R.  in  1945 
without  Cabinet  authorization.  Under  the  terms  of 
the  Finnish  Constitution,  Leino,  having  received 
a  vote  of  no-confidence  was  obliged  to  resign,  but 
he  failed  to  do  so.  He  even  ignored  an  order  from 
President  Paasikivi  to  resign.  Thereupon  he  was 
removed  from  his  office  by  a  vote  of  the  Cabinet, 
on  May^22. 

Leino's  ouster  led  to  mass  demonstrations  spear- 
headed by  Communist  "action  committees"  and 
left-wing  trade  unions.  On  May  24,  a  general  strike 
was  proclaimed,  lasting  five  days.  There  were  in- 
cidents, but  none  of  them  serious  enough  to  cause 
mass  violence.  Nevertheless  the  situation  might 
have  degenerated  into  a  Communist  uprising,  but 
for  the  appointment  of  Eino  Kilpi,  a  left-wing  so- 
cialist, as  successor  to  Leino.  A  few  days  before 
his  appointment,  Mr.  Kilpi  had  resigned  from  the 
Social-Democratic  party,  joining  the  (Communist- 
controlled  )  Popular  Democratic  party. 

In  a  further  move  to  appease  the  Communists, 
Hertta  Kuusinen,  wife  of  ex-Minister  Leino  and 
a  top  leader  of  the  Finnish  Communist  party  in 
her  own  right,  was  given  a  minor  post  in  the  re- 
constructed Cabinet  The  Communists  accepted 
the  compromise,  the  general  strike  was  called  off, 
and  the  crisis  blew  over. 

A  Free  Election,  and  a  Change  of  Government.  "We 
will  have  elections  in  the  legal  fashion  and  there 
will  be  no  question  of  postponing  them.  .  .  .  The 
elections  will  be  totally  free  and  the  will  of  the 
people  will  be  the  deciding  factor,"  President  Paa- 
sikivi told  American  reporters  on  March  22.  He 
repeated  this  promise  in  his  broadcast  of  April  9 
defending  the  treaty  with  the  Soviet  Union, 

His  promise  was  kept  to  the  letter.  The  general 
election  was  held  on  July  1-2,  as  scheduled,  in  an 
atmosphere  of  absolute  order  and  freedom  of  vote. 
The  Communists,  as  had  been  generally  expected, 
were  the  principal  losers,  but  the  magnitude  of 
their  defeat  came  as  a  shock  even  to  their  oppo- 
nents, on  account  of  the  inevitable  displeasure  of 
Moscow. 

Soviet  Russia's  immediate  interest  in  the  ballot 
was  apparent  in  a  political  maneuver  which  failed, 
however,  to  produce  the  expected  result.  A  few 
weeks  before  the  election,  the  Soviet  Minister  in 
Helsinki,  Gen.  G.  M.  Savonenkov,  informed  Pre- 
mier Pekkala  that  the  U.S.S.R.  had  canceled  half 
the  remaining  reparations  due  from  Finland,  a 
sum  of  about  $75  million.  Former  Minister  Leino 
and  two  other  Communist  members  of  the  Finnish 
Cabinet  were  given  chief  credit  for  obtaining  the 
abatement. 

While  the  Finns  could  not  but  rejoice  over  this 


windfall,  they  did  not  see  in  it  any  reason  to  vote 
for  the  Communists.  On  the  contrary,  they  dropped 
the  "People's  Democratic  Union"  (Communists 
and  allied  Socialists )  to  third  place  in  the  Diet. 

The  chief  victor  at  the  July  1-2  election  was 
the  Agrarian  party,  which  gained  7  seats,  for  a 
total  of  56;  the  Social-Democrats  ran  second,  with 
55  seats  (against  50  before);  then  came  the  Pop- 
ular Democrats,  losing  11  seats  and  retaining  38; 
the  Conservatives  ranked  fourth,  with  32  seats,  a 
gain  of  4;  the  Swedish  party  came  out  with  14, 
losing  one;  and  the  Liberals  were  left  with  only  5 
of  the  9  seats  they  had  in  the  1945  Diet. 

In  spite  of  their  crushing  defeat  at  the  polls,  the 
Communists  immediately  after  the  election  laid 
claim  to  the  Interior  Ministry  in  a  new  coalition 
government.  On  July  6,  Mrs.  Hertta  Kuusinen-Leino 
informed  a  news  conference  that  in  her  view  any 
other  arrangement  would  be  incompatible  with  the 
spirit  of  the  peace  treaty.  The  other  parties  firmly 
rejected  this  bid. 

The  new  Parliament  met  on  July  21  and  the  fol- 
lowing day  Premier  Pekkala  resigned  with  his  en- 
tire Cabinet.  When  the  largest  party,  the  Agrarians, 
turned  down  an  offer  to  form  the  new  government, 
President  Paasikivi  asked  the  Social-Democratic 
leader,  Karl  August  Fagerholm,  to  undertake  this 
task.  After  a  few  days  of  futile  negotiations  with 
the  other  parties,  Fagerholm  on  July  29  formed  a 
minority  government  staffed  exclusively  with  mem- 
bers of  his  own  party,  except  for  two  non-party 
men,  one  of  whom  was  Foreign  Minister  Encken, 
who  retained  his  post.  The  Agrarian  party,  while 
refusing  to  join  the  Cabinet,  promised  conditional 
support. 

Faced  with  overt  and  vocal  opposition  from  the 
Communists,  Fagerholm  and  his  Cabinet  looked 
anxiously  to  Moscow  for  possible  signs  of  forceful 
intervention.  Surprisingly,  the  Kremlin  took  no  ac- 
tion, although  the  appointment  of  an  all-Social- 
Democratic  Cabinet  evidently  was  not  to  its  taste. 
Even  when  the  new  Government  proceeded  to  re- 
organize the  police  force,  which  Mr.  Leino  had 
fashioned  into  an  instrument  of  Communist  power 
politics,  the  opposition  did  not  go  beyond  verbal 
protests. 

A  wave  of  Cornmunist-inspire*d  strikes  in  Octo- 
ber failed  to  bring  the  widely  feared  showdown. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  year,  the  Fagerholm  Cabi- 
net appeared  to  have  matters  well  in  hand.  At  any 
rate  it  had  foiled  the  forecasts  of  a  very  short  life 
freely  made  at  its  birth. 

In  the  economic  field,  Finland  made  excellent 
progress  during  the  year.  There  was  no  unemploy- 
ment, as  industrial  production  remained  in  high 
gear.  The  food  situation  was  better  than  in  most 
European  countries.  Meat,  in  particular,  was  plen- 
tiful and  was  taken  off  the  rationing  list.  Prices 
were  generally  high.  Although  forced  to  remain 
outside  the  Marshall  Plan,  Finland  did  its  best  to 
expand  its  trade  relations  with  the  West.  In  re- 
sponse, United  States  export  controls  on  industrial 
equipment  were  relaxed  on  May  26  in  favor  of 
Finland.  — JOACHIM  JOESTEN 

FIRE  PROTECTION.  The  upward  trend  in  fire  losses 
so  apparent  during  the  past  decade  continued  dur- 
ing 1948.  Preliminary  estimate  of  property  damage 
by  fire  announced  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters  was  $711,114,000.  This  figure  ex- 
ceeds comparable  estimates  of  any  previous  year 
but  it  should  be  noted  that  dollar  value  of  property 
destruction  is  not  necessarily  the  best  index.  In  a 
period  of  inflation  such  as  currently  prevails  a  larg- 
er dollar  loss  may  be  produced  by  less  actual  physi- 


FIR£  PROJECTION 


194 


FIRE  PROTECTION 


cal  destruction  than  in  some  previous  years.  Never- 
theless there  is  nothing  in  the  current  fire  loss  situ- 
ation to  engender  complacency.  For  purposes  of 
comparison,  preliminary  estimates  of  the  fire  losses 
for  the  past  ten  years  follow: 


1939 $275,102,119 

1940 285,878,697 

1941 303,895,000 

1942 314,295,000 

1943 373,000,000 


1944 $423,458,000 

1945..,, 455,329,000 

1946 561,487,000 

1947 692,635,000 

1948 711,114,000 


According  to  the  records  of  the  National  Fire 
Protection  Association  there  were  268  fires  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  with  losses  of  $250,000 
or  more,  including  33  which  resulted  in  losses  of 
$1  million  or  more.  Of  these  24  occurred  in  Can- 
ada, four  in  Alaska,  one  in  Hawaii,  and  one  United 
States  vessel  was  destroyed  by  fire  on  the  high  seas. 
Omitted  from  this  total  are  several  large  fires  in 
other  parts  of  the  world. 

The  largest  monetary  loss  resulted  from  the  de- 
struction of  the  U.S.  Army  Transport  "Joseph.  V. 
Connolly"  at  sea  on  January  12.  The  vessel  was 
eastbound,  with  a  cargo  of  plywood-encased  coffins 
for  the  repatriation  of  war  dead,  when  fire  broke 
out  in  the  engine  room.  The  fire  could  not  be  con- 
trolled and  the  vessel  was  so  severely  damaged  that 
she  sank  while  in  tow.  The  loss  is  estimated  at  $1.5 
million  for  the  vessel  and  $4.8  million  for  the  cargo. 

Among  fires  occurring  on  land  the  largest  loss 
resulted  from  a  starch  dust  explosion  at  the  Chi- 
cago candy  factory  of  E,  J.  Brach  &  Sons  on  Sep- 
tember 7.  Seventeen  persons  were  killed  and  prop- 
erty damage  was  estimated  at  $5  million.  The  larg- 
est loss  of  life  in  accidents  where  fire  is  believed 
responsible  occurred  when  a  DC-6  passenger  trans- 
port of  United  Airlines  crashed  at  Mt.  Carmel,  Pa. 
on  July  17.  Forty-three  persons  died. 

The  impetus  to  fire  prevention  created  by  Presi- 
dent Truman's  Conference  on  Fire  Prevention 
which  was  held  in  Washington  in  1947  continued 
to  a  considerable  degree  throughout  1948.  The 
recommendations  coming  out  of  the  President's 
Conference  were  transferred  by  the  Conference  to 
the  States  and  cities.  During  1948  State  confer- 
ences sponsored  by  the  governors  were  held  in 
Alabama,  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Florida,  Georgia, 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Maine,  Maryland,  Minnesota,  Ohio, 
Rhode  Island,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia.  Also  in  the 
States  of  California,  Michigan,  Nevada,  New  Mex- 
ico, Oklahoma,  and  Utah  State  fire  advisory  boards 
were  created  by  the  governors. 

The  question  of  planning  for  civil  defense  in  the 
event  of  another  world  war  and  a  possible  attack 
upon  our  own  country  is  of  significance  to  the  fire 
protection  fraternity  because  of  the  devastating 
role  that  fire  played  as  a  weapon  in  World  War  II. 
The  subject  of  civil  defense  planning  is  important 
to  State  and  municipal  officials,  but  the  American 
public  at  large  appears  to  be  indifferent  and  un- 
interested. The  report,  entitled  "Civil  Defense  for 
National  Security,  *  prepared  by  the  U.S.  Office  of 
Civil  Defense  Planning  for  Secretary  of  Defense 
Forrestal,  appeared  late  in  1948  and  the  next  step, 
so  far  as  federal  interest  in  civil  defense  planning 
is  concerned,  appears  to  be  up  to  the  81st  Con- 
gress. The  report  recommends  a  fire  service  divi- 
sion in  the  Federal  Office  of  Civil  Defense,  a  State 
fire  services  division  under  a  State  civil  defense  di- 
rector in  each  State,  and  a  local  fire  service  divi- 
sion for  civil  defense  in  each  locality  under  the 
direction  of  the  fire  chief.  In  general,  the  responsi- 
bility is  transferred  to  the  individual  States  and 
cities  and  away  from  the  military. 


The  modern  trend  of  reducing  the  actual  work- 
ing hours  of  all  classes  of  labor  is  being  felt  in  the 
fire  service  more  strongly  than  ever  before.  In  hun- 
dreds of  communities  during  1948  the  workweek 
of  firemen  was  reduced,  in  many  places  to  as  low 
as  48  hours  per  week.  The  acute  shortages  of  fire 
apparatus  experienced  during  and  after  the  war 
have  eased  to  some  extent.  Municipal  fire  appara- 
tus has  been  more  readily  obtainable,  but  like 
everything  else  has  become  more  expensive. 

The  use  of  2-way  short-wave  radio  is  becoming 
increasingly  popukr  in  the  fire  service  as  its  value 
becomes  more  firmly  established.  Of  97  United 
States  cities  having  a  population  between  25,000 
and  1  million  which  reported  improvements  during 
1948,  25  reported  installation  or  expansion  of  radio 
communication  facilities. 

The  progressive  trends  in  fire  department  train- 
ing have  continued  throughout  1948.  An  estimated 
35,000  firemen  participated  in  courses  affiliated 
with  firemen's  training  programs  in  some  35  States 
which  reported  their  training  activities  on  a  State- 
wide basis.  Of  course,  many  additional  thousands 
of  firemen,  both  paid  and  volunteer,  participated  in 
training  work  in  individual  departments  by  instruc- 
tors trained  through  the  State  programs.  Today  in 
most  States  the  training  programs,  whether  given 
by  an  itinerant  instructor,  by  a  local  instructor 
trained  at  a  State-sponsored  training  course,  or 
given  at  a  central  fee-training  school,  consist  of 
measured  systematic  instruction. 

A  rather  unusual  but  nevertheless  well-deserved 
tribute  to  the  thousands  of  volunteer  firemen  in  the 
United  States  was  provided  in  1948  by  the  issuance 
of  a  new  United  States  postage  stamp  commemo- 
rating the  300th  anniversary  of  organized  volunteer 
fire  service. 

Throughout  1948  the  interest  developed  in  1947 
in  adequate  measures  for  hotel  fire  safety  was 
maintained.  A  number  of  State  laws  and  a  consid- 
erable number  of  local  ordinances  regulating  hotel 
safety  were  enacted  during  the  year  and  some 
cities  such  as  Hartford,  Conn.,  secured  proper  in- 
terior fire  protection  in  all  their  hotels.  A  new  edi- 
tion of  the  NFPA  Building  Exits  Code,  a  code 
widely  used  in  States  and  cities,  appeared  in  1948. 
The  State  of  Georgia  adopted  the  NFPA  Building 
Code  as  law.  The  State  of  Virginia  is  undertaking 
a  revision  of  its  laws  governing  fire  protection  in 
buildings  and  is  taking  steps  to  provide  a  number 
of  changes  in  various  State  standards  for  fire  pro- 
tection. Similar  action  is  also  under  way  or  com- 
pleted in  Ohio  and  New  Hampshire. 

In  its  comparatively  new  Division  of  Safety, 
New  York  State  has  created  a  Bureau  of  Fire  Mo- 
bilization and  Control,  Fire  officials  in  port  cities 
were  encouraged  by  a  case  in  Los  Angeles  Harbor 
which  provided  an  important  precedent  for  the 
enforcement  of  local  fire  regulations  governing  the 
safe  handling  of  hazardous  cargoes.  In  this  case, 
failure  of  the  S.S.  River  Raisin  to  follow  local  har- 
bor regulations  resulted  in  a  large  oil  spill  and  a 
serious  fire  hazard.  The  ship's  captain  and  second 
mate  were  fined  $250  each  in  municipal  court  and 
the  cost  of  clean-up  estimated  at  $9,000  was 
charged  against  the  ship. 

There  is  a  slowly  growing  recognition  that  care- 
less smokers  are  responsible  for  altogether  too 
many  fires,  and  local  ordinances  designed  to  pro- 
hibit smoking  or  to  penalize  the  careless  smoker 
in  theaters,  department  stores,  hotel  bedrooms,  etc., 
were  adopted  in  numerous  cities  during  1948.  The 
largest  city  to  take  such  action  was  Chicago,  late 
in  the  year. 

New  hazards  that  caused  considerable  interest 


FISCAL  SERVICE 


195 


FISH  AND  WIIDLIFE  SERVICE 


during  the  year  were  the  introduction  of  self-serv- 
ice and  coin-operated  gasoline  stations,  and  the 
widespread  development  of  television.  Various 
types  of  self-service  gasoline  stations  have  been 
tried  out,  some  with  obviously  more  fire  hazard 
than  others,  and  action  has  been  taken  by  some 
States  and  cities  to  prohibit  self-service  gasoline 
stations.  The  growth  of  this  movement  is  yet  to 
be  determined  and  the  fire  hazard  aspects  have 
not  yet  been  clearlv  defined.  Further  experience 
and  investigation  during  the  coming  year  will 
bring  a  clearer  answer  to  this  problem. 

In  the  case  of  television,  the  development  is  still 
too  new  and  experience  too  meagre  to  make  any 
final  observations  as  to  its  importance  as  a  fire 
hazard.  A  good  many  city  building-officials  have 
been  concerned  about  the  erection  of  television 
antennae,  with  a  consequent  increase  in  possible 
accident  and  lightning  hazard. 

There  is  a  growing  interest  in  fire  prevention 
education  not  only  of  workers,  housewives,  and 
other  adults,  but  of  children.  The  demand  for  edu- 
cational material  on  common  fire  hazards  is  grow- 
ing markedly.  The  interest  of  the  U.S.  Office  of 
Education  and  of  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion in  fire  prevention  education  in  the  schools  is 
most  welcome.  The  junior  fire  brigade  develop- 
ment as  exemplified  in  Los  Angeles  and  Dallas  is 
attracting  great  interest  and  will  undoubtedly 
spread  to  many  other  cities. 

The  perennial  popularity  of  Fire  Prevention 
Week  as  a  device  to  stimulate  public  interest  in 
fire  prevention  increases  year  after  year.  In  the 
Fire  Prevention  Week  competition  among  cities 
sponsored  by  the  NFPA,  entries  were  received  from 
2,928  cities,  the  largest  number  ever  enrolled.  The 
top  ten  cities  in  the  United  States  in  the  order  of 
their  final  grade  were  Oak  Ridge,  Tenn.;  Mem- 
phis, Tenn.;  Chicago,  III;  Jersey  City,  N.J.;  Louis- 
ville, Ky.;  Fort  Collins,  Colo,;  Hartford,  Conn.;  Los 
Alamos,  N.M.;  Anderson,  Ind.;  and  Fort  Wayne, 
Ind.  Ottawa,  Ont.,  was  the  winner  in  Canada. 

Winners  in  the  National  Fire  Waste  Council 
contest  for  year-round  excellence  in  fire  prevention 
activities  for  1947  as  announced  early  in  1948  were 
Chicago,  Atlanta,  Tulsa,  Alameda,  Calif.,  Parkers- 
burg,  W.Va.,  and  Fort  Collins,  Colo.— the  latter 
was  the  grand  winner.  — CHAKLES  S.  MORGAN 

FISCAL  SERVICE.  Under  direction  of  a  permanent 
Fiscal  Assistant  Secretary  (Edward  F.  Bartelt), 
the  Fiscal  Service  conducts  the  financing  operations 
of  the  United  States  Treasury.  It  is  composed  of  the 
Office  of  the  Fiscal  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, Office  of  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States 
(William  A.  Julian,  Treasurer),  Bureau  of  the 
Public  Debt  (Edwin  L.  Kilby,  Commissioner), 
and  the  Bureau  of  Accounts  ( Robert  W.  Maxwell, 
Commissioner).  It  exercises  supervision  over  the 
depositary  system  of  the  United  States;  maintains 
the  daily  cash  position  of  the  Treasury;  keeps  the 
central  accounts  of  the  Government  relating  to 
receipts,  appropriations,  and  expenditures  of  all 
departments  and  agencies;  services  and  manages 
the  public  debt;  administers  the  Government's  in- 
vestment accounts;  maintains  a  nationwide  dis- 
bursing system  (Paul  D.  Banning,  Chief  Disburs- 
ing Officer)  covering  all  activities  of  the  executive 
branch  of  the  Government  except  military  and 
postal  service  activities;  issues  licenses  to,  and  fixes 
underwriting  limitations  of,  surety  companies  au- 
thorized to  do  business  with  the  United  States; 
liquidates  fiscal  affairs  of  war  agencies;  and  is 
generally  responsible  for  the  receipt,  safekeeping, 
and  disbursement  of  the  public  funds. 


FISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SERVICE.  This  Federal  agency  is 
charged  with  the  conservation  of  the  fishery  and 
wildlife  resources  of  the  United  States  and  its 
territories.  The  activities  of  the  Service  during  the 
fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1948,  reflect  the  varied 
and  challenging  nature  of  the  task  of  maintaining 
this  segment  of  our  national  wealth. 

The  most  intensive  war  ever  waged  against  rats 
was  conducted  on  a  nationwide  basis  in  1948  in 
cities  and  rural  areas  to  save  grain  and  food  needed 
for  the  European  Relief  Program.  Rats,  as  the 
Service  pointed  out,  cause  food  and  grain  losses  of 
$2,000  million  annually,  spread  eight  deadly  dis- 
eases, and  outnumber  the  country's  human  inhab- 
itants. To  enlist  the  public  in  the  campaign,  the 
Service  forwarded  more  than  4  million  pieces  of 
literature  in  bulk  shipments  to  about  650  cities  to 
tell  citizens  how  to  use  traps  and  poisons  correctly 
and  how  to  rat-proof  their  buildings.  Of  die  631 
cities  which  participated  in  the  National  Urban 
Rat  Control  Program,  62  percent  have  enacted  rat 
control  ordinances  or  have  rat-proofed  city  prop- 
erty and  improved  garbage  collection  and  sewage 
disposal. 

To  halt  depredations  on  valuable  livestock,  poul- 
try, and  game,  99,452  predatory  animals  were 
destroyed  by  Federal-supervised  predator  control 
work  during  the  fiscal  year  1948.  The  total  re- 
corded take  consisted  of  90,270  coyotes,  7,223 
lynxes,  bobcats,  and  ocelots,  744  stock-killing  bears, 
and  148  mountain  lions.  The  highest  kill  of  28,605 
predatory  animals  was  made  in  Texas.  Poisoning, 
shooting,  and  trapping  were  the  chief  methods  of 
control. 

During  the  calendar  year  ended  Dec.  31,  1947, 
the  97  fish  hatcheries  operated  by  the  Service  pro- 
duced 2,659,261,576  eggs,  fry,  and  fingerling  fishes 
for  stocking  purposes.  Fish  hatcheries  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast  are  concerned  chiefly  with  the  mainte- 
nance of  salmon  runs  in  coastal  waters.  Hatcheries 
producing  warm-water  species  such  as  bass  and 
sunfish  are  supplying  large  quantities  of  fish  for 
stocking  farm  ponds,  particularly  in  the  South  Cen- 
tral states. 

The  propagation  of  shad  was  resumed  at  the 
Fort  Belvoir,  Va.,  hatchery.  The  propagation  of 
fresh-water  mussels  was  started  at  the  Crab  Or- 
chard National  Wildlife  Refuge,  Cartersville,  III, 
as  part  of  an  artificial  propagation  program  begun 
in  June,  1948,  in  rivers  and  streams  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  basin. 

Although  not  commissioned  until  March,  1948, 
the  fishery  research  vessel  Albatross  III  has  greatly 
facilitated  work  on  the  North  Atlantic  fishing 
banks.  Most  important  have  been  the  studies  in 
the  use  of  a  large-mesh  cod  end  in  otter-trawl  fish- 
ing for  haddock,  cod,  and  other  fishes. 

Scientists  investigating  problems  of  fur-seal  man- 
agement on  the  Pribilof  Islands  in  Bering  Sea 
tagged  nearly  20,000  seal  pups  and  made  two  ex- 
tensive cruises  in  north  Pacific  waters  in  the  motor- 
ship  Black  Douglas,  gathering  information  on  the 
migration  routes  and  food  habits  of  the  seals. 

Service  biologists  studied  the  Pacific  tunas  to  ob- 
tain preliminary  data  on  the  life  history,  abun- 
dance, and  distribution  of  these  valuable  food 
fishes.  Service  personnel  were  detailed  as  consult- 
ants and  observers  aboard  several  vessels  engaged 
in  freezing  fish  in  Pacific  waters,  General  statistical 
surveys  of  the  fisheries  covered  each  of  the  coastal 
states  except  those  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
areas, 

The  Mexican  Fishery  Mission  continued  during 
the  fiscal  year  1948  to  assist  both  countries  to  un- 
cover facts  pertaining  to  the  little-known  fishery 


FISH  AND  WILDLIFE  SffWCE 


196 


FIOOD  CONTROt 


resources  of  Mexico  and  to  aid  that  country  in 
training  a  competent  staff  of  fishery  investigators. 
An  aquatic  biologist  of  the  Service  was  assigned 
early  in  1948  to  a  year-long  investigation  of  the 
marine  fisheries  of  Venezuela,  at  the  request  of 
that  Government.  A  specialist  in  the  biology  of 
shellfish  was  assigned  in  January,  1948,  to  an  in- 
vestigation of  the  pearl-oyster  resources  of  Panama, 
upon  the  request  of  the  Panamanian  Government. 
At  the  invitation  of  the  Cuban  Government  a  part)' 
of  three  ornithologists  was  sent  in  February  to 
make  a  two-month  survey  of  the  migratory  birds 
that  winter  in  Cuba. 

The  January,  1948,  annual  inventory  of  water- 
fowl wintering  in  Canada,  Alaska,  coastal  Latin 
America,  and  the  United  States  showed  little 
change  from  the  total  populations  observed  in 
1947.  Regionally,  the  picture  was  uneven.  De- 
creases were  reported  in  the  Central  flyway,  Mex- 
ico, and  most  of  Canada  except  the  Maritime  Prov- 
inces; these  were  approximately  balanced  by  in- 
creases in  the  Atlantic  and  Mississippi  flyways  and 
the  Pacific  Coast  States  of  the  Pacific  flyway. 

Studies  of  the  effects  of  DDT  on  wildlife,  begun 
in  1945,  were  continued  in  the  fiscal  year  1948. 
Aerial  applications  of  DDT  were  made  specifically 
to  observe  the  effects  on  wildlife.  According  to 
present  knowledge  of  the  problem,  it  is  unsafe  to 
apply  by  airplane  more  than  2  Ib.  of  DDT  per 
acre  if  harm  to  birds,  mammals,  and  amphibians  is 
to  be  avoided. 

Investigations  on  wildlife  in  relation  to  agricul- 
ture and  soil  conservation  practices  continued  in 
Maryland  and  in  the  southeast.  Two  experimental 
farms  are  being  developed  on  the  Patuxent  Re- 
search Refuge  in  Maryland,  One  area  has  a  com- 
plete modern  soil  conservation  and  agricultural 
program  while  the  other  is  managed  by  out-dated 
but  commonly  used  fanning  practices.  Living 
fences  of  multiflora  rose,  contour  hedges,  and  leg- 
ume field  borders  are  examples  of  developments 
recently  installed  and  which  will  be  evaluated,  as 
they  grow,  in  terms  of  their  effects  on  quail,  rab- 
bits, songbirds,  rodents,  and  other  species. 

Research  projects  at  the  10  Cooperative  Wildlife 
Research  units  active  during  1948  totaled  around 
100  and  involved  work  on  waterfowl,  small  and 
big  game,  wildlife  environment,  and  many  other 
phases  of  wildlife  management.  More  than  100 
technical  papers,  bulletins,  and  popular  articles  on 
the  research  findings  of  the  units  were  published 
during  the  year. 

The  Service  made  field  surveys  and  completed 
reports  on  33  Missouri  River  Basin  projects;  29 
sponsored  by  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  and  4  by 
the  Corps  of  Engineers.  These  surveys  provide  use- 
ful data  for  evaluating  the  basin-wide  effects,  good 
or  bad,  wliich  these  engineering  projects  will  nave 
on  fish  and  game  populations  and  habitat  in  that 
basin. 

Since  the  Pittman-Robertson  Act  became  effec- 
tive in  1938,  2,490  Federal  aid  wildlife-restoration 
projects  have  been  conducted  under  its  provisions. 
Congressional  appropriations  have  varied  from  a 
low  of  $900,000  for  the  fiscal  year  1945  to  a  high 
of  $9,031,272  for  the  fiscal  year  1948.  During  this 
10-year  period,  $48,175,429  was  collected  from 
the  11  percent  excise  tax  on  the  sale  of  sporting 
arms  and  ammunition,  and  the  Congress  appro- 
priated a  total  of  $34,707,961  to  finance  the  Fed- 
eral share  of  the  costs  of  program  work. 

An  important  event  of  the  fiscal  year  1948  was 
the  establishment  of  the  Crab  Orchard  National 
Wildlife  Refuge  in  southern  Illinois.  This  area, 
consisting  of  about  44,000  acres,  located  in  Jack- 


son,  Union,  and  Williamson  counties,  will  be  an 
important  link  in  the  chain  of  Mississippi  flyway 
refuges,  particularly  valuable  in  the  protection  of 
Canada  geese. 

More  than  2,200  individuals  participated,  under 
special  use  permit,  in  the  economic  use  program 
on  national  wildlife  refuges,  exclusive  of  the  num- 
ber purchasing  surplus  big-game  animals  and  those 
who  trapped  fur  animals  on  refuges.  A  total  net 
revenue  of  $386,000  for  the  fiscal  year  1948  re- 
sulted from  all  economic  uses,  including  the  dispo- 
sition of  big-game  animals,  fur-animal  pelts,  and 
surplus  products.  By  law,  25  percent  of  this  reve-  • 
nue  was  paid  to  the  counties  in  which  the  national 
wildlife  refuges  are  situated,  and  the  balance  was 
deposited  in  the  Treasury.  The  number  of  national 
wildlife  refuges  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  was 
282,  totaling  18,107,024  acres. 

The  eight  principal  statutes  administered  by  the 
Service  for  the  protection  of  wildlife  are  the  Mi  ora- 
tory Bird  Treaty  Act,  Lacey  Act,  Migratory  Bird 
Conservation  Act,  Migratory  Bird  Stamp  Act,  the 
law  protecting  wildlife  and  property  on  Federal 
refuges,  Black  Bass  Law,  Bald  Eagle  Act,  and  the 
Alaska  Game  Law.  A  summary  of  penalties  im- 
posed for  violations  of  these  statutes  during  fiscal 
year  1948  listed  3,061  convictions  for  which  fines 
and  costs  assessed  amounted  to  $124,602.  Jail 
sentences  totaled  734  days.  These  Federal  game 
laws  are  enforced  by  6  regional  supervisors  of  law 
enforcement  and  64  United  States  game-manage- 
ment agents. 

A  total  of  2,045  importation  permits  was  issued 
to  authorize  the  entry  of  87,918  birds  and  31,194 
mammals  from  foreign  ports.  Fifty-six  birds  and 
two  mammals,  of  species  prohibited  entry  into  the 
United  States,  were  seized  at  ports  of  entry,  both 
on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts,  and  were  either 
destroyed  or  returned  to  the  foreign  ports  of  origin. 

— ALBERT  M.  DAY 

HAXSEED.  The  1948  flaxseed  crop  of  the  United 
States,  as  estimated  in  December,  1948,  by  the 
Crop  Reporting  Board  of  the  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture, reached  a  record  of  52,533,000  bushels, 
which  was  nearly  a  third  more  than  was  produced 
in  1947  (40,536,000  bu.)  and  almost  twice  the  10- 
year  average  (1937-46)  production  of  26,756,000 
bu.  States  with  the  highest  yields  (in  bushels)  for 
1948  were:  Minnesota  19,102,000,  North  Dakota 
14,896,000,  South  Dakota  7,788,000,  California 
4,851,000,  Iowa  1,425,000,  Texas  1,320,000,  Mon- 
tana 1,071,000,  Arizona  1,064,000. 

The  Oregon  output  of  flax  fiber  in  1948  amount- 
ed to  3,400  tons  of  straw,  compared  to  the  1947 
output  of  9,200  tons  of  straw.  Production  of  flax- 
seed  from  Oregon  flax  fiber  acreage  in  1948  was 
estimated  at  19,400  bu.,  compared  with  the  1947 
production  of  59,000  bu. 

FLOOD  CONTROL,  At  the  close  of  the  year,  announce- 
ment was  made  from  Washington  that  "the  nation's 
planners  have  blue-printed  a  $57,000  million  pro- 
gram for  developing  the  vast  water  resources  in 
our  river  basins,"  to  be  completed  about  the  year 
2000.  Of  this,  about  $24,000  million  would  be 
spent  on  hydro-electric  power  development;  $12,- 
300  million  would  be  spent  on  flood  control;  $8,600 
million  on  irrigation;  $6,200  million  on  navigation 
improvements;  $4,000  million  on  water-shed  work 
aimed  at  saving  of  surface  soil,  improving  farm 
procedures,  and  reducing  floods;  $1,370  million 
would  be  spent  on  pollution  control  and  $45  mil- 
lion on  preservation  of  fish  and  wild  life  and  pro- 
vision of  recreation  facilities. 


FLORIDA 


197 


FOLKLORE 


Flood  control  is  largely  the  responsibility  of  the 
army  engineers.  Lt.  Gen.  R.  A.  Wheeler,  Chief  of 
Army  Engineers,  estimates  that  prevention  of  flood 
damage  and  transportation  savings  would  net  $825 
million  annually.  Of  the  total  $57,000  million  prop- 
er, he  estimates  that  about  $4,780  million  worth 
has  been  completed  in  the  last  10  years  and  that 
other  projects  which  would  cost  $4,590  million 
have  been  begun. 

In  loss  of  life  and  property,  the  summer  floods 
this  year  in  the  Columbia  River  basin  are  probably 
the  most  disastrous  in  its  history.  A  $3,000  million 
program  for  this  general  area  has  been  reported 
upon  by  the  Corps  of  Engineers.  The  plan  calls 
for  immediate  authorization  of  the  following  six 
great  projects:  (1)  Libby  project  on  the  Kootenai 
Riverain  Montana;  (2)  Albeni  Falls  project  on 
Idaho's  Pend  Oreille  River;  ( 3 )  Priest  Rapids  proj- 
ect in  Washington  In  the  Columbia  River;  (4) 
Hells  Canyon  project,  Snake  River,  Oregon,  and 
Idaho;  (5)  John  Day  project  on  the  Columbia 
River  in  Oregon  and  Washington;  and  (6)  The 
Dalles  project  on  the  Columbia  River  in  Washing- 
ton and  Oregon. 

Many  other  projects  in  this  area  are  also  recom- 
mended in  the  plan.  Power  installation  in  the  main 
control  plan  would  increase  from  6  to  11.7  million 
kw  and  significant  flood  regulation  and  irrigation 
water  would  be  provided. 

In  New  England  and  in  Iowa  steps  are  being 
taken  to  organize  for  State-wide  and  interstate 
flood-control  work.  Apparently  an  interstate  flood- 
control  compact  among  Massachusetts,  Connecti- 
cut, Vermont,  and  New  Hampshire  is  about  to  be 
approved.  The  construction  of  ten  dams  is  contem- 
plated under  the  compact. 

Rapid  graphical-correlation  methods  and  elec- 
tronic calculators  developed  by  the  U.S.  Weather 
Bureaus  new  forecasting  and  flood-warning  serv- 
ive  have  continued  to  prove  successful  in  predicting 
floods  on  the  Ohio — in  particular  the  floods  of 
April,  1948, — the  seventh  largest  in  the  90  years  of 
record  at  Cincinnati.  Striking  agreements  between 
actual  and  predicted  crest  heights  made  some- 
times several  days  in  advance  have  occurred.  This 
sendee  helped  greatly  to  reduce  losses  by  permit- 
ting erection  of  barricades,  in  time,  by  securing  re- 
moval of  goods  in  areas  about  to  be  flooded  in  time 
to  escape  inundation,  and  by  permitting  wisest  use 
of  flood  regulation  reservoirs. 

It  is  believed  that  the  recent  severe  annual 
losses  from  floods  in  the  United  States  of  $225  mil- 
lion would  have  been  $25  million  greater  without 
the  flood-warning  service. 

Public  attention  has  been  called  to  certain  broad 
problems  of  soil  conservation  and  flood  control  and 
heated  discussions  have  been  aroused  by  the  publi- 
cation of  two  popularly  written  books,  Our  Plun- 
dered Planet  and  the  Road  to  Survival. 

— W.  E.  HOWLAND 

FLORIDA.  A  south  Atlantic  State.  Area:  58,666  sq. 
mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  2,356,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  1,897,414.  Chief  cities : 
Tallahassee  (capital),  16,240  inhabitants  in  1940; 
Jacksonville,  173,065.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCA- 
TION, MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSI- 
TIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $167,907,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $159,728,000. 

Elections.  Truman  won  a  plurality  over  Dewey, 
Thurmond,  and  Wallace,  and  carried  the  State's  8 
electoral  votes.  Democrat  Fuller  Warren  won  the 
governorship,  and  the  6  Congressional  seats  re- 


mained Democratic.  No  Senatorial  contest  was 
held.  Democrats  won  the  other  statewide  races  in- 
cluding: Secretary  of  State — R.  A.  Gray;  Attorney 
General — Richard  W.  Ervin;  Treasurer — J.  Ed- 
win Larson;  Comptroller — C.  M.  Gay;  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction — Thomas  D,  Bailey. 
The  voters  authorized  legislative  pay  raises. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  MiUard  F.  Caldwell; 
Lieut.  Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  R.  A. 
Gray;  Attorney  General,  J.  Tom  Watson;  State 
Treasurer,  J.  Edwin  Larson;  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture, Nathan  Mayo;  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  Colin  English;  State  Comptroller,  C.  M. 
Gay. 

FOLKLORE.  During  1948  activities  in  foDdore  in- 
creased in  nature  and  scope.  The  center  of  this 
activity  was  the  American  Folklore  Society.  This 
society  published  in  its  quarterly,  Journal  of  Amer- 
ican Folklore,  many  studies  and  articles  concerned 
with  folklore  over  the  world;  and  in  addition,  it 
published  a  monograph,  Myths  and  Tales  of  the 
Coeur  d'Alene,  by  Gladys  Reichard.  This  is  a  study 
of  the  myths  and  folk  tales  of  the  Coeur  d'Alene  In- 
dians of  Idaho.  It  won  the  Chicago  folklore  prize 
for  1948. 

The  society  held  a  three-day  meeting  in  Toronto 
in  December  for  the  reading  of  papers  and  the 
discussion  of  folklore  problems.  The  society  has 
been  active  in  other  ways.  Its  Education  Commit- 
tee (Richard  Dorson,  Chairman)  made  a  detailed 
study  of  the  teaching  of  folklore  in  the  United 
States  and  will  soon  bring  in  recommendations. 
Its  Research  Committee  (Richard  A.  Waterman, 
Chairman)  continued  the  study  of  methods  and 
materials  for  research  in  folklore.  Its  Committee  on 
Utilization  (Thelma  James,  Chairman)  studied  the 
relation  of  folklore  to  other  arts  and  sciences.  The 
society  through  the  gift  of  Miss  Jo  Stafford  estab- 
lished an  annual  prize  of  $250  for  the  best  collec- 
tion of  folklore  or  folk  song  made  by  a  student  in 
an  American  school  or  college. 

Likewise  many  regional  folklore  societies  have 
been  active  in  publication  and  in  conducting  meet- 
ings. Among  the  most  active  were:  The  California 
Folklore  Society  (Western  Folklore),  The  Texas 
Folklore  Society  (Publications  of  the  Texas  Folk- 
lore Society},  The  New  York  Folklore  Society  (The 
New  York  Folklore  Quarterly),  French  Folklore 
Society  (The  Magazine  of  French  Folklore),  New 
Mexico  Folklore  Society  (New  Mexico  Folklore 
Record),  Pennsylvania  German  Folklore  Society 
(Publications  of  the  Pennsylvania  Folklore  Soci- 
ety), Michigan  Folklore  Society,  Hoosier  Folklore 
Society,  Badger  State  Folklore  Society,  North  Caro- 
lina Folklore  Society,  South  Carolina  Negro  Folklore 
Guild,  The  Southern  Folklore  Society  (Southern 
Folklore  Quarterly ) .  This  last  contains  the  valuable 
annual  bibliography  of  folklore  by  R.  S.  Boggs. 

During  1948  a  number  of  important  folk  festi- 
vals were  held.  The  Fourteenth  Annual  National 
Folk  Festival  was  conducted  at  St.  Louis,  April 
7-10,  under  the  direction  of  Sarah  Gertrude  Knott. 
On  June  18-19,  the  Carolina  Folk  Festival  was 
held  at  Chapel  Hill  under  the  direction  of  Bascom 
Lunsford.  The  Thirteenth  Mountain  Folk  Festival 
was  held  at  Berea  College,  Kentucky,  April  8-10. 
This  was  participated  in  by  groups  largely  from 
schools  and  colleges  of  the  southern  mountain 
States.  The  Cayuga  Soursprings  Longhouse  Mid- 
winter Ceremonials  took  place  in  Ohsweken,  Ont, 
February  14-20. 

Several  symposia  and  conferences  in  folklore 
were  conducted  in  1948.  Seminars  in  American 
culture,  sponsored  by  the  New  York  Historical  As- 


FOOD  AND  AGRICULTURE  ORGANIZATION 


198 


FOOD  AND  AGRICULTURE  ORGANIZATION 


sociation,  Cooperstown,  N.Y.,  were  held  July  11-17 
under  the  direction  of  Louis  C.  Jones.  A  conference 
concerned  with  Western  folklore  was  held  at  the 
University  of  Denver  under  the  direction  of  Levette 
J.  Davidson.  The  Library  of  Congress  sponsored 
several  lectures  on  folklore. 

The  wide  current  interest  in  folklore  matters  is 
further  attested  by  the  continuing  large  number 
of  books  published  in  this  field.  These  are  about 
equally  divided  between  anthologies  of  folk  tales 
and  songs  and  critical  studies.  Knowledge  of  these 
books  can  be  had  through  the  review  sections  of 
the  Journal  of  American  Folklore.  Several  interest- 
ing record  collections  were  brought  out  in  1948. 
The  most  important  of  these  were  the  21  albums  of 
folk  songs,  folk  music,  and  folk  dances  issued  by 
the  Folk  Music  Section  of  the  Library  of  Congress, 
under  the  editorship  of  the  Chief  of  the  Section, 
Duncan  Enirich.  To  be  noted  also  is  the  series  of 
folk  music  albums  released  by  Decca  Records  un- 
der the  editorship  of  Alan  Lomax. 

During  1948  folklore  as  a  subject  for  instruction 
found  a  wider  place  on  the  curricula  of  the  schools 
and  colleges  of  America.  Extensive  work  in  this 
field  was  done  at  the  University  of  Indiana,  the 
University  of  North  Carolina,  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Murray  State  College,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, University  of  Colorado,  Wayne  University, 
Occidental  College,  University  of  California,  and 
Michigan  State  College.  — MACEDWARD  LEACH 

FOOD  AND  AGRICULTURE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE 
UNITED  NATIONS  (FAO).  This  organization  was  offi- 
cially founded  at  Quebec  City,  Canada,  on  Oct.  16, 
1945,  but  it  had  its  root  in  the  Hot  Springs  Confer- 
ence, called  by  President  Roosevelt  in  May,  1943, 
to  discuss  food  and  agricultural  problems  of  the 
United  Nations.  Forty-four  countries  were  repre- 
sented and  delegates  reached  agreement  on  a  num- 
ber of  basic  points  which  became  foundation  stones 
of  FAO  policy.  Some  of  these  were: 

"The  world  has  never  had  enough  to  eat.  At  least 
two-thirds  of  its  people  are  ill-nourished  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  two-thirds  of  the  world's  people  are 
farmers. 

"The  modern  science  of  production  shows  that 
it  is  entirely  possible  to  produce  enough  of  the 
riglit  kinds  of  food. 

"The  modern  science  of  nutrition  proves  beyond 
doubt  that  if  all  people  could  get  enough  of  the 
right  kinds  of  food,  the  average  level  of  health  and 
well-being  could  be  raised  much  higher  than  it  is 
now. 

"But  production  alone  is  not  enough.  Foods 
must  be  so  distributed  that  the  levels  of  consump- 
tion of  those  who  do  not  have  enough  are  pro- 
gressively raised. 

"This  implies  an  expanding  world  economy,  in 
which  each  nation  will  play  its  own  part,  but  all 
will  act  together." 

Delegates  also  agreed  on  taking  immediate  steps 
by  concerted  action  toward  realizing  such  a  new 
world  of  plenty  based  on  scientific  findings.  The 
Hot  Springs  Conference  created,  therefore,  an  In- 
terim Commission  to  make  plans  for  a  permanent 
international  organization  to  carry  through  the  de- 
sign of  its  program. 

Two  years  later,  in  the  winter  of  1945,  FAO 
came  into  being  in  Quebec,  as  the  first  permanent 
United  Nations  organization  to  be  set  up  and  with 
42  charter  members.  In  1948,  the  membership  was 
increased  to  58. 

The  Quebec  Conference  named  Sir  John  Boyd 
Orr,  Scottish  farmer  and  world-famed  nutritionist, 
as  FAO's  first  Director  General  In  1948,  Norris  E. 


Dodd,  then  Under  Secretary  of  Agriculture  of  the 
United  States,  was  elected  by  a  special  session  of 
the  FAO  Conference  to  succeed  Sir  John. 

The  year  1948  was  an  eventful  one  for  FAO.  Its 
two-sided  program  of  increasing  output  and  im- 
proving distribution  of  the  products  of  farms,  for- 
ests, and  fisheries  was  progressively  intensified  all 
through  the  year  in  the  following  ten  major  spheres 
of  work: 

FAO  Council.  The  council  of  FAO,  or  World  Food 
Council — composed  of  representatives  from  18 
elected  member  nations  and  FAO's  ruling  body  be- 
tween sessions  of  the  Conference — kept  world 
problems  of  food  and  agriculture  under  constant  re- 
view. It  instructed  the  Director  General  to  draw  up 
a  program  of  work  for  1949,  according  to  the 
urgency  of  needs,  and  to  set  priorities  for  the  nu- 
merous recommendations  for  FAO  activities  made 
by  the  Conference. 

Allocation  of  Food.  International  allocation  of  basic 
foods  such  as  rice,  cocoa,  fats,  and  oils,  took  the 
sharp  edge  off  some  acute  shortages  in  1948.  This 
work  was  continued  all  through  the  year  without 
interruption  by  the  International  Emergency  Food 
Committee  of  the  Council  of  FAO,  which  in  Janu- 
ary took  over  the  functions  and  responsibilities  of 
the  former  International  Emergency  Food  Council. 
A  total  of  475  allocations  were  recommended,  and 
only  in  13  cases  did  a  government  refuse  to  concur. 

Regional  Meetings.  Several  regional  meetings  were 
held  in  1948  to  lay  foundations  for  future  work.  At 
Cairo,  representatives  of  Near  East  countries  made 
proposals  for  irrigation  and  other  improvements 
capable  of  greatly  stimulating  the  economy  of  that 
region.  At  Baguio,  in  the  Philippines,  a  series  of 
conferences  drew  up  plans  for  cooperative  action 
designed  to  increase  rice  and  fish  supplies  and  to 
improve  the  nutrition  of  peoples  of  South  and  East 
Asia,  At  Teresopolis,  Brazil,  a  timber  conference 
agreed  on  far-reaching  measures  needed  for  de- 
veloping the  forest  resources  of  Latin-American 
countries.  At  Montevideo,  Uruguay,  the  countries 
of  Latin  America  made  plans  for  future  work  in 
nutrition.  At  Rome,  representatives  of  European 
National  FAO  Committees  dealt  with  problems  of 
agricultural  rehabilitation  and  development. 

Technical  Advisory  Services.  A  wide  range  of  tech- 
nical advisory  services  designed  to  help  countries 
and  regions  overcome  handicaps  to  increased  pro- 
duction and  better  distribution  of  food  and  other 
products  were  supplied  to  member  countries  all 
through  the  year.  In  Europe,  some  35  assignments 
were  completed  by  the  end  of  June  1948.  Hybrid 
corn  seed,  which  has  revolutionized  corn  produc- 
tion in  parts  of  the  United  States,  was  sent  by  FAO 
early  for  distribution  to  19  countries  in  Europe  and 
the  Near  East.  When  a  blight  attacked  Italy's 
chestnut  trees — important  for  both  food  and  timber 
— FAO  helped  the  country  obtain  blight-resistant 
strains  from  China.  FAO  experts  assisted  Hungary 
in  the  use  of  farm  machinery.  In  Poland  and 
Czechoslovakia,  FAO  veterinary  consultants  dem- 
onstrated methods  of  controlling  animal  diseases, 
such  as  pig  paralysis  and  tuberculosis, 

In  China,  a  many-sided  agricultural  development 
program  went  forward  with  FAO  aid.  FAO  irriga- 
tion and  drainage  specialists  helped  in  projects  in 
ten  provinces  that  will  benefit  1,750,000  farmers. 
An  FAO  consulting  engineer  helped  in  planning  a 
long-term  program  for  development  of  flood  con- 
trol, hydro-electric  power,  navigation^  irrigation, 
and  fisheries  throughout  the  Pearl  River  basin. 

On  two  islands  in  the  Yangtze  River,  chosen  as 
demonstration  areas  for  an  agricultural  improve- 
ment project  emphasizing  the  use  of  farm  ma- 


FOOD  AMD  AGRICULTURE  ORGANIZATION 


chinery,  FAO  specialists  helped  farmers  operate 
tractors  and  other  equipment  in  terracing,  irriga- 
tion., and  drainage.  In  another  major  project,  FAO 
assisted  in  an  intensive  drive  against  rinderpest — 
the  "cattle  plague"  which  kills  a  million  animals  a 
year  in  China.  A  program  is  now  under  way  for 
vaccinating  15  million  animals  against  this  deadly 
disease. 

Missions.  FAO  missions  went  to  two  countries  in 
1948,  at  the  request  of  their  governments.  One 
mission  went  to  Siam  to  make  a  broad  survey  em- 
phasizing possible  improvements  in  the  production 
of  rice  and  forest  products,  and  in  the  management 
of  livestock.  One  of  the  findings  of  the  mission  was 
that  malaria  has  been  one  of  the  main  causes  of 
reduced  production.  This  malady  strikes  an  esti- 
mated 3  million  Siamese  each  year  and  thus  weak- 
ens the  food-producing  population.  Another  mis- 
sion went  to  Venezuela  to  investigate  palms  and 
other  plants  as  possible  sources  of  edible  fats  and 
oils,  long  lacking  in  Venezuelan  diets. 

Joint  Working  Parties.  In  1948,  FAO  took  active 
part  in  various  joint  working  parties  set  up  by  the 
regional  economic  commissions  of  the  United  Na- 
tions. For  example,  working  with  the  Economic 
Commission  for  Europe  (ECE),  one  FAO  group 
rounded  up  and  analyzed  the  agricultural  recon- 
struction and  development  program  of  26  Euro- 
pean countries  through  1950-51. 

With  other  international  agencies  a  network  of 
cooperation  began  to  develop  in  1948.  Throughout 
the  year,  FAO  worked  hand  in  hand  with  the  UN 
International  Children's  Emergency  Fund,  and 
established  a  close  working  relationship  with  the 
World  Health  Organization  (WHO).  Day  to  day 
cooperation  on  technical  matters  was  maintained 
with  various  UN  units,  such  as  the  Economic  and 
Social  Council,  the  International  Bank  for  Recon- 
struction and  Development,  and  the  International 
Monetary  Fund. 

Regional  Offices.  The  nucleus  of  a  regional  office 
for  the  Near  East  was  established  in  Cairo  during 
the  first  part  of  the  year  1948.  In  Europe,  the  work 
of  the  regional  office  at  Rome  began  to  be  supple- 
mented by  FAO  activities  at  Geneva,  the  center 
for  cooperation  with  ECE.  An  interim  appointment 
was  made  of  a  regional  representative  for  the  Far 
East,  whose  office  is  in  Bangkok,  Siam.  Plans  were 
made  to  appoint  a  regional  representative  for 
Latin  America. 

Service  to  Governments.  General  and  regular  serv- 
ices to  governments,  crystallized  into  more  definite 
patterns  as  needs  became  clearer.  In  particular,  the 
year  saw  some  notable  publications  in  international 
statistics — A  Yearbook  of  Food  and  Agricultural 
Commodities,  a  Yearbook  of  Fisheries  Statistics,  the 
first  ever  to  be  compiled.  Publication  of  statistical 
bulletins  for  agriculture,  forestry,  fisheries,  and  nu- 
trition was  also  begun.  A  number  of  technical  stud- 
ies in  fields  of  interest  to  all  or  most  member  na- 
tions were  published:  Breeding  Livestock  Adapted 
to  Unfavorable  Environments;  Soil  Conservation: 
An  International  Study;  Storing  and  Drying  Grain. 

Annual  Conference.  The  Fourth  Annual  Confer- 
ence of  FAO  was  held  in  Washington  in  Novem- 
ber, 1948.  A  full-scale  consultation  on  the  world 
food  situation  and  the  programs  of  member  govern- 
ments for  the  year  1949,  were  the  principal  topics 
discussed  by  the  58-nation  gathering.  Perhaps  the 
best  way  to  summarize  the  achievements  of  this 
Conference  is  to  quote  the  observation  made  by 
the  Conference  Chairman,  U.S.  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, Charles  F.  Brannan: 

"It  has  set  in  motion  work  on  commodity  studies 
and  agreements  which  should  do  much  to  promote 


199  FOOD  AND  DRUG  ADMINISTRATION 

an  abundant  flow  of  food  in  the  channels  of  inter- 
national trade  and  security  for  both  producers  and 
consumers.  ...  It  has  moved  forward  FAO's 
work  in  the  field  of  increasing  production  in  those 
areas  where  such  production  is  so  badly  needed." 

— NORRIS  E.  DODD 

FOOD  AND  DRUG  ADMINISTRATION.  The  Food,  Drag, 
and  Cosmetic  Act,  10  years  old  in  June,  1948,  is  a 
proven  instrument  of  consumer  protection.  In  gen- 
eral, manufacturers  have  come  to  regard  the  statute 
"as  a  measure  of  their  obligations  to  the  public/* 
Liberal  judicial  interpretations  and  prompt  amend- 
atory legislation  when  additional  coverage  was 
required  or  weaknesses  became  apparent  have 
strengthened  it  throughout  the  decade. 

Such  strengthening  was  marked  in  1948.  In  Jan- 
uary the  Supreme  Court  sustained  the  conviction 
of  a  retail  druggist  who  had  taken  prescription 
drugs  from  their  properly  labeled  interstate  con- 
tainer and  sold  them  without  adequate  directions 
or  warnings.  The  Court  ruled  that  the  protective 
features  of  the  Federal  law  are  to  be  carried 
through  to  the  ultimate  consumer.  In  June,  1948, 
Congress  amended  the  Act  to  cover  specifically 
this  type  of  violation  and  others  whereby  foods, 
drugs,  and  cosmetics  that  meet  the  Federal  re- 
quirements at  the  time  of  interstate  shipment 
might  become  adulterated  or  misbranded  before 
they  reach  the  user. 

In  November,  1948,  the  Supreme  Court  ruled 
that  literature  designed  for  use  in  the  distribution 
and  sale  of  a  product  is  accompanying  labeling, 
whether  or  not  it  physically  accompanies  the 
article  during  its  interstate  journey.  This  will  pro- 
tect the  public  from  drugs  and  devices  misbranded 
By  misleading  literature  sent  separately  from  the 
articles  in  an  attempt  to  circumvent  the  rigid 
misbranding  provisions  of  the  1938  Act. 

Three-year  jail  sentences  and  trie  highest  total 
ine  of  the  year  ( $18.640)  were  imposed  upon  two 
physician  brothers  for  the  distribution  of  a  vinegar 
solution  of  saltpeter  for  the  treatment  of  diabetes, 
with  deaths  and  serious  illnesses  resulting.  Crimi- 
nal prosecution  cases  charging  false  and  misleading 
curative  claims  were  instituted  against  39  medicine 
and  6  therapeutic  device  promoters. 

Faulty  controls  in  the  manufacture  and  label- 
ing of  drugs  continued  to  be  a  regulatory  problem, 
with  more  recall  programs  required  in  1948  than 
in  any  previous  year.  In  a  number  of  instances, 
when  the  efforts  of  manufacturers  and  the  inspec- 
tion force  failed  to  recover  all  potentially  injurious 
lots,  the  Administration  was  compelled  to  issue 
warnings  for  the  safety  of  the  public.  Determined 
efforts  have  been  instituted  by  the  industry  to  pre- 
vent the  occurrence  of  manufacturing  errors. 

Improved  conditions  were  found  in  almost  every 
major  food  industry.  The  conspicuously  small  mi- 
nority prosecuted  for  violations  received  higher 
penalties,  in  general,  than  during  any  year  of  food- 
law  enforcement.  The  highest  food  fine  ($15,000) 
was  imposed  on  a  macaroni  corporation  and  its 
manager,  for  use  of  rodent-contaminated  materials 
and  operations  in  a  filthy  factory. 

The  use  of  poisonous  preservatives  or  decompo- 
sition inhibitors  and  of  mineral  oil  in  foods  was 
encountered  rarely  in  1948,  a  result  of  recent  reg- 
ulatory campaigns  against  deleterious  ingredients. 
Two-thirds  of  the  food  seizures  were  based  on 
decomposition  or  filth.  Fewer  violative  frozen  foods 
were  found,  largely  because  of  more  adequate 
freezing  and  storage  facilities  and  the  withdrawal 
from  the  industry  of  many  opportunists  without  the 
'"know-how"  or  the  will  to  pack  sound  products. 


FOOTBAU 


200 


FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC  COMMERCE 


Of  the  three  groups  of  drugs  requiring  certifi- 
cation before  distribution,  269  batches  of  insulin, 
11,564  of  penicillin,  and  897  of  streptomycin  were 
certified.  In  addition,  4,699  batches  of  coal-tar 
colors  were  certified  for  use  in  foods,  drugs,  and 
cosmetics. 

During  the  year,  194  new-drug  applications 
were  made  effective.  Relatively  few  were  actually 
new  chemical  entities;  a  large  proportion  repre- 
sented new  dosage  forms,  modifications,  combina- 
tions, or  duplications  of  types  of  products  already 
known  in  drug  therapy.  Each  required  adequate 
study  by  the  introducer  to  assure  safety  under 
proper  use,  and  proof  that  proper  production  con- 
trols can  be  maintained. 

In  the  fiscal  year  1948,  945  shipments  of  foods, 
206  of  drugs  and  devices,  20  of  vitamins  and  foods 
for  special  dietary  uses,  20  of  cosmetics,  and  2  of 
caustic  poisons  were  removed  from  the  market  by 
seizure.  Criminal  prosecution  actions  were  brought 
against  421  individuals  and  firms  charged  with 
violating  the  Act,  and  20  injunctions  were  re- 
quested of  the  courts.  Fines  in  terminated  cases 
totaled  $297,426.  In  89  actions  the  fines  imposed 
were  $1,000  or  more.  Jail  sentences,  ranging  from 
1  day  to  3  years,  were  imposed  upon  19  individ- 
uals, with  sentences  suspended  for  9  of  these  de- 
fendants, who  were  placed  upon  probation. 

— PAUL  JB.  DUNBAR 

FOOTBALL  The  college  game,  riding  a  wave  of  pros- 
perity, continued  to  gain  in  attendance,  a  press 
survey  of  99  major  schools  showing  a  rise  of  almost 
6  percent  in  the  number  of  fans.  The  colleges  in  the 
survey  played  487  home  contests,  before  13,051,- 
248  spectators. 

The  year  was  not  without  the  usual  number  of 
thrillers  and  upsets,  with  two  of  the  big  surprises 
coming  near  the  very  end  of  the  regular  season. 
The  first  of  these  came  before  102,500  at  Phila- 
delphia's Municipal  Stadium  when  Navy,  which 
had  lost  all  eight  of  its  earlier  games,  held  powerful 
Army,  which  had  gone  unbeaten  and  untied  in 
eight  games,  to  a  21-21  tie. 

Notre  Dame,  sailing  along  to  its  third  straight, 
campaign  without  a  defeat,  ran  onto  the  rocks  be- 
fore 100,571  in  the  Los  Angeles  Memorial  Coli- 
seum when  thrice-beaten  Southern  California 
reared  up  to  battle  the  Irish  to  a  14-14  tie.  Only  a 
desperate  rally  in  the  closing  seconds  saved  Notre 
Dame  from  defeat.  The  Irish  entered  the  battle 
with  two  all-time  Notre  Dame  records  to  their 
credit,  having  won  21  straight  games  and  gone  un- 
beaten through  28  in  a  row. 

The  ties  dropped  Army  and  Notre  Dame  from 
contention  for  the  mythical  national  title  and  left 
Michigan  alone  at  the  top.  Michigan  completed  its 
second  straight  season  with  a  perfect  record  and 
retained  the  Western  Conference  championship. 
Benny  Oosterbaan  of  the  Wolverines  was  voted  the 
coach  of  the  year. 

Penn  State  was  victim  of  another  major  surprise 
when  it  lost  to  an  in-and-out  Pitt  eleven,  7-0.  Cal- 
ifornia had  a  perfect  record  in-  the  regular  cam- 
paign and  shared  Pacific  Coast  Conference  honors 
with  Oregon.  Oklahoma  won  the  Big  Seven  crown, 
Army  gained  the  Lambert  Trophy  as  the  East's 
leader,  and  Cornell  was  crowned  king  of  the  Ivy 
League.  Other  champions  were  Georgia,  South- 
eastern; Southern  Methodist,  Southwest;  Clernson, 
Southern;  Utah,  Big  Six;  Oklahoma  A.  and  M., 
Missouri  Valley;  Ripon,  Midwest  Conference;  To- 
ronto, Canadian  intercollegiate. 

The  year  produced  hundreds  of  individual  stars, 
with  Doak  Walker  of  Southern  Methodist  winning 


the  Heisman  Trophy  as  the  outstanding  player  of 
the  season.  Charley  Justice  of  North  Carolina  and 
Pennsylvania's  Chuck  Bednarik  were  among  his 
closest  rivals  in  the  voting.  Levi  Jackson,  star  back, 
became  the  first  Negro  ever  to  captain  a  Yale  Uni- 
versity sports  team  when  the  Elis  elected  him  their 
1949  leader. 

Northwestern,  runner-up  to  Michigan  in  the 
Western  Conference,  represented  the  Big  Nine  in 
Pasadena's  Rose  Bowl  and  turned  in  a  20-14  vic- 
tory over  California  on  Ed  TunniclifFs  43-yard  run 
with  three  minutes  to  play.  Bowl  games  on  Janu- 
ary 1  were  scattered  across  the  nation,  Oklahoma 
downing  North  Carolina,  14-6,  before  82,000  in 
the  New  Orleans  Sugar  Bowl,  while  Southern 
Methodist  stopped  Oregon,  21-13,  in  the  Dallas 
Cotton  Bowl  as  69,000  looked  on.  Texas  routed 
Georgia,  41-28,  before  60,523  in  the  Miami  Orange 
Bowl,  and  West  Virginia  beat  Texas  Mines,  21-12, 
in  El  Paso's  Sun  Bowl  as  20,000  watched. 

The  annual  Shrine  benefit  game  between  the 
East  and  West  at  San  Francisco  resulted  in  a  14-12 
triumph  for  the  East  as  Columbia's  Gene  Rossides 
tallied  the  deciding  touchdown.  In  Christmas  Day 
benefit  contests,  the  North's  Blues  set  back  the 
South's  Grays,  19-13,  before  15,000  at  Montgom- 
ery, Alabama,  and  the  Southern  All-Stars  beat  the 
Northern  All-Stars,  24-14,  before  33,056  in  the 
Orange  Bowl. 

With  the  continued  war  between  two  rvial 
leagues  cutting  deeply  into  attendance,  the  pro- 
fessionals did  not  enjoy  the  success  that  came  to 
the  collegians.  Cleveland's  Browns  continued  their 
domination  of  the  Ail-American  Conference  by  de- 
feating the  Buffalo  Bills,  Eastern  Division  cham- 
pions, 49-7,  at  Cleveland.  The  Browns  set  a  new 
pro  football  record  when  82,769  fans  filled  the 
Cleveland  Municipal  Stadium  to  see  a  contest  with 
San  Francisco. 

In  the  National  League,  the  Philadelphia  Eagles 
won  the  championship  by  halting  the  powerful 
Chicago  Cardinals,  Western  Division  winners,  7-0, 
in  a  heavy  snowstorm  at  Philadelphia. 

— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

FORD  FOUNDATION.  Incorporated  on  Jan.  15,  1936, 
in  order  to  receive  and  administer  funds  for  sci- 
entific, educational,  and  charitable  purposes;  all 
for  the  public  welfare.  Assets,  $205  million,  Dec. 
31,  1948.  A  board  of  six  Trustees  and  annually 
elected  officers  head  the  Foundation.  President, 
Henry  Ford  II;  Secretary  Treasurer,  B.  J.  Craig. 
Annual  meetings  are  held  in  April.  Headquarters: 
2612  Buhl  Building,  Detroit  26,  Mich. 

FOREIGN  AGRICULTURAL  RELATIONS,  Office  of.  A 
branch  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
which  has  been  collecting,  analyzing,  and  dissemi- 
nating information  on  foreign  competition  and  de- 
mand for  farm  products  and  agricultural  policy.  Its 
primary  purpose  is  to  study  the  factors  influencing 
the  food  supply  and  needs  of  foreign  countries, 
competition,  trade  barriers,  production  and  market- 
ing, and  other  developments  affecting  American 
agriculture.  It  also  directs  and  coordinates  the 
participation  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
the  reciprocal  trade  agreement  program  and  in 
other  international  agreements  affecting  agricul- 
ture. Director:  D.  A.  FitzGerald. 

FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC  COMMERCE,  Bureau  of.  The 

functions  of  the  Bureau  were  carried  out  during 
the  fiscal  year  (July  1,  1947,  to  June  30,  1948) 
by  the  following  five  major  offices:  (1)  Office  of 
Business  Economics,  (2)  Office  of  Domestic  Com- 


FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC  COMMERCE 


201 


FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC  COMMERCE 


merce,  (3)  Office  of  International  Trade,  (4)  Of- 
fice of  Field  Service,  and  (5)  Office  of  Small  Busi- 
ness. At  the  end  of  the  period,  principal  functions 
of  the  Office  of  Small  Business  were  absorbed  by 
the  Office  of  Domestic  Commerce  when  Congress 
did  not  appropriate  funds  for  the  continuance  of 
that  Office. 

Office  of  Business  Economics.  The  Office  of  Business 
Economics  was  called  upon  to  meet  a  steady  de- 
mand for  its  basic  economic  data  and  analyses — a 
demand  which  was  heightened  by  the  wide  atten- 
tion given  to  developing  postwar  tendencies  in  the 
domestic  economy  and  the  necessity  for  determin- 
ing quantitatively  the  effect  of  new  international 
programs.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  also  neces- 
sary to  concentrate  some  resources  upon  bringing 
up-to-date  the  work  interrupted  early  in  the  war 
emergency  period,  much  of  which  was  essential  to 
profitable  analysis  for  postwar  guidance.  After 
publication  early  this  year  of  the  National  Income 
Supplement  to  the  Survey  of  Current  Business, 
containing  completely  revised  data  on  the  national 
income  and  the  gross  national  product  for  the  years 
1929  through  1946,  these  valuable  new  series  were 
posted  quarterly.  They  are  considered  standard 
guides  in  business  operations.  Resuming  the  de- 
tailed record  of  the  United  States  balance  of  inter- 
national payments  which  has  been  published  since 
1922.,  the  Office  made  available  "International 
Transactions  of  the  United  States  During  the  War 
Years,  1940-1945"  to  provide  a  comprehensive  rec- 
ord of  what  this  country  contributed  to  and  re- 
ceived from  other  nations  during  6  years  of  global 
war.  It  has  also  been  possible  to  footnote  and  ex- 
plain the  2,500  statistical  series  regularly  published 
each  month  in  the  Survey  of  Current  Business  by 
issuance  of  a  new  Statistical  Supplement  which 
in  one  handy  volume  carries  all  those  data  back 
to  1935. 

OBE  has  continued  to  serve  the  Council  of  Eco- 
nomic Advisers  and  other  Government  agencies 
through  provision  of  special  economic  materials 
and  analyses,  and  has  played  an  important  role  in 
the  considerations  leading  to  adoption  of  the  Eco- 
nomic Cooperation  Program.  Successful  efforts 
were  made  throughout  the  year  to  meet  the  desires 
of  business  concerns  and  trade  journals,  their  econ- 
omists and  advisers,  for  timely  and  meaningful 
presentation  of  basic  economic  indicators. 

Office  of  Domestic  Commerce.  This  separate  unit  of 
the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce 
continued,  under  a  reorganization  begun  the  pre- 
vious year,  the  progress  in  expanding  and  strength- 
ening its  services  to  business  and  industry.  The 
trend  from  a  seller's  to  a  buyer's  market  in  several 
important  products  brought  about  increased  de- 
mands for  assistance  in  meeting  conditions  in  pro- 
duction, construction,  distribution,  transportation, 
and  market  research.  Problems  arose  which  were 
new  to  many  of  the  persons  who  had  established 
business  enterprises  since  the  beginning  of  the  war. 

To  assist  both  business  and  Government,  stress 
was  on  a  program  to  develop  basic  demand-supply 
studies  in  the  principal  industries  and  several  re- 
leases on  the  subjects  were  made  available.  Con- 
siderable work  was  done  in  assembling  and  issuing 
marketing  information,  to  be  distributed  in  reply 
to  direct  inquiries  of  individuals  and  groups  or  by 
making  more  limited  reports  available  to  a^greater 
number  of  people  through  the  Department's  Field 
Service. 

Office  of  International  Trade.  OIT  has  three  basic 
responsibilities:  (1)  to  provide  information  and 
advisory  services  to  business,  the  general  public, 
and  government  regarding  economic  and  trade 


conditions  in  all  parts  of  the  world;  (2)  to  consult 
with  business  and  represent  business  in  the  coun- 
cils of  government  with  regard  to  international 
trade  policies  and  specific  trade  problems;  and  (3) 
to  promote  through  all  possible  means  the  creation 
of  a  balanced,  multilateral  world  trade. 

During  the  fiscal  year  1948  these  basic  service 
functions  continued  to  be  performed;  but  the  year 
was  one  of  crisis  in  international  political  and  eco- 
nomic relationships,  and  heavy  demands  were 
made  on  OIT  to  contribute  its  technical  services  to 
the  solution  of  critical  problems.  Of  overriding  irn- 

Eortance  in  the  field  of  international  economic  re- 
itionships  was  the  growing  shortage  of  dollars 
throughout  the  world.  This  dollar  shortage  resulted 
in  an  increase  and  intensification  of  import  and 
exchange  controls  in  many  areas  and  was  the  basic 
condition  that  prompted  the  European  Recovery 
Program.  During  the  period  when  the  possibilities 
of  an  ERP  were  being  explored,  the  services  of 
OIT's  commodity  and  areas  specialists  were  en- 
listed to  aid  in  the  drafting  of  the  advisory  reports; 
and  when  the  Congress  had  passed  the  Foreign 
Assistance  Act  and  authorized  funds,  OIT  assisted 
the  Economic  Cooperation  Administration  actively 
in  getting  the  program  underway  and  informing 
businessmen  of  EC  A  procedures  and  policies. 

Another  major  responsibility  of  OIT  was  the  ad- 
ministration of  an  expanded  program  of  export 
controls.  At  the  end  of  fiscal  year  1947  export  con- 
trols applied  to  only  about  20  percent  of  all  United 
States  exports.  By  June  30,  1948,  approximately 
50  percent  of  United  States  exports  required  ex- 
port licenses.  This  expansion  was  prompted  by  the 
increasing  use  of  export  controls  as  an  instrument 
of  United  States  foreign  policy  and  by  the  increas- 
ing pressure  of  demand  upon  the  United  States  to 
supply  major  quantities  of  materials  and  equip- 
ment already  in  short  supply  domestically.  In- 
creased appropriations  by  the  Congress  enabled 
OIT  to  increase  its  export  staff  from  125  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year  to  approximately  500  on 
June  30,  1948. 

Information  on  trade  conditions  was  distributed 
by  means  of  Foreign  Commerce  Weekly,  the  Inter- 
national Reference  Service,  "World  Trade  in  Com- 
modities, Trade  Lists,  World  Trade  Directory  Re- 
ports and  individual  books  on  specialized  trade 
subjects.  Because  of  the  continued  surplus  of  Unit- 
ed States  merchandise  exports  over  imports,  heavy 
emphasis  was  placed  on  the  promotion  of  imports 
as  a  means  of  placing  dollars  in  the  hands  of  other 
countries.  In  addition,  OIT  continued  to  administer 
certain  operating  trade  programs  such  as  a  British 
Token  Import  Plan,  the  China  Trade  Act,  and  the 
Foreign-Trade  Zones  Act. 

OIT  continued  to  spend  much  of  its  effort  in 
interdepartmental  councils  and  international  ne- 
gotiations toward  the  end  of  establishing  an  Inter- 
national Trade  Organization,  and  in  the  prepara- 
tory work  for,  and  the  negotiating  of  trade  agree- 
ments under  the  Reciprocal  Trade  Agreements 
Act.  The  guiding  aim  of  all  OIT  activities  is  the 
ultimate  establishment  of  a  world  trade  that  will 
be  relatively  free  of  the  restrictions,  instabilities, 
discrimination,  and  bilateral  limitations  that  have 
characterized  international  commercial  relations  in 
recent  years.  In  the  meantime,  OIT  attempts  to 
help  foreign  traders  in  every  way  possible  to  carry 
on  their  business  effectively  despite  their  many 
handicaps. 

The  Foreign-Trade  Zones  Act  of  June  18,  1934, 
which  authorized  the  establishment  of  foreign- 
trade  zones  in  our  ports  of  entry  by  qualified  public 
and  private  corporations,  named  the  Secretary  of 


POREIGN  EXCHANGE 


202 


FOREIGN  EXCHANGE 


Commerce  as  the  chairman  of  the  Foreign-Trade 
Zones  Board.  In  addition  to  the  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce, the  Board  consists  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Army. 

During  the  year  the  program  for  extending  the 
usefulness  of  foreign  trade  zones  in  the  develop- 
ment of  United  States  import  and  reexport  trade 
received  considerable  impetus.  On  Mar.  10,  1948, 
following  the  recommendation  of  the  Committee  of 
Alternates,  the  Foreign-Trade  Zones  Board  issued 
a  grant  to  the  Board  of  State  Harbor  Commission- 
ers to  establish  and  operate  a  foreign-trade  zone 
on  pier  45  in  the  Port  of  San  Francisco.  Operation 
of  Foreign-Trade  Zone  No.  3  in  this  port  began 
on  June  10,  1948. 

Port  surveys  conducted  at  Los  Angeles,  Seattle, 
and  San  Antonio  during  the  fiscal  year  have  ma- 
terialized into  formal  applications  to  establish  for- 
eign-trade zones  at  these  locations. 

Office  of  Field  Service.  A  substantial  cut  was  made 
in  the  Field  Service  virtually  offsetting  the  expan- 
sion which  took  place  during  the  previous  fiscal 
year.  With  46  field  offices  in  operation,  compared 
to  77  during  the  previous  year,  heavy  demands 
were  made  on  the  existing  facilities  due  to  the  un- 
settled economic  conditions  throughout  the  world. 
The  problems  created  by  dollar  shortages  in  many 
of  our  important  markets  and  the  signing  of  the 
General  Agreements  on  Tariffs  and  Trade  in  Octo- 
ber brought  forth  a  large  number  of  inquiries.  The 
Seld  offices  continued  to  play  an  important  part 
in  the  administration  of  the  export  control  powers 
vested  in  the  Office  of  International  Trade  under 
the  Second  Decontrol  Act  of  1947.  The  Trade  Con- 
ference Program  of  utilizing  services  of  Foreign 
Service  officers  in  the  United  States  on  leave  was 
expanded,  and  there  was  an  increase  of  50  percent 
in  the  number  of  cooperative  offices  maintained  by 
the  Field  Service.  A  continuing  interest  existed 
throughout  the  year  in  information  on  local  and 
regional  economic  trends  and  a  wider  use  was 
made  of  material  provided  by  the  Department  on 
national  income  and  national  product,  with  con- 
stant use  being  made  of  the  wide  range  of  data 
provided  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census. 

Office  of  Small  Business.*  In  cooperation  with  trade 
and  professional  associations,  bureaus  of  business 
research,  veterans'  organizations,  manufacturers, 
wholesalers,  and  public  interest  groups,  a  program 
was  developed  to  disseminate  management  infor- 
mation to  small  businessmen  throughout  the  coun- 
try. Emphasis  was  placed  on  this  type  of  informa- 
tion because  of  the  recognition  that  lack  of  man- 
agement "know-how"  is  a  leading  cause  of  small- 
business  failures.  The  Office  of  Small  Business  pub- 
lished booklets  useful  to  the  small-business  operator, 

FOREIGN  EXCHANGE.  In  1948  the  deficit  of  foreign 
countries  in  their  transactions  with  the  United 
States  was  considerably  reduced  as  compared  with 
the  previous  year.  The  excess  of  exports  of  Amer- 
ican goods  and  services  over  imports  was  approx- 
imately $6,000  million  as  against  $11,000  million 
in  1947.  In  part  this  decline  reflected  an  increase 
in  United  States  imports  due  to  partial  recovery 
abroad  and  high  business  activity  at  home.  To  a 
greater  extent,  however,  it  was  caused  by  a  de- 
crease in  exports  brought  about  by  the  trade  and 
exchange  restrictions  imposed  by  foreign  countries 
as  their  gold  and  exchange  resources  were  depleted 
and  production  of  industry  and  agriculture  in- 
creased. 

*  O.S.B.  was  abolished  at  the  beginning  of  fecal  1949 
and  its  major  functions  were  transferred  to  a  Division  of 
Small  Business  in  the  Office  of  Domestic  Commerce, 


While  the  nations  abroad  continue  to  buy  in  the 
United  States  large  quantities  of  essential  commod- 
ities, particularly  grain,  fuels,  industrial  raw  ma- 
terials and  machinery  and  equipment,  they  cut 
down  drastically  on  imports  of  non-essentials.  This 
applied  not  only  to  the  countries  receiving  aid 
under  the  European  Recovery  Program  but  also  to 
countries  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  that  were  suf- 
fering from  an  acute  shortage  of  dollars  because  of 
their  previous  large  purchases  in  the  United  States 
and  the  fact  that  a  considerable  part  of  their  earn- 
ings in  Europe  were  in  sterling  or  other  inconverti- 
ble currencies  that  could  not  be  used  to  offset  their 
deficits  in  trade  with  the  United  States.  This  situa- 
tion led  to  widespread  tightening  of  controls  on  im- 
ports from  the  dollar  area  and  to  special  efforts  to 
increase  exports  to  the  United  States. 

The  deficit  of  foreign  nations  in  their  dealings 
with  the  United  States  was  made  up  in  part  through 
the  shipment  of  gold  and  the  liquidation  of  dollar 
assets  here,  the  increase  in  the  gold  stock  of  the 
United  States  amounting  to  $1,500  million  during 
the  yean  In  the  main,  however,  the  negative  bal- 
ance of  payments  was  covered  by  loans  and  grants 
received  from  the  United  States  under  the  Euro- 
pean Recovery  Program  (ERP)  and  the  credits  ex- 
tended prior  to  its  inception.  Credits  received  from 
the  International  Monetary  Fund  and  the  Interna- 
tional Bank  also  helped  alleviate  the  dollar  short- 
age. 

The  manner  in  which  foreign  nations  were  able 
to  finance  the  goods  and  services  received  from 
the  United  States  is  shown  in  Table  1  which  sum- 
marizes the  transactions  for  the  first  three  quarters 
of  1948. 

TABLE  I—EXPORTS  OF  GOODS  AND  SERVICES 

AND  MEANS  OF  FINANCING,  1948 

[ M illions  of  dollars] 


First 
quarter 
4,444 


Item 
Exports  of  goods  and  services 

Means  of  Financing 
Foreign  resources: 
United  States  imports  of  goods 

and  services 2,495 

Liquidation  of  gold  and  dollar 

assets 307 

Dollar  disbursements  (net)  by: 

International  Monetary  Fund. . .      132 

International  Bank 103 

United  States  Government  aid: 

Grants  (net) 807 

Long-  and  short-term  loans  (net)      511 
United  States  private  sources: 

Remittances  (net) 161 

Long-  and  short-term  capital 

(net) 161 

Errors  and  omissions —233 


Second 
quarter 
4,221 


2,592 
613 

22 
67 

795 
36 

158 

285 
-347 


Third 
quarter 
3,971 


2,676 
189 

6 
16 

1,242 
-155 

139 

239 
-381 


Foreign  Aid.  During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1948,  assistance  provided  by  the  United  States 
Government  to  other  countries  in  the  form  of  grants 
or  credits  totaled  $5,400  million  as  compared  with 
$6,500  million  in  the  previous  fiscal  year.  Aid  in 
the  form  of  grants  increased  by  almost  one-fifth, 
however,  the  decline  being  accounted  for  by  small- 
er foreign  loans.  These  totals  reflected  mainly  com- 
mitments made  before  the  European  Recovery 
Program,  which  was  authorized  under  the  Foreign 
Assistance  Act  of  Apr.  3,  1948,  and  made  itself 
felt  mainly  during  the  second  half  of  the  year. 

Included  in  the  1948  fiscal  year  totals  was  $1,700 
million  remaining  on  the  British  loan,  which  was 
completely  utilized  by  Mar.  1,  1948,  Civilian  sup- 
plies shipped  to  occupied  and  liberated  areas  by 
the  military  agencies  accounted  for  $1,075  million, 
while  loans  and  credits  of  the  Export-Import  Bank 
made  up  an  additional  $1,102  million.  Grants  un- 
der the  post-UNRRA,  Greek-Turkish,  and  Philip- 


FOREIGN  EXCHANGE 


203 


FORf/GW  EXCHANGE 


pine  rehabilitation  programs  amounted  to  $643  mil- 
lion, while  the  interim  aid  authorized  by  Congress 
to  bridge  the  gap  during  the  first  three  months  of 
1948  provided  an  additional  $535  million. 

The  foreign  transactions  of  the  United  States 
Government  for  the  fiscal  years  from  1946  to  1948 
are  summarized  in  Table  2. 

TABLE  2— FOREIGN  TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  U.S. 

GOVERNMENT 
[Millions  of  dollars.  Fiscal  years  ended  June  SO] 

Type  of  Transaction  1940          19£7          1948 

Grants  and  credits 5,223        6,602        5,385 

Grants 3,353        2,192        2,583 

Lend-lease 1,284  I 

Military  civilian  supplies.  . . .      744  742  1,075 

Economic  cooperation ....  205 

Relief 1,194  1,381  951 

Other  grants  and  financial  aid.      131  68  353 

Credits 1,870        4,410         2,802 

Dollar  disbursements  on  loans.     558  3,205  2,298 

Lend-lease ?SS  481  56 

Surplus  property 498  440  305 

Merchant  ships 141  83 

Commodity  programs 28  142  60 

Other  outlays 2,203        2,016         1,702 

Disbursements  for  goods  and 

services 1,516        1,361         1,103 

Net  military  payments  to  per- 
sonnel       467  228  404 

Net  payments  for  special  cur- 
rency        152  215  8 

Other  disbursements 69  212  188 

Payments  to  International  Bank .  .      159  476          

Payments  to  International  Mone- 
tary Fund («)         2,750          ;;.. 

Receipts 1,152        1,863        1,372 

Repayments  on  loans,  property 
credits,  and  commodity 

programs 108  210  417 

Cash 108  20S  400 

Real  Estate 2  17 

Lend-lease  cash  receipts 151  157  16 

Cash  from  surplus-property  sales  132  521  247 

Cash  from  other  sales 610  873  545 

Other  cashreceipts 150  102  147 

Installations  abroad,  at  end  of  year  2,273         1,573         1,302 
a  Less  than  $500,000. 

The  Foreign  Assistance  Act  authorized  grants 
and  credits  of  $5,300  million  to  the  16  Western 
European  nations,  Trieste,  and  the  zones  o£  West- 
ern Germany,  comprising  the  Organization  for 
European  Economic  Cooperation.  While  these 
funds  were  to  be  used  over  the  15-month  period 
ending  June  30,  1949,  the  President  was  authorized 
to  utilize  the  entire  amount  within  12  months  if  he 
considered  it  advisable.  A  special  program  of  eco- 
nomic and  military  aid  to  China,  totaling  $400  mil- 
lion, was  also  voted  by  Congress. 

By  the  end  of  1948,  authorizations  by  the  Eco- 
nomic Cooperation  Administration  (EGA),  the 
governmental  agency  carrying  out  the  program, 
totaled  $4,233  million.  Of  this  total,  the  United 
Kingdom  received  $1,110  million,  France  $946 
million,  Italy  $498  million,  Western  Germany  $401 
million,  the  Netherlands  and  Indonesia  $373  mil- 
lion, Austria  $213  million,  China  $171  million, 
Greece  $145  million,  and  Belgium-Luxembourg 
$139  million,  with  smaller  amounts  for  the  other 
countries. 

Of  the  total  procurement  authorizations  through 
December  24,  food  and  agricultural  commodities 
made  up  45  percent.  The  principal  items  were 
wheat  and  wheat  flour  to  the  amount  of  $731  mil- 
lion, cotton  $353  million,  fats  and  oils  $179  million, 
tobacco  $106  million,  sugar  $92  million,  meats  $86 
million,  coarse  grains  $81  million,  and  dairy  prod- 


ucts and  eggs  $75  million.  Raw  materials,  fuels, 
equipment,  and  other  industrial  commodities  made 
up  46  percent  of  the  total  authorizations.  In  this 
group  the  major  items  were  petroleum  $394  million, 
machinery'  $393  million,  nonferrous  metals  $268 
million,  coal  $206  million,  vehicles  and  equipment 
$175  million,  iron  and  steel  products  $101  million, 
lumber,  pulp  and  paper  $101  million,  chemicals 
and  related  products  $101  million,  textiles  $55  mil- 
lion, metallic  ores  $46  million,  hides  and  leather 
S40  million. 

Ocean  freight,  totaling  $349  million,  absorbed 
over  8  percent  of  the  total  At  the  start  of  EGA  op- 
erations, the  greatest  emphasis  was  placed  on  food- 
stuffs and  other  relief  commodities.  As  recovery 
proceeded  in  Europe,  however,  a  larger  proportion 
of  shipments  was  made  up  of  capital  goods.  Thus, 
in  the  period  from  October  1  to  November  15  the 
EGA  procurements  of  industrial  equipment  and 
commodities  constituted  60  percent  of  the  total  as 
compared  with  41  percent  in  the  April-June  quar- 
ter. 

Aside  from  the  contributions  to  European  re- 
habilitation made  by  the  direct  shipments  under 
the  program,  EGA  aided  European  recovery 
through  the  use  of  the  so-called  ^'counterpart 
funds,"  which  are  the  shipments  in  local  currency 
deposited  by  each  of  the  recipient  nations  in  spe- 
cial accounts  in  amounts  corresponding  to  the  total 
of  the  American  grants.  Under  the  Foreign  Assist- 
ance Act,  approval  of  the  EGA  must  be  received 
before  these  funds  can  be  released,  the  aim  being 
to  avoid  their  employment  for  inflationary  pur- 
poses. Release  of  counterpart  funds  in  France, 
Italy  and  other  European  countries  provided  means 
for  the  development  of  local  industries  and  for 
public  works  projects,  while  in  Great  Britain  large 
amounts  were  used  to  retire  part  of  the  national 
debt  held  by  the  banking  system,  thus  reducing 
the  money  supply. 

An  important  step  toward  the  attainment  of  an- 
other major  objective  of  the  ERF,  the  development 
of  intra-European  trade,  was  taken  with  the  con- 
clusion of  a  clearing  and  payments  agreement 
among  the  Marshall  Plan  countries.  Under  this  ar- 
rangement, ERP  nations  running  a  deficit  in  their 
trade  with  other  participants  are  enabled  to  obtain 
credits  from  the  latter,  while  the  creditor  countries, 
in  turn,  are  reimbursed  with  an  equivalent  amount 
of  dollar  grants  from  the  EGA.  A  clearing  organiza- 
tion settles  each  month's  trade  payments  among 
the  16  countries.  It  was  hoped  that  this  plan,  by 
making  possible  more  extensive  multilateral  trade 
to  replace  the  bilateral  arrangements  by  which  ac- 
counts had  been  largely  settled,  would  stimulate 
the  volume  of  trade  within  Europe.  This,  in  turn, 
would  reduce  the  deficits  of  Western  European 
countries  in  their 'trade  with  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. 

During  the  year,  the  countries  making  up  the 
Organization  for  European  Economic  Cooperation 
drew  up  long-range  plans  for  economic  develop- 
ment envisaging  a  steady  decline  in  the  payments 
deficits  of  the  member  countries.  It  was  anticipated 
that  the  dollar  aid  needed  in  1949  would  be  some- 
what less  than  in  1948. 

The  International  Monetary  Fund  and  Currency  Re- 
form. The  International  Monetary  Fund  continued 
to  play  an  important  part  in  promoting  internation- 
al exchange  stability  by  making  available  to  mem- 
bers experiencing  exchange  difficulties  limited 
amounts  of  foreign  currencies.  These  transactions 
take  the  form  of  sales  of  the  desired  currency,  usu- 
ally dollars,  in  exchange  for  the  buying  country's 
currency. 


FOREIGN  EXCHANGE 


204 


FOREIGN  EXCHANGE 


As  of  Nov.  30,  1948,  transactions  of  the  Fund 
totaled  $649  million  as  compared  with  $468  million 
at  the  end  of  1947.  Of  the  total  Fund  sales  of  all 
currencies,  $631.5  million  consisted  of  United 
States  dollars.  The  principal  purchasers  of  United 
States  dollars  from  the  inception  of  the  Fund  were 
the  United  Kingdom  ($300  million),  France  ($125 
million),  and  the  Netherlands  ($62.5  million). 
With  Switzerland  and  Austria  signing  the  articles 
of  agreement,  the  number  of  members  was  in- 
creased to  47  as  against  38  when  the  Fund  started 
operations.  The  applications  of  Siam  and  Liberia 
were  also  approved.  On  Sept.  30,  1948,  gold  hold- 
ings of  the  Fund  totaled  $1,403  million  and  hold- 
ings of  members'  currencies  the  equivalent  of 
$5,448  million. 

During  the  year  a  number  of  important  cur- 
rency reforms  were  effected,  particularly  in  France, 
China  and  Western  Germany.  In  most  of  the  other 
countries,  with  certain  relatively  minor  exceptions 
in  Latin  America,  the  exchange  parities  remained 
fairly  stable.  Table  3  shows  the  average  rates  of  ex- 
change on  21  countries  in  December,  1948,  and 
December,  1947.  Averages  are  based  on  daily  noon 
buying  rates  for  cable  transfers  in  New  York  City 
certified  by  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank  of  New  York. 

TABLE'  3— FOREIGN  EXCHANGE  RATES 
[Rates  in  cents  per  unit  of  foreign  currency] 


Monetary 

Country  unit 
Argentina — "regular"  prod- 
ucts * Peso 

"         — "non-regular" 

products  * " 

"          — certain  industrial 

products  * " 

Australia Pound 

Belgium Franc 

Brazil Cruzeiro 

Canada — official Dollar 

"     —free 

Colombia Peso 

Czechoslovakia Koruna 

Denmark Krone 

France  (Metropolitan)— official.  Franc 
—free... 

India Rupee 

Mexico Peso 

Netherlands Guilder 

New  Zealand Pound 

Norway Krone 

Portugal Escudo 

South  Africa Pound 

Spain Peseta 

Sweden Krona 

Switzerland Franc 

United  Kingdom Pound 

Uruguay  * Peso 

1C  *  '* 


December  December 
1948 


29.77 
~    25.12 

20.00 

321.23 

2.28 

5.44 

100.00 

92.25 

«  51.28 

2.01 

20.85 

0.47 

0.32 

&  30.17 

14.53 

37.62 

399.15 

20.16 

4.03 

400.75 

C9.13 

27.82 

23.36 

403.15 

65.83 

56.18 


29.77 
25.12 


321.21 

2.28 

5.44 

100.00 

88.36 

56.98 

2.01 

20.86 

J0.84 

30.18 
20.58 
37.70 

322.51 

20.16 

4.01 

400.75 

9.13 

27.83 

23.36 

403.13 
65.83 
56.20 


*  Quotations  nominal.  °  Revised  parity.  b  Excludes  Pak- 
istan. e  Through  Dec.  17. 

On  Jan.  25,  1948,  the  French  Government,  in 
order  to  stimulate  exports  and  attract  gold  from 
hoards  and  abroad,  devalued  the  franc  by  44.4  per- 
cent, thus  raising  the  official  rate  for  the  United 
States  dollar  to  214,4  francs  (1  franc  =  0.47  cents). 
Simultaneously,  a  free  market  was  established  for 
the  United  States  dollar  and  the  Portuguese  escudo 
and  later  for  the  Swiss  franc,  operating  at  the  Paris 
Bourse  under  the  control  of  the  Bank  of  France. 

Although  the  rates  of  the  "hard"  currencies  on 
the  free  market  fluctuated  in  accordance  with  de- 
mand and  supply,  the  demand  was  effectively 
controlled  through  the  issuance  of  licenses  for  au- 
thorized transactions  by  the  Exchange  Control  Of- 
fice (Office  des  Changes).  Moreover,  the  Bank  of 
France  intervened  in  the  free  market  from  time  to 
time  through  purchases  and  sales.  Nevertheless, 
the  black  market  in  foreign  exchange  was  still  very 
active.  On  December  17  the  United  States  dollar 
sold  for  545  francs  (290  francs  on  February  1), 


The  drastic  devaluation  of  the  franc  and  the  in- 
stitution of  free-market  dealings  in  only  three  cur- 
rencies was  strongly  opposed  by  the  International 
Monetary  Fund  on  the  ground  that  it  produced  a 
pattern  of  exchange  rates  in  France  at  variance 
with  the  parities  established  by  the  Fund. 

On  Oct.  16,  1948,  the  exchange  rate  of  the  dollar 
for  export  and  import  transactions  was  fixed  at  the 
average  of  the  official  rate  of  214  and  the  free  mar- 
ket rate  of  313  francs,  or  about  263  francs.  Thus, 
importers  of  essential  commodities  had  to  pay  263 
francs  per  dollar  instead  of  the  former  rate  of  214 
francs.  The  free  market  for  the  dollar,  Swiss  franc, 
and  escudo  continued  unchanged  for  non-com- 
mercial transactions. 

In  an  effort  to  curb  the  catastrophic  inflation 
which  had  virtually  wiped  out  the  purchasing 
power  of  the  currency,  the  Chinese  Government  on 
August  19  introduced  a  new  managed  gold  stand- 
ard currency  called  the  "gold  yuan/'  The  new  cur- 
rency, with  a  gold  content  of  0.222  grams,  was  to 
be  backed  by  100  percent  reserves  consisting  of  a 
minimum  of  40  percent  in  gold,  silver,  and  foreign 
exchange  and  the  remainder  in  negotiable  instru- 
ments. 

All  outstanding  legal  tender  notes  (fapi)  were 
to  be  exchanged  for  the  new  currency  at  the  rate  of 
3  million  for  1  gold  yuan.  Gold,  silver  dollars  and 
foreign  currency  held  by  the  public  were  either  to 
be  surrendered  to  the  Government  in  exchange  for 
gold  yuan,  at  the  exchange  rate  of  4  gold  yuan  to 
one  United  States  dollar,  or  deposited  in  Govern- 
ment banks  to  be  used  for  the  payment  of  licensed 
imports  or  other  authorized  purposes.  The  cur- 
rency reform  was  accompanied  by  a  series  of 
emergency  measures  designed  to  control  and  stabi- 
lize prices  and  wages. 

With  the  continuance  of  the  civil  war  and  the 
huge  budget  deficit,  the  emergency  measures 
proved  completely  ineffective  to  stem  the  rising 
tide  of  inflation.  On  November  11  the  Government 
made  a  number  of  additional  revisions  in  the  cur- 
rency system.  The  basic  unit  of  the  currency  was 
to  be  gold  yuan  coins  instead  of  gold  yuan  notes, 
each  coin  to  have  a  legal  content  of  4.44  milligrams 
of  fine  gold.  Possession  of  gold,  silver  coins  and 
foreign  currency  was  again  legalized,  but  their  cir- 
culation and  dealings  in  them  were  not  permitted. 
United  States  bank  notes  could  be  exchanged  for 
gold  yuan  coins  at  the  rate  of  20  gold  yuan  coins 
to  one  United  States  dollar.  The  critical  military 
situation  and  the  collapse  of  the  Chinese  economy 
in  the  closing  months  of  the  year  made  it  highly 
improbable  that  the  new  regulations  would  have 
much  greater  success  in  stabilizing  the  currency 
than  the  old. 

As  a  step  towards  the  restoration  of  normal  eco- 
nomic life  and  the  establishment  of  an  independent 
economy  in  Western  Germany,  the  United  States, 
British  and  French  military  Governors  introduced 
a  sweeping  reform  of  the  currency  in  June.  Under 
this  reform  the  greatly  depreciated  reichsmark  was 
abolished  and  in  its  place  was  issued  a  new 
deutsche  mark  at  the  rate  of  10  old  marks  for  one 
deutsche  mark.  In  general,  all  unpaid  debts  were 
to  be  written  down  to  one-tenth  of  their  normal 
value,  but  salaries,  wages,  pensions  and  similar 
payments  had  to  be  continued  on  a  l~to~l  basis, 

Under  a  new  currency  law  issued  at  the  begin- 
ning of  October,  the  Allied  Military  Government 
wiped  out  a  substantial  part  of  the  blocked  bal- 
ances of  currency  holdings  and  bank  deposits,  esti- 
mated at  approximately  5  billion  deutsche  marks. 
The  new  law  cancelled  70  percent  of  the  blocked 
holdings,  released  20  percent  to  the  owners,  and 


FO&E/GN  UQUfDAr/ON  COMMISSIONER 


205 


FORSST  SERVICE 


kept  10  percent  blocked,  with  the  provision  that  it 
could  be  used  for  investment  purposes  subject  to 
government  regulations.  The  months  following  the 
reform  were  marked  by  a  substantial  increase  in  in- 
dustry and  trade. 

On  August  19  the  New  Zealand  Government 
raised  the  exchange  value  of  its  currency  by  25 
percent,  bringing  it  to  parity  with  the  British 
pound  sterling.  This  upward  revaluation  of  the 
currency  from  the  level  where  it  had  remained 
since  1933  was  stated  to  be  necessary  in  order  to  re- 
duce the  cost  of  imported  goods  so  as  to  lower 
production  costs  and  the  general  cost  of  living. 

international  Bank.  The  International  Bank  was 
relatively  inactive  in  1948  so  far  as  loan  operations 
were  concerned.  The  only  new  loans  were  one  in 
Swiss  francs  to  the  equivalent  of  $4  million  made 
to  the  Netherlands  Government  and  one  of  $12  mil- 
lion made  to  four  Dutch  shipping  companies,  the 
first  loan  to  private  enterprise  made  by  the  Bank. 
The  latter  credit,  given  for  the  purchase  of  ships, 
was  secured  by  notes  guaranteed  by  die  Dutch 
Government,  the  bulk  of  which  were  immediately 
sold  to  American  banks. 

As  of  December  1,  loans  made  by  the  Bank  to- 
taled $509  million.  In  addition,  there  was  outstand- 
ing a  commitment  of  a  loan  to  Chile  of  §16  million 
subject  to  ratification  by  the  Chilean  Government. 
The  Bank  reported  it  had  under  consideration  ap- 
plications from  many  nations  for  loans  for  recon- 
struction purposes.  Discussions  were  being  con- 
ducted in  more  than  20  countries  with  regard  to 
the  Bank's  participation  in  the  financing  of  projects 
such  as  power  developments,  transportation  and 
communication  facilities,  irrigation  works,  mining 
plants  and  industrial  enterprises. 

Gold  Imports.  During  1948  foreign  nations  con- 
tinued to  draw  on  their  gold  reserves  in  order  to 
redress  their  payment  deficits  with  the  United 
States,  although  at  a  slower  rate  than  in  the  pre- 
vious year.  In  the  12  months  ending  Dec.  15,  1948, 
the  monetary  gold  stock  of  the  United  States  in- 
creased by  $1,507  million  as  against  $2,225  million 
in  1947  aside  from  $687  million  paid  to  the  Inter- 
national Monetary  Fund  as  the  U.S.  subscription. 
Of  the  total  gain  in  1948,  approximately  $75  mil- 
lion was  represented  by  domestic  gold  production 
and  the  remainder  by  gold  exported  for  sale  in  the 
United  States  or  gold  released  from  earmark  for 
foreign  account  to  be  sold  to  the  United  States 
Government.  At  the  year's  end  the  nation's  mone- 
tary gold  stock  reached  the  record  total  of  $24,243 
million.  The  decline  in  gold  imports  in  1948  was 
due  to  grants  under  the  European  Recovery  Pro- 
gram (ERP),  to  reduced  imports  of  American 
goods  brought  about  by  exchange  restrictions  im- 
posed by  European  and  Latin  Ainerican  countries, 
to  the  depletion  of  foreign  gold  and  exchange  re- 
serves, and  to  increased  commodity  imports  by  the 
United,  States  as  a  result  of  economic  recovery 
abroad.  — SAMUEL  S.  SHTPMAN 

FOREIGN  LIQUIDATION  COMMISSIONER,  Office  of.  The 

Office  of  the  Foreign  Liquidation  Commissioner  of 
the  U.S.  Department  of  State  was  created  by  order 
of  the  Secretary  of  State,  effective  Oct.  30,  1945, 
with  authority  to  carry  out  the  functions  trans- 
ferred to  the  Department  of  State  by  Executive 
Order  9630  dated  Sept.  27,  1945,  i.e.,  disposal  of 
surplus  property  located  in  foreign  areas  and  resid- 
ual lenctlease  functions.  At  the  same  time  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  named  Mr.  Thomas  B.  McCabe  as 
Commissioner  and  Maj.  Gen.  Donald  H.  Connolly 
as  Deputy  Commissioner. 
Maj.  Gen.  Connolly  was  later  appointed  Com- 


missioner to  succeed  Mr.  McCabe  who  resigned  on 
Sept  20,  1948,  and  held  office  until  Mar,  31,  1948, 
when  he  resigned  as  Commissioner  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Mr.  Fred  W.  Ramsey,  former  Deputy 
Commissioner  who  administered  the  affairs  of  the 
OFLC  until  his  resignation  on  July  31,  1948.  Maj. 
Gen.  Clyde  L.  Hyssong,  former  Central  Field  Com- 
missioner for  Europe,  succeeded  Mr.  Ramsey  and 
assumed  responsibility  Aug.  1,  1948.  The  remain- 
ing lend-lease  functions  (except  for  certain  field 
operations)  were  subsequently  transferred  from 
OFLC  to  the  Office  of  Financial  and  Development 
Policy  of  the  Department  of  State  on  Mar.  24, 
1947. 

OFLC  is  the  disposal  agency  for  United  States 
surplus  property  located  outside  the  continental 
United  States,  Alaska  (including  the  Aleutian  Is- 
lands), Puerto  Rico,  and  the  Virgin  Islands.  Prop- 
erty declared  surplus  by  agencies  of  the  govern- 
ment is  sold  through  field  offices  in  various  parts 
of  the  world  subject  to  supervision  by  the  Wash- 
ington Office.  These  field  offices  are  located  in 
Paris,  Manila,  Sydney,  Shanghai,  Tokyo,  Guam 
and  Balboa.  In  addition,  a  field  commissioner  for 
Military  Programs  and  a  field  commissioner  for 
Canada  and  North  Atlantic  areas  are  stationed  at 
the  Washington  office. 

Property  is  sold  on  a  "where  is — as  is"  basis  and 
prospective  customers  are  therefore  advised  to  in- 
spect property.  Importation  into  the  United  States 
of  surplus  sold  in  foreign  areas  is  prohibited  gen- 
erally although  some  exceptions  are  provided  for 
in  FLC  Regulation  8.  Owning  agencies  are  respon- 
sible for  the  care,  handling  and  storage  of  surplus 
property  until  removed  by  the  purchaser  or  aban- 
doned. As  of  Sept.  30,  1948,  property  having  an 
original  cost  of  $10,246  million  had  been  declared 
surplus  to  the  OFLC.  Operations  through  Sept.  30, 
1948,  disposed  of  property  which  had  originally 
cost  $10,067,927,000  for  a  total  realization  in  the 
form  of  cash,  credit  and  foreign  currency  amount- 
ing to  $1,882,959,000. 

The  OFLC  is  responsible,  also,  for  the  sale  of 
any  returned  lend-lease  property  which  is  sub- 
sequently declared  surplus  and  for  the  sale  of 
properties  allocated  to  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment by  the  Inter-Allied  Reparation  Agency,  as 
reparations  from  Germany.  German  manufactur- 
ing equipment  made  available  by  the  Allied  Con- 
trol Authority  as  reparations  for  allocation  among 
the  Western  allies  is  requested  for  the  United 
States  only  when  the  U.S.  Department  of  Com- 
merce has  determined  that  such  property  can  be 
utilized  directly  by  United  States  industry  or  Gov- 
ernment Agencies  and  its  use  will  be  generally 
beneficial  to  the  American  economy. 

— CLYDE  L.  HYSSONG 

FOREIGN-TRADE  ZONES  BOARD.  A  Board  constituting 
the  Secretary  of  Commerce,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Army,  which 
was  created  by  the  Celler  Act  in  1934  to  provide 
for  the  establishment,  operation  and  maintenance 
of  foreign-trade  zones  in  the  United  States.  The 
Chairman  is  the  Secretary  of  Commerce.  Foreign- 
Trade  Zone  No.  1  at  Stapleton,  Staten  Island,  New 
York,  was  opened  in  1937.  Foreign-Trade  Zone 
No.  2  was  opened  on  May  1,  1947,  in  New  Orleans, 
La.  Foreign-Trade  Zone  No.  3  was  opened  at  San 
Francisco,  Calif.,  on  June  10,  1948.  Applications 
for  zones  from  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  Seattle,  Wash., 
and  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  were  under  consideration. 

FOREST  SERVICE,  U.S.  Fifty  years  of  development  of 
national  forests  in  the  United  States  was  reviewed 


FOREST  SERVICE 


206 


FOREST  SERVICE 


in  the  1948  report  of  the  Chief  of  the  Forest  Serv- 
ice. The  national  forest  system,  which  began  with 
the  reservation  of  certain  areas  of  public  domain 
land  in  the  western  States  in  the  1890s,  now  em- 
braces nearly  180  million  acres,  located  in  40 
States  and  the  territories  of  Alaska  and  Puerto 
Rico.  It  is  being  administered  by  the  Forest  Service 
under  a  multiple-purpose  system  of  management 
that  looks  to  the  development  and  maintenance  of 
its  resources  for  permanent  public  use  and  benefit. 

Establishment  of  national  forests  marked  the 
first  great  step  in  the  forest  conservation  movement 
in  the  United  States,  the  report  said.  The  national 
forest  system  still  represents  the  Nation's  largest 
tangible  accomplishment  in  forest  conservation. 

Timber  output  from  the  national  forests  has  in- 
creased rapidly  in  recent  years.  The  total  cut  of 
nearly  4,000  million  board  feet  in  1948  was  nearly 
treble  that  of  10  years  earlier.  With  construction 
of  more  access  roads  and  intensified  management, 
the  report  said,  the  sustained  yield  of  timber  can 
be  increased  another  50  percent  within  a  few  years, 
and  eventually  even  greater  production  can  be  ob- 
tained. 

With  16  percent  of  the  nation's  commercial  for- 
est land,  the  national  forests  now  contain  more 
than  30  percent  of  the  nation's  total  volume  of 
standing  sawtirnber.  National  forest  timber  is 
therefore  becoming  increasingly  important  in  meet- 
ing the  country's  needs  for  forest  products.  But 
with  only  16  percent  of  the  commercial  timber- 
land,  the  national  forests  cannot  supply  all  of  the 
nation's  requirements  for  wood.  The  report  said 
that  timber  growth  on  forest  lands  in  all  owner- 
ships must  be  built  up  if  adequate  future  timber 
supplies  are  to  be  assured. 

In  addition  to  producing  timber,  national  for- 
ests, mainly  in  the  western  States,  are  providing 
seasonal  grazing  for  some  9  million  head  of  cattle 
and  sheep.  Demand  for  grazing  privileges  greatly 
exceeds  the  amount  of  national  forest  range  avail- 
able. National  forests  harbor  more  than  2  million 
deer,  elk,  and  other  big-game  animals — about  a 
third  of  the  nation's  total  big-game  population. 
Some  of  the  deer  and  elk  ranges  have  become  too 
heavily  populated,  with  resulting  damage  to  the 
range  and  loss  of  animals  through  starvation  and 
disease.  The  Forest  Service  is  cooperating  with 
State  game  departments  in  measures  to  bring  game 
numbers  into  balance  with  natural  food  supply. 

More  than  21  million  recreationists  visited  the 
national  forests  in  1947,  and  recreational  use  in 
1948  was  expected  to  exceed  this  figure.  The  For- 
est Service  has  developed  4,500  camping  and  pic- 
nic areas  and  230  winter  sports  areas.  Four  hun- 
dred organization  camps  are  maintained  by  the 
Forest  Service  and  civic  and  welfare  organizations 
to  provide  low-cost  vacations  for  underprivileged 
children  and  other  groups.  Within  the  national  for- 
ests are  90,000  miles  of  fishing  streams.  More  than 
50,000  miles  of  national-forest  highways  and  roads 
are  available  to  motorists,  and  88,000  miles  of  trails 
to  hikers  and  horseback  riders. 

Watershed  protection  is  a  major  objective  in  na- 
tional forest  administration.  National  forest  lands 
are  the  source  of  water  supply  for  hundreds  of 
towns  and  cities,  for  many  industrial  plants  and 
power  projects,  and  in  the  western  States  for  most 
of  the  irrigation  agriculture. 

For  further  development  of  the  national  forests, 
the  Chief  Forester  recommended  more  intensive 
management  of  timber,  water,  and  forage  resourc- 
es; more  tree  planting  and  range  reseeding,  and 
strengthening  of  protective  work  against  fire,  in- 
sects, and  tree  diseases.  He  also  recommended  con- 


solidation of  existing  national  forests  through  pub- 
lic purchase  of  intermingled  private  lands  within 
forest  boundaries,  and  extension  of  national  forests 
in  certain  areas  of  critical  watershed  importance  or 
other  high  public  value. 

Aloska  Timber  Sale.  In  August,  1948,  the  Forest 
Service  accepted  a  bid  for  1,500  million  cubic  feet 
of  timber  in  Tongass  National  Forest  in  south- 
eastern Alaska.  The  purchaser  was  the  Ketchikan 
Pulp  and  Paper  Company,  an  affiliate  of  the  Puget 
Sound  Pulp  and  Timber  Company  of  Bellingham, 
Wash.,  which  plans  the  establishment  of  a  modern 
pulp  mill  with  an  ultimate  capacity  of  some  500 
tons  per  day,  near  Ketchikan. 

This  pulp-timber  sale  was  the  culmination  of 
30  years  of  effort  on  the  part  of  the  Forest  Service 
to  bring  a  pulp  and  paper  industry  to  Alaska.  The 
Ketchikan  pulp-timber  unit  is  the  first  of  several 
such  units  in  the  Tongass  National  Forest  which 
the  Forest  Service  plans  to  develop.  The  sale  marks 
the  first  step  in  opening  up  the  Territory's  huge 
pulp-timber  resources,  the  largest  untapped  re- 
sources of  the  kind  on  the  continent. 

Looking  to  the  establishment  of  a  stable  major 
industry,  with  year-round  operation  and  employ- 
ment, the  timber  sale  is  expected  to  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  expanding  the  economy  of  Alaska  on 
a  sound  and  secure  basis.  The  sale  contract  re- 
quires handling  the  timber  on  a  sustained  yield 
basis,  safeguarding  of  salmon  spawning  streams, 
preservation  of  outstanding  scenic  areas,  and  pre- 
vention of  stream  pollution. 

Cooperative  Work.  Under  authorization  of  the 
Clarke-McNary  Act,  the  Forest  Service  cooperated 
with  43  States  and  Hawaii  during  the  year  in  the 
prevention  and  suppression  of  forest  fires  on  State 
and  privately-owned  lands.  Organized  protection 
was  provided  for  328  million  acres,  an  increase  of 
9  million  acres  over  the  preceding  year.  There  are 
111  million  acres  of  private  land,  nowever,  which 
as  yet  receive  no  organized  fire  control.  The  U.S. 
Congress  raised  the  Federal  appropriation  for  co- 
operative fire  protection  from  $8.3  million  in  fiscal 
year  1947  to  ?9  million  (the  ceiling  under  present 
law)  for  1948. 

Latest  estimates  by  Federal  and  State  foresters 
of  the  cost  of  providing  complete  protection  for  all 
State  and  private  forest  lands  was  $40  million,  of 
which  the  Federal  Government's  share  in  a  co- 
operative program  would  be  $20  million. 

The  Forest  Service  also  cooperated  with  42 
States  and  two  Territories  in  production  and  dis- 
tribution of  trees  for  farm  woodland  and  shelter- 
belt  planting.  More  than  42  million  trees  were  dis- 
tributed to  farmers  at  cost  or  less  under  this  pro- 
gram during  the  year. 

Research.  A  number  of  promising  hybrid  pines 
have  been  produced  at  the  Institute  of  Forest  Ge- 
netics, Placerville,  Calif,,  a  branch  of  the  Forest 
Service's  California  Forest  and  Range  Experiment 
Station.  Among  the  hybrids  are  various  crosses  be- 
tween Ponderosa  pine  and  Jeffry  and  Coulter  pines, 
between  jack  pine  and  lodgepole,  and  between 
eastern  and  western  white  pines.  Several  of  the 
hybrids  show  "hybrid  vigor,"  growing  faster  than 
either  parent.  Others  combine  rapid  growth  of  one 
parent  with  hardiness  of  the  other.  During  the  year 
1948  the  station  began  mass  production  of  seed 
and  nursery  stock  for  large-scale  testing  of  these 
hybrids  under  forest  conditions. 

A  special  study  of  the  relation  of  watershed  con- 
ditions to  flood  run-off  was  made  by  a  group  of 
Forest  Service  watershed  specialists  during  the 
Columbia  River  flood  of  1948.  Immediate  causes 
of  the  flood  were  abnormal  accumulations  of  snow 


FOREST  SERVICE 


207 


FOKHST  SERVICE 


in  the  mountains,  late  spring,  prolonged  rains,  and 
a  sudden  unseasonable  not  spell  that  quickly  melt- 
ed most  of  the  snow.  The  watershed  technicians 
found  ample  evidence,  however,  that  damage 
would  have  been  less  severe,  and  that  considerable 
water  would  have  been  held  back  until  after  flood 
peaks  had  passed,  if  millions  of  upland  acres  had 
not  previously  been  depleted  of  their  plant  and 
forest  cover. 

As  late  as  June  14,  about  15  days  after  the  flood 
peaks  had  passed,  timbered  areas  were  found  that 
were  still  blanketed  with  snow,  while  burned-over 
areas  nearby  were  snowless.  In  many  instances, 
burned  and  denuded  north  and  east  slopes,  that 
normally  should  hold  their  snow  longest,  had  lost 
all  snow,  while  timbered  south  and  west  slopes 
were  still  snowbound. 

Rough  ground  measurements  on  a  number  of 
small  drainages  showed  peak  discharges  from  de- 
nuded lands  averaging  50  percent  higher,  and  in 
some  cases  nearly  100  percent  higher,  than  those 
from  lands  of  similar  elevation  and  topography 
with  good  forest  or  vegetative  cover.  Water  run- 
off from  burned,  destructively  logged,  or  over- 
grazed drainages  also  carried  more  debris,  caused 
more  channel  and  bank  cutting,  more  sedimenta- 
tion in  lower  streams  and  damage  to  roads  and 
bridges. 

The  effect  of  shelterbelts  on  snow  in  the  Great 
Plains  region  led  the  Forest  Service  to  investigate 

Eossibiliti.es  for  saving  water  that  might  otherwise 
e  lost  in  semi-arid  regions.  Experiments  in  Utah, 
with  snow  fences  used  as  shelterbelts,  indicated 
that  shelterbelts  planted  at  right  angles  to  prevail- 
ing winds  in  open  areas  at  high  elevations  would 
accumulate  snow  to  great  depths.  Then,  with  the 
protection  of  the  irees,  melt  would  be  delayed 
and  water  would  be  made  available  for  later  spring 
or  early  summer  flow. 

By  applying  techniques  developed  through  For- 
est Service  research,  private  stockmen  have  suc- 
.cessfully  reseeded  more  than  680,000  acres  of  de- 
pleted range  land  in  Utah,  Idaho,  Nevada,  and 
Wyoming.  In  addition  the  Forest  Sendee  has  re- 
seeded  some  150,000  acres  of  national  forest  range 
in  the  Intermountain  region. 

Many  species  and  strains  of  grasses  and  legumes 
from  different  parts  of  the  world  are  being  tested 
in  nurseries  in  the  western,  southern  and  south- 
eastern regions.  Tests  of  the  preference  of  grazing 
animals  for  a  number  of  species,  conducted  by  the 
Forest  Service  in  the  Intermountain  region  during 
the  year,  showed  that  some  little  known  species 
have  a  higher  preference  value  than  crested  wheat- 
grass,  an  introduced  species  that  has  been  widely 
used  for  range  seeding. 

On  the  Jornada  Experimental  Range,  maintained 
by  the  Forest  Service  in  the  semi-desert  country 
of  New  Mexico,  beef  production  per  breeding  cow 
has  been  almost  doubled  through  improved  range 
and  cattle  management  measures.  In  the  early  '20s, 
calf  crops  on  this  range  averaged  74  percent  and 
calves  weaned  at  about  275  Ib.  In  recent  years,  the 
Forest  Service  reported,  calf  crops  on  the  same 
area  have  averaged  90  percent,  and  the  calves  411 
Ib.  at  weaning.  The  increased  production  has  come 
about  through  more  conservative  stocking,  de- 
ferred grazing  of  parts  of  the  range,  and  other 
management  procedures  developed  through  re- 
search. 

At  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory,  maintained 
by  the  Forest  Service  in  Madison,  Wise.,  more 
than  20  tons  of  molasses  were  prepared  from  wood 
during  the  year  and  shipped  to  various  agricultural 
experiment  stations  for  tests  as  supplementary  feed 


for  livestock  and  poultry.  Tests  are  under  way  on 
dairy  and  beef  cattle,  Iambs,  calves,  hogs,  chickens, 
and  turkeys. 

Production  of  molasses  or  yeast  from  wood  sugars 
for  the  feeding  of  poultry  and  livestock  is  a  prom- 
ising field  for  use  of  large  quantities  of  waste  ma- 
terial from  sawmills  and  wood-working  plants  and 
of  lowgrade  wood  now  unused.  One  ton  of  dry 
wood  can  yield  approximately  one-half  ton  of 
sugars,  and  sugar  can  be  made  out  of  practically 
any  wood,  with  or  without  bark.  There  is  also  a 
large  potential  field  of  use  for  wood  sugar  in  the 
production  of  industrial  chemicals,  such  as  ethyl 
alcohol,  butanol,  glycerine,  and  2,3  butylene  glycol 

Although  nails  have  been  used  since  early  times 
to  fasten  wood  members  together,  little  attention 
has  been  given  to  a  recommended  practice  or 
standard  procedure  for  good  nailing.  To  fill  this 
gap  in  technical  literature  on  home  building,  the 
Forest  Products  Laboratory,  in  cooperation  with 
the  Housing  and  Home  Finance  Agency,  issued  a 
publication  on  the  Technique  of  House  Nailing. 
Based  on  data  obtained  from  observations  of  nail- 
ing practices,  information  from  architects,  engi- 
neers, and  carpenters,  and  laboratory  tests,  the 
publication  gives  recommended  nailing  procedures 
to  insure  satisfactory  strength  and  rigidity  of  the 
structural  parts  of  a  house. 

To  meet  a  need  for  specifications  that  will  per- 
mit the  segregation  of  sawlogs  into  quality  classes 
according  to  their  yields  of  the  various  grades  of 
lumber,  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory  completed 
a  set  of  hardwood  sawlog  grades  for  application  on 
a  national  basis.  The  standard  grade  specifications 
will  help  the  timber  owner  realize  the  full  value  of 
logs  he  markets,  provide  the  lumber  manufacturer 
the  option  of  buying  quality  classes  of  logs  that 
best  meet  his  requirements,  and  the  forester  with 
the  means  of  making  more  accurate  inventories  and 
estimates.  Work  was  started  on  the  development  of 
southern  pine  log  grades. 

A  new  type  of  structural  material  known  as 
"sandwich"  construction  is  now  available  to  the 
designer,  architect,  or  engineer  for  use  in  aircraft, 
housing,  or  wherever  a  lightweight,  strong,  rigid 
material  is  desired.  The  "sandwich"  is  made  of 
high  density,  high-strength  facings  firmly  bonded 
to  a  light,  low-strength  core. 

To  facilitate  its  full  utilization,  the  Laboratory 
undertook  to  establish  design  data  through  tests 
of  the  properties  of  the  component  materials.  Prop- 
erties of  the  most  common  facing  materials,  such 
as  veneer  and  plywood,  and  of  many  core  ma- 
terials have  been  established,  and  evaluation  stud- 
ies of  others  are  being  continued. 

Paul  Smith's  College  in  New  York  made  avail- 
able to  the  Forest  Service  2,000  acres  of  the  col- 
lege's land  for  an  experimental  forest,  to  be  de- 
voted to  research  and  demonstration  of  timber 
growing  and  harvesting  methods  in  the  Adiron- 
dacks  region.  The  Interstate  Commission  on  the 
Delaware  River,  in  cooperation  with  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania,  procured  a  tract  for  an  experimental 
forest  and  turned  it  over  to  the  Forest  Service's 
Northeastern  Forest  Experiment  Station  for  stud- 
ies of  forest  and  water  relationships. 

Publications  issued  by  the  Forest  Service  during 
the  year  included  Tree  Breeding  at  the  Institute 
of  Forest  Genetics;  the  Anthracite  Forest  Region; 
Red  Pine  Management  in  Minnesota;  Silvicultural 
Management  of  Black  Spruce  in  Minnesota;  Some 
Principles  of  Visibility;  Tree  Planting  in  the  Cen- 
tral, Piedmont,  and  Southern  Appalachian  Regions; 
Know  Your  Watersheds;  Watershed  Management 
for  Summer  Flood  Control  in  Utah;  and  a  fiftieth 


FORMOSA 


£08 


FRANCE 


anniversary  booklet  on  The  'Black  Hills  National 
Forest.  — CHARLES  E.  RANDALL 

FORMOSA  (Taiwan).  An  island  near  the  southeast 
coast  of  China.  It  was  under  Japanese  control  from 
1895,  when  it  was  ceded  by  the  Chinese  to  the 
Japanese,  until  V-J  Day  in  September,  1945,  after 
which  the  Chinese  resumed  the  administration  of 
the  island.  Total  area,  including  the  Pescadores: 
13,889  square  miles.  Total  population  (1946): 
6,083,617,  exclusive  of  4,318  foreigners.  Chief 
cities:  Tei-pei  (340,114  inhabitants  in  1940),  Tai- 
nan, Ki4ung  (Kurun),  and  Taichu.  Principal  crops 
are  rice,  tea,  sugar,  sweetpotatoes,  ramie,  jute,  and 
turmeric.  Camphor  is  worked  under  government 
monopoly.  Estimated  tea  production  (1947),  15 
million  lb.;  sugar  300,000  tons  in  1945  against 
only  100,000  in  1946.  Mining  is  progressing  and 
includes  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  coal.  Governor 
General:  Wei  Tao-ming  (appointed  May,  1947), 

FOUNDATIONS.  Probably  the  most  significant  event 
in  this  field  during  1948  was  the  Second  Interna- 
tional Conference  on  Soil  Mechanics  and  Founda- 
tion Engineering.  Some  400  delegates  from  nearly 
every  country  in  the  world  met  in  Rotterdam,  Hol- 
land, on  June  22-29.  In  addition  to  the  many  pa- 
pers read  and  discussed  at  the  meetings,  more  than 
350  papers  were  presented  and  incorporated  in  the 
7  volumes  of  proceedings. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  group,  held  at  Harvard 
in  1936,  presented  methods  and  theories  concern- 
ing the  stability  and  settlement  of  various  bodies 
of  soil  under  load.  Most  of  that  knowledge  was  the- 
oretical or  based  on  laboratory  tests.  The  1948 
meeting  mainly  outlined  the  findings  of  practical 
engineers  in  relation  to  these  theories,  and  showed 
where  modifications  and  future  study  are  most 
needed.  For  instance,  the  findings  for  cohesionless 
soils  were  generally  correct,  while  clay  soils  behave 
with  less  regularity  and  each  formation  has  its  in- 
dividual characteristics.  Also  the  theories  presup- 
pose a  few  well-defined  strata  of  soil,  which  is 
often  not  the  case,  as  with  the  land  for  Stuyvesant 
Town  in  New  York  City.  Here  some  of  the  build- 
ings are  constructed  on  solid  ground  while  others 
are  on  areas  reclaimed  from  the  East  River,  con- 
sisting of  fill  on  coarse  to  fine  silty  sands.  The  foun- 
dations on  the  higher  ground  are  of  spread  foot- 
ings, while  the  others  are  constructed  on  cast-in- 
place  button-bottom  concrete  piles,  some  of  which 
are  supported  on  solid  strata  and  others  by  friction. 

The  General  Electric  Company  at  Schenectady 
made  an  interesting  experiment  on  the  settlement 
of  various  types  of  friction  piles  under  both  static 
and  vibrating  loads  to  determine  the  best  type  for 
their  new  turbine  assembly  and  testing  plant.  But- 
ton-bottom, pedestal,  composite  pipe  and  cased- 
concrete,  composite  wood  and  cased-concrete  were 
tested.  From  these  tests  it  was  decided  to  support 
the  precision  equipment  and  heavy  crane  columns 
on  steel  H  piles  driven  to  hard  pan  and  to  use 
pedestal  piles  in  areas  of  lighter  load. 

The  new  five-story  Coca-Cola  bottling  plant  in 
New  York  City  which  is  designed  to  support  a  con- 
siderable weight  on  a  minimum  number  of  pillars 
is  founded  on  38-in.  caissons,  60  ft.  apart  which 
are  socketed  6  ft.  in  bed  rock  and  extend  to  the 
second  floor  level. 

Plans  for  the  Pacific  Telephone  and  Telegraph 
Company's  building  at  Oakland,  California,  called 
for  a  load  of  18,300  pounds  per  square  foot  on  one 
wall  as  against  an  average  of  6,000  psf  for  the 
building  as  a  whole.  No  rock  bottom  could  be 
reached  so  18-in.  steel  tubes  with  a  20-in.  clearance 


were  driven  to  a  layer  of  dense  sand  at  80  ft.  The 
rest  of  the  building  will  rest  on  a  5  ft.  concrete 
slab. 

In  the  marine  field  where  strength  and  stability 
are  desired,  the  steel  H  pile  is  finding  favor,  as  in 
the  Humble  Oil  Company's  derrick  platform,  8 
miles  off  the  Louisiana  coast,  which  was  construct- 
ed of  one  hundred  96  ft.  H  piles  encased  in  pipe 
and  arranged  in  braced  towers  of  four.  This  5,000 
ton  structure,  standing  in  48  ft.  of  water,  was  de- 
signed to  withstand  a  hurricane  force  of  125  m.p.h. 
and  32  ft.  waves  and  to  last  for  30  years.  It  pro- 
vides a  stable  5-acre  island  for  drilling  operations 
and  quarters  for  a  crew  of  54. 

These  piles  with  a  concrete  cap  were  also  used 
in  a  new  pier  for  the  Seatrain  Lines  in  New  York 
harbor  which  supports  a  huge  fixed  crane,  and  in 
mooring  islands  for  the  reserve  fleet  at  San  Fran- 
cisco designed  to  hold  ships  against  a  50  m.p.h. 
wind  and  a  4  knot  tide.  The  new  Rickenbacker 
Causeway  between  Miami  and  Key  Biscayne, 
which  is  also  designed  to  withstand  hurricane 
winds  and  waves,  is  constructed  on  a  concrete  filled 
fluted  steel  shell  pile.  — J.  W.  HAZEN 

FRANCE.  A  republic  of  western  Europe,  and  the 
chief  division  of  the  French  Union  (q.v.). 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  212,659  square  miles. 
By  the  peace  treaty  of  Feb.  10,  1947,  Italy  ceded 
4  small  frontier  districts  to  France,  including  the 
villages  of  Tenda  and  Briga,  which  voted  for  in- 
clusion in  France  on  Oct.  12,  1947.  Population  ac- 
cording to  1946  census:  40,518,884.  Chief  cities 
(1946  census):  Paris,  2,725,374;  Marseilles,  635,- 
959;  Lyons,  570,622;  Toulouse,  264,411;  Bordeaux, 
253,751;  Nice,  211,165;  Nantes,  200,265;  Lille, 
188,871. 

Education  and  Religion.  Education  is  free  in  all 
elementary  state  schools  and  is  compulsorv  for  all 
children  of  the  6-14  age-group.  In  1947-48  there 
were  3,773  infant  schools  ( both  state  and  private ) 
with  343,600  pupils;  80,939  elementary  schools 
(both  state  and  private)  with  4,702,284  pupils; 
and  17  state  universities  with  123,313  students. 
No  religion  is  officially  recognized  by  the  state. 

Production.  Average  monthly  production  in  thou- 
sands of  metric  tons  in  1947:  coal,  3,769;  lignite, 
175;  crude  petroleum,  4.2;  iron  ore,  1,558;  pig 
iron  and  ferro-alloys  (excluding  ferro-alloys  made 
in  electric  furnaces),  407;  steel  ingots  and  cast- 
ings, 479;  woven  cotton  fabrics,  11.2;  cotton  yarn, 
17.0;  wool  yarn,  9.7;  rayon  filament  yarn,  3.10. 
Total  production  in  1947  in  metric  tons:  wheat, 
3,600,000;  barley,  1,110,900;  oats,  2,770,000; 
sugar  beets,  6,980,000.  In  1946,  the  output  of  wine 
totaled  830,080,000  U.S.  gallons.  On  Dec.  31, 
1945,  the  number  of  farm  animals  were:  horses, 
2,257,000;  mules,  87,000;  asses,  103,000;  cattle, 
14,273,000;  sheep  and  lambs,  6,632,000;  pigs, 
4,386,000.  In  September,  1948,  the  industrial  pro- 
duction index  number  ( 1938  =  100 )  was  104. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1948,  exclusive  of  silver  bullion 
and  specie,  the  estimated  value  of  imports  was 
618,116.4  million  francs  (346,692  million  francs 
in  1947);  exports  totaled  398,661.6  million  francs 
(213,420  million  francs).  Beginning  in  April,  1948, 
the  values  of  imports  and  exports  includes  the  ex- 
ternal trade  of  the  Saar. 

Finance.  For  1947  revenue  totaled  610,583  mil- 
lion francs,  and  expenditure  416,505  million  francs. 
The  public  debt  (Dec.  31,  1947),  excluding  1914- 
1918  war  debts,  totaled  2,499,073  million  francs, 
of  which  £,117,597  million  francs  represented  do- 
mestic public  debt.  At  the  end  of  October,  1948, 
currency  in  circulation  totaled  918  million  francs. 


FRANCE 


209 


FRANCS 


The  cost  of  living  (cost  of  food  in  Paris)  index 
(1937=  100)  in  October,  1948,  was  2,204. 

Communications.  The  railways,  in  1946,  carried 
696,280,000  passengers  and  125,789,000  tons  of 
merchandise.  In  1947?  the  telephone  systems  had 
1,997,335  subscribers, 

Government.  According  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
French  Republic  (passed  by  the  second  Constitu- 
ent Assembly  on  Sept.  29,  1946,  and  adopted  by 
referendum  on  Oct.  13,  1946),  which  came  into 
force  on  Dec.  24,  1946,  the  sovereignty  of  the 
"indivisible,  laic,  democratic,  and  social  republic** 
(Art.  1)  is  vested  in  the  French  people  and  exer- 
cised through  its  representatives  and  by  way  of 
referendum  (Art.  3).  The  National  Assembly  of 
618  members,  elected  by  equal,  direct  and  secret 
universal  suffrage,  is  the  dominant  power  in  the 
French  legislature.  There  is  a  Council  of  the  Re- 
public of  320  members  elected  by  communal  and 
departmental  bodies,  by  means  of  direct  universal 
suffrage.  The  President  is  elected,  by  both  houses, 
for  a  7-year  term;  he  may  be  reelected  once.  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic  '(1947-53):  M.  Vincent 
Auriol  (Socialist);  Cabinet:  see  Events  below.  See 
FRENCH  UNION. 

Events,  1948.  During  the  anniversary  year  of  the 
founding  of  the  short-lived  Second  Republic,  the 
course  of  business  and  politics  in  the  Fourth  Re- 
public was  calculated  to  convince  even  the  most 
ardent  optimists  of  the  soundness  of  the  judgment 
expressed  by  Andre  Gide  in  his  Journal  in  1939: 
"Everything  seems,  alas,  to  prove  to  me  that 
Frenchmen,  of  all  the  peoples  I  know,  are  the  ones 
most  deficient  in  civic  spirit  and  in  that  solidarity 
without  which  a  republic  comes  to  be  the  greatest 
detriment  to  all/* 

The  so-called  Monnet  Plan,  first  announced  in 
1946}  promoted  increased  production  in  many 
lines,  but  produced  no  stability  and  little  prospect 
of  the  full  utilization  of  resources  required  to  re- 
pair the  ravages  of  war  and  make  the  French  econ- 
omy prosperous  and  secure.  The  farmers  and  upper 
bourgeoisie,  enjoying  many  privileges  and  occupy- 
ing a  strategic  political  position,  lived  well  but 
exhibited  a  minimum  of  enthusiasm  for  sacrifices 
for  the  sake  of  the  national  welfare.  The  lesser 
bourgeoisie  and  the  industrial  workers  suffered 
acutely  from  constantly  rising  prices  while  wages, 
salaries,  and  profits  of  small  business  steadily 
lagged  behind. 

Effective  remedial  measures  were  rendered  po- 
litically impossible  by  the  increasingly  precarious 
position  of  the  parties  of  the  "Third  Force."  Mar- 
shall Plan  aid  seemed  less  likely  to  effect  any 
permanent  cure  of  France's  economic  ills  than  to 
alleviate  symptoms  and  defer  a  major  financial  and 
economic  crisis  which  would  inevitably  play  into 
the  hands  of  the  Communists  and  DeGaullists. 

The  extremists  of  the  Right,  in  the  name  of 
ultra-nationalism  and  anti-Communism,  capitalized 
ambivalently  on  the  radicalism  of  the  petite  bour- 
geoisie and  the  conservatism  of  the  peasantry.  The 
extremists  of  the  Left,  tightly  controlled  from  Mos- 
cow via  the  Cominform  since  the  summer  of  1947, 
exploited  the  grievances  of  the  workers  and  bent 
tibeir  efforts  toward  wrecking  tihe  Marshall  Plan 
in  the  name  of  resisting  "American  imperialism/' 

The  political  center  stumbled  and  tottered  and 
vet,  almost  miraculously,  retained  power — without 
being  able  to  use  it  effectively  to  achieve  unity 
and  recovery  at  home  or  prestige  and  influence 
abroad,  A  year  which  opened  darkly  came  to  a 
close  with  even  blacker  shadows  falling  over  the 
hopes  of  those  for  whom  Liberte,  ftgalitS,  Frater- 
were  more  than  mere  words. 


Frenzied  Finance.  The  Schuman  Cabinet  of  Nov. 
24,  1947  survived  the  strikes  of  December  and 
obtained  a  temporary  respite  from  disorders 
through  the  defeat  of  Communist  plans.  At  the 
turn  of  the  year  the  anti-Communist  elements  in 
the  Communist-controlled  General  Confederation 
of  Labor  (CGT)  .seceded  to  form  the  Force 
Quvri&re,  led  by  Socialist  Leon  Jouhaux,  which 
won  the  support  of  perhaps  a  million  of  the  six 
million  members  claimed  by  the  CGT, 

Early  in  January  the  Cabinet  staked  its  fate  on 
an  anti-inflationary  and  budget-balancing  program 
of  Finance  Minister  Rene  Mayer  by  which  all  per- 
sons with  incomes  over  450,000  francs  would  be 
obliged  to  pay  a  super-tax  or  invest  in  government 
bonds.  On  January  3  a  Communist-DeGaullist 
amendment  to  the  tax  bill  was  defeated  in  the 
National  Assembly,  322  to  262. 

Despite  British  protests  and  criticism  from  the 
International  Monetary  Fund,  the  Cabinet  on  Jan- 
uary 25  announced  a  new  rate  for  the  franc  for 
export  and  essential  import  purposes:  214.3  to  the 
dollar  (instead  of  119.1)  and  864  to  the  pound 
(instead  of  480).  An  internal  "free  market"  for 
gold  and  for  American,  Swiss,  and  Portuguese  cur- 
rencies was  likewise  established,  with  exporters 
permitted  to  convert  half  of  their  proceeds  at  the 
new  feed  rate  and  half  at  the  "free  rate,"  which 
was  fluctuating  around  313  francs  to  the  dollar  by 
the  close  of  the  year. 

On  January  30  the  Assembly  approved  legisla- 
tion authorizing  possession  of,  and  free  trade  in, 
gold;  legalizing  the  ownership  of  foreign  securities 
by  Frenchmen,  subject  to  repatriation  of  such  as- 
sets and  payment  of  a  tax  of  25  percent  of  their 
value;  and  requiring  all  5,000  franc  notes  to  be 
turned  in  and  exchanged  for  receipts  which  were 
to  be  redeemed  later,  in  new  currency,  at  a  part  of 
their  face  value. 

These  steps,  combined  with  the  reopening  of 
the  Spanish  frontier  in  February,  were  designed 
to  expand  exports,  increase  puolic  revenues,  re- 
duce the  illegal  hoarding  of  gold  and  foreign  se- 
curities, encourage  production,  halt  inflation,  and 
balance  wages  and  prices.  After  much  controversy 
and  by  a  narrow  margin,  the  Schuman  Cabinet  se- 
cured parliamentary  approval  for  supplementary 
fiscal  measures  early  in  March. 

ECA  grants  were  extended  in  generous  measure 
throughout  the  year  and  were  regularized  under 
the  terms  of  the  accord  signed  on  June  28.  But 
the  objectives  of  economic  stability  and  ultimate 
self-support  were  not  attained,  Production  in- 
creased in  some  lines.  Unemployment  increased  in 
others.  Profiteering  on  the  black  market  by  many 
farmers  and  some  businessmen  was  matched  by 
the  progressive  impoverishment  of  wage-earners 
and  salaried  employees  as  prices  continued  to 
climb. 

That  France's  economic  disorder  was  uncured, 
and  perhaps  incurable,  by  year's  end  was  sug- 
gested by  the  Cabinefs  astronomical  budgetary 
proposals  of  December  14:  total  state  expenditures 
for  1949  were  estimated  at  1,250,000  million 
francs,  with  military  costs  at  350,000  million  francs 
and  "capital  investments"  (reconstruction,  mer- 
chant marine,  and  industrial  equipment)  at  615,- 
000  million  francs — of  which  280,000  million  were 
expected  to  be  derived  from  Marshall  Plan  counter- 
part funds;  all  taxes  were  to  be  raised  10  percent; 
100,000  million  francs  were  expected  to  be  realized 
from  internal  loans. 

Such  prospective  ''budget-balancing,"  under- 
taken to  induce  the  U.S.  Congress  to  continue  EGA 
subventions,  was  widely  recognized  to  be  fictitious, 


FRANCS 


210 


fRANCE 


with  the  solvency  of  the  state  and  the  recovery  of 
the  economy  both  receding  into  an  ever  more  re- 
mote distance. 

Mid-Summer  Crisis.  Politics  in  springtime  found 
the  Cabinet  harassed  by  steadily  rising  living  costs, 
mounting  demands  for  wage  increases,  DeGaullist 
maneuvers  to  effect  a  "coalition"  with  the  "Third 
Force,"  and  Communist  defiance  of  the  Govern- 
ment's domestic  and  foreign  course. 

Proposals  to  dismiss  150,000  state  employees 
provoked  a  crisis  within  the  Cabinet  which  was 
resolved  by  a  "compromise"  involving  few  or  no 
dismissals.  A  strike  of  rubber  workers  in  Clermont- 
Ferrand  in  mid-June  led  to  rioting,  sympathy 
strikes  elsewhere,  and  a  Communist-led  one-hour 
general  strike  in  protest  against  "police  violence." 

The  Force  Ouvriere  and  the  Catholic  Unions  re- 
sisted Communist  demands  for  a  general  20  per- 
cent wage  increase,  but  warned  M.  Schuman  on 
July  5  that  his  price-reduction  program  was  "weak, 
timorous,  and  insufficient"  and  that  "the  working 
class  will  no  longer  be  duped."  Various  groups  of 
civil  servants  went  on  strike  in  July. 

On  July  19  the  eight  Socialist  Ministers  resigned 
in  protest  against  the  Premier's  refusal  to  reduce 
military  appropriations — a  position  in  which  he 
was  also  opposed  by  the  Radical  Socialists  but  sup- 
ported by  the  MRP.  The  Assembly  voted  297  to 
214  to  amend  the  budget  in  accordance  with  the 
Socialist  demand.  The  fall  of  the  Schuman  Cabi- 
net led  President  Auriol  to  appoint  Radical  Social- 
ist Andre  Marie  to  the  Premiership  on  July  21. 
Three  days  later  he  was  upheld  by  the  Assembly, 
352  to  190.  His  Cabinet  was  composed  as  follows: 

Vice  Premiers:  Leon  Blum,  Socialist;  and  Pierre  Teitgen, 
MRP  (Popular  Republican  Movement). 

Foreign  Affairs:  Robert  Schuman,  MRP. 

Interior:  Jules  Moch,  Socialist. 

Armed  Forces:  Rene"  Mayer,  Radical  Socialist. 

Finance  and  Economic  Affairs;  Paul  Reynaud,  Inde- 
pendent Republican. 

Commerce  and  Industry;  Robert  Lacoste,  Socialist. 

Agriculture:  Pierre  Pflimlin,  MRP. 

National    Education:     Yvon    Delbos,    Radical-Socialist. 

Reconstruction:  Re"ne"  Coty,  Independent  Republican. 

Colonies:  Paul  Coste-Floret,  MRP. 

Public  Works:  Christian  Pineau,  Socialist. 

Labor:  Daniel  Mayer,  Socialist. 

War  Veterans:  Andre  Maroselli,  Radical  Socialist. 

Justice:   Robert  Lecourt,  MRP. 

Health:  Pierre  Schneider,  MRP. 

Ministers  of  State:  Henri  Queuille,  Radical  Socialist;  and 
Paul  Ramadier,  Socialist. 

Reynaud's  proposals  for  drastic  economies  and 
the  lifting  of  many  controls  over  business  activity 
soon  brought  the  new  Cabinet  to  grief.  On  Au- 
gust 11,  despite  a  Communist  filibuster,  the  Depu- 
ties, 325  to  215,  voted  economic  emergency  pow- 
ers to  the  Ministry.  The  Assembly  resolved  on 
August  25  to  postpone  the  local  elections  planned 
for  October  (later  scheduled  for  March,  1949). 
But  on  August  28  Socialist  opposition  within  the 
Cabinet  to  Reynaud's  program  compelled  the  Min- 
isters to  submit  their  resignations. 

The  ensuing  crisis  was  prolonged  and  difficult. 
Following  Ramadier's  abandonment  of  the  task, 
Schuman  tried  his  hand  anew  at  Cabinet-making, 
only  to  be  defeated,  295  to  289,  on  September  7. 
On  the  next  day  Radical  Socialist  Henri  Queuille 
was  named  Premier.  He  was  supported  by  the  As- 
sembly, 351  to  196,  on  the  10th.  His  Cabinet  was 
virtually  identical  in  composition  with  its  predeces- 
sor, save  that  Marie  became  Vice  Premier  and 
Minister  of  Justice.  DeGaulIe's  bid  for  power  in  a 
southern  campaign  tour  was  without  immediate 
results. 

Socialist  anxieties  over  labor  unrest  were  met  by 
a  cost-of-Iiving  bonus,  pending  wage  increases. 


Hie  Aufomn  Strikes.  The  Queuille  Cabinet  survived 
numerous  parliamentary  attacks  but  soon  found  it- 
self confronted  with  fiscal  problems  and  labor  de- 
mands which  precluded  any  enduring  solution  of 
the  French  economic  dilemma.  The  franc  slumped. 
Police  and  strikers  clashed  in  Paris  on  Septem- 
ber 15.  DeGaullists  and  Reds  fought  at  Grenoble 
on  the  18th,  with  one  Communist  killed.  Parlia- 
mentary approval  of  a  15  percent  wage  increase 
did  not  prevent  numerous  protest  demonstrations 
and  work  stoppages  provoked  by  continued  infla- 
tion. 

On  October  3  some  300,000  coal  miners  went 
out  on  a  strike  of  indefinite  duration,  with  an  esti- 
mated loss  in  coal  production  of  150,000  tons  per 
day.  That  the  miners  were  desperate  is  shown  by 
initial  support  of  the  strike  by  die  Catholic  Unions 
and  the  Force  Ouvriere.  On  October  27  John  L. 
Lewis,  while  condemning  "the  cast-iron  and  Orien- 
tal philosophy  of  Communism"  demanded  that 
President  Truman  intervene,  through  control  of 
Marshall  Plan  funds,  to  "stop  the  shooting  of 
French  coal  miners  who  are  hungry.  .  .  .  Oppres- 
sion and  hunger  beget  Communism." 

At  the  same  time,  as  in  1947,  the  Communist 
Party,  under  Cominform  directives  and  with  So- 
viet support,  did  all  in  its  power  through  its  leader- 
ship of  the  CGT  to  intensify  and  prolong  the  strike 
and  to  cripple  French  economy  in  other  sectors 
by  brief  "rotating"  strikes,  with  the  ultimate  ob- 
jective of  aiding  the  U.S.S.R.  against  the  U.S.A. 

Premier  Queuille  declared  on  October  9  that  the 
Government  "will  take  all  measures  necessary  to 
halt  an  agitation  ^  which  is  taking  on  an  insurrec- 
tionary character."  EGA  Director  Paul  G.  Hoffman 
opined  that  the  mine  strike  was  "Moscow-direct- 
ed." Jules  Moch  asserted  that  the  Cabinet  had  doc- 
umentary evidence  of  Soviet  machinations.  When 
sabotage  and  sit-down  tactics  were  resorted  to  by 
the  miners,  troops  were  ordered  to  occupy  the 
properties. 

Widespread  rioting  and  bloodshed  ensued,  ac- 
companied by  arrests,  deportation  of  alien  agita- 
tors, and  cancellation  of  family  allowances  for 
strikers.  On  October  29  the  Force  Ouvridre  and 
the  Catholic  Unions  instructed  their  members  to 
return  to  the  pits.  Not  until  November  27  did  the 
CGT  follow  suit,  after  an  estimated  nine-tenths 
of  the  miners  had  already  resumed  work.  Commu- 
nist prestige  suffered  badly  from  this  defeat.  French 
production  suffered  more. 

£/eefora/  Deml-Tasse.  Meanwhile,  the  members  of 
the  Electoral  College  chosen  in  October  cast  their 
ballots  on  November  7,  in  the  only  French  election 
of  the  year,  for  a  new  Council  of  the  Republic. 
This  test  of  party  strength  was  scarcely  indicative 
of  popular  preferences  in  view  of  the  complex  sys- 
tem of  indirect  choice  for  the  upper  chamber  of 
the  national  legislature.  The  trend  of  the  balloting, 
however,  doubtless  reflected  public  sentiment  to 
an  appreciable  degree.  Of  the  320  seats,  DeGaul- 
lists supporters  or  sympathizers  won  130.  The 
Communists,  who  formerly  held  84  seats,  were 
reduced  to  20.  The  MRP  and  the  Socialists  also 
suffered  heavy  losses,  while  various  moderate  and 
independent  groups,  including  the  Radicals,  scored 
gains,  The  DeGaulHsts  however  offered  no  candi- 
date for  the  Presidency  of  the  Council,  with  the 
result  that  centrist  President  Gaston  Monneville, 
Negro  Councillor  from  French  Guiana,  was  re- 
elected  on  November  21.  By  December  the  Radi- 
cals were  threatened  with  a  split  (barely  averted 
by  the  appeals  of  the  venerable  Edouard  Herriot) 
because  of  the  desire  of  some  of  their  members  to 
join  DeGaulle's  RPF, 


FRANCE 


211 


FRANKLIN  INS7ITUT& 


That  the  Queuille  regime  survived  was  due  less 
to  the  enfeeblement  of  the  Communists,  who  re- 
tained a  mass  following  and  still  controlled  most 
of  organized  labor,  or  to  the  loud  outcries  and 
timorous  confusion  of  the  DeGaullists,  than  to  the 
reluctance  of  Socialists,  MRP,  and  Radicals,  bound 
together  by  common  fear  of  their  foes  to  Right 
and  Left,  to  carry  their  quarrels  to  the  point  of 
dissolving  permanently  their  uneasy  union. 

Such  a  regime  might  survive  further  parliamen- 
tary crises  and  ministerial  reshuffles.  It  could  not 
impose  effective  discipline  on  farmers  and  busi- 
nessmen without  driving  most  Radicals  and  inde- 
pendents into  DeGaulle's  camp.  It  could  not  im- 
pose effective  discipline  on  labor  without  driving 
many  Socialists  into  Communist  arms.  It  could 
therefore  rule,  but  could  scarcely  govern  in  any 
fashion  adequate  to  the  exigencies  of  the  chronic 
economic  and  social  crisis. 

Diplomatic  Dilemma.  A  France  thus  afflicted  could 
scarcely  hope  to  act  with  vigor,  independence,  or 
success  in  foreign  affairs.  Diplomatic  weakness  re- 
flected military  weakness,  which  in  turn  was  not 
to  be  overcome  so  long  as  no  funds  were  available 
for  rearmament  and  the  endless  and  hopeless  war 
in  French  Indochina  wasted  the  energies  of  100,- 
000  French  troops  and  constituted  a  steady  and 
futile  drain  on  the  finances  of  the  Republic. 

During  1948  the  Qua!  d'Orsay  found  itself, 
willy-nilly,  more  and  more  the  instrument  of  the 
diplomatic  purposes  of  Washington  and  less  and 
less  able  to  oppose  effectively  those  aspects  of 
American  policy  which  it  deplored.  In  February 
Bidault  joined  Bevin  and  Marshall  in  a  joint  pro- 
test against  the  Communist  coup  in  Czechoslo- 
vakia, thereby  abandoning  previous  hope^  of  acting 
as  a  neutral  mediator  in  the  "cold  war." 

DeGaulle  in  March  called  for  American  aid  in 
assuring  the  military  security,  as  well  as  the  eco- 
nomic recovery,  of  Western  Europe.  In  the  Brus- 
sels Pact  of  March  17,  France  joined  Britain  and 
the  Benelux  countries  in  a  fifty-year  defensive  al- 
liance, inspired  by  fear  of  Soviet  aggression.  In 
April  Bidault  rejected  Soviet  protests  against  the 
Three-Power  talks  in  London  looking  toward  a 
West  German  Government.  Schuman  and  Bidault 
nevertheless  opposed  Anglo-American  plans  for 
the  Reich  and  finally  accepted  them  with  heavy 
heart.  The  London  accords  for  Western  Germany, 
defended  without  enthusiasm  by  Bidault,  were 
approved  by  the  Assembly,  June  17,  297  to  289. 

When  this  program  led  to  the  Soviet  <rblockade" 
of  the  Western  sectors  of  Berlin,  Schuman  and 
Bidault  sought  cautiously  to  play  a  conciliatory 
role.  Bidaulfs  political  eclipse  and  removal  from 
the  Quai  d'Orsay  were  in  large  measure  attribut- 
able to  French  fears  regarding  his  German  policy. 
Endorsement  in  August  by  the  new  Cabinet  of 
the  Brussels  Conference  project  of  a  European  Par- 
liament effected  no  change  in  the  international 
tension  and  apparently  brought  European  Federa- 
tion no  closer  to  realization. 

On  September  30th  the  Politburo  of  the  Com- 
munist Party,  led  by  Thorez  and  Duclos,  declared: 
"The  French  people  will  never  make  war  against 
the  Soviet  Union.  .  .  .  The  French  people  will 
not  become  the  ally  of  Western  Germany  to  make 
war  against  the  country  of  socialism."  When  De- 
Gaulle  asserted  early  in  October  that  Western 
defense  plans  must  be  based  on  France,  not  on 
Britain,  the  Cabinet  asked  delay  in  the  strategic 
discussions  in  London.  On  November  4  it  was  re- 
ported from  Frankfort,  without  denial,  that  the 
U.S.A.  had  quietly  armed  and  equipped  three 
French  divisions  on  a  war  footing. 


By  autumn  almost  all  Frenchmen  of  all  parties 
were  registering  alarm  at  Anglo-American  plans  to 
restore  Western  Germany.  VUien  the  British  and 
U.S.  military  governments  on  Xovemebr  10  ab- 
ruptly announced  a  policy  of  restoring  the  Ruhr 
industries  to  German  ownership  and  control,  For- 
eign Minister  Schuman  formally  protested  to  Lon- 
don and  Washington.  Protracted  friction  followed 
at  the  London  conference.  DeGaulle  declared  that 
French  security  against  Germany  was  more  im- 
portant than  Marshall  Plan  aid. 

Anxiety  was  not  diminished  by  a  $300  million 
trade  agreement  signed  on  November  19  by  France 
and  Trizonia.  French  notes  of  November  £0  in- 
formed Britain  and  the  U.S.A.  that  Generals  Clay 
and  Robertson  had  no  authority  to  pledge  a  resto- 
ration of  the  Ruhr  to  a  German  state  and  that  Paris 
would  never  consent  to  such  a  program.  Marshall's 
evasive  reply  of  November  24  led  the  Assembly, 
by  a  vote  of  377  to  181  on  December  2,  to  ask  the 
Cabinet  to  tell  London  and  Washington  that  "the 
French  people  unanimously  reject"  She  Clay-Rob- 
ertson proposals. 

This  problem,  like  so  many  others,  remained  un- 
solved at  the  turn  of  the  year,  despite  rumors  of 
a  "compromise"  and  of  a  Herriot  mission  to  the 
U.S.A.  Beggars  cannot  be  choosers.  Yet  Anglo- 
American  insistence  on  restoring  the  Reich  as  a 
bulwark  against  the  U.S.S.R.  could  not  safely  be 
pressed  to  the  point  of  making  new  political  capi- 
tal for  Fascists  and  Communists  in  France. 

The  instability  and  fragility  of  the  French  re- 
gime were  thus  diplomatic  assets,  useful  for  bar- 
gaining purposes.  But  those  who  bargain  from 
weakness  rather  than  strength  almost  invariably 
lose  more  than  they  gain.  The  scope  of  prospec- 
tive French  losses — in  the  arena  of  diplomacy  as 
in  the  domestic  struggle  to  preserve  democracy — 
was,  perhaps  happily,  unclear  at  the  opening  of 
the  year  1949. 

See  GERMANY,  ITALY,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  UNITED 
STATES,  and  U.S.S.R.  — FREDERICK  L.  SCHUMAN 

FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE.  The  Franklin  Institute  of  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania  was  founded  in  1824  as  a 
permanent  memorial  to  Benjamin  Franklin.  It  is 
dedicated  to  the  promotion  of  the  mechanic  arts 
and  the  dissemination  of  scientific  knowledge.  Its 
technological  library  contains  130,000  volumes  and 
46,000  pamphlets,  as  well  as  a  collection  of  patent 
literature.  The  Institute  also  maintains  a  scientific 
and  technological  museum  containing  thousands  of 
action  exhibits;  the  Fels  Planetarium;  an  observa- 
tory open  to  the  public;  and  a  seismograph.  About 
twenty  lectures  are  given  annually  at  the  Institute 
by  persons  distinguished  in  science  and  industry. 
Branches  of  the  Institute  are  the  Bartol  Research 
Foundation  (research  in  pure  science);  the  Bio- 
chemical Research  Foundation  (for  the  study  of 
disease  from  the  chemical  viewpoint);  and  the 
Franklin  Institute  Laboratories  for  Research  and 
Development  (applied  research  in  the  physical 
sciences  for  industry  and  government). 

An  important  activity  is  the  Committee  on  Sci- 
ence and  the  Arts,  formed  of  61  members  of  the 
Institute,  which  reviews  in  detail  many  of  the  ad- 
vances of  science  and  technology.  It  recommends 
to  the  Board  of  Managers  candidates  for  the  annual 
awards  of  the  Institute,  which  -are  formally  pre- 
sented at  Medal  Day  exercises  in  October.  The 
Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute  was  established 
in  1826  and  is  the  official  organ  of  the  Institute. 

In  1948  the  Franklin  Medal,  highest  award  of 
the  Institute,  was  presented  to  Dr.  Wendell  Mere- 
dith Stanley,  Professor  and  Head  of  the  Depart- 


FREEMASONRY 


212 


FRENCH  EQUATORIAL  AFRICA 


meats  of  Biochemistry  in  Berkeley  and  in  the 
Medical  School  in  San  Francisco,  and  Director  of 
the  Virus  Laboratory  of  the  University  of  Califor- 
nia, for  outstanding  work  in  virus  research,  and  to 
Dr.  Theodor  von  Karman5  Chairman  of  the  Scien- 
tific Advisory  Board  of  the  U.S.  Air  Force,  and 
Director  of  the  Guggenheim  Aeronautics  Labora- 
tory, for  his  contributions  to  the  development  of 
advanced  aerodynamic  conceptions. 

Membership  is  about  5,500.  The  President,  elect- 
ed in  1947,  is  Richard  T.  Nalle;  the  Executive  Vice 
President  and  Secretary,  Henry  Butler  Allen.  The 
Institute  is  located  on  the  Benjamin  Franklin  Park- 
way at  20th  Street,  Philadelphia  3,  Pa. 

FREEMASONRY.  Masonic  recovery  continued  in  the 
war-devastated  countries,  as  did  membership  ex- 
pansion in  the  United  States  and  the  British  Com- 
monwealth. Recent  gains  in  China  were  threatened 
by  the  spread  of  the  civil  war,  but  there  was  hope- 
ful activity  in  the  new  states  of  India  and  Pakistan. 
Unexpected  progress  was  reported  in  two  Central 
European  countries,  Hungary  and  Czechoslovakia, 
Masonic  contacts  in  Latin  America  continued  clos- 
er than  before  World  War  II. 

Statistics.  The  year's  net  membership  increase  in 
the  49  United  States  grand  lodges  amounted  to 
181,925;  there  were  114  more  lodges.  Total:  15,- 
362  lodges  and  3,287,991  members.  Of  the  latter, 
about  500,000  were  also  Scottish  Rite  Masons, 
about  575,000  were  Royal  Arch,  200,000  Royal 
and  Select  Masters,  and  270,000  Knights  Templar. 
Canadian  membership  was  over  200,000,  Aus- 
tralasian about  250,000,  and  the  Philippine  5,000. 
A  very  general  estimate  for  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land was  1  million.  Numbers  in  the  rest  of  the 
world  are  relatively  small,  and  few  estimates  of 
any  kind  were  available. 

Welfare.  Charitable  activities  on  a  grand  lodge 
or  larger  scale  are  of  two  general  kinds:  relief  of 
indigent  Masons  and  their  families;  and,  welfare 
work  for  the  community  at  large.  The  second  kind 
increased  greatly  during  the  War  and  has  con- 
tinued to  grow.  The  first,  Masonic  relief  as  such, 
is  also  of  two  distinct  types:  the  care  of  the  aged 
and  ^orphans  in  institutions  maintained  by  the  Fra- 
ternity for  this  purpose;  and,  the  support  or  partial 
support  of  the  same  needy  persons  by  individual 
financial  grants  without  institutional  care.  The  in- 
crease of  the  latter  has  not  so  far  diminished  the 
former. 

Costs  of  Masonic  homes  for  children  and  the 
aged,  like  other  costs,  are  rising.  The  situation  is 
being  met  in  some  cases  by  increasing  the  regular 
per  capita  tax  on  members,  but  there  are  also  plans 
to  obtain  voluntary  contributions,  as  in  Virginia 
and  New  York.  The  need  for  more  funds  to  main- 
tain and  restore  existing  facilities  has  not  prevented 
expansion,  either  in  the  United  States  or  abroad. 
The  Royal  Masonic  Institution  for  Boys  held  its 
150th  anniversary  festival  June  9,  1948,  and  the 
160th  for  Girls  on  May  12.  Subscriptions  for  the 
year  to  these  two  charities  plus  the  Royal  Masonic 
Benevolent  Institution  (for  the  aged)  totaled  more 
than  $2  million.  The  Royal  Masonic  Hospital  will 
not  be  taken  over  by  the  British  Government,  as 
was  at  first  feared,  under  the  National  Health  Serv- 
ice Act 

The  European  Relief  Fund  of  the  Masonic  Serv- 
ice Association  of  the  United  States  dispensed  over- 
seas aid  from  its  30  member  grand  lodges  and 
others.  Independent  work  was  done  by  groups  and 
grand  lodges  in  the  United  States,  Australasia, 
and  especially  Canada.  Sweden  has  been  giving 
special  help  to  Norway  and  the  Netherlands. 


Veterans*  welfare  work  continues,  especially  the 
large-scale  hospital-visitation  program  of  the  Ma- 
sonic Service  Association  and  the  personal  guid- 
ance service  of  the  New  York  grand  lodge.  Vet- 
erans are  also  forming  their  own  groups  to  give 
rather  than  to  receive  charitable  attention. 

For  the  community  as  a  whole,  the  largest  sin- 
gle undertaking  by  Masons  is  the  chain  of  Shriners' 
Hospitals  for  Crippled  Children,  to  which  the  17th 
unit  is  about  to  be  added  in  Los  Angeles.  The 
newest  major  undertaking  is  New  York's  Masonic 
Foundation  for  Medical  Research  and  Human 
Welfare,  whose  first  grant  of  $200,000  was  allo- 
cated Sept.  21,  1948,  among  8  research  institutions 
working  on  rheumatic  fever  and  arthritis  problems. 

Youth.  Like  other  welfare  activities,  the  majority 
of  youth  programs  are  local  and  innumerable. 
Some  national  projects,  more  or  less  Masonically 
sponsored,  may  be  mentioned.  DeMolay  growth 
has  been  phenomenal.  146  new  chapters  were 
formed  in  a  year  and  106  old  ones  revived;  1,277 
total,  including  two  new  groups  in  Australia  and 
four  in  the  Philippines.  34,475  initiates  brought 
active  membership  up  to  143,206  when  the  Grand 
Council  met  in  March,  1948.  Boys  need  no  longer 
leave  the  Order  after  the  age  of  18,  but  may  re- 
ceive knighthood"  in  priories  now  supplementing 
the  chapters. 

The  Acacia  Fraternity  (Masons  in  colleges  and 
universities)  held  a  biennial  meeting  at  North- 
western, Chicago,  in  August,  Three  reactivated 
undergraduate  chapters  were  reported,  making  27 
in  all.  Deserving  college  students,  with  or  without 
Masonic  antecedents,  continued  to  receive  loans 
from  the  Knights  Templar  Educational  Founda- 
tion. 

Books.  In  addition  to  special  periodicals  and  a 
great  many  official  proceedings  and  transactions, 
there  is  a  considerable  Masonic  literature.  Some 
notable  books  have  been  published  recently. 

Famous  Masons,  by  H.  L.  Haywood  (Chicago, 
Masonic  History  Company,  1944.  312p.).  Short 
biographies  of  12  Presidents  and  100  others. 

The  Genesis  of  Freemasonry,  by  D.  Knoop  and 
G.  P.  Jones  (Manchester,  [Eng.]  University  Press, 
1947.  334p.).  Development  from  the  14th  century 
to  the  middle  of  the  18th.  The  first  really  new  and 
comprehensive  work  on  this  period  since  Gould's 
in  the  1880's. 

The  Temples  in  Jerusalem,  by  H.  K.  Eversull 
(Cincinnati,  Masonic  Memorial  Chapel  Assoc., 
1946).  A  factual  account  of  the  three  famous  tem- 
ples, in  their  historical  setting,  with  38  illustra- 
tions. 

Supplement  to  Mackey's  Encyclopedia  of  Free- 
Masonry,  by  H.  L.  Haywood  (Chicago,  Masonic 
Hist  Co.,  1946.  p.  1143-1570).  The  first  revision 
since  Clegg's  in  1929,  and  the  first  substantial  en- 
largement since  1873.  — W.  K.  WALKER 

FRENCH  EQUATORIAL  AFRICA.  A  French  colonial  ter- 
ritory in  north  central  Africa  consisting  of  four  ter- 
ritories: Chad  (capital  Fort  Lamy),  Gabon  (capi- 
tal Libreville),  Middle  Congo  (capital  Brazzaville), 
and  Ubangi-Shari  (capital  Bangui),  with  a  total 
area  of  959,256  square  miles.  In  1946  the  popula- 
tion comprised  7,808  Europeans  and  4,120,000  Af- 
ricans, composed  of  Bantu  and  Sudan  Negroes  with 
strong  Hamitic  and  some  Arabic  intermixture. 
There  were  (1946)  169  official  schools  with  17,034 
pupils,  and  132  mission  schools  for  15,442  native 
pupils. 

Production,  etc.  Tropical  agriculture  and  grazing 
are  the  chief  occupations.  Principal  products  are 
cotton  (1947  export:  21,064  metric  tons),  wool. 


FRENCH  GUIANA 


213 


f RiNCH  INDOCHINA 


coffee,  oil,  palm  kernels  ( 1947  export:  9,289  met- 
ric tons).  AB  estimated  300,000  square  miles  of 
forest  yields  timber,  rubber,  wax,  and  copal  gum. 
Mineral  resources  include  diamonds,  gold,  copper, 
lead,  and  zinc.  Ivory  is  an  important  export  item. 

In  1946  imports  were  valued  at  1,549.5  million 
francs;  exports  at  1,321.7  million  francs.  Metro- 
politan France  received  71.7  percent  of  all  exports 
and  supplied  53  percent.  Chief  imports  are  food- 
stuffs, spirits,  coal,  cement  and  gasoline.  The  chief 
ports  are  Port  Gentil,  Libreville,  and  Pointe  Noir, 
the  latter  being  connected  with  Brazzaville  on  the 
Congo  by  a  railway.  There  are  8,750  miles  of  road, 
part  of  which  is  suitable  for  heavy,  all-year  traffic. 

Government.  As  reorganized  by  a  decree  of  Oct. 
16,  1946,  French  Equatorial  Africa  is  administered 
as  a  unit  by  a  governor  general  (at  Brazzaville) 
who  makes  up  a  budget  for  the  entire  area.  In 
1946  the  budget  was  balanced  at  1,104,458,000 
francs.  He  is  assisted  by  a  Government  Council,  a 
General  Assembly  and  a  Secretary  General.  Each  of 
the  four  colonies  has  a  Governor  who  administers 
local  affairs  with  the  assistance  of  a  Privy  Council. 
Eight  delegates  represent  the  colonies  in  the  Coun- 
cil of  the  Republic,  6  in  the  National  Assembly, 
and  7  in  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Union. 

FRENCH  GUIANA,  An  overseas  department  of  Metro- 
politan France  (since  Jan.  1,  1947)  on  the  north- 
eastern coast  of  South  America,  comprising  the 
colony  of  French  Guiana  and  the  Territory  of  Inini 
(30,301  sq.  mi.,  pop.  1946,  5,024).  Total  area:  34,- 
740  square  miles;  population  (1946  census),  36,- 
975,  of  whom  7,057  constitute  government  officials, 
military,  and  penal  elements.  Chief  towns:  Cayenne 
(capital,  pop.  11,704),  Mana,  Oyapock,  St.  Lau- 
rent, Sinnamary.  Principal  crops:  rice,  maize,  man- 
ioc, cacao,  coffee,  bananas,  and  sugarcane.  The 
forests  are  rich  in  varied  lands  of  timber.  Gold  min- 
ing is  the  chief  industry  (19,749  oz.  in  1946);  sil- 
ver, copper,  iron,  lead,  mercury,  and  phosphates 
are  also  found.  In  1946  imports  totaled  255.7  mil- 
lion francs;  exports  96.2  million  francs. 

The  department  is  administered  by  a  prefect. 
The  Council  General  of  12  members  is  represented 
in  the  National  Assembly,  the  Council  of  the  Re- 
public, and  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Union  with 
one  deputy  for  each.  The  Territory  of  Inini  was 
administratively  reunited  with  French  Guiana  on 
Jan.  1,  1947, 

FRENCH  INDIA.  The  five  French  settlements  in  India 
— Chandernagor  (pop.  48,766);  Karikal  (pop.  64,- 
332);  Mahe  (pop.  14,764);  Pondiehery  (pop.  211,- 
468);  and  Yanaoan  (pop.  6,820).  Area:  196  square 
miles.  Population  (1946):  346,150.  Capital:  Pondi- 
chery, 53,101  inhabitants.  Education  (1946):  67 
primary  schools  and  four  colleges  with  13,179  stu- 
dents. The  chief  crops  are  rice,  manioc,  and  ground- 
nuts. There  are  cotton  and  jute  mills  at  Pondichery 
and  Chandernagor.  Trade  at  the  ports  of  Pondi- 
chery and  Karikal  (1946):  imports,  80,343,000 
francs;  exports,  7,748,000  francs.  Shipping  (1946): 
41  vessels  entered  and  cleared. 

Finance  ( 1947 ) :  local  revenue  6,981,000  rupees; 
expenditure  6,581,000  rupees.  The  administration 
is  headed  by  the  Commissioner  of  the  Republic,  as- 
sisted by  a  Government  Council  of  5  members. 
There  is  also  an  elected  Representative  Assembly. 
Commissioner  of  the  Republic:  Charles  Baron. 

FRENCH  INDOCHINA.  Situated  in  southeastern  Asia, 
south  of  China  and  east  of  Siam,  French  Indochina 
comprises  Vietnam  (uniting  Tonkin,  Annam  and 
Coc&nchina),  Cambodia,  and  Laos,  Total  area: 


285,000  square  miles.  Total  population  of  Vietnam 
which  is  inhabited  mainly  by  Annamese:  21  mil- 
lion. Chief  Vietnamese  cities:  Hanoi  (capital) 
151,500,  Saigon-Choion  (port  and  commercial 
center)  1,174,687.  Population  of  Cambodia:  3  mil- 
lion (capital,  Pnom  Penh).  Population  of  Laos: 
one  million  (capital,  Vientiane),  Chinese  popula- 
tion of  Indochina:  850,000,  French  population 
(apart  from  a  French  expeditionary  force  of  over 
100,000):  some  40,000. 

Education  and  Religion.  Instruction  is  given  in  lay 
and  religious  schools,  both  public  and  private.  In 
all,  720,000  students  were  attending  French  spon- 
sored schools  in  1944,  including  elementary,  sec- 
ondary, vocational,  and  technical  institutions  and 
one  university  (Hanoi).  One  of  the  first  acts  of 
the  Democratic  Republic  of  Vietnam  in  September, 
1945,  was  the  inauguration  of  a  Vietnam  literacy 
campaign  to  teach  quoc-ngu  (romanized  Anna- 
mese).  In  September,  1948,  it  claimed  7  million 
people  had  been  taught  to  read  and  write.  Prin- 
cipal languages  are  Annamese,  Cambodian,  and 
French.  Buddhism  is  the  chief  religion,  with  some 
2  million  Catholics,  about  one  million  Caodaists 
(adherents  of  an  eclectic  religious  sect),  and  a 
smaller  number  who  belong  to  the  Hoa  Hao  sect. 

Production.  Chiefly  occupying  the  coastal  plains, 
the  population  is  predominantly  agricultural  Rice 
is  the  principal  crop,  before  the  war  claiming  83 
percent  of  the  cultivated  land.  Because  of  continu- 
ing war  with  the  Vietnamese  Republicans  in  which 
the  French  have  lost  control  of  the  greater  part  of 
Vietnam,  holding  just  the  big  cities  and  some  other 
fortified  places,  output  has  sunk  far  below  peace- 
time levels.  In  1947  the  rice  crop  was  3,965,000 
metric  tons  (61.5  percent  of  prewar  production), 
and  maize  54,000  metric  tons  ( 10  percent  of  pre- 
war). In  Cambodia  and  CocMnchina  397000  metric 
tons  of  rubber  were  produced,  57  percent  of  the 
1939  figure.  Other  crops  include  potatoes,  beans, 
sugar,  tobacco,  tea,  and  manioc.  Fishing  and  for- 
estry are  important. 

Mineral  resources  include  anthracite  coal  (250,- 
000  metric  tons  in  1947),  tin,  zinc,  iron,  tungsten, 
phosphates,  manganese,  lead,  and  bauxite.  Manu- 
facturing has  been  limited  to  processing  and  light 
industries  such  as  rice  mills,  distilleries,  sugar  re- 
fineries, and  factories  for  cotton  goods,  cement, 
soap,  and  tobacco*  In  1947  some  40,000  metric  tons 
of  cement  were  produced. 

In  Vietnamese  Republican  territory  war  plants 
are  also  manufacturing  war  material  such  as  ba- 
zookas, antitank  grenades,  and  mines.  The  Repub- 
lic claims  to  have  increased  agricultural  production 
in  the  areas  under  its  control.  It  is  directing  its  ef- 
forts toward  economic  autonomy  and  the  blockad- 
ing of  French-controlled  cities. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  imports  into  French  con- 
trolled areas  in  1947  were  worth  973  million  pi- 
astres, and  exports  473  million,  leaving  an  adverse 
trade  balance  of  500  million  piastres.  From  France 
came  57  percent  of  the  imports  and  France  took 
45.5  percent  of  the  exports.  The  United  States  was 
second  in  French  Indochina's  trade,  in  January- 
June,  1947,  taking  7.9  percent  of  Indochina's  ex- 
ports and  providing  19.3  percent  of  its  imports. 
Principal  exports  were  rice,  rubber,  coal,  maize; 
principal  imports,  mineral  oils,  metals  and  metal 
products,  textiles,  chemical  products. 

Finance.  In  addition  to  separate  budgets  main- 
tained by  each  of  the  states  there  is  a  common 
budget  for  the  French  Indochinese  Federation. 
The  federal  budget  for  1948  was  fixed  at  975,745 
piastres.  In  December,  1948,  the  official  exchange 
rate  for  the  piastre  was  $1  =  12.60  piastres;  the  ef- 


FRENCH  INDOCHINA 


214 


FRENCH  LITERATURE 


fective  free  rate,  $1  =  18.65  piastres.  On  Aug.  26, 
1948,  the  French  National  Assembly  voted  to  with- 
draw from  the  Bank  of  Indochina  the  right  to  issue 
banknotes  and  vested  it  in  a  government-appointed 
Currency  Board.  (The  Vietnamese  Republican 
Government,  which  has  remained  outside  all  fed- 
eral arrangements,  issues  its  own  banknotes.)  The 
cost  of  living  index  rose  steadily  in  French-con- 
trolled areas,  For  the  working  class  in  October, 
1948,  it  was  (1939  =  100)  3,614  in  Saigon,  12,812 
in  Hanoi,  and  3,032  in  Pnom  Penh. 

Communications.  Of  the  1;873  miles  of  railroad  in 
1941  only  714  were  open  in  1947.  Railroad  traffic 
was  almost  at  a  standstill  because  of  the  fighting. 
There  were  20,242  miles  of  highway  in  1942  but 
only  16,150  were  open  in  1947.  As  even  armed  con- 
voys are  not  safe  from  attack,  an  increasing  propor- 
tion of  travel  is  done  by  air.  In  1947  the  monthly 
average  of  merchant  shipping  entering  the  ports  of 
Saigon,  Campha,  and  Haiphong  was  126,000  tons 
and  136,000  tons  were  cleared  each  month,  as  com- 
pared with  617,000  and  584,000  tons  respectively 
in  1938. 

Government.  France's  plan,  announced  early  in 
1945,  to  create  a  centralized  federation  of  five 
states  in  Indochina  with  strictly  limited  self-gov- 
ernment has  been  modified  by  events.  The  Anna- 
mese  people  who  live  in  three  of  the  states  (Ton- 
kin, Annam,  and  Cochinchina)  demanded  a  single, 
virtually  independent  government  of  Vietnam.  On 
March  6,  1946,  France  signed  an  agreement  with 
the  Democratic  Republic  of  Vietnam  (which  had 
declared  its  independence  on  Sept.  2,  1945 )  head- 
ed by  President  Ho  Chi  Minh,  recognizing  the 
union  of  Tonkin  and  Annam  in  a  free  state  of  Viet- 
nam within  the  Indochinese  Federation  and  the 
French  Union.  French  opposition  to  including  Co- 
chinchina within  Vietnam  was  one  of  the  reasons 
for  the  breakdown  of  negotiations  with  the  Ho 
government.  Since  December,  1946,  they  have 
been  at  war,  with  the  Republic  controlling  the 
greater  part  of  South  Vietnam  (Cochinchina), 
Central  Vietnam  (Annam),  and  North  Vietnam 
(Tonkin).  In  1948  the  French  recognized  the 
unity  of  Vietnam,  not  under  Ho  but  under  a  pro- 
French  "Provisional  Central  Government  of  Viet- 
nam," Premier:  Gen,  Nguyen  Van  Xuan. 

Although  there  are  certain  federal  arrangements 
linking  together  the  different  states  and  there  is  a 
High  Commissioner  for  Indochina  (Leon  Pignon, 
appointed  October,  1948),  Cambodia  and  Laos  also 
have  more  direct  relations  with  France.  They  were 
recognized  as  associated  states  within  the  French 
Union  in  December,  1947.  France  controls  their 
armies  and  foreign  affairs,  as  well  as  their  economic 
life,  and  they  are  represented  in  the  consultative 
Assembly  of  the  French  Union.  Both  constitutional 
monarchies,  Cambodia  is  ruled  by  Norodom  Si- 
hanouk (Premier:  Penn  Nouth);  Laos  by  Sisavong 
Vong  (Premier:  Souvannarth ) . 

Events,  1948.  The  war  in  Vietnam  continued  the 
central  problem  in  Indochina  with  Ho  Chi  Minh, 
a  Soviet-trained  nationalist,  leading  the  majority  of 
the  Vietnamese  in  resistance  to  the  French.  To- 
ward the  end  of  1947  the  French  Government  de- 
cided to  stop  trying  to  reach  an  agreement  with  Ho 
and  began  negotiations  with  Bao  Dai,  ex-emperor 
of  Annam  who  had  abdicated  to  make  way  for  the 
Republic.  Like  Ho,  Bao  Dai  insisted  on  unity  and 
independence  for  Vietnam. 

A  Provisional  Central  Government  which  looked 
to  Bao  Dai  for  leadership  was  established  on 
May  20  by  pro-French  Vietnamese  elements  and 
Xuan  became  premier.  On  June  6  Xuan  and  Emile 
Bollaert  (then  French  High  Commissioner)  signed 


an  agreement  recognizing  the  unity  and  inde- 
pendence of  Vietnam  as  an  associated  state  within 
the  French  Union.  But  in  later  negotiations  Bao 
Dai  and  the  French  could  not  agree  on  what  con- 
stituted independence.  Bao  Dai  refused  to  return 
to  French  Indochina.  The  Xuan  government  re- 
mained in  existence  but  without  popular  support 
and,  contrary  to  French  expectations,  did  not  suc- 
ceed in  splitting  the  resistance  which  remained 
solidly  behind  Ho  Chi  Minh. — ELLEN  HAMMER. 

FRENCH  INSTITUTE  (Instifot  de  France).  Founded  in 
1795  and  comprising  five  autonomous  academies: 
Academic  Francaise;  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres; 
Science;  Beaux-Arts;  and  Sciences  Morales  et  Poli- 
tiques.  Library:  800,000  volumes.  Membership: 
Limited  to  294  Members,  44  Foreign  Associates, 
and  298  Corresponding  Members.  Prizes  are 
awarded  annually  by  the  various  Academies,  no- 
tably the  Prix  de  Rome  (Beaux- Arts).  Governing 
Board  for  1947-48:  Clovis  Brunei  (Acad.  Inscrip- 
tions), Georges  Lecomte  (Acad.  Franchise),  Hen- 
ri Villat  (Acad.  Sciences),  Emile  Aubry  (Acad. 
Beaux-Arts),  Edouard  Payen  (Acad.  Sciences  Mo- 
rales). Secretary,  Maurice  J.  A.  Merlin.  Headquar- 
ters: Palais  de  Flnstitut,  23  Quai  Conti,  Paris  VI, 
France. 

The  Institute  publishes  Journals  des  Savants, 
Comptes  rendus  des  Sciences  (Annual),  Memoir es 
et  publications,  and  a  historical  series. 

FRENCH  LITERATURE.  The  year  1948  was  a  period  of 
political  turmoil  and  social  uncertainty  in  France; 
to  many  observers  the  country  seemed  to  be  on 
the  brink  of  civil  war.  Yet  these  disturbed  condi- 
tions were  not  reflected  in  literature,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  active  and  of  a  high  artistic  quality. 
The  two  European  countries  in  which  the  political 
life  is  most  tense  and  the  revolutionary  ferment 
most  conspicuous,  France  and  Italy,  also  are  those 
in  which  letters,  arts,  the  cinema,  and  philosophi- 
cal speculation  flourish  most  brilliantly. 

If  the  average  level  of  literary  production  was 
high  in  France,  however,  the  number  of  unchal- 
lenged masterpieces  was,  as  is  natural,  small  and 
no  new  movement  emerged  to  succeed  Existential- 
ism or  Surrealism.  The  average  life  of  a  literary 
movement  is  ten  or  fifteen  years  at  the  least,  and 
the  Existentialist  writers  are  as  yet  hardly  over 
forty.  Their  prestige  is  still  great,  though  they  are 
far  from  having  a  monopoly  on  talent. 

General  Characteristics  and  Literary  Events.  A  reac- 
tion has  set  in  against  the  literature  of  World  War 
II  and  of  the  Resistance.  In  politics,  the  events  of 
1948  pointed  to  a  failure  of  the  men  of  the  Resist- 
ance to  renovate  the  antiquated  fabric  of  French 
economy  and  administration  and  to  replace  the 
traditional  parties.  In  literature,  men  like  Aragon, 
Cassou,  and  even  Eluard,  whose  poetry  was  re- 
cited by  large  numbers  during  the  war,  lost  the 
ear  of  the  public. 

On  the  other  hand,  Giono,  Jouhandeau,  Mon- 
therlant,  suspected  and  even  silenced  for  some 
time  after  the  liberation,  have  sprung  back  into 
vogue  and  the  last  two  have  won  acclaim.  The  old 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  has  reappeared  under  a 
slightly  different  name,  but  has  not  gained  youth 
and  vigor  from  its  enforced  silence.  The  Mercure 
de  France,  Etudes  (a  Catholic  monthly  of  broad, 
non-partisan  inspiration),  La  Nef,  and  the  Revue 
de  Paris  are  the  finest  reviews  of  general  interest; 
Les  Temps  Modernes  is  the  most  original  one. 
New  series  of  Cahiers,  devoted  to  Peguy,  Remains, 
Mallarme,  are  often  launched.  Literary  prizes  con- 
tinue to  plague  Parisian  literary  life  and  attract 


FREMCH  LITERATURE 


215 


FRENCH  LITERATURE 


slight  attention  from  being  too  numerous  and  too 
widely  advertised. 

The  outstanding  features  of  1948  were:  (1 )  The 
decline  in  the  vogue  of  American  novels  in  trans- 
lation. The  French  have  apparently  assimilated  all 
that  Faulkner  and  Dos  Passos  could  teach  them  in 
the  way  of  technique  and  dynamic  psychology. 
They  have  weaned  of  the  indiscriminate  multipli- 
cation of  translations  from  third-rate  American  writ- 
ers. (2)  The  decline  in  the  fashion  for  brutal  and 
immoral  fiction:  represented  by  Henry  Miller  and, 
in  French,  by  Boris  Vian  and  Raymond  Guerin. 
There  is  a  limit  to  coarseness  which  had  apparently 
been  reached.  (3)  The  celebration  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848,  which,  though  it  failed  as  a  revolution, 
influenced  the  whole  course  of  subsequent  French 
history  by  dividing  workers  from  the  bourgeoisie 
by  a  ditch  of  blood.  This  revolution  had  impressed 
literature  deeply:  Proudhon,  Flaubert,  Lamartine, 
Michelet,  Hugo,  Renan,  Baudelaire,  Leconte  de 
Lisle.  Its  influence  was  discussed  in  many  a  volume 
in  1948.  (4)  The  writers  who  died  this  year  in- 
cluded a  powerful  novelist,  Bernanos;  an  original 
essayist,  Suares;  a  fine  poet,  Fargue;  the  Swiss 
Ramuz;  Rosny  jeune;  Sertillanges;  and  Tristan  Ber- 
nard. 

Literary  History  and  Criticism.  The  French  seldom 
cease  reinterpreting  their  past  masterpieces  and 
emphasizing  the  living  links  between  their  long 
literary  tradition  and  the  present.  Some  of  the 
most  sustained  attention  of  their  critics  and  writers 
is  directed  toward  Montaigne,  Pascal,  Racine, 
Rousseau.  Lately,  a  return  to  Corneille  seems  to 
have  set  in;  Malraux  and  Sartre  have  expressed 
their  Cornelian  sympathies,  and  critics  like  Nadal 
and  Benichou  have  (in  1948)  published  studies  on 
love  in  Corneille  and  on  the  dynamic  heroism  of 
his  conception  of  virtue. 

Rousseau  and  Sade  fascinate  the  psychologists 
of  today  who  hail  these  18th  century  novelists  as 
pioneers  in  the  discovery  of  the  abysses  in  man's 
subconscious  and  erotic  life.  Chateaubriand  aroused 
much  interest  on  the  occasion  of  the  centenary  of 
his  death  in  1848;  his  Memoir -es  d'Outre-Tombe 
were  published  in  the  first  complete  edition  by 
Levaillant.  Balzac  received  much  retrospective 
light  from  a  bulky  and  detailed  study  of  his  politi- 
cal and  social  thought  by  Bernard  Guyon.  Other 
scholars  have  identified  the  true  prototype  of  Flau- 
bert's Madame  Bovary  as  the  wife  of  the  sculptor 
Pradier. 

An  excellent  edition  of  Baudelaire's  Letters  was 
launched  by  Crepet,  which  will  for  the  first  time 
enable  readers  to  follow  the  poet's  tormented  life 
closely  and  accurately.  Mallarme  fascinates  lovers 
of  poetry  more  than  any  other  poet;  his  slim  hun- 
dred or  so  pages  of  impeccable  and  mysterious 
verse  will  soon  have  inspired  a  hundred  volumes 
of  comment.  Jacques  Scherer,  Emilie  Noulet,  An- 
toine  Orliac,  and  the  Australian  Gardner  Davies 
have  contributed  the  most  valuable  Mallarme  items 
this  year. 

The  Drama.  For  reasons  apparently  inexplicable, 
the  drama  lately  produced  has  been  the  most  bril- 
liant province  of  French  letters.  Yet  there  was  nei- 
ther the  presence  of  a  stable  public  nor  the  atmos- 
phere of  prosperity  and  serenity  which  are  often 
taken  to  constitute  the  conditions  for  a  great  dra- 
matic age.  The  cinema  and  sports  lost  little  of  their 
appeal,  even  though  the  quality  of  the  former  was 
frequently  questioned.  But  the  public  goes  to  the 
theaters  where  plays  of  literary  merit  are  given 
even  more  than  to  the  conventional  stages  on  which 
theater  is  divorced  from  literature.  The  Comedie 
Francaise  seemed  to  have  triumphed  over  her 


crisis  of  three  years  ago  and  again  was  attracting 
good  actors  and  good  plays. 

Jean-Louis  Barrault  is  the  most  superb  actor  and 
stage  manager  in  Paris;  Hebertot  and  Jouvet  have 
scored  continued  success.  Great  writers  in  France 
seem  to  be  proud  to  write  for  the  stage  and  strike 
responsive  echoes  in  a  wide  and  understanding 
audience. 

One  of  the  most  famous  French  writers,  Mauriac, 
failed  to  arouse  enthusiasm  with  his  Passage  du 
Matin,  a  bitter  and  venomous  play  which  does  not 
appear  possible  or  likely.  Montherlant  was  highly 
praised  for  his  Maitre  de  Santiago,  a  fine  character- 
study  in  which  the  speeches  are  perhaps  overde- 
veloped as  a  means  of  revealing  character;  the  se- 
verity of  that  almost  Jansenist  drama  is  in  keeping 
with  Montherlant's  latest  evolution  as  a  moralist 
of  inner  heroism.  Montserrat  by  Robles  presented 
a  forcible  and  tense  moral  dilemma  such  as  often 
faced  the  Resistance  leaders  during  the  war. 

Three  plays,  in  a  lighter  vein,  skilfully  composed, 
blending  drama  and  humor,  and  dealing  with  the 
old  and  ever-new  subject  of  love  and  infidelity, 
have  entertained  Parisian  audiences;  all  three  malce 
excellent  reading  also  and  probably  will  lose  little 
in  translation.  They  are  TArchipel  Lenoir  by  Sala- 
crou,  Lucienne  et  le  Boucher,  a  tragic  farce  by 
Marcel  Ayme,  and  the  delightful  and  fanciful  com- 
edy Nous  Irons  a  Valparaiso  by  Marcel  Achard. 

Two  dramas  stand  out  above  the  current  pro- 
duction as  important  literary  events.  One  is  Partage 
de  Midi,  which  Claudel  composed  and  published 
for  only  150  readers  over  forty  years  ago.  The 
aged  poet,  now  in  his  eightieth  year,  has  allowed 
the  play  to  be  reprinted  and  staged.  It  is  a  superb 
lyrical  tragedy  of  devastating  passion,  meeting 
with  death  and  frustration,  and  ending  in  an  exalt- 
ed hymn  to  God.  No  greater  delineation  of  love 
has  perhaps  been  achieved  since  Wagner's  Tristan 
and  Isolde. 

The  other  play  to  win  almost  unanimous  acclaim 
and  popular  success  is  Sartre's  Les  Mains  Sales.  It 
courageously  treats  a  political  theme,  that  of  Com- 
munist fanatical  obedience  vs.  a  modern  Hamlet 
tormented  by  the  scruples  of  his  conscience,  or 
of  end  and  means.  The  author  remains  objective 
throughout  and,  although  he  and  his  doctrine  of 
Existentialism  have  been  branded  as  enemy  No.  1 
by  the  Communists,  he  raises  the  conflict  to  the 
lofty  plane  of  a  moral  and  psychological  debate. 
The  play  is  -long,  somewhat  too  voluntary  and  geo- 
metric in  its  structure,  but  represents  a  masterly 
attempt  to  bring  the  drama  abreast  with  the  grav- 
est preoccupations  of  our  time.  Part  of  the  drama 
was  published  in  the  United  States,  and  Existen- 
tialism was  thoroughly  discussed  and  weighed  in 
the  first  number  of  the  Yale  French  Studies*  in  the 
Spring  of  1948. 

The  Novel.  Masterpieces  in  fiction  are  rare  in  any 
given  year,  or  in  any  given  decade.  There  were 
few  striking  new  novels  in  France  in  1948,  but 
many  of  good  workmanship.  La  Fille  ?auure  by 
Van  der  Meersch  is,  along  traditional  lines,  a  mov- 
ing story  of  a  factory  girl,  crushed  by  adverse  fate 
but  always  firm  and  delineated  with  sympathy, 
unlike  the  heroines  of  Naturalist  fiction.  L  Accident 
by  Armand  Hoog  is  a  clever  utilization  of  psycho- 
analysis for  fictional  purposes.  Les  Forets  de  la 
Nuit  by  Jean  Louis  Curtis  presents  an  objective 
picture  of  occupied  France,  drawn  with  simplicity 
and  art.  Planete  sans  Visa  by  Jean  Malaquais  is  a 
bulky  network  of  several  plots,  not  all  convincing, 
reviving  the  years  of  German  control  over  the 
South  of  France. 

In  several  recent  novels,  a  return  to  the  solid, 


FRENCH  LITERATURE 


216 


FRENCH  OCEANIA 


prosaic  fiction  of  the  realistic  type,  grasping  details 
firmly  and  setting  men  and  women  in  their  envi- 
ronment, is  conspicuous.  But  the  most  original 
work  of  fiction  is  that  of  the  unconventional  writer 
with  a  powerful  temperament  that  distorts  and  re- 
creates reality,  steeps  it  in  tragedy  or  in  poetry. 
Since  the  recent  disappearance  of  Bernanos,  Jou- 
handeau  is  the  most  powerful  of  the  tragic  novel- 
ists. His  Essai  sur  Moi-meme  affords  a  valuable 
insight  into  his  egotistic  and  tormented  self  Pierre- 
Jean  Jouve,  well-known  as  a  poet  obsessed  with  the 
Christian  sense  of  tragedy,  has  aroused  enthusiasm, 
in  France  and  England,  among  the  happy  few, 
with  his  Aventure  de  Catherine  Crachat,  a  picture 
of  hatred,  cruelty  and  pitiful  misfortune  in  a  wom- 
an. Neither  Sartre  nor  Camus  has  published  any 
new  fiction  this  year.  Maurice  Sachs,  in  his  post- 
humous Chronique  Joyeuse  et  Scandaleuse,  failed 
to  repeat  the  success  of  his  Sabbat  of  1947. 

Among  the  novelists  of  earlier  generations, 
Proust  is  again  attracting  much  interest  and  the 
complete  lack  of  any  disciples  or  imitation  of  an 
inimitable  writer  adds  to  his  stature  as  one  of  the 
giants  of  French  fiction.  Mauriac,  Remains,  and 
Duhamel  seem  to  have  nothing  valuable  to  add  to 
their  former  writing  of  fiction.  Maurois,  who  never 
really  counted  as  a  novelist,  has  apparently  under- 
stood that  his  talent  lay  in  the  skilful  retelling  of 
history  or  in  the  journalistic  writing  of  light  moral 
essays.  Saint-Exupery's  posthumous  Citaaelle  is  a 
lengthy  and  rambling  series  of  lyrical  reflections 
on  man,  his  place,  and  his  duty  in  this  world,  It 
should  probably  not  have  been  published  in  its 
bulky  entirety.  Gipno  returned  to  literary  life  with 
an  entertaining  picaresque  story,  Roi  sans  Diver- 
tissementy  and  a  more  didactic  tale,  Noe.  Marcel 
Ayme",  in  Uranus,  is  one  of  the  very  few  writers 
today  who  maintain  the  claims  of  Rabelaisian  hu- 
mor in  a  world  haunted  by  fear  and  by  tragedy. 

The  Essay  and  Conclusions.  The  originality  of 
French  literature  at  present  lies  less  in  its  artistic 
achievement  than  in  its  lively  fermentation.  Few 
first-rate  poems  have  appeared;  fiction  eschews  the 
conventional,  smooth  path,  and  repudiates  Flau- 
bert as  a  dangerous  master  whose  example  would 
drive  the  novel  into  too  neat  and  well-made  a  pat- 
tern. Writers  seem  no  longer  to  aim  at  eternal 
values;  they  write  for  their  own  time,  as  Sartre 
asked  them  to  do  in  a  noteworthy  article.  In  so 
doing,  they  turn  literature  into  a  vehicle  for  all 
the  intense  and  immediate  preoccupations  of  their 
contemporaries.  French  writers  are  constantly  be- 
ing called  upon  to  express  their  views  on  politics, 
on  international  problems,  on  social  and  economic 
issues,  and  they  do  so  with  a  lofty  conception  of 
their  duties  to  the  public.  Their  prestige  as  men 
of  letters  is  enhanced  by  their  active  participation 
in  the  problems  of  their  age.  More  so  than  in 
America  and  Great  Britain,  they  are  the  "directors 
of  conscience"  of  the  young. 

Hence  the  most  significant  part  of  French  liter- 
ary production  is  that  which  appears  in  reviews 
and  in  volumes  of  essays,  difficult  to  classify  under 
any  given  label,  but  translating  into  literature,  that 
is  to  say  into  artistic  and  dynamic  expression,  the 
ideas  and  the  beliefs,  or  quest  for  beliefs,  of  our 
contemporaries.  Sartre  founded  with  David  Rous- 
set  a  political  group,  the  Democratic  Revolutionary 
Rally  (R.D.R.  in  French  initials)  which  is  anti- 
Communist  and  anti-Capitalist:  its  aims  were  in- 
terestingly clarified  in  les  Temps  Modernes,  No.  36, 
September,  1948.  It  may  act  as  a  ferment  in  ren- 
ovating the  Left  in  France  and  in  achieving  a  syn- 
thesis between  revolutionary  views  (many  French- 
men are  convinced  of  the  need  for  some  kind  of 


revolution)  and  Socialism  which  has  become  timid 
and  lifeless  lately. 

Sartre  also  published  two  remarkable  collections 
of  essays,  Situations  I  and  JI  which  establish  him 
as  the  most  important  essayist  of  his  generation. 
Malraux,  who  has  sided  with  an  opposite  party, 
that  of  De  Gaulle,  has  written  on  politics  and,  even 
more,  on  art:  his  two- volume  Psychologie  de  I' Art 
is  rich  in  pregnant  though  enigmatic  statements 
which  alternately  throw  light,  and  obscurity,  on 
the  problem  of  modern  art  and  of  a  renovation  of 
humanism. 

Simone  de  Beauvoir  is  undoubtedly  the  leading 
woman  of  Betters  today.  In  Pour  une  Morale  de 
rAmbiguite,  she  attempted  to  formulate  an  Exis- 
tentialist ethic.  In  La  Femme  et  les  Mythes,  she 
wrote  a  subtle  and  bellicose  defense  of  feminism, 
characterized  by  an  immense  store  of  anthropologi- 
cal and  sociological  information  and  by  an  uncanny 
insight  into  the  view  of  woman  held  by  man:  the 
latter  is  vigorously  taken  to  task.  Finally,  in  a  vol- 
ume L'Amerique  au  Jour  le  ]our}  she  related  her 
American  tour  with  more  liveliness  in  perceiving 
the  concrete,  more  sympathy,  and  more  straight- 
forward criticism  of  America  than  are  usually  dis- 
played by  foreign  visitors. 

Among  the  Catholic  essayists  of  note,  Gabriel 
Marcel  was  much  praised,  reread,  and  discussed 
on  the  occasion  of  his  receiving  the  Grand  Prix  de 
Litterature  of  the  French  Academy;  and  Michel 
Carrouges  published  a  keen  analysis  of  the  Nie- 
tzschean  disease  of  our  age,  the  attempt  at  self- 
deification  on  the  part  of  man:  La  Morale  du 
Surhomme.  Other  influential  essayists  are  Maurice 
Blanchot,  haunted  by  the  problems  of  language 
and  literary  expression;  Georges  Bataille,  whose 
paradoxical  Haine  de  la  Poesie  challenged  the  po- 
etic idols  of  today;  Jean  Paulhan,  always  attracted 
by  subtlety  and  occasionally  ^misled  by  it,  who  re- 
vealed a  new  poetic  "genius,"  Malcolm,  de  Chazal, 
from  the  Mauritius  island.  Henri  Peyre's  Les 
Generations  Litter  air  es,  which  proposed  a  fresh 
view  of  literary  history;  Nelly  Cormeau's  Physio- 
logie  du  Roman,  Buraud's  Les  Masques  attracted 
some  attention. 

On  the  whole,  the  French  literary  output  of 
1948,  in  spite  of  an  acute  slump  in  the  book  pub- 
lishing business  which  had  overexpanded  since  the 
war,  was  considerable.  If  the  works  which  appear- 
ed during  this  year  of  crisis  lacked  serenity  and 
finish,  they  were  varied,  challenging,  alive.  France 
seems  destined  to  live  in  a  state  of  crisis,  political 
and  literary,  and  even  to  enjoy  it.  Crisis  is  doubt- 
less preferable  to  stagnation.  The  eyes  of  cultured 
groups  in  Europe  including  Great  Britain,  in  the 
Near  East,  in  South  and  even  in  North  America, 
remain  fascinated  by  what,  for  better  or  for  worse, 
in  revolt  against  current  morality  and  in  search 
of  a  new  ethics,  in  rebellion  against  traditions  and 
in  the  formulation  of  new  philosophical  and  esthet- 
ic truths,  is  being  proposed  on  the  Banks  of  the 
Seine.  — HENRI  PEYRE 

FRENCH  OCEANIA.  A  French  colonial  possession  in 
the  South  Pacific,  about  midway  between  the  Pan- 
ama Canal  and  Australia.  The  colony  consists  of 
some  110  islands  falling  into  the  following  major 
groups:  Society;  Marquesas  (480  sq,  mi.,  pop. 
2,988);  Gambier,  Tuamotu  (pop.  5,127);  Lee- 
ward (lies  sous  le  Vent,  pop.  12,445);  Austral; 
Rapa  Islands.  Clipperton,  an  island  670  miles 
southwest  of  Mexico  has  been  included  in  French 
Oceania.  Tahiti  (600  sq.  mi.,  pop.  24,820  in  1946) 
of  the  Society  group  is  the  main  island.  Total  area: 
1,520  square  miles.  Total  population  (1946  cen- 


FRENCH  SOMAULAN0 


217 


FRENCH  WEST  AfRICA 


sus):  55,734,  of  whom  6,385  were  Chinese.  Cap- 
ital: Papeete  (on  Tahiti),  12,428  inhabitants  in 
1946.  French  is  the  official  language. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  production  and  export 
of  copra  and  phosphate  form  the  basis  of  the  econ- 
omy. Vanilla  beans  and  mother  of  pearl  are  also 
important.  Coffee,  tobacco,  tropical  fruits  and  veg- 
etables, rice,  and  sugarcane  are  grown  for  local 
consumption.  Foreign  trade  (1947):  imports  val- 
ued at  368,837,000  Pacific  francs;  exports  at  431,- 
598,000  Pacific  francs  (Pacific  franc  equals  U.S. 
$0.020  since  1946).  A  total  of  205,221  quintals  of 
copra  valued  at  178,049,000  Pacific  francs  and 
2,083,164  quintals  of  phosphates  valued  at  120,- 
896,000  were  exported  in  1947.  Chief  imports  are 
consumer  goods,  cotton  cloth,  machinery,  petrole- 
um products,  and  timber.  The  United  States  sup- 
plied 44  percent  of  all  imports  in  1947. 

Government.  The  colony  is  administered  by  a  gov- 
ernor assisted  by  a  Cabinet,  a  Privy  Council,  and  a 
Representative  Assembly  (elected  for  5-year  term). 
Representation  in  the  National  Assembly,  the 
Council  of  the  Republic,  and  the  Assembly  of  the 
French  Union  is  made  by  one  deputy  to  each.  Gov- 
ernor: Pierre  Maestracci. 

FRENCH  SOMALILAND.  A  French  colony  in  northwest 
Africa,  near  the  southern  end  of  the  Red  Sea.  Area: 
9,071  square  miles.  Population  ( 1946  census ) :  44,- 
800,  of  whom  1,500  were  Europeans.  Capital,  Ji- 
buti (10,421  inhabitants).  The  production  of  salt 
is  the  only  industry.  Gypsum,  mica,  amethyst,  sul- 
fur, and  petroleum  are  said  to  exist.  Trade  ( 1946 ) : 
imports  216,900,000  CFA  francs;  exports  38,800,- 
000  CFA  francs  (CFA  franc  =  1.70  francs).  The 
principal  imports  are  cotton  yarns  and  cotton  goods, 
cattle,  coal,  and  sugar.  Exports  in  1946  included 
coffee,  hides,  and  salt  (25,730  metric  tons).  French 
Somaliland  is  administered  by  a  governor,  assisted 
by  an  administrative  council.  The  colony  is  repre- 
sented, in  the  National  Assembly,  the  Council  of 
the  Republic,  and  the  Assembly  of  the  French 
Union,  by  one  deputy  in  each.  Governor:  Paul  Si- 
riex. 

FRENCH  UNION.  According  to  the  French  Constitu- 
tion passed  on  Sept  29,  1946,  and  confirmed  by 
referendum  on  Oct.  13,  1946,  "the  French  Union 
consists,  on  the  one  hand,  of  the  French  Republic 
which  comprises  Metropolitan  France,  the  overseas 
departments  and  territories,  and  on  the  other  hand, 
of  the  associated  territories  and  states"  (Art.  60). 
The  central  organs  are  the  Presidency  (occupied 
by  the  President  of  the  French  Republic),  the  High 
Council  (composed — under  the  presidency  of  the 
President  of  the  Union — of  a  delegation  of  the 
French  government  and  of  the  representatives  of 
the  associated  states,  accredited  to  the  President 
of  the  Union.  Its  function  is  to  assist  the  govern- 
ment in  the  general  management  of  the  Union), 
and  the  Assembly  (half  the  members  represent 
Metropolitan  France  and  half  the  members  repre- 
sent the  overseas  departments  and  territories  and 
the  associated  states). 

FRENCH  WEST  AFRICA.  A  federation  of  7  French 
overseas  territories,  which,  are  listed  in  the  accom- 
panying table. 

Population.  Out  of  the  total  population  of  15,- 
943,000  (1946),  32,044  were  Europeans  (21,116 
French ) .  The  natives  are  mainly  Sudanese  Negroes, 
but  with  strong  Hamitic  influences  in  many  areas 
of  the  Sudan  and  in  the  Sahara.  These  elements 
introduced  the  Moslem  faith  professed  by  many  of 
the  inhabitants  in  the  drier  parts  of  French  West 


Africa.  Approximately  half  the  population  is  Mos- 
lem. The  southern  zone,  lying  in  the  belt  of  trop- 
ical rain  forests,  is  largely  pagan  except  where 
Christian  missions  have  made  converts. 


Territory 
Dahomey 

Sq.  Mi.      Pop.  (1946}      Capital 
43  232        1  458  000     Porto-Novo 

French  Guinea  

96,886        2,125000     Conakry 

French  Sudan  

590,966        3,797000     Bamako 

Ivory  Coast  

184,174        4,058000    Abidjan 

Mauritania.  ...    .... 

323,310           497  000              & 

Niger   .  .    .    . 

499  410        2,168  000     Niamey 

Senegal  °    . 

77  790  a      1  895  000  °  St  Louis 

French  West  Africa  .  . 

..   1,815,768      15,943,000     Dakar 

a  Includes  Dakar  and  dependencies,  reunited  with  Senegal 
on  July  1,  1946.  It  is  administered  by  a  delegate  of  the  governor 
of  Senegal  and  called  the  "Delegation  of  Dakar."  *  The  lieu- 
tenant governor  of  Mauritania  resides  in  St.  Louis,  Senegal. 

Education.  In  1946  there  were  832  elementary 
classes  with  a  total  of  78,547  students  enrolled,  23 
secondary,  technical,  and  Moslem  schools  with 
1,552  students,  and  a  number  of  private  schools 
with  a  total  of  24,213  students.  At  Dakar  there  is 
a  normal  school  for  training  in  the  various  profes- 
sions, and  an  institute  for  the  study  of  African  cul- 
ture and  languages. 

Production.  Agriculture,  lumber  production,  and 
stock  raising  are  the  principal  economic  activities, 
and  engage  about  96  percent  of  the  population.  The 
peanut  is  the  most  important  agricultural  product 
(365,000  tons  in  1946),  followed  by  coffee,  cocoa, 
palm  kernels,  peanut  oil,  and  other  oil  seeds.  Min- 
erals include  iron  ore,  manganese,  diamonds,  and 
gold;  however,  they  have  not  been  commercially 
exploited.  Except  for  20  oil  mills  producing  ap- 
proximately 40,000  tons  of  peanut  oil  yearly,  indus- 
try and  manufacture  are  on  a  small  scale  and 
mainly  for  local  consumption.  Livestock  (1945): 
171,309  camels,  4,533,957  cattle,  459,331  asses, 
11,140,000  sheep  and  goats,  179,150  horses,  and 
145,566  pigs. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1946  imports  were  valued  at 
5,990,770,000  francs — the  main  items  were  tex- 
tiles, fuel  oil,  mechanical  implements,  foodstuffs, 
and  beverages.  The  value  of  exports  in  1946  totaled 
4,120,592,000  francs — the  important  commodities 
were  peanuts,  peanut  oil,  coffee,  cocoa,  palm  ker- 
nels, gum,  dried  bananas,  and  cotton. 

Transportation.  In  1945  there  were  2,705  miles  of 
railway  in  operation,  11,532  miles  of  telephone 
line,  and  22,179  miles  of  telegraph  line.  A  consid- 
erable part  of  the  middle  Niger  is  navigable  for 
shallow  draft  vessels.  During  1946  a  total  of  5,745 
vessels  entered  and  cleared  the  ports  of  French 
West  Africa.  Dakar,  Conakry,  Abidjan-Port  Bouet, 
and  Cotonu  are  the  chief  ports. 

Finance.  The  general  budget  for  1947  was  esti- 
mated to  balance  at  5,117,234,000  francs,  and  the 
estimated  local  budgets  at  3,711,214,000  francs. 

Government.  French  West  Africa  consists  of  8  ter- 
ritories loosely  organized  for  administrative  and 
customs  purposes.  Its  form  of  government  had  not 
been  finally  established  to  conform  with  the  pro- 
visions of  the  new  French  Constitution  of  October 
1946.  The  executive  head,  the  Governor  General 
and  High  Commissioner,  who  resides  at  Dakar,  is 
assisted  by  a  Government  Council  and  a  Grand 
Council.  Each  of  the  territories  is  under  a  governor, 
assisted  by  a  Privy  Council  and  a  General  Council. 
French  West  Africa  is  represented  in  the  French 
legislature  by  12  delegates  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly and  19  delegates  to  the  Council  of  the  Repub- 
lic. High  Commissioner  of  the  French  Republic, 
Governor  General  of  French  West  Africa:  Paul 
Bechard  (appointed  February,  1948). 


GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS 


218 


GEOGRAPHIC  NAMES 


GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS.  A  territory  of  Ecuador  con- 
sisting of  a  group  of  13  large  and  hundreds  of  small 
volcanic  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  about  600 
miles  west  from  Ecuador.  Officially  called  Archi- 
pelago de  Colon.  Chief  islands:  San  Cristobal, 
Santa  Maria,  Santa  Cruz,  San  Salvador,  and  Isa- 
bella. Total  area:  3,028  square  miles.  Population: 
2,156  (1941).  During  World  War  II,  the  United 
States  maintained  air  bases  on  some  of  the  islands; 
efforts  to  purchase  or  lease  the  islands  failed,  how- 
ever, and  their  possession  reverted  to  Ecuador  on 
July  1,  1946. 

GAMBIA.  A  British  Crown  colony  and  protectorate 
in  West  Africa,  extending  on  both  banks  of  the 
Gambia  River  for  a  distance  of  some  250  miles 
from  its  mouth.  Total  area,  4,101  square  miles; 
area  of  colony  ( comprising  Bathurst  and  vicinity ) , 
96  square  miles;  area  of  protectorate,  4,005  square 
miles.  Population  of  the  colony  (1944  census),  21,- 
152;  protectorate  (1946  census),  223,114.  Capital: 
Bathurst,  on  the  Island  of  St.  Mary.  The  popula- 
tion is  predominantly  Mohammedan,  but  there  are 
several  pagan  enclaves  in  the  protectorate. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  export  products 
(1946):  groundnuts  (valued  at  £595,859),  palm 
kernels  (valued  at  £18,587),  beeswax,  hides,  and 
skins.  A  variety  of  crops  are  produced  for  domestic 
consumption.  Clothing,  agricultural  and  domestic 
implements,  foodstuffs,  and  medicines  are  import- 
ed. Imports  (1946):  £949,093;  exports  £696,292. 

Government.  Finance  (1946  est.):  revenue  £616,- 
328;  expenditure  £545,854;  public  debt  £38,760. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Island  of  St.  Mary  and 
the  contiguous  district  of  Kombo  St.  Mary,  Gambia 
is  administered  as  a  protectorate.  A  governor,  as- 
sisted by  an  Executive  Council  and  a  Legislative 
Council,  heads  the  administration.  In  Bathurst,  a 
town  council  was  established  in  1946  and  a  similar 
self-governing  body,  the  Kombo  Rural  Authority, 
was  created  on  Jan.  1,  1947.  Governor:  Sir  Andrew 
B,  Wright  (appointed  Nov.  21,  1946). 

GENERAL  ACCOUNTING  OFFICE.  An  agency  of  the 
U.S.  Government  under  the  control  and  direction 
of  the  Comptroller  General  of  the  United  States. 
The  Office  is  a  part  of  the  legislative  branch  and 
independent  of  the  executive  departments.  Comp- 
troller General  of  the  United  States,  Lindsay  C. 
Warren;  Assistant  Comptroller  General,  Frank  L. 
Yates. 

The  basic  tasks  assigned  to  the  Office  by  Con- 
gress are  the  independent  audit  of  the  financial 
transactions  of  the  Federal  Government  including 
those  of  Government  corporations;  the  prescribing 
of  forms,  systems,  and  procedures  for  administra- 
tive appropriation  and  fund  accounting  including 
the  prescribing  or  approving  of  systems  for  inven- 
tory accounting  in  independent  agencies;  the  set- 
tlement of  claims  by  or  against  the  United  States; 
the  rendition  of  legal  decisions  pertaining  to  gov- 
ernmental fiscal  matters;  the  conduct  of  investiga- 
tions relating  to  the  receipt,  disbursement,  and  ap- 
plication of  public  funds;  the  maintenance  of  ac- 
counting controls  in  connection  with  appropriation 
and  fund  accounts;  and  other  related  and  neces- 
sary functions. 

GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD.  An  institution  founded 
in  1902  and  incorporated  by  Act  of  Congress  in 
1903,  with  the  stated  object  of  promoting  educa- 
tion within  the  United  States  of  America  without 
distinction  of  race,  sex,  or  creed.  At  the  present 
time  the  work  of  the  Board  is  confined  to  the  south- 
ern states.  The  Board  is  empowered  to  spend  the 


income  and  the  principal  of  its  funds.  From  the 
time  of  its  establishment  until  Dec.  31,  1947,  its 
expenditures  totaled  $282,466,599.  As  of  Dec.  31, 
1947,  its  assets  amounted  to  $12,667,903  (not 
including  a  pledge  receivable  of  $7,500,000  from 
The  Rockefeller  Foundation). 

In  1948  the  General  Education  Board's  program 
included  aid  toward  the  following  general  pur- 
poses: general  improvement  of  teaching  and  facili- 
ties; promotion  of  graduate  education  and  research; 
training  of  youth  in  the  fields  of  business  and  tech- 
nology and  subjects  tending  to  contribute  to  the 
economic  and  industrial  development  of  the  South, 
improvement  of  health  and  community  life,  and 
improvement  of  public  education. 

Grants  illustrative  of  such  purposes  are:  to  five 
Negro  institutions  comprising  Atlanta  University 
Center,  for  the  employment  of  additional  faculty 
members  and/or  increases  in  faculty  salaries,  a 
total  of  $150,000;  to  St.  Augustine's  College,  Ral- 
eigh, N.C.,  for  construction  and  equipment  of  a 
science  building,  $140,000;  to  Vanderbilt  Univer- 
sity, Nashville,  Tenn.,  for  strengthening  the  social 
sciences,  primarily  through  additional  staff,  library 
materials,  and  support  for  research,  $130,000;  to 
the  University  of  Florida,  Gainesville,  toward  the 
development  of  research  on  the  graduate  level, 
$30,000;  to  the  Regional  Council  for  Education, 
toward  study  and  preparation  of  a  program  of 
cooperation  among  the  states  in  the  development 
and  support  of  graduate,  professional,  and  techni- 
cal education  on  a  regional  basis,  $30,000;  to  the 
National  Planning  Association,  Washington,  D.C., 
toward  the  research  program  of  the  Committee  of 
the  South  (concerned  with  the  economic  develop- 
ment of  the  South),  $25,000;  to  the  University  of 
Georgia,  Athens,  toward  support  of  a  program  for 
regional  coordination  of  education  in  agricultural 
engineering  and  vocational  agriculture  to  be  under- 
taken by  the  Southern  Association  of  Agricultural 
Engineers  and  Vocational  Agricultural  Educators, 
sponsored  by  the  University,  $30,000;  to  the  Ala- 
bama Polytechnic  Institute,  Auburn,  toward  the 
cost  of  equipment  for  the  Human  Nutrition  Re- 
search Laboratory,  $10,868;  to  Tuskegee  Institute, 
Alabama,  toward  support  of  the  rural  life  program, 
$70,000;  and  to  the  Southern  Association  of  Col- 
leges and  Secondary  Schools  toward  support  of  a 
study  in  elementary  education,  $30,000. 

Officers:  President  until  June  30,  1948  (retired), 
Raymond  B.  Fosdick;  President  from  July  1,  Ches- 
ter I.  Barnard;  Vice  President  and  Director,  Rob- 
ert D.  Calkins;  Secretary,  William  W.  Brierley; 
Treasurer,  Edward  Robinson.  Offices:  49  West 
49th  St.,  New  York  20,  N.Y. 

GEOGRAPHIC  NAMES,  Board  on.  Successor  to  the 
United  States  Board  on  Georgraphical  Names.  The 
Secretary  of  Interior  and  the  Board  conjointly 
standardize  geographic  nomenclature  for  the  Fed- 
eral Government.  Executive  Secretary:  Meredith 
F.  Burrill. 

The  Board  on  Geographic  Names  issued  during 
the  calendar  year  1948  a  total  of  2,161  decisions 
on  individual  names  and  standardized  more  by 
routine  procedures  without  formal  individual  de- 
cisions. Directions  for  treatment  of  geographic 
names  in  nine  separate  countries  were  published, 
and  many  policy  and  procedure  rulings  made  that 
were  reflected  in  names  and  other  published  ma- 
terial. 

Work  on  Antarctic  names  was  continued,  with 
about  250  names  being  approved  in  addition  to 
those  previously  published.  There  was  close  co- 
operation with  American  expeditions  to  Antarctica 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


219 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


during  the  year.  Worldng  arrangements  were  com- 
pleted with  the  Canadian  Board  on  Geographical 
Names  for  exchange  of  decisions  and  other  infor- 
mation, to  the  advantage  of  both  Boards. 

GEOIOGICAL  SURVEY.  Modern  civilization  is  depend- 
ent on  the  use  of  large  quantities  of  three  natural 
resources:  metals  and  minerals  for  machines;  fuels 
for  power  and  heat;  and  water  for  power,  irriga- 
tion, industry,  and  the  home.  These  resources  come 
from  the  earth,  and  their  most  efficient  discovery 
and  development  require  a  knowledge  of  geology. 
In  the  fiscal  year  1948  the  Geological  Survey — as 
it  has  since  its  organization  in  1879 — remained  the 
hub  of  Federal  activities  relating  to  the  discovery, 
evaluation,  development,  and  conservation  of  the 
nation's  mineral  and  water  resources.  During  the 
year  considerations  of  national  security  kept  the 
activities  of  the  Geological  Survey  focused  even 
more  intently  than  before  on  problems  relating  to 
the  discovery  and  appraisal  of  mineral  raw  mate- 
rials and  this  work  has  expanded  to  the  limit  of 
available  facilities. 

Organization.  Beginning  Jan.  1,  1949,  the  units 
within  the  Geological  Survey  have  been  renamed 
to  conform  to  the  subdivisions  of  other  agencies 
of  the  Government.  The  term  "Branch/'  used  for 
many  years  for  the  four^  major  units  of  the  Survey, 
has  been  replaced  by  "Division"  and  the  smaller 
units,  formerly  called  "Sections,"  are  now  termed 
"Branches."  Exceptions  are  that  the  former  Atlan- 
tic, Central,  Rocky  Mountain,  and  Pacific  "Divi- 
sions" of  the  Topographic  "Branch"  become  "Re- 
gions" of  the  Topographic  "Division." 

Funds.  During  the  fiscal  year  1948  there  was 
available  for  expenditure  by  the  Geological  Survey 
a  total  of  $22,410,915.  Of  this  amount  $10,241,443 
was  appropriated  directly  to  the  Survey  and  $12,- 
169,472  was  made  available  by  other  Federal 
agencies,  and  by  States  and  their  political  subdivi- 
sions. In  addition,  $10,995  was  allotted  from  the 
contingent  fund  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior 
for  miscellaneous  expenses. 

Geologic  Division.  Progress  has  been  maintained  in 
all  important  directions  to  determine  the  ultimate 
capacity  of  this  country  to  produce  the  mineral  raw 
materials  required  by  industry,  in  the  completion 
of  the  geological  map  of  the  United  States,  and  in 
the  correlative  programs  of  general  research.  Geo- 
logical maps  are  an  essential  tool  in  many  fields, 
not  only  in  the  search  for  an  appraisal  of  mineral 
and  water  resources  but  also  in  providing  informa- 
tion for  mineral  and  mining  technology;  in  land 
classification;  in  soil  conservation  and  soil  sciences; 
in  the  activities  of  the  national  parks;  in  dam,  high- 
way, and  other  kinds  of-  heavy  construction;  and 
in  military  planning, 

Mineral  Deposits.  Early  in  the  fiscal  year  1948  the 
consolidation  of  the  sections  of  Metalliferous  De- 
posits and  Non-metalliferous  Deposits  resulted  in 
an  expanded  program  of  research,  geologic  map- 
ping, and  explorations  of  mineral  deposits.  Seventy- 
one  projects  were  active  in  37  States.  Because  of 
the  critical  need  for  base  metals,  24  of  the  projects 
dealt  with  copper,  lead,  and  zinc,  and  15  with 
deposits  of  iron  and  ferro-alloy  minerals,  such  as 
tungsten,  chromite,  and  manganese.  Investigations 
were  also  continued  on  mercury,  alunite,  bentonite, 
fluorspar,  magnesite,  potash,  talc,  and  granite.  Five 
exploratory  drilling  projects — one  each  in  Arizona, 
Colorado,  Idaho,  South  Dakota,  and  New  York — 
were  undertaken,  3  of  which  were  completed  dur- 
ing the  year. 

Geochemical  prospecting  for  mineral  deposits 
by  chemical  studies  of  soil,  vegetation,  and  water 


was  carried  on  by  6  projects  and  10  minor  field 
studies.  Greatest  emphasis  was  placed  on  the  de- 
velopment of  quick  analytical  tests  that  may  be 
used  in  the  field.  Greenhouse  experiments  on  plants 
growing  in  soils  containing  known  concentrations 
of  copper,  lead,  and  zinc  were  in  progress  during 
the  year.  Cooperative  work  in  10  States  was  con- 
tinued and  6  projects  were  under  way  in  the  Mis- 
souri River  Basin.  New  publications  for  the  year 
embraced  a  wide  range  of  subjects  resulting  in  32 
reports  available  to  the  public.  In  addition  15  re- 
ports were  prepared  for  publication  by  cooperating 
State  agencies  and  27  reports  were  published  in 
professional  and  technical  journals. 

Fuels.  Continuation  of  the  investigations  on  oil 
and  gas  resulted  in  the  release  of  19  maps  and 
charts  covering  work  in  Alabama,  Colorado,  Geor- 
gia, Mississippi,  Montana,  New  Mexico,  Ohio, 
Utah,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia.  About  17,000 
copies  of  these  and  earlier  maps  and  charts  were 
sold  ciuring  the  year.  In  order  to  increase  the  dis- 
tribution of  maps,  field  sales  offices  have  been  es- 
tablished at  Tulsa,  Denver,  Casper,  Billings,  and 
Los  Angeles.  The  preliminary  reports  on  the  inves- 
tigation of  Naval  Oil  Shale  Reserves  1  and  3  and 
adjoining  areas  in  Colorado  were  completed.  Fur- 
ther field  investigations  were  begun  in  the  area 
west  of  the  Naval  Reserves.  Considerable  field  data 
were  obtained  on  the  distribution  and  thickness  of 
some  of  the  oil-shale  beds  in  Tennessee. 

The  definitive  reappraisal  of  the  coal  reserves  of 
the  United  States  is  one  of  the  most  urgent  tasks 
confronting  the  Geological  Survey,  which  was  able 
during  the  fiscal  year  to  make  a  beginning  in  this 
detailed  examination  by  a  complete  study  of  the 
available  data  on  the  coal  resources  of  Montana. 
Field  work  was  continued  in  Colorado,  North  Car- 
olina, Pennsylvania,  and  Washington. 

Genera/  Geology.  Although  the  rate  of  general  ge- 
ological mapping  has  continued  to  increase,  nearly 
12,000  fifteen-minute  quadrangles  remain  to  be 
mapped  before  the  work  covering  the  entire  coun- 
try is  complete.  To  do  this  job  requires  the  active 
participation  of  the  geological  profession  and  will 
require  the  enlistment  of  aid  from  organizations 
representing  the  mineral  industries,  universities, 
and  State  geological  surveys.  As  a  first  step  in  such 
planning  the  Survey  has  prepared,  for  every  State, 
a  bibliographical  index  of  all  published  geologic 
maps,  and  this  information  will  be  brought  up-to- 
date  periodically. 

In  the  field  of  structural  geology  new  concepts 
regarding  the  mechanics  and  forces  involved  in 
crustal  movements  resulted  from  study  in  the  Great 
Smoky  Mountains  National  Park  and  in  New  Eng- 
land. Places  where  present-day  crustal  movements 
are  suspected  were  discovered  in  the  Great  Basin 
area  of  Nevada,  western  Utah,  and  southern  Cali- 
fornia. Studies  in  Utah,  northern  Pennsylvania,  and 
eastern  Maryland  have  .contributed  to  a  better  un- 
derstanding of  the  effect  of  geologic  processes  on 
soil  genesis.  This  study  resulted  in  the  discovery, 
in  a  fossil  soil  in  Utah,  of  a  lime-free  clay  that  has 
superior  properties  for  the  manufacture  of  struc- 
tural clay  products. 

Geophysics.  Geophysical  exploration,  both  aero- 
magnetic  and  ground  surveys,  were  continued  dur- 
ing 1948,  A  total  of  66,400  miles  of  useful  aero- 
magnetic  traverse  was  flown,  covering  36,000 
square  miles  in  7  States  and  in  the  Aleutian  and 
northern  Pacific  Islands.  Ground  surveys  were 
made  in  9  States,  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and 
Alaska  for  determining  the  extensions  of  oil  sands 
from  producing  wells,  locating  ground  water,  ob- 
taining information  on  metallic  deposits,  and  meas- 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


220 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


uring  the  depth  and  extent  of  permafrost  in  Alaska. 

A  new  type  of  magnetometer  was  designed  and 
constructed  and  is  undergoing  field  tests.  A  new 
seismograph  was  completed  for  observation  in 
Alaska,  in  connection  with  volcanic  research.  De- 
vices for  the  orientation  of  drill  cores  were  de- 
signed for  use  by  field  geologists. 

Geochem/sfry  and  Petrology.  This  branch,  primarily 
concerned  with  the  application  of  specialized  tech- 
niques of  chemistry,  physics,  mineralogy,  and  pe- 
trology conducted  research  on  a  rapid  method  for 
the  field  determination  of  zinc,  of  uranium  in  low- 
grade  material,  and  for  quantitative  spot-testing 
for  several  other  elements.  Six  major  projects  rang- 
ing from  the  study  and  description  of  new  miner- 
als through  comprehensive  study  of  mineral  groups 
were  carried  on  as  well  as  many  cooperative  proj- 
ects with  other  sections.  Three  previously  unknown 
clay  deposits  were  discovered  in  Utah,  Several  hun- 
dred mineral  determinations  were  made  during  the 
year  for  Survey  geologists,  ranging  from  the  rapid 
determination  of  specimens  to  complete  chemical 
analyses. 

To  keep  pace  with  the  expanding  work  of  the 
Geological  Survey  a  number  of  the  modern  tools 
of  research  have  been  ordered  and  will  soon  be 
put  into  use.  These  include  an  electron  microscope, 
a  mass  spectrograph,  a  physical  laboratory  for  de- 
termining physical  properties  of  rocks  and  min- 
erals, a  microchemical  laboratory,  and  facilities  for 
conducting  a  program  on  radioactive  age  determi- 
nations and  research  on  methods  for  the  determina- 
tion of  radioactive  materials, 

Paleontology  and  Stratigraphy.  The  branch  has  con- 
tinued to  support  the  work  of  the  economic  geolo- 
gists by  identifying  and  correlating  strata  by  means 
of  fossils,  making  numerous  examinations  of  ma- 
terials submitted  by  field  geologists  and  consulting 
with  field  parties  on  the  ground.  Studies  have  been 
made  of  die  Woodbine  formation  of  Texas,  Jurassic 
faunas  of  the  western  interior  region  and  Alaska, 
the  floras  of  late  Cretaceous  and  early  Tertiary 
rocks  of  the  West,  the  echinoid  faunas  of  the  east- 
ern United  States,  foraminiferal  faunas  of  various 
regions,  the  stratigraphy  and  conodont  faunas  of 
the  black  shales  of  the  East  and  the  invertebrates 
of  the  fossil  faunas  of  the  Canal  Zone.  Most  of 
these  investigations  are  long-range  projects,  and 
many  will  be  continued  beyond  the  end  of  the 
year, 

Engineering  Geology.  Mapping  projects  active  dur- 
ing 1948  were  in  cooperation  with  the  construction 
work  of  the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  in  North  Da- 
kota, Kansas,  and  central  Utah,  and  with  the  Unit- 
ed States  Engineers*  Lower  Monumental  dam  site 
on  the  Snake  River  in  Utah  and  the  Puerto  Rico 
Water  Resources  Authority's  dam  site  and  tunnel 
sites.  Studies  of  construction  materials  include  a 
map  and  report  on  the  sand  and  gravel  of  Wyo- 
ming, and  in  several  counties  in  Kansas  and  in 
Colorado.  Areas  in  the  States  of  Colorado  and  Utah 
where  landslides  occur  frequently  were  mapped 
in  detail.  A  geological  dictionary  for  engineers  was 
compiled  during  the  year. 

Military  Geology.  Nine  major  reports  and  36 
shorter  reports  were  completed  during  the  year. 
One  of  these,  Technical  Manual  5-254  Military 
Geology,  will  be  published  by  the  Adjutant  Gen- 
eral's Office,  United  States  Army,  for  use  as  a  guide 
in  training  or  operations  involving  the  application 
of  geology  to  military  problems.  The  other  reports 
deal  with  terrain  analysis,  construction  materials, 
water  supply,  airfield  sites,  construction  of  under- 
ground installations,  permanently  frozen  ground, 
and  mineral  resources.  Projects  were  carried  on  at 


Fort  Benning,  Ga.,  Japan,  Okinawa,  Palau,  Guam, 
Bikini,  and  Alaska.  Many  of  these  projects  were 
completed  and  the  reports  on  them  are  being  pre- 
pared, One  geologist  was  assigned  to  Task  Force 
30,  a  U.S.  Navy  Antarctic  Expedition. 

Investigations  in  Alaska.  The  details  for  long- 
range  geologic  mapping  in  Alaska  were  developed 
during  the  year;  and  projects  geared  to  this  plan- 
ning and  carried-over  projects  from  the  previous 
year  constituted  the  Alaskan  program.  The  work 
included  investigations  of  metals,  non-metals,  coal, 
petroleum  and  trace  elements,  and  special  attention 
was  given  to  projects  more  apt  to  aid  in  short-range 
territorial  development. 

Work  in  other  American  Republics.  The  other  Amer- 
ican republics  cooperated  with  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey by  furnishing  funds  and  native  geologists  to 
assist  in  carrying  on  the  work.  As  a  result  of  these 
investigations,  joint  reports  were  prepared  with 
maps  containing  bilingual  legends.  The  reports 
published  during  the  year  covered  such  subjects 
as:  Tungsten  investigations  in  Argentina;  nickel- 
cobalt  manganese-oxide  deposits,  and  manganese 
and  iron  deposits  in  Brazil;  the  mineral  deposits  of 
Central  America;  the  mercury  and  tungsten  depos- 
its in  Chile;  the  mineral  deposits  of  Colombia,  and 
the  manganese  deposits  of  Costa  Rica;  the  chro- 
mite,  manganese,  and  tungsten  deposits  of  Cuba; 
the  mineral  deposits  and  aluminous  later  atic  soils 
of  the  Dominican  Republic  and  Haiti;  the  volcano 
Sangay  in  Ecuador;  the  quicksilver,  lead,  zinc, 
and  copper  of  Peru;  and  a  number  of  projects  cov- 
ering several  mineral  commodities  in  Mexico. 

Topographic  Division.  With  the  modern  methods 
and  increased  production  afforded  through  the  use 
of  aerial  photography,  the  Geological  Survey  has 
produced  more  maps  during  the  past  year  than  in 
any  corresponding  period  in  its  history.  The  de- 
mand for  maps  by  Government  and  State  agencies 
and  private  concerns  continues  to  increase  in  vol- 
ume. To  meet  these  needs,  plans  have  been  made 
for  the  acceleration  of  mapping  operations  which, 
if  adequately  financed,  would  accomplish  com- 
plete coverage  of  the  United  States  in  approxi- 
mately 20  years. 

Geodesy  and  Control  Surveys.  During  the  year  this 
newly  reorganized  branch  prepared  instruction 
manuals,  conducted  projects  in  new  control-survey 
methods,  and  inspected  current  control-survey 
projects.  Information  from  all  available  sources  for 
application  in  control  for  mapping  was  collected. 
The  development  of  an  electrical  device  for  ad- 
justment of  survey  nets  was  completed  and  it  is 
now  in  use  for  adjustment  of  leveling  and  transit 
traverse  nets.  A  new  vacuum  chamber  has  been 
procured,  making  it  possible  to  calibrate  precise 
altimeters  in  sets  of  six.  Two  new  instruments  that 
measure  elevation  continuously  in  an  automobile 
or  trailer  have  received  extensive  field  tests.  The 
use  of  shoran  arid  other  electronic  methods  of  po- 
sition determination  are  being  observed  as  possible 
means  to  establish  horizontal  control  for  mapping. 

Photogrammetry.  New  designs  for  plotting  instru- 
ments were  prepared  and  new  adaptations  and 
combinations  of  photogrammetric  equipment  and 
technique  have  been  used  as  a  basis  for  the  design 
of  more  accurate  plotting  instruments.  New  plot- 
ting instruments  have  been  designed  and  others 
are  being  manufactured  and  placed  in  use.  Work 
has  also  been  started  on  the  design  and  manufac- 
ture of  a  near  distortion-free  photographic  lens, 
which,  if  successfully  accomplished,  will  have  a 
marked  influence  on  all  mapping  activities.  Ap- 
proximately 35,000  square  miles  of  new  photo- 
graphs were  contracted  for  during  the  year  and 


GEOIOGJCAl  SURVEY 


221 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


photographs  of  nearly  50,000  square  miles  were 
delivered  on  contracts  placed  in  previous  years. 

Topographic  Surveys.  Technical  instructions  cov- 
ering four  new  procedures  or  changes  in  treatment 
of  map  features  were  issued  and  others  are  in  prog- 
ress. Bulletin  788,  Topographic  Instructions,  issued 
in  1928,  was  reviewed  and  an  appraisal  citing  the 
technical  memorandums  required  to  cover  changes 
in  procedure  since  the  original  date  of  publication 
was  issued.  A  revision  of  Bulletin  788  is  in  prog- 
ress. New  stadia  reduction  tables  and  a  field  note- 
book for  supplemental  control  surveys  were  de- 
signed and  issued. 

Cartography  and  Map  Editing.  In  the  past  year  845 
new  topographic  maps  were  edited  and  published 
and  in  addition,  450  maps,  the  stock  of  which  had 
been  exhausted,  were  reprinted.  A  total  of  120 
maps  for  26  professional  papers,  bulletins,  and 
water-supply  papers  were  examined.  The  editing 
and  printing  of  military  maps  for  civil  use  was  in- 
stituted. Included  in  the  totals  listed  above  were  6 
new  topographic  maps  of  this  type  and  approxi- 
mately 70  of  the  reprint  group. 

The  drafting,  editing,  and  reproduction  of  stand- 
ard topographic  maps  compiled  by  other  agencies 
in  compliance  with  our  current  distribution  policies 
was  inaugurated.  A  style  and  symbol  sheet  was  de- 
veloped during  the  year  in  collaboration  with 
other  Federal  map-making  agencies  to  insure  uni- 
formity in  the  use  of  symbols  and  in  format.  Speci- 
fications were  developed  for  the  production  of 
maps  at  the  scale  of  1:500,000.  Division  represen- 
tation was  supplied  for  the  interagency  committee 
on  symbolization  of  topographic  maps  of  the  Joint 
Mapping  and  Photography  Committee. 

Map  Information  Office.  The  growth  of  the  Map 
Information  Office  as  a  central  source  of  informa- 
tion regarding  maps,  aerial  photographs,  and  con- 
trol surveys  has  exceeded  all  expectations.  This  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  volume  of  correspond- 
ence regarding  these  maps  increased  more  than 
113  percent  in  1948  over  the  previous  year.  The 
principal  users  of  this  service  have  been  engineers 
and  geologists  in  highway  planning,  oil  research, 
and  industrial  development  projects.  This  office 
also  provided  technical  data  for  use  in  connection 
with  drainage,  flood  control,  irrigation,  water  sup- 
plies, hydroelectric,  television  and  radio  broadcast- 
ing, and  transportation  projects.  Numerous  re- 
quests were  received  from  educational  institutions 
for  mapping  and  surveying  data. 

During  the  year  this  office  continued  to  maintain 
and  further  augment  information  regarding  all 
published  or  otherwise  available  topographic  and 
planimetric  maps,  aerial  photography,  aerial  mo- 
saics or  photo  maps,  geodetic  control,  and  data 
pertaining  to  work  in  progress  and  new  schedules 
of  the  various  Federal  agencies  interested  in  sur- 
veying, mapping,  and  photogrammetry. 

Compilation  of  two  new  status  of  topographic 
mapping  indexes  was  completed.  These  indexes 
evaluate  topographic  map  coverage  in  the  United 
States,  Alaska,  Hawaii,  Puerto  Rico,  and  Panama. 
One  index  shows  map  scales  of  one  inch  to  the  mile 
or  larger,  the  other  shows  only  reconnaissance 
maps  at  smaller  scales.  Publication  of  these  maps 
is  scheduled  for  early  in  1949. 

Also  in  preparation  is  a  new  edition  of  Map  Col- 
lection^ in  the  District  of  Columbia.  This  publica- 
tion briefly  describes  the  map  collections  of  Gov- 
ernment and  district  agencies  as  well  as  some  pri- 
vate collections,  and  will  be  printed  during  1949. 

Compilation  of  the  first  edition  of  two  new  in- 
dexes showing  the  status  of  geodetic  control  was 
completed  and  forwarded  for  reproduction.  These 


indexes  will  show  horizontal  and  vertical  control 
by  the  Geological  Survey  and  other  agencies,  and 
will  be  available  early  in  1949, 

The  third  edition  of  the  status  of  aerial  photog- 
raphy in  the  United  States  was  compiled  and  pub- 
lished. This  issue  shows  available  primary  photog- 
raphy, additional  coverage  in  areas  photographed 
more  than  once,  and  new  projects  under  way — all 
as  reported  by  Federal  agencies,  numerous  State 
agencies,  and  commercial  concerns.  A  supplemen- 
tary series  of  small  State  maps  showing  all  the 
aerial  photographic  holdings  of  the  Survey,  scales, 
dates,  lens  focal  lengths,  and  project  symbols  were 
completed.  While  this  is  not  a  regular  publication 
issue,  copies  are  available  under  certain  conditions 
to  interested  users. 

Other  major  items  now  available  from  the  Map 
Information  Office  through  arrangements  initiated 
or  augmented  during  the  year  include  photographic 
or  photostatic  copies  of  map  manuscripts  and  other 
official  records  as  well  as  reproductions  from  aerial 
film  held  by  the  Survey.  Four  division  laboratories 
have  been  equipped  and  staffed  to  meet  the  de- 
mand for  this  type  of  material. 

The  office  has  continued  to  serve  as  a  central 
clearing  point  where  any  agency  contemplating 
new  surveying,  mapping,  or  photogramrnetric  proj- 
ects can  learn  of  similar  existing  or  contemplated 
work  in  their  area  of  interest,  thus  preventing  un- 
necessary duplication  or  overlapping  of  mapping 
activities.  It  also  acted  for  the  Survey  on  a  com- 
mittee of  representatives  of  all  Government  agen- 
cies which  procure  and  use  aerial  photography  for 
mapping  or  related  cartographic  purposes.  One 
of  the  major  accomplishments  during  the  year  was 
the  establishment  of  uniform  prices  for  aerial 
photographic  reproductions  sold  by  Federal  agen- 
cies. The  sale  of  aerial  photographic  prints  during 
the  year  increased  nearly  threefold. 

A  continuing  interest  was  shown  by  foreign  engi- 
neers in  the  Geological  Survey  methods  of  mapping 
and  visitors  were  entertained  from  China,  Siam, 
India,  New  Zealand,  New  South  Wales,  Switzer- 
land, France,  Holland,  Turkey,  Liberia5  Argentina, 
Brazil,  Ecuador,  Chile,  Mexico,  and  Canada. 

Special  Map  Projects.  Eight  sheets  of  the  Interna- 
tional Map  of  the  World  were  published  or  were 
in  the  process  of  publication  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
Preparation  of  the  Transportation  Map  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  scale  1:250,000,  for  the  Public  Roads 
Administration  was  in  progress.  Sheets  of  these 
maps  for  West  Virginia,  Nevada,  Ohio,  and  Vir- 
ginia were  in  various  stages  of  reproduction,  and 
Alabama  and  Louisiana  were  transmitted  for  re- 
production. Those  for  Indiana,  Missouri,  Missis- 
sippi, and  Kentucky  were  in  various  stages  of  com- 
pilation. New  series  of  State  base  maps  for  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Oklahoma,  and  Mississippi  were  in 
progress  of  compilation,  and  those  for  Massachu- 
setts, Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  Wyoming,  New 
Jersey,  Maryland,  and  Delaware  were  in  various 
stages  of  reproduction. 

A  cartographic  program  for  the  publication  of 
two  general-purpose  maps  of  Puerto  Rico,  scales 
1:120,000  and  1:240,000,  was  undertaken  for  the 
insular  government  Another  program,  also  for  this 
government,  involves  the  publication  of  a  special 
edition  of  the  1:30,000  scale  quadrangle  maps  of 
the  island,  emphasizing  political  subdivisions. 
These  maps  are  being  prepared  for  use  in  the  cen- 
sus of  1950. 

Trimefrogon  Mapping.  The  trimetrogon  method  of 
mapping  and  charting  was  continued  for  the  U.S. 
Air  Force.  The  maintenance  of  adequate  world 
coverage  of  aeronautical  charts  is  a  part  of  the 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


222 


G£OJLOG/OU  SURVEY 


work  of  this  branch  which  also  reviews  and  evalu- 
ates and,  if  necessary,  revises  or  compiles  charts 
by  photogrammetry.  The  branch  also  maintains  the 
only  world- wide  reference  library  of  trimetrogon 
photographs.  During  the  year  the  branch  com- 
pleted more  than  850,000  square  miles  of  new 
compilation  and  revised  over  1  million  square  miles 
of  charts  and  more  than  450,000  square  miles  of 
cartographic  compilation.  This  charting  covers 
practically  every  part  of  the  v/orld.  Special  photo- 
mosaics  were  prepared  for  use  by  the  U.S.  Navy 
Task  Force  operating  in  Antarctic  regions,  and  the 
compilation  of  Antarctic  aerial  photography  is  now 
in  progress. 

Mapping  Accomplishments,  During  the  year  topo- 
graphic mapping  was  carried  on  in  38  States,  Alas- 
ka, and  Puerto  Rico.  Cooperative  projects  were 
conducted  with  18  States  and  with  the  Tennessee 
Valley  Authority.  The  mapping  of  467  quadrangles 
was  completed  and  mapping  was  in  process  on  259 
additional  quadrangles.  In  addition,  work  on  1,401 
quadrangles  prior  to  actual  mapping  was  in  prog- 
ress. In  addition  mapping  was  completed  for  14 
posts,  camps,  and  stations  on  a  cooperative  basis 
with  the  military  departments.  The  areas  covered 
approximately  52  fifteen-minute  quadrangles. 

Water  Resources  Division.  Water  is  one  of  a  few 
natural  resources  that  are  renewable.  When  a 
known  deposit  of  our  minerals  and  mineral  fuels 
is  used  up,  we  must  either  find  new  deposits  or 
turn  to  the  development  of  low-grade  or  less  valu- 
able deposits.  However,  water  is  constantly  being 
replenished  in  the  continuous  operation  of  the  hy- 
drologic  cycle — water  transformed  from  the  sea 
and  the  land  to  vapor  in  the  air,  and  then  precipi- 
tated back  upon  the  earth.  Only  by  keeping  rec- 
ords of  the  never-ending  changes  in  our  water  sup- 
plies can  we  know  what  our  water  resources  are 
and  what  they  can  be  used  for.  As  the  limit  of  a 
water  supply  is  approached,  the  demand  for  re- 
liable data  becomes  more  insistent.  The  importance 
of  this  work  is  recognized  when  we  consider  the 
number  of  cooperative  projects  carried  on  with 
more  than  a  score  of  Federal  agencies  and  with  50 
State  and  Territorial  governments. 

In  1948  this  work  was  conducted  from  more 
than  100  field  offices  which  maintained  close  con- 
tacts with  State,  municipal,  and  Federal  officials. 
These  offices  are  also  local  sources  of  information 
as  to  available  water  resources,  fluctuations  of  the 
water  table,  and  the  chemical  and  physical  qual- 
ity of  surface  and  ground  waters. 

Surface  Water.  There  has  been  a  steady  increase 
during  the  year  in  demands  from  many  sources 
for  surface-water  information,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  fiscal  year  about  6,000  gaging  stations  were  in 
operation,  Laboratories  and  shop  equipment  for 
the  development  and  improvement  of  equipment 
for  stream  measurement  were  expanded.  This  in- 
cluded a  special  type  of  snow-mobile,  for  winter 
observations  in  remote  mountain  areas,  which  was 
developed  and  constructed  in  cooperation  with  the 
Soil  Conservation  Service. 

Progress  was  made  in  cooperating  with  the  Pub- 
lic Hoads  Administration  and  various  State  high- 
way departments  on  better  utilization  of  stream- 
flow  records  in  hydraulic  and  hydrologic  problems 
connected  with  highway  structures.  Research  has 
been  carried  on  in  the  field  of  indirect  measure- 
ments of  stream-flow  in  efforts  to  improve  the  ac- 
curacy of  determination  of  peak  discharges.  A 
comprehensive  study  and  report  of  the  record- 
breaking  1948  Columbia  River  flood  will  be  com- 
pleted during  this  year. 

Ground  Water.  It  is  the  purpose  of  ground-water 


investigations  to  define  the  location,  areal  extent, 
and  thickness  of  underground  reservoirs  and  to 
determine  the  amount  of  water  that  is  stored  and 
can  be  economically  recovered  from  them.  These 
investigations  involve  collection  of  well  data,  geo- 
logical studies,  test  drilling  and  pumping,  and  geo- 
physical surveys.  Some  of  the  important  studies 
completed  during  the  year  were:  In  the  Piedmont 
area  of  North  Carolina  statistical  studies  of  the 
factors  relating  to  the  yield  of  wells  showed  that 
topographic  location  is  of  great  importance,  and 
the  results  of  the  studies,  which  are  applicable  over 
the  entire  Piedmont  area  from  southern  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Alabama,  make  possible  more  effective  lo- 
cations of  successful  well  sites;  in  Michigan  a  study 
of  mine-drainage  problems  laid  the  foundation  for 
attack  on  similar  problems  elsewhere;  completion 
of  the  intensive  phases  of  a  comprehensive  investi- 
gation of  water  resources  in  southeastern  Florida 
made  available  a  large  mass  of  data,  much  of  which 
is  applicable  to  other  coastal  areas  where  sea  water 
is  contaminating  ground  water. 

During  the  year  nearly  400  projects  were  carried 
on  in  nearly  every  State  and  Territory.  Nearly  250 
formal  reports  of  various  kinds  were  prepared  and 
several  thousand  requests  for  information  on 
ground-water  conditions  were  answered. 

Qualify  of  Wafer.  Pure  water  does  not  exist  in 
nature.  Every  drop  of  rain  water  carries  dust,  pol- 
len, smoke,  and  the  atmospheric  gases.  Because 
water  is  a  powerful  solvent,  the  rain  water  running 
over  rocks  and  percolating  through  the  soil  gathers 
more  and  more  mineral  matter  in  solution.  This 
dissolved  matter,  or  suspended  matter  carried  by 
the  water,  is  of  primary  importance  in  determining 
the  suitability  of  the  water  for  many  uses.  During 
1948,  17,500  samples  of  water  were  analyzed  in 
the  12  laboratories  of  the  Geological  Survey,  in 
Washington  and  in  the  field,  adding  to  the  growing 
storehouse  of  information  on  the  chemical  com- 
position of  the  Nation's  water  resources. 

Cooperation  in  these  investigations  was  carried 
on  with  the  States  of  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Pennsylvania,  Florida, 
Arkansas,  Texas,  Oklahoma,  Ohio,  Iowa,  New  Mex- 
ico, and  Colorado.  The  importance  of  the  large 
quantities  of  sediment  transported  by  rivers  be- 
comes apparent  when  considered  with  the  increas- 
ing demand  for  large  dams  to  impound  water  for 
irrigation,  power  development,  and  industrial  use, 
as  this  sediment  is  dropped  in  the  reservoirs  cre- 
ated by  the  dams.  More  than  80,000  samples  were 
analyzed  for  sediment  content  during  the  year. 

Missouri  River  Basin.  The  coordinated  projects  o£ 
the  Bureau  of  Reclamation  and  the  Corps  of  Engi- 
neers, Department  of  the  Army,  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Missouri  River  Basin  require  extensive 
water  investigations,  which  are  generally  conduct- 
ed in  cooperation  with  States  and  municipalities. 
These  investigations  were  supplemented  by  the 
operations  of  165  stream-gaging  stations;  by  stud- 
ies in  the  vicinity  of  33  reclamation  units,  related 
to  ground-water  supplies  or  conditions  that  may 
result  from  reservoir  construction  and  irrigation; 
by  40,200  measurements  of  sediment  content  at 
48  stations;  by  2,500  chemical  analyses;  and  by 
hydrologic  studies  related  to  proposed  plans  of  de- 
velopment. The  information  obtained  through  these 
investigations  is  furnished  to  the  above  agencies. 

Interstate  Compacts  and  International  Treaties.  In- 
terstate compacts  for  division  between  States  of 
waters  of  interstate  streams,  which  require  the 
Geological  Survey  to  establish  and  operate  gaging 
stations,  are  now  in  effect  in  Colorado  River  ( Wyo- 
ming, Utah,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Ne- 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


223 


GEORGIA 


vada,  California);  Belle  Fourche  River  (Wyoming, 
South  Dakota ) ;  Republican  River  ( Nebraska,  Kan- 
sas ) ;  Rio  Grande  ( Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Texas ) ; 
and  Costilla  Creek  ( Colorado,  New  Mexico ) .  Simi- 
lar compacts  are  in  progress  of  negotiation  for  Ar- 
kansas River  (Colorado,  Kansas)  and  Bear  River 
(Idaho,  Utah). 

International  problems  related  to  water  are  in- 
creasing. The  Geological  Survey,  using  funds  trans- 
ferred by  the  State  Department,  makes  the  water- 
resources  investigations  along  the  Canadian  bound- 
ary that  are  required  by  orders  issued  by  the 
International  Joint  Commission,  United  States  and 
Canada,  under  the  treaty  of  Jan.  11,  1909. 

In  addition  to  these  continuing  investigations 
needed  for  division  and  control  of  waters  along  the 
international  boundary,  several  special  investiga- 
tions were  made  in  1948  in  connection  with  ref- 
erences before  the  Commission,  particularly  those 
relating  to  the  Columbia  River  Basin,  Sage  Creek, 
Mont.,  Waterton  and  Belly  Rivers,  and  Souris  and 
Red  Rivers.  The  Geological  Survey,  through  agree- 
ment with  the  State  Department,  has  continuing 
obligations  for  obtaining  water-resources  informa- 
tion along  the  Mexican  boundary  as  required  by 
the  Mexican  Water  Treaty  of  1944.  Members  of 
the  Geological  Survey  serve  on  several  interna- 
tional engineering  boards. 

Conservofjon  Division.  Under  delegation  of  author- 
ity from  the  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  the 
branch  classifies  public  lands  of  the  United  States 
as  to  mineral  and  water  resources  and  under  au- 
thority delegated  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
it  supervises  mineral  recovery  operations  under 
leases,  permits,  and  licenses  on  puHic,  acquired, 
Indian,  and  Naval  petroleum  reserve  lands.  The 
staff  makes  field  surveys;  prepares  maps  and  re- 
ports dealing  with  water  power,  fuels,  minerals, 
and  chemicals;  and  supervises  mining  and  drilling 
methods  essential  to  the  conservation  of,  and  eco- 
nomical and  safe  production  of,  coal,  oil,  gas,  and 
other  minerals. 

Mineral  Classification.  All  phases  of  the  service 
rendered  by  the  Mineral  Classification  Branch  were 
maintained  at  a  greatly  accelerated  pace  in  1948. 
In  all,  nearly  29,000  cases  (an  increase  of  76  per- 
cent) involving  the  disposal  of  public  lands  and 
the  determination  of  the  mineral  character  of  such 
lands  were  acted  on  during  the  year.  In  addition 
the  branch  prepared  determinations  of  the  poten- 
tialities for  fissionable  source  material  on  3,715 
parcels  of  land  in  practically  every  State  and  pos- 
session. Investigations  were  conducted  from  field 
headquarters  in  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana, 
Utah,  California,  New  Mexico,  and  Oklahoma  prec- 
edent to  public-land  and  mineral-leasing  law  in- 
vestigations, resulting  in  numerous  maps  and  re- 
ports for  official  use;  a  published  map  on  the  areal 
and  structural  geology  of  the  Mush  Creek  area, 
Weston  County,  Wyo.;  and  the  completion  of  simi- 
lar maps  on  several  areas  in  Montana. 

Oil  and  Gas.  At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  nearly 
13,500  oil  and  gas  properties  were  under  supervi- 
sion, aggregating  nearly  11  million  acres  in  22 
States  and  Alaska.  This  represents  an  increase  of 
23  percent  in  the  number  of  properties  and  32  per- 
cent in  acreage  since  the  close  of  the  last  fiscal  year. 
Oil  and  gas  production  of  about  76  million  barrels 
from  some  7,500  producing  wells  rendered  a  roy- 
alty return  of  $20,834,000  to  the  United  States. 
Approval  of  41  new  plans  for  unitization  of  oil 
and  gas  operations  involving  Federal  land  brought 
the  total  of  such  plans  to  163,  covering  2,366,000 
acres.  Supervision  of  oil  and  gas  leases  on  Indian 
knds,  covering  5,913  leaseholds  in  12  States,  and 


containing  4,574  producing  wells,  returned  annual 
revenues  in  royalties,  rentals,  and  bonuses  amount- 
ing to  $7,609,000.  Supervised  operations  on  Army 
and  Navy  leases  brought  in  additional  revenues  of 
$1,393,000. 

Water  and  Power.  Field  work  to  determine  water 
and  power  resources  included  topographic  surveys 
of  3  dam  sites,  26  square  miles  of  reservoir  sites, 
and  200  linear  miles  of  river  channel  surveys;  su- 
pervision of  construction  and  operation  of  159 
power  projects  under  license  with  the  Federal 
Power  Commission;  263  projects  under  permit  or 
grant  from  the  Department  of  the  Interior;  and 
173  in  cooperation  with  the  Bureau  of  Indian  Af- 
fairs. Classification  of  lands  decreased  slightly  the 
average  of  power-site  reserves  in  23  States  and 
Alaska,  leaving  6,768,997  acres  in  these  reserves. 
Published  maps  covered  1,640  miles  of  channel  of 
14  rivers,  43  square  miles  of  reservoir  sites,  and 
37  dam  sites. 

Mine  Supervision.  This  involves  the  supervision  of 
prospecting  and  producing  such  minerals  as  coal, 
potash,  lead,  zinc,  sodium,  phosphate,  etc.  There 
were  under  supervision  at  the  end  of  the  year  956 
properties — 607  on  public  domain,  256  on  Indian, 
and  84  on  acquired  lands.  The  minerals  produced 
under  Geological  Survey  supervision  during  the 
year  were  valued  at  nearly  $86  million  and  the  roy- 
alties therefrom  amounted  to  $2,794,000.  About  97 
percent  ( more  than  1  million  tons  K2O  equivalent ) 
of  the  national  output  of  potash  salts  was  produced 
from  leased  Government  lands  in  California  and 
New  Mexico.  In  all,  more  than  30  minerals  or  min- 
eral products  were  produced  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Geological  Survey  during  the  year. 

Publications.  During  the  year  75  manuscripts 
were  sent  to  the  printer,  and  61  publications  were 
issued.  A  total  of  264  new  maps  were  printed,  in- 
cluding 188  multicolor  topographic  maps,  10  index 
maps,  19  preliminary  geologic  maps,  and  22  special 
maps.  Reprints  were  made  of  364  maps,  resulting 
in  the  delivery  of  nearly  2  million  copies  of  new 
and  reprinted  maps. 

The  Division  of  Distribution  received  a  total  of 
3,907  publications  (maps  and  reports)  during  the 
year,  and  in  addition  3,021  Army  maps  were 
turned  over  to  the  Geological  Survey.  The  division 
distributed  104,928  books  and  pamphlets,  2,992 
folios,  and  1,054,720  maps,  a  total  of  1,162,640. 
Total  net  receipts  from  the  sale  of  maps  and  f olios 
were  $154,439,  representing  approximately  70,000 
sales.  — CHALMER  L.  COOPER 

GEORGIA.  A  south  Atlantic  State.  Area:  59,265  sq. 
mi.  Population;  (July  1,  1948)  3,128,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  3,123,723.  Chief  city: 
Atlanta  (capital),  302,288  inhabitants  in  1940.  See 
AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND  METALS, 
SCHOOLS,  UNrvERSiTiES  AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STA- 
TISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $151,516,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $141,791,000. 

Elections.  Truman  won  the  State's  12  electoral 
votes  by  gaining  a  popular  majority  over  Thur- 
mond, Dewey,  and  other  candidates,  Herman  Tal- 
madge,  Democrat,  won  the  governorship,  contested 
since  the  death  of  his  father  as  governor-elect  in 
late  1946.  Incumbent  Democratic  Senator  Richard 
B.  Russell  was  reelected  without  opposition,  and  all 
10  seats  in  the  lower  house  remained  Democratic. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Melvin  E.  Thompson; 
Lieut.  Governor,  (Vacancy);  Secretary  of  State, 
Ben  W.  Fortson,  Jr.;  Attorney  General,  Eugene 
Cook;  State  Treasurer,  George  B.  Hamilton;  State 


GEORGIA  WARM  SPRINGS  FOUNDATION 


224 


GERMAN  LITERATURE 


Auditor,  B.  E.  Thrasher,  Jr.;  Comptroller  General, 
Zach  Cravey. 

GEORGIA  WARM  SPRINGS  FOUNDATION.  A  medical 
institution  founded  by  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt,  in 
1927,  for  the  study  and  treatment  of  the  after- 
effects of  infantile  paralysis  and  for  the  dissemina- 
tion of  observations  and  methods  of  proved  merit 
resulting  from  its  work.  It  is  located  at  Warm 
Springs,  in  west-central  Georgia.  Patients  are  ad- 
mitted only  after  the  disease  has  passed  the  acute 
state.  Over  800  were  treated  during  1948. 

No  profit  is  derived  from  patients.  Although 
some  pay  part  of  the  cost  of  treatmpnt,  no  one  is 
refused  admission  for  lack  of  funds.  The  institution 
is  financed  primarily  by  grants  from  The  National 
Foundation  for  Infantile  Paralysis  which  conducts 
an  annual  Fund  Raising  Campaign  including  the 
March  of  Dimes.  Officers:  President  and  Treasurer, 
Basil  O'Connor;  Executive  Secretary,  Raymond  H. 
Taylor;  Medical  Director  of  the  hospital  staff,  C.  E. 
Irwin,  M.D.  Chief  office  of  Georgia  Warm  Springs 
Foundation:  120  Broadway,  New  York  5,  N.Y. 

GERMAN  LITERATURE.  The  year  1948  lent  itself  to 
commemorative  events  which  the  German  world 
of  letters  marked  in  such  a  way  that  characteristic 
literary  trends  came  to  light.  A  glimpse  of  hope 
was  injected  into  a  dismal  picture  and  a  cosmopoli- 
tan strain  admitted  through  a  narrow  door,  since 
the  ideas  of  reevaluation  and  reconstruction 
emerged  stronger  and  stronger  from  the  writers' 
minds. 

The  Revolution  of  1848  was  reviewed  as  an  un- 
successful and  unfinished  attempt  which  placed 
the  present  generation  before  the  challenging  task 
of  completing  a  movement  that  failed  a  hundred 
years  ago.  Addresses  possessing  documentary  value 
that  centered  around  this  theme  included:  Fritz 
von  Unrah,  Rede  an  die  Deutschen,  delivered  and 
published  at  Frankfurt  am  Main;  Friedrich  Mei- 
necke,  1848  Eine  Sakularbetrachiung;  E.  Kaeber, 
Berlin  1848;  a  collection  of  pamphlets  and  poems 
entitled  Geistige  Freiheit,  personliche  Freiheit, 
with  the  meaningful  subtitle  Bekenntnis  und  Ruf 
des  geistigen  Berlins. 

In  Vienna  Rudolf  Kissling  interpreted  copiously 
Die  Revolution  im  Kaisertum  Oesterreich  1848- 
1849.  (2  vols.  with  plates  and  maps.)  Not  a  single 
periodical  failed  to  devote  a  special  number  to  the 
reinterpretation  of  historical,  cultural,  and  literary 
events  of  1848. 

Another  commemoration  went  back  to  the  year 
1248  when  the  cornerstone  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Cologne  was  laid.  For  this  seventh  centenary  the 
present  scene  of  devastation  formed  frame  and 
background.  The  damaged  spires  that  rise  above 
the  ruined  city  served  as  a  reminder  that  past  and 
present  are  closely  connected  and  that  the  new  can 
only  spring  from  a  deeply  rooted  foundation.  This 
strange  combination  of  beauty,  grandeur,  and  dev- 
astation inspired  such  works  as:  Heinrich  Liitzeler, 
Der  Kolner  Dom  in  der  deutschen  Geistesge- 
schichte,  published  in  a  series  of  academic  treatises 
at  Bonn;  Hermann  Claasen,-  Gesang  im  Feuerofen; 
Reste  einer  alien  deutschen  Stadt,  a  picture  book 
with  text,  published  at  Diisseldorf,  a  beautiful  pub- 
lication with  superb  photographs.  Representative 
in  its  very  title  is  an  article  *  Feier  in  wunder  Stadt, 
700  Jahre  Kolner  Dom,"  printed  in  the  periodical 
Die  Brucke. 

Commemorations  in  an  atmosphere  of  ruins  may 
be  indicative  on  one  hand  of  an  attitude  of  accept- 
ance and  resignation,  may  on  the  other  hand  lead 
to  a  glorification  of  the  past;  if,  however,  a  retro- 


spective mind  is  anxious  to  review  and  render  ac- 
count, critical  writings  result.  Many  of  the  1948 
publications  were  dominated  by  a  conscious  will 
to  bridge  existing  gaps  both  in  time  and  space. 

As  in  preceding  years,  the  trend  was  away  from 
the  big  tome  to  the  booklet,  from  the  essay  to  the 
pamphlet,  from  the  epic  to  the  lyrical  poem;  brief 
forms  being  better  suited  to  give  expression  to  the 
tension  and  anxiety  of  an  uncertain  era.  Conse- 
quently the  series  of  essays  and  radio  talks,  the 
lyrical  anthology,  the  periodical,  and  the  literary 
almanac  have  all  grown  in  importance,  and  are 
again  a  clear  indication  of  the  currents  of  this  age. 
Even  the  titles  are  suggestive:  Erbe  und  Zukunft, 
Der  Anfang,  and  Besinnung  und  Ausblick. 

It  is  strangely  paradoxical  that,  geographically 
speaking,  it  is  as  correct  to  talk  of  a  continuously 
dwindling  as  it  is  to  talk  of  a  steadily  expanding 
area.  We  do  not  find  a  compact  national  unit,  but 
rather  a  group  of  islands  scattered  over  a  wide  area 
within  and  without  the  boundaries  of  Europe. 
While  Sweden,  Holland,  and  Switzerland  continue 
to  be  firmly  established  as  important  centers  of 
German  publications,  former  outstanding  centers 
such  as  Kdnigsberg  and  Breslau  in  Eastern  Ger- 
many have  practically  ceased  to  exist. 

In  contrast  to  this,  reports  from  Austria  and 
Western  Germany  show  that  a  remarkable  im- 
provement in  Quantity  and  even  in  quality  has  been 
achieved,  German  literary  activities  have  taken 
place  in  practically  all  corners  of  the  globe.  Con- 
tacts were  established  and  reestablished  between 
intellectuals  inside  and  outside  of  Germany,  be- 
tween emigres  and  the  so-called  inner  emigration, 
between  the  old  and  the  young. 

The  dean  of  German  historians  Friedrich  Mei- 
necke  was  made  an  honorary  member  of  the  Amer- 
ican Historical  Association — the  first  since  Theodor 
Mommsen;  Fritz  von  Unruh  received  both  the 
plaque  of  die  Paulskirche  and  the  Goethe  prize  of 
the  city  of  Frankfurt  on  his  first  visit  to  his  native 
country;  Paul  Hindemith  received  the  honorary  de- 
gree of  Ph.D.  from  the  University  of  Frankfurt. 

The  names  of  literary  awards  as  well  as  of  the 
recipients  of  such  prizes  point  to  a  decided  change 
in  literary  approach.  Herbert  Eulenberg — whose 
voice  had  been  silenced  during  the  Hitler  era,  and 
who  published  a  short  biography  of  Heinrich 
Heine,  written  in  the  witty  vein  of  Heine's  trave- 
logues, was  honored  with  the  Heine  prize;  Anna 
Seghers  who  returned  from  Mexico  to  Berlin,  was 
awarded  the  Biichner  prize  for  1947.  The  Immer- 
mann  prize  of  the  city  of  Diisseldorf  went  to  Emil 
Barth,  author  of  Lemuria-Aufzeichnungen  und 
Meditationen  and  of  Xantener  Hymnen. 

Victims  of  the  Third  Reich  received  a  belated, 
sometimes  posthumous,  recognition.  Many  poets  of 
the  19th  century  were  reevaluated  and  their  works 
reedited:  Annette  von  Droste-HiilshofT,  Franz 
Grillparzer,  Georg  Herwegh,  Gottfried  Keller,  Fritz 
Reuter.  But  above  all  Heinrich  Heine  and  Georg 
Biichner  aroused  interest.  One  of  Biichner's  editors, 
Kasimir  Edschmid,  is  working  on  a  novel  based  on 
Buchner's  life  and  literary  achievements.  Eugen 
Diem  wrote  a  biography  Georg  Buchners  Leben 
und  Werk:  Seine  Gestalt,  sein  Leben,  sein  Werk, 
sein  Fortwirken. 

In  Liibeck,  Thomas  Mann  archives  were  opened; 
in  Stuttgart,  the  Reclam  Universal  Library  was  re- 
established. An  exhibit  of  German  books  published 
since  the  end  of  the  war  was  arranged  in  Academy 
Hall  in  London.  The  Austrian  P.E.N.  Club  met  in 
Copenhagen  under  the  leadership  of  Franz  Theo- 
dor Czokor,  and  a  German  P.E.N.  Club  was  found- 
ed at  Gottingen,  The  presiding  officers  were:  Pro- 


FASHIONS  IN  1948.  This  was  a  year  of  dress-up  fashions  with  stress  on  femininity  in  styling,  richness  of  fabrics  and 
elegance  of  accessories.  In  suits  and  dresses  shoulders  were  rounded  and  narrow;  back  fullness  was  a  notable  fea- 
ture; tasteful  detailing  and  draping  were  important.  Large  collars  and  wide,  cuffed  sleeves  also  were  common.  Hats 
were  small  to  accommodate  the  new  short  hair-dos,  and  spring  featured  the  "Rooftop  of  Paris"— a  small,  flat  ledge 
of  straw  bonnet,  veiled  and  bowed  under  the  chin.  In  shoes,  unusually  low-cut  vamps  and  straps  were  the  rage,  as 
the  formerly  popular  open-toe  styles  almost  completely  disappeared,  and  ballerina  shoes  were  in  favor  until  the  fall. 


British  Information  Services 

FASHIONS  in  fine,  light  woolens.  (Top  left}:  Negligee  in  dawn-blue,  washable,  fine  wool,  cut  on  extremely  full 
lines.  The  yoke  and  cuffs  are  quilted  and  embroidered  with  pink  sequins,  and  pink  satin  outlines  the  yoke.  (Top 
right):  White  wool  lace  in  a  housecoat  with  shawl  collar  and  full  skirt.  (Bottom  left):  Housecoat  In  old  rose  wool 
falls  in  deep  folds  from  a  laced  waistband.  Black  velvet  lines  the  wide  collar  and  gauntlet  cuffs  of  black-and- 
white  checked  wool.  (Bottom  right):  Nightgown  in  fine  wool  delaine,  with  cream  lace  threaded  with  blue  silk. 


irlift    P°Ured   SUPP'ieS   into    Berlin    fn    a  ^Pectacular  demonstration    of 


European  Photos 

+u^    t~  *    4.U  *         L          '  .w  "    —    "    ' — <V1"   *«h»fnw   "iiu    oerim    m    a  spectacular  demonstration    o 

the    fact   thrt    such    an    op.ral.on    was    possible.    (This    picture    was    taken    at    Rhine-Main    airport    in    Frankfurt.) 

1  "E»BBK1^  •       '  m       18BHM-    i 


IN    BERLIN    AN    OLD    WOMAN,    weak    with    hunger,    faints  A  PETITION   FOR  UNITY,  addressed  to  the  four  Al- 

in    the    arms   of   a    policeman.    Bystanders    hold    their    places  lied    Military    Governors,    is    signed    by    the    people 

in     line,     waiting     for     low-cost     municipal     food.     Diplomats  of  the    Russian   sector   of   Berlin.   The   Western    pow- 

sia,ned     no     German     or    Austrian     peqce     treaty     in     1?4§,  ers    clid     not    qHow    participation    in    their 


PRINCE    CHARLES   Philip   Arthur    George    of    Edinburgh,    born    on    Nov.    14,    1948,   the    infant   son    of    Princess    Eliza- 
beth   and    the    Duke    of    Edinburgh.    The    photograph    was    taken    when    Prince    Charles    was    one    month    of    age. 


Photos  from  British  Information  Services 


COMMONWEALTH  CONFERENCE  began  at  10  Downing 
Street  in  London,  on  Oct.  11,  1948,  under  the  Presi- 
dency of  Premier  Attlee.  Some  of  the  Prime  Ministers 
are  sjipwn  walking  into  the  garden  at  10  Pownfng  Street, 


ROOSEVELT  MEMORIAL.  Mrs.  Roosevelt  unveiled  the 
Memorial  to  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt  on  Apr.  12,  1948,  in 
Grosvenor  Square,  London.  The  picture  shows  King  George 
VI  gncj  Mr$t  Roosevelt  leaving  after  fh§ 


GERMAN  LITERATURE 


225 


GERMAN  LITERATURE 


fessor  Friedmann  from  London,  Johannes  R.  Bech- 
er  from  the  Soviet  zone,  and  Ernst  Penzoldt  from 
the  American  zone.  Erich  Kastner  and  Rudolf 
Schneider— Schelde  were  elected  secretaries.  Karl 
Zuckmayer,  whose  play  Des  Teufels  General  is  a 
continued  success  on  the  German  stage,  addressed 
the  second  International  Youth  Congress  at  Mu- 
nich. 

Among  the  authors  who  attended  the  German 
Writers  Congress  at  Frankfurt  were:  Walter  Kol- 
benhoff,  Elisabeth  Langgaesser,  one  of  the  most 
outstanding  poets,  Kurt  W.  Marek,  Hans  Mayer, 
Theodor  Plivier,  Rudolf  Alexander  Schroder,  Fritz 
von  Unruh,  and  Leo  Weismantel,  A  younger  group 
assembled  near  Darmstadt,  where  under  protest 
and  acclaim  Wolf-Dietrich  Schnurre  read  his  al- 
legory Das  Begrabnis,  a  strange  mixture  of  realistic, 
surrealistic,  religious,  and  nihilistic  elements.  This 
assembly  consisted  of  relatively  unknown  names: 
Wolfgang  Bachler,  Giinther  Eich,  Sebastian  Grill, 
Ilse  Schneider-Lengyel. 

For  several  writers  the  renewed  contact  with 
Europe  or  Germany  resulted  in  literary  works.  Fritz 
von  Unruh  tells  of  Diaries  in  the  making,  of  a  com- 
edy based  on  actual  experiences  in  Germany  dur- 
ing his  trip.  Alfred  Doblin  has  been  honored  on  his 
70th  birthday  with  a  Festschrift,  beautifully  edited 
by  Paul  E.  Liith.  Among  the  contributors  the  fol- 
lowing names  are  found:  Johannes  R.  Becher,  Otto 
Flake,  Hermann  Kasack,  Heinrich  Mann,  Giinther 
Weisenborn,  Wolfgang  Weyrauch.  Alfred  Doblin 
contributed  an  Epilogue  and  a  ^bibliography,  from 
which  we  learn  about  Doblin's  literary  achieve- 
ments during  his  years  of  exile.  Many  stories, 
among  these  the  novel  Hamlet  are  awaiting  publi- 
cation. Alfred  Neumann,  after  a  lecture  tour 
through  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Holland, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy,  is  working  in  Florence,  try- 
ing to  carry  out  plans  of  a  decade  ago. 

In  enumerating  the  passing  of  German  and  Aus- 
trian writers  who  died  in  foreign  countries,  we  are 
again  reminded  of  the  expansion  of  German  lit- 
erary creation.  Karl  Wolfskehl,  Stefan  George's 
fnend,  died  in  Australia;  Egon  Erwin  Kisch,  the 
"mad  reporter"  from  Prague,  in  Mexico;  Emil  Lud- 
wig,  biographer  and  journalist,  and  Jakob  Harin- 
ger,  the  Austrian  lyrical  poet,  in  Switzerland.  Adam 
Scharrer  and  Georg  Kolbe,  the  sculptor,  died  in 
Germany. 

It  has  almost  become  immaterial  where  the  re- 
viewer of  German  literature  has  his  observation 
point.  The  exchange  of  books  has  been  greatly  fa- 
cilitated, and  excellent  bibliographies  are  at  his 
disposal,  even  in  the  United  States.  The  most  re- 
liable of  the  latter  are:  Deutsche  National-biblio- 
graphie,  published  in  Leipzig;  and  Deutsche  Li- 
teraturzeitung  fur  Kritik  der  internationalen  Wis- 
senschaft,  published  in  Berlin.  Deutsche  Viertel- 
jahrschrift  fur  Literaturwissenschaft  und  Geistesge- 
schichte  as  well  as  Philobiblion,  and  Ziviebelfisch 
have  reappeared,  and  the  Maximiliansgesellschaft 
is  functioning  again. 

Periodicals  continue  on  a  high  level,  some  have 
changed  names  or  are  looking  for  new  ones.  Die 
Fahre  changed  its  name  to  Literarische  Revue. 
Among  the  contributors  are  Stephan  Andres,  Wer- 
ner Bergengruen,  Bert  Brecht,  Harms  Henny  Jahn, 
Thomas  Mann,  Albrecht  Schaeffer,  and  Karl  Zuck- 
mayer.  Karussell  counts  among  its  contributors  Otto 
Flake,  Manfred  Hausmann,  Anton  Schnack,  Georg 
von  der  Vring.  Contrary  to  the  policy  governing 
the  publication  of  books,  periodicals  have  been 
issued  in  large  numbers. 

Literary  research  has  offered  a  strange  mixture 
of  scholarly  attempts  and  immature  and  irrespon- 


sible publications.  Paul  E.  Liith,  a  talented  poet 
and  essayist,  editor  of  the  periodical  Der  Bogen, 
author  of  the  essays  Meditationen-Gestalten-Ge- 
schichten,  and  editor  of  a  lyrical  collection  Der 
Anfang  (1947),  is  definitely  not  qualified  to  write 
a  history  of  literature.  His  Literatur  als  Geschichte 
which  claims  to  be  the  first  postwar  history  of  lit- 
erature, has  been  branded  as  a  book  of  plagiarism. 

F.  C.  Weiskopf  s  Unter  fremden  Himmeln  is  a 
survey  of  German  literature  in  exile  (1933-1947). 
Stephan  Hermlin  and  Hans  Mayer  have  jointly 
published  30  essays  on  contemporary  literary  prob- 
lems under  the  unassuming  title:  Ansichten  uber 
einige  Bucher  und  Schriftsteller. 

Theater  and  Drama.  Stirring  events  in  music  and 
in  the  theater  took  place  throughout  the  year. 
From  many  places  exciting  performances  have  been 
reported.  Bert  Brechfs  comedy  Herr  Puntila  und 
sein  Knecht,  introduced  by  a  prologue  in  verse, 
consists  of  loosely  connected  pictures  in  which  the 
author  is  searching  for  the  old  conception  of  human 
values.  Hans  Rehberg,  author  of  Tudor  dramas  and 
other  historical  plays  might  be  called  an  interesting 
counterpart  to  Maxwell  Anderson,  since  many  of 
his  subjects  resemble  those  of  the  American  drama- 
tist. Elisabeth  and  Essex  was  performed  in  Stutt- 
gart and  Wuppertal;  Bothwell  in  Kiel  and  Karls- 
ruhe; Heinrich  VII,  a  drama  about  power  and  ar- 
rogance, is  to  be  performed  in  January,  1949,  at 
Munich. 

Harms  Henny  Jahn  who  received  the  Kleist  prize 
in  1920,  is  the  author  of  Armut,  Reichtum  Mensch, 
und  Tier.  Ilse  Langner  wrote  Iphigenie  kehrt  heim. 
Fritz  von  Unruh's  Der  Befreiungsminister  is  to 
have  its  ^  first  performance  in  Westphalia.  Ernst 
Wiechert's  comedy  Die  Unsterblichen  was  per- 
formed in  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium. 

Among  young  dramatists  who  caused  quite  a 
stir  with  their  sensational,  often  shrill  and  scur- 
rilous plays,  we  mention:  Jochen  Thiem,  Der  Zir- 
kus  brennt;  Hans  Mundt,  Unter  Fahnen  und  Gal- 
gen;  Wolfgang  Borchert,  Draussen  vor  der  Tur; 
Senate  Uhl,  Um  den  Menschen  wird  noch  ge- 
kampft.  Max  Frisch's  drama  Die  chinesische  Mauer 
has  met  with  great  success. 

Books  on  the  theater  include:  Benno  Fleisch- 
mann's,  Max  Reinhardt-Die  Wiedererweckung  des 
Barocktheaters;  Oscar  Maurus  Fontanas',  Wiener 
Schauspieler;  Franz  Herterich's,  Das  Burgtheater 
und  seine  Sendung. 

Lyrical  Poetry.  There  has  been  an  intensified  pro- 
duction of  poetry,  partly  reminiscent  of  Rilke's  and 
Holderlin's  rhythms.  Firmly  established  is  the  rep- 
utation of  Oda  Schafer,  Elisabeth  Langgaesser,  and 
Rudolf  Hagelstange.  Manfred  Haushofer's  beauti- 
ful sonnets  Moabiter  Sonette  were  posthumously 
published  in  Switzerland.  New  names  of  a  younger 
generation  include  the  authors  of  seven  little  vol- 
umes, entitled  Ruf  der  Jugend:  Klaus  Prager,  Nino 
Erne,  Traute  Quade,  Siegfried  Borries,  Paul  Heinz 
Quade,  Heinrich  Graef,  Siegfried  Heldwein.  Georg 
Maurer's  Sonette,  Gesange  der  Zeit  and  Wolfgang 
Weyrauch's  poems  are  remarkable.  There  are  also 
several  anthologies,  such  as  Das  Erbe,  Lyrik  des 
Abendlandes,  Frauenlieder  aus  drei  Jahrtausendent 
and  Die  Sammlung. 

Fiction.  Many  novels  were  written  in  the  United 
States:  Leonhard  Frank's  Matilde  and  his  short 
Deutsche  Novelle — with  the  nostalgic  title — is 
ready  for  publication  following  its  appearance  in 
England  under  the  tide  The  Baroness.  Also  Martin 
Gumpert,  Der  Geburtstag;  Alfred  Neumann,  Der 
Pakt,  Die  Goldquelle.  Wilhelm  Speyer's  Das  Gluck 
der  Andernach  is  a  novel  about  Berlin  in  the 
1880's,  which  the  author  wrote  in  California. 


GERMANY 


226 


GERMANY 


Friedrich  Torberg  published  his  first  fiction  in 
ten  years:  Hier  bin  ich  mem  Voter  while  Heinrich 
Mann  wrote  Der  Atem.  Novels  written  in  Germany 
include;  Hermann  Kasack's,  Stadt^  hinter  dem 
Strom;  reminiscent  of  Kafka,  with  a  title  suggesting 
that  the  city  is  no  man's  land  between  this  world 
and  beyond.  Elisabeth  Langgaesser,  Anna-Seghers 
and  Wolfgang  Weyrauch  are  outstanding  novelists. 
Wolfgang  Borchert's  short  stories,  Es  geschah  an 
einem  Dienstag  and  Alfred  R.  Bottcher's  Mensch 
ohne  Maske  deserve  to  be  singled  out. 

Fritz  von  Unruh's  novel  Der  nie  verlor  followed 
last  year's  English  translation  The  End  Is  Not  "Yet. 
German  fiction  in  English  translation  included 
Stefan  Heym's,  The  Crusaders;  Thomas  Mann's, 
Doctor  Faustus;  Richard  Plant's  first  novel  The 
Dragon  in  the  Forest;  Theodor  Plivier's,  Stalingrad; 
and  Reinhold  Schneider's,  Imperial  Mission, 

Memorable  achievements  were  made  in  the  field 
of  literary,  philosophic,  and  esthetic  writings.  Ernst 
Robert  Curtius  wrote  Europaische  Literattir  und 
lateinisches  Mittelalter;  Karl  Jaspers,  Der  philoso- 
phische  Glanbe  and  Von  der  Wahrheit;  Georg  Lu- 
kacs,  Deutsche  Literatur  wahrvnd  des  Imperialis- 
mus  and  Der  junge  Hegel;  Thomas  Mann,  Neue 
Studien;  Leopold  Ziegler,  Menschwerdung.  Auto- 
biographical writings  in  the  field  of  art  and  music 
Included:  Kathe  Kollwitz,  TagebwhblaUer  und 
Brief e;  Wilhehn  Furtwangler,  Gesprache  uber 
Musik. 

Throughout  the  year  preparations  were  made  for 
the  celebration,  in  1949,  of  the  bicentennial  of 
Goethe's  birth.  — ANNA  JACOBSON 

GERMANY.  A  former  Federal  Republic  of  Central 
Europe,  wholly  occupied  by  Allied  military  forces 
for  an  indefinite  period.  It  is  divided  into  four 
zones  of  occupation:  Russian  (east),  American 
(southwest),  British  (northwest)  and  French 
(west).  The  former  capital,  Berlin,  is  similarly  di- 
vided into  four  occupation  sectors. 

Area  and  Population.  The  total  area  of  occupied 
Germany  (exclusive  of  territories  annexed  or  pro- 
visionally administered  by  the  Soviet  Union  and 
Poland,  and  of  the  Saar  territory)  is  136,237  square 
miles,  of  which  the  Americans  occupy  41,260,  the 
Russians  41,043,  the  British  38,010  and  the  French 
15,600,  the  remainder  being  the  Berlin  city  district. 
Germany's  population  was  established  by  the  cen- 
sus of  Oct.  29,  1946,  as  follows  (in  brackets:  est. 
pop.  on  Apr,  1,  1948):  U.S.  zone,  17,174,367  (18,- 
640,331);  British  zone,  22,344,900  (26,417,764); 
Russian  zone,  17,313,581;  French  zone, — then  in- 
cluding the  Saar— 5,939,807;  Berlin,  3,182,852, 
making  a  total  of  65,955,507.  The  sharp  increase 
in  the  population  of  the  American  and  British 
zones  is  due  to  a  further  influx  of  refugees  from 
the  east  since  the  census  was  taken.  The  resident 
population  of  the  bizonal  area,  on  Apr.  1,  1948, 
was  37,753,000  and  the  number  of  refugees  living 
there  was  7,305,095,  making  a  total  of  45,058,095 
for  the  combined  zones.  Population  of  the  princi- 
pal cities  in  1946:  Hamburg,  1,427,000;  Munich, 
758,000;  Leipzig,  608,111;  Essen,  506,000;  Co- 
logne, 496,000;  Dresden,  463,032;  Dortmund,  436,- 
198;  Frankfurt-am-Main,  430,000;  Diisseldorf, 
421,506;  Stuttgart,  411,000;  Bremen,  389,000. 

Education.  In  1947,  there  were  in  the  U.S.  zone, 
including  the  U.S.  sector  of  Berlin,  11,802  elemen- 
tary schools  with  2,458,528  pupils;  603  secondary 
schools  with  252,955  pupils;  six  universities  witn 
about  26,000  students.  In  all  of  Germany  there 
were  23  universities  at  the  end  of  1948. 

Production.  The  index  of  industrial  production 
rose  sharply  in  the  bizonal  area,  following  the 


currency  reform  of  June,  1948  (see  under  Events, 
below).  In  September,  1948,  the  index  stood  at  70 
percent  of  the  1936  level,  as  compared  with  53.6 
in  April,  1948,  and  44  in  November,  1947.  Ruhr 
coal  production  reached  300,000  tons  per  day  in 
October  and  315,000  early  in  November,  1948. 
The  output  of  ingot  steel  was  610,000  metric  tons, 
and  that  of  pig  iron  509,000  tons  in  October,  1948. 
The  harvest,  in  1948,  produced  substantially  high- 
er yields  than  in  the  preceding  year.  Total  grain 
crops  were  estimated  at  7,419,000  metric  tons  in 
the  bizonal  area,  as  compared  with  5,297,000  tons 
in  1947.  Of  potatoes,  12,815,000  tons  were  har- 
vested in  1947,  in  the  combined  zones.  Livestock 
in  the  two  zones  numbered  8,851,000  heads  of 
cattle,  4,384,000  hogs,  1,499,000  horses,  and  27,- 
567,000  poultry  in  June,  1948. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  for  the  first  three  quarters 
of  1948  were  valued  at  $397  million  as  compared 
with  $222  million  for  the  entire  year  1947  ( bizonal 
area ) .  Coal  exports  accounted  for  about  50  percent 
of  the  total  export  value  in  1948.  Imports  into  the 
bizonal  area — including  those  classed  as  "non- 
commercial"— totaled  $723  million  in  1947.  For 
the  French  zone,  imports  were  valued  at  $135  mil- 
lion and  exports  at  $134  million  in  1947. 

Government.  Theoretically,  the  supreme  authority 
in  Germany  is  the  Allied  Control  Council,  which 
ceased,  however,  to  function  in  1948  (see  Events, 
below ) .  Since  then  the  bizonal  area  ( American  and 
British  zones,  joined  in  1946),  the  Soviet  zone, 
and  the  French  zone  have  been  subject  to  the  au- 
thority of  their  respective  Allied  commanders  only. 
(For  the  administrative  setup  created  after  the 
German  surrender  in  1945,  see  YEAR  BOOK,  Events 
of  1947,  p.  200.) 

There  are  16  Lander  or  states  (4  each  in  the 
American  and  British  zones,  5  in  the  Russian  zone, 
and  3  in  the  French ) ,  each  with  its  Cabinet  head- 
ed by  a  Minister-President  or  corresponding  chief 
executive.  The  status  of  Berlin  is  similar  to  that  of 
a  Land.  Four-power  rule  in  that  city  also  came  to 
an  end  in  1948  (see  Events,  below). 

Events,  1948.  More  pressingly  than  in  the  heyday 
of  Hitler's  power,  defeated  and  divided  Germany 
held  the  world's  attention  in  1948.  Once  again,  the 
eyes  of  fifty-odd  peace-loving  nations  focussed  on 
Berlin  as  the  potential  springhead  of  a  new  world 
war. 

The  division  of  Germany  into  two  rival  states, 
or  groups  of  states,  was  all  but  completed  during 
the  year.  In  the  west,  a  trizonal  federation  was  tak~  • 
ing  shape,  while  in  the  east  the  Russian-occupied 
zone  was  welded  into  a  compact  instrument  of 
future  expansion.  The  schism  reached  and  en- 
gulfed even  the  four-power-ruled  city  of  Berlin, 
similarly  dividing  it  into  rival  halves  and  turning 
it  into  a  focus  of  discord  for  the  entire  world. 

Military  Government  and  Occupation.  For  the  first 
time  since  the  war,  an  early  end  to  the  Allied  oc- 
cupation of  Germany  loomed  as  a  distinct  possi- 
bility. Early  in  the  year  the  Soviet-controlled  Ger- 
man press  began  to  beat  the  drum  for  a  withdrawal 
of  all  occupying  forces.  In  May,  Stalin,  in  his  reply 
to  an  open  letter  from  Henry  Wallace,  declared 
himself  in  favor  of  an  early  peace  treaty  with  Ger- 
many "and  an  end  to  the  occupation.  The  Warsaw 
Conference  of  eastern  foreign  ministers  in  late 
June  followed  suit.  On  September  21,  the  Red 
Army's  mouthpiece  in  Berlin,  the  Tagliche  Rund- 
schaii,  set  the  tune  for  a  new  propaganda  drive 
aimed  at  the  evacuation  of  Germany  within  one 
year  after  a  peace  treaty  had  been  signed. 

When  it  became  apparent  that  the  western  Al- 
lies were  cool  to  the  idea,  the  Russians  changed 


GERMANY 


227 


GERMANY 


their  tack  somewhat.  At  the  end  of  October,  they 
let  it  be  known  through  German  spokesmen  that 
the  Red  Army  was  prepared  to  evacuate  Eastern 
Germany  even  without  a  corresponding  move  by 
the  western  Allies.  However,  it  was  pointed  out 
that  as  long  as  the  western  powers  stayed  in  Berlin, 
the  Russians  would  have  to  do  likewise  and  that 
in  this  event  they  naturally  would  have  to  "guard 
their  communications"  between  the  U.S.S.R.  and 
the  Soviet  garrison  in  Berlin,  Thus  by  the  end  of 
the  year  it  was  evident  that  the  Russian  move  was 
inspired  mainly  by  propaganda  reasons  and  would 
not  amount  to  an  effective  withdrawal  of  all  mili- 
tary forces,  save  perhaps  in  the  event  that  the 
western  Allies  agreed  to  do  the  same. 

Neither  the  Americans  nor  the  French  showed 
any  inclination  to  follow  the  Russian  lead  in  the 
matter.  While  the  French  were  guided  by  their 
traditional  policy  of  demanding  a  maximum  of 
security  measures  against  German  aggression,  the 
Americans'  unwillingness  to  withdraw  was  based 
on  the  presence  of  large  numbers  of  Communist- 
trained  shock  troops  in  eastern  Germany  which, 
it  was  felt,  would  make  a  quick  end  of  the  demo- 
cratic institutions  developed  in  the  West. 

On  the  other  hand,  Gen.  Sir  Brian  Robertson, 
British  Military  Governor  in  Germany,  expressed 
cautious  approval  of  the  idea  of  a  general  with- 
drawal from  Germany,  at  a  press  conference  in 
Berlin  on  October  27,  "In  abstract  principle/'  he 
said,  "I  feel  that  a  solution  of  that  sort  may  well 
be  die  only  means  for  resolving  the  differences  to 
which  Allied  disagreements  over  Germany  have 
led."  The  general  made  it  clear,  however,  that 
such  a  solution  could  be  envisaged  only  under  con- 
ditions of  real  freedom  for  the  Germans.  They 
should  not  be  allowed  to  fall  under  the  domina- 
tion of  a  "minority  well  organized  and  able  to 
impose  its  will  in  defiance  of  the  desire  of  the 
majority  of  the  people." 

The  Germans  themselves  appeared  to  be  sway- 
ing between  a  natural  desire  to  manage  their  own 
affairs  and  fears  of  Communist  subjugation.  A  pub- 
lic opinion  survey  conducted  by  the  American 
Military  Government  in  Berlin  in  October  showed 
51  percent  of  the  city's  population  in  favor  of  a 
general  withdrawal  of  foreign  troops,  The  Berlin 
City  Council,  in  a  declaration  issued  on  Septem- 
ber 27,  formally  called  for  such  a  move.  "We  ur- 
gently appeal  to  the  occupation  powers  and  to  the 
world  to  withdraw  the  occupation  troops  from 
Berlin  as  part  of  an  overall  end  of  the  occupation 
throughout  Germany/'  the  resolution  read, 

The  German  attitude  was  influenced  in  large 
measure  by  dissatisfaction  with  the  high  cost  of 
occupation,  German  experts  figured  the  cost,  in 
die  bizone  alone,  at  4,600  million  marks  in  the 
fiscal  year  of  1946  and  4,900  million  marks  in 
1947.  In  the  French  and  Russian  zones,  the  cost 
was  substantially  higher,  comparatively  speaking. 

Pending  agreement  on  a  general  withdrawal  of 
occupation  forces  from  Germany,  the  outlines  of 
a  so-called  "occupation  statute"  were  worked  out 
in  lengthy  negotiations  between  German  repre- 
sentatives from  the  three  western  zones  and  the 
American,  British,  and  French  military  govern- 
ments. Negotiations  began  in  April  and  were  con- 
cluded in  late  November.  The  statute,  exactly 
defining  the  respective  powers  of  the  occupation 
authorities  and  the  German  organs  of  self-govern- 
ment in  the  West,  was  regarded  as  the  forerunner 
of  a  "peace  statute/*  which  might  have  to  take  the 
place  of  a  peace  treaty  in  view  of  the  apparent 
impossibility  of  settling  the  East-West  differences 
in  the  near  future. 


Basically,  the  occupation  statute,  as  drafted  to-> 
ward  the  end  of  the  year,  aimed  at  the  establish^ 
ment  of  German  home  rule  in  all  branches  of  go^ 
ernment  except  military  and  foreign  affairs.  It 
also  provided  for  an  almost  complete  fusion  at  the 
top  of  Military  Government  authority,  substituting 
a  tripartite  control  board  to  the  hitherto  independ- 
ent authority  of  the  three  western  military  gov- 
ernors. On  November  16,  Gen.  Lucius  D.  Clay, 
American  Military  Governor  in  Germany,  an- 
nounced that  the  occupation  statute  was  "about 
90  percent  finished."  A  few  points  still  at  issue 
were  to  be  resolved  at  government  level. 

£ncf  of  the  Control  Council.  Four-power  rule  of 
Germany,  as  defined  by  the  Yalta  and  Potsdam 
agreements,  virtually  came  to  an  end  during  the 
year.  What  little  collaboration  between  the  western 
military  governments  and  their  Russian  partner 
had  survived  the  mounting  conflicts  of  1947  broke 
down  completely  under  9ie  strain  of  the  Berlin 
crisis  (see  below). 

On  March  20.,  the  Soviet  delegation  dramatically 
walked  out  of  what  was  to  become  the  last  meet- 
ing of  the  Allied  Control  Council  in  Berlin.  Mar- 
shal Vassily  D.  Sokolovsky,  at  die  time  chairman 
of  the  Council,  in  a  bitter  statement  assailed  the 
western  powers  for  destroying  the  quadripartite 
machinery  by  holding  the  London  conference  on 
Germany  (see  below),  from  which  Russia  was 
excluded.  Under  the^  circumstances,  he  declared, 
the  Control  Council  "no  longer  exists  as  an  organ 
of  government." 

From  that  day  on,  the  Russians  also  boycotted 
the  meetings  of  the  Coordinating  Committee  and 
other  subordinate  divisions  of  the  Council.  The 
Berlin  Kommandantur  likewise  lapsed  into  a  coma. 
Realizing  that  the  Russians  could  not  be  induced 
to  come  back,  unless  and  until  plans  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  West  German  state  were  cancelled, 
Gen.  Clay  made  no  move  for  reconvening  the  Coun- 
cil, when  the  chairmanship  fell  to  him  in  April. 
After  that,  none  of  the  powers  concerned  requested 
further  meetings  of  the  Council  and  none  were 
held. 

There  were  no  major  changes  in  personnel  in 
any  of  the  four  military  governments.  Generals 
Clay,  Robertson,  Sokolovsky,  and  Koenig  all  re- 
tained their  posts  throughout  the  year.  The  posi- 
tion of  Gen.  Clay  remained  unshaken  in  spite 
of  recurrent  reports  of  disagreement  between  him 
and  policy-making  officials  in  Washington.  The 
general's  earlier  expressed  intention  to  retire  from 
public  service  was  apparently  abandoned. 

On  January  27,  it  was  officially  announced  that 
the  State  Department .  would  take  over  from  the 
Army  all  non-military  aspects  of  the  occupation. 

July  1,  1948,  was  set  as  the  provisional  target  date 
or  the  transfer  of  power.  But  a  few  months  later, 
on  March  23,  this  policy  once  again  was  reversed, 
"following  a  review  of  the  present  situation."  The 
Army  remained  in  charge. 

Wesfern  Germany:  The  Making  of  a  State.  When  the 
London  Conference,  the  second  of  the  two  Foreign 
Ministers*  meetings  on  the  German  problem  held 
in  1947,  ended  in  failure  in  mid-December,  as 
had  the  Moscow  Conference  earlier  in  the  year,  it 
became  quickly  apparent  that  the  die  was  cast  for 
the  creation  of  a  West  German  state.  Although  all 
hope  was  not  abandoned  for  the  eventual  reunion 
of  the  four  occupation  zones  under  a  common  gov- 
ernment, both  the  western  Allies  and  the  German 
leaders  in  their  zones  agreed  that  it  was  not  pos- 
sible to  wait  any  longer  for  an  agreement  with 
the  Russians.  Western  Germany,  it  was  realized, 
could  not  be  put  back  on  its  feet  economically 


GERMANY 


228 


GERMANY 


without  an  administrative  setup  tantamount  to  a 
government,  even  though  for  various  reasons  it 
was  not  given  that  name. 

As  a  first  step,  the  American  and  British  military 
governors  on  January  7  "proposed  but  not  dic- 
tated" to  the  German  Economic  Council  at  Frank- 
furt and  to  the  eight  state  governments  of  the  com- 
bined zones  the  formation  of  a  "Bizonal  Economic 
Administration."  The  proposal  was  accepted  by  the 
Germans,  after  a  number  of  minor  concessions  had 
been  made  to  them  on  organizational  issues. 

Accordingly,  by  a  charter  proclaimed  on  Feb- 
ruary 6,  the  new  Bizonal  Economic  Administra- 
tion was  organized.  The  legislative  branch  consist- 
ed of  an  enlarged  Economic  Council  of  104  mem- 
bers elected  by  the  eight  state  assemblies  of  the 
bizone;  and  of  a  16-man  Council  of  States  (two 
representatives  for  each  state),  roughly  comparable 
to  the  U.S.  Senate.  The  executive  was  made  up 
of  six  members,  headed  by  a  chairman  ( Oberdirek- 
tor)  without  portfolio.  At  the  same  time  a  Su- 
preme Court  of  ten,  with  headquarters  at  Cologne, 
was  set  up.  Otherwise  the  seat  of  the  new  admin- 
istration remained  at  Frankfurt. 

On  March  2,  Dr.  Hermann  Puender,  Lord  May- 
or of  Cologne,  a  member  of  the  Christian  Demo- 
cratic Union,  was  elected  chairman  of  the  new 
Administration,  by  a  minority  vote  of  40  out  of 
96  (with  48  abstentions),  of  the  Economic  Coun- 
cil. His  election  was  confirmed  three  days  later  by 
the  Council  of  States  and  was  approved  by  the 
military  governments. 

Meanwhile  a  new  conference,  concerned  with 
the  problems  of  western  Germany  only,  had  been 
held  in  London,  without  Russian  participation.  The 
conference,  which  lasted  from  February  23  to 
March  6,  was  attended  by  representatives  of  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  France,  Belgium,  The 
Netherlands,  and  Luxembourg.  One  of  its  princi- 
pal purposes  was  to  meet  objections  which  had 
been  raised  by  France  and  the  Benelux  countries 
in  regard  to  the  new  governmental  setup  in  western 
Germany,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  merger  of 
all  three  zones  in  the  West.  Preliminary  agreement 
was  reached  on  internationalization  of  the  Rhur, 
a  federated  form  of  government  in  western  Ger- 
many protecting  states  rights,  and  an  eventual  fu- 
sion of  the  three  zones. 

The  London  conference  was  reopened  on 
April  20  and  was  brought  to  a  conclusion  on 
June  1.  Its  recommendations,  published  on  June  7, 
called  for  the  establishment  of  a  West  German 
state  with  a  federal  constitution;  control  of  the 
Ruhr  coal,  coke,  and  steel  industry  by  an  Interna- 
tional Authority  composed  of  the  six  nations  repre- 
sented at  the  Conference;  and  military  guarantees 
by  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  France. 

In  Germany,  the  six-power  recommendations 
met  with  a  lukewarm  reception.  The  proposed  in- 
ternational regime  for  the  Ruhr  satisfied  neither 
the  owners  nor  the  workers  of  the  affected  indus- 
tries. Political  leaders  shied  away  from  the  re- 
sponsibilities involved  in  collaboration  with  the 
western  Allies  in  what  the  Communist  press 
promptly  labeled  a  "treasonable"  undertaking. 

For  their  part,  the  Russians  and  their  satellites 
voiced  emphatic  protest.  A  hastily  summoned 
counter-conference  of  the  Soviet  bloc  (U.S.S.R., 
Poland,  Yugoslavia,  Czechoslovakia,  Rumania,  Bul- 
garia, Hungary,  and  Albania)  met  at  Warsaw  on 
June  23-24.  A  communique  was  issued  berating 
the  western  powers  for  disregarding  international 
agreements  and  dividing  Germany.  The  Warsaw 
declaration  called  for  reestablishment  of  four- 
power  rule  in  Germany,  including  the  Ruhr;  for- 


mation of  a  provisional  government  for  all  of 
Germany;  and  a  peace  treaty  with  that  country, 
to  be  followed  within  one  year  by  a  general  with- 
drawal of  occupation  forces.  Unofficially  it  was 
reported  that  the  conference  had  decided  upon  the 
establishment  of  an  East  German  state  as  a  coun- 
ter-move to  the  West  state  planned  by  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  the  Benelux 
countries. 

The  recommendations  of  the  six-power  London 
Conference  were  embodied  in  formal  proposals 
presented  to  the  Germans  by  the  three  western 
military  governors  at  a  meeting  in  Frankfurt,  on 
July  1st.  The  proposals  called  for  a  constituent  as- 
sembly to  be  convened  not  later  than  September  1, 
state  referenda  on  the  constitution  to  be  adopted, 
and  the  drafting  of  an  "occupation  statute." 

On  July  9  the  Minister-Presidents,  after  a  two- 
day  conference  at  Coblenz,  accepted  the  Allied 
proposals,  but  with  certain  reservations  which 
were  presented  in  writing  on  the  following  day. 
The  gist  of  their  reservations  was  that  they  did 
not  wish  to  preclude  the  eventual  formation  of  an 
all-German  government  "by  formalizing  the  pro- 
visional regime  in  the  West  with  such  terms  as 
"constituent  assembly,"  "government,"  and  "state." 
This  reluctance  to  call  things  by  their  proper 
names,  while  accepting  their  essence,  was  due  to 
fears  of  being  branded  as  "quislings,"  by  the  east- 
ern zone  Communists  and  their  "People's  Coun- 
cil" (see  below). 

Instead  of  a  constitutional  assembly,  the  Ger- 
mans proposed  to  call  a  "parliamentary  council" 
for  the  purpose  of  "drafting  a  basic  law  for  the 
uniform  administration"  of  the  three  western  zones. 
The  western  military  governors,  though  disap- 
pointed at  the  Germans*  overcautious  attitude, 
yielded  on  this  question  of  semantics,  and  the  Ger- 
mans withdrew  some  of  their  other  objections. 

On  July  22  the  Minister-Presidents  announced 
that  they  were  ready  to  proceed  in  accordance  with 
the  powers  delegated  to  them.  Two  committees 
were  set  up,  one  to  prepare  the  draft  of  a  basic 
law  for  presentation  to  the  Parliamentary  Council, 
the  other  to  deal  with  proposed  state  boundary 
changes. 

The  Constitutional  Committee,  composed  of  22 
representatives  of  the  eleven  states  of  the  western 
zones  met  on  August  10  at  Herrenchiemsee,  an  is- 
land chateau  in  a  lake  near  Munich.  Its  delibera- 
tions resulted  in  a  draft  constitution  completed  on 
August  22.  The  project  envisaged  a  federal  repub- 
lic with  a  bicameral  system  of  legislature  ( Bundes- 
rat  and  Bundestag]  and  a  fairly  strong  central  au- 
thority headed  by  a  federal  president.  Also  in 
August,  the  Committee  on  State  Boundaries  agreed 
to  propose  that  the  three  southwest  German  states 
of  Wuerttemberg-Baden,  South  Wuerttemberg, 
and  South  Baden  should  be  combined  into  a  single 
territorial  unit. 

On  September  1,  the  Parliamentary  Council  met, 
as  scheduled,  in  the  Rhenish  city  of  Bonn  to  pass 
on  these  proposals.  Elected  by  the  eleven  state 
assemblies,  on  the  basis  of  one  delegate  for  each 
750,000  persons,  tine  Council  consisted  of  65  mem- 
bers, including  27  representatives  of  each  of  the 
two  major  parties,  the  Social  Democrats  and  the 
Christian  Democratic  Union. 

After  many  weeks  of  strenuous  committee  work 
and  at  times  heated  argument,  which  revolved 
primarily  around  the  issue  of  states  rights  vs.  fed- 
eral authority,  the  outlines  of  the  Bonn  Charter 
began  to  emerge  in  mid-October.  A  Bill  of  Rights, 
including  habeas  corpus  and  die  fundamental  free- 
doms on  the  American  model  was  adopted  on  Oc- 


GERMANY 


229 


GERMANY 


tober  9.  Final  organization  of  the  new  state,  for 
which  the  name  Bundesrepublik  Deutschland  was 
provisionally  chosen,  and  of  its  administration  was 
expected  by  January  or  February,  1949.  On  Octo- 
ber 18,  an  almost  complete  economic  merger  of 
the  three  western  zones  was  announced  as  the  first 
formal  step  toward  the  establishment  of  "Trizonia." 

7Ae  Currency  Reform.  Meanwhile,  in  the  economic 
field,  an  event  of  utmost  importance  had  taken 
place,  which  was  to  have  far-reaching  repercus- 
sions not  only  on  all  German  affairs  but  also  in 
the  field  of  great  power  relationships  and  on  world 
peace. 

After  many  a  false  start,  and  heated  debate  of 
all  pros  and  cons,  followed  by  months  of  indispen- 
sable psychological  preparation,  the  long-awaited 
currency  reform  finally  took  place  in  mid-summer. 
It  was  carried  out  simultaneously,  but  not  jointly, 
in  the  western  zones  and  in  the  Russian  zone, 
creating  conditions  which  at  times  bordered  on 
financial  chaos,  but  nevertheless  paving  the  way 
for  spectacular  economic  recovery. 

Prior  to  this  reform,  hoarding  of  foodstuffs  and 
consumer  goods  had  been  general  among  manu- 
facturers, farmers,  and  the  public,  despite  strin- 
gent price  and  production  controls.  Black  markets 
and  profiteering  were  rampant,  and  widespread 
misery  ensued. 

In  western  Germany,  the  currency  reform  was 
carried  out  in  four  stages.  First,  on  June  18,  it  was 
announced  that  the  old  Reichsmark  would  become 
invalid,  effective  June  21,  and  would  be  replaced 
by  a  new  currency,  called  Deutsche  Mark  or  DM. 
Each  inhabitant  of  the  western  zones  was  allowed 
to  exchange  60  old  marks  for  an  equal  amount  of 
new  ones,  the  remainder  of  his  holdings  being  fro- 
zen. A  second  law,  issued  on  June  21,  granted  to 
the  newly  organized  "Bank  of  the  German  States'7 
in  Frankfurt  the  exclusive  right  to  issue  banknotes 
and  coins  in  the  new  currency  for  the  three  western 
zones  (the  original  amount  of  DM  paper  money 
needed  for  the  reform  had  been  printed  in  the 
United  States  and  shipped  to  Germany  several 
weeks  earlier).  On  June  26,  a  third  law  proclaimed 
a  conversion  rate  of  one  new  mark  (DM)  for  ten 
old  ones  (KM)  for  all  holdings  and  obligations, 
except  the  initial  *1.iead  quota"  of  60  marks.  How- 
ever, only  one  half  of  the  money  left  to  each 
individual  or^firm  after  this  drastic  cut  was  trans- 
ferred to  a  "free  account,"  while  the  other  half 
remained  blocked  for  three  months.  A  fourth  cur- 
rency law,  on  October  1,  wiped  out  seven-tenths 
of  the  blocked  accounts,  thus  in  effect  increasing 
the  cut  from  the  original  1:10  to  a  ratio  of  1:16 
for  cash  and  bank  holdings, 

As  soon  as  the  first  announcement  of  the  cur- 
rency reform  in  the  West  had  been  made,  the  Rus- 
sians followed  suit.  As  a  first  step,  Marshal  Sokolov- 
sky,  on  June  19,  issued  a  proclamation  forbidding 
the  entry  and  circulation  of  the  western  DM  into 
the  Soviet  zone,  including  Berlin.  This  edict 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  all-out  Berlin  block- 
ade (see  below).  On  June  24  an  eastern  zone 
currency  reform  went  into  effect,  also  at  a^lO:! 
ratio,  except  for  a  slightly  larger  "head  quota"  (70 
marks)  and  certain  alleviations  in  favor  of  small 
holders.  The  Soviet  zone  currency  reform  was  con- 
cluded on  July  24  with  the  introduction  of  a  new 
money,  also  called  Deutsche  Mark  and  issued  by 
the  Deutsche  Notenbank  in  Potsdam,  which  had 
been  organized  specifically  for  this  purpose. 

Needless  to  say,  the  more  or  less  simultaneous 
introduction  of  two  new  currencies  with  the  same 
name,  and  both  seeking  circulation  in  four-power 
controlled  Berlin  created  an  enormous  confusion, 


which  was  enhanced  by  the  innumerable  techni- 
calities of  the  double-headed  reform.  From  the  first 
day,  "East  Mark"  and  "West  Mark"  engaged  in  a 
battle  for  supremacy,  easily  won  by  the  latter.  By 
October,  the  exchange  rate  of  the  East  Mark  had 
fallen  to-3.20  for  one  West  Mark. 

Although  accompanied  by  much  confusion  and 
bitter  hardship,  especially  to  small  rentiers,  the 
western  currency  reform  proved  on  the  whole  suc- 
cessful. It  brought  out  long-hoarded  goods  and, 
aided  by  the  good  harvest,  put  an  end  to  the  worst 
food  shortages;  it  also  gave  a  tremendous  impetus 
to  industrial  production  (see  Production  above). 
Throughout  the  western  zones  there  was  a  notice- 
able upswing  in  individual  initiative  and  enter- 
prise. As  living  conditions  improved,  so  did  labor 
efficiency  and  public  morale.  The  widespread  un- 
employment which  had  been  predicted  by  some 
economists  failed  to  materialize. 

However,  the  haste  of  the  Frankfurt  regime  in 
removing  price  and  rationing  controls  had  an  un- 
toward effect.  In  October  and  November,  prices 
went  up  by  leaps  and  bounds,  threatening  the  new 
currency  with  the  possibility  of  another  runaway 
inflation.  Labor  was  aroused  and  on  November  12, 
a  one-day  general  strike  was  called  by  the  unions 
in  protest  against  high  prices. 

Tfse  Berlin  Blockade.  Whatever  its  final  results  in 
the  economic  field  might  be,  the  currency  reform 
caused  a  sharp  deterioration  in  international  re- 
lations. It  brought  the  Berlin  crisis,  which  had  been 
brewing  ever  since  the  breakdown  of  the  Control 
Council,  to  a  sudden  head. 

More  or  less  stringent  highway  and  railroad  re- 
strictions, designed  to  make  the  position  of  the 
western  Allies  in  Berlin  uncomfortable  and  eventu- 
ally squeeze  them  out  of  the  city,  had  been  initi- 
ated by  the  Soviet  authorities  as  early  as  April  1. 
But  it  was  not  until  June  24  that  the  Russians 
clamped  an  iron-clad  blockade  on  Berlin  by  halt- 
ing all  rail  traffic  from  and  to  the  western  zones, 
after  having  previously  suspended  road  and  water 
transportation  into  the  city.  At  first  the  Soviets 
did  not  openly  concede  that  their  blockade  of  the 
western  sectors  of  Berlin  was  a  political  move,  de- 
signed to  drive  the  Americans,  British,  and  French 
out  of  Berlin  or  to  force  them  to  abandon  their 
plans  for  western  Germany.  Instead,  they  pleaded 
"technical"  difficulties  of  all  sorts  and  the  necessity 
to  protect  the  economic  life  of  their  zone  against 
alleged  ill  effects  from  the  smuggling  of  West 
Marks  into  it.  But  as  the  months  passed,  and  the 
technical  excuses  became  ever  more  threadbare, 
all  the  world  understood  that  the  clash  over  the 
question  which  currency  should  circulate  in  Berlin 
was  little  more  than  a  handy  pretext  for  starting 
the  all-out  blockade  and  that  the  real  stake  in  the 
contest  was  predominance  in  Germany. 

From  the  first  day  of  the  blockade,  the  western 
Allies  let  it  be  known  that  they  would  not  yield  to 
the  Soviet  pressure  but  would  stand  firm  on  their 
rights.  Secretary  of  State  Marshall,  on  June  30, 
keynoted  this  stand  with  a  "no  surrender"  speech 
in  Washington.  On  July  6,  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  and  France,  in  similar  notes,  formally  de- 
manded that  Russia  lift  the  blockade. 

Meanwhile  the  spectacular  "airlift"  had  begun 
to  operate,  increasing  from  month  to  month  ^in 
scope  and  achievement.  In  order  to  relieve  the  in- 
evitable shortages  inflicted  by  the  blockade  upon 
the  population  of  the  western  sectors,  American, 
British,  and  French  cargo  planes,  carrying  every 
necessity  from  foodstuffs  to  coal,  daily  delivered 
huge  loads  of  airborne  supplies  to  the  city.  By  the 
end  of  October,  more  than  half  a  million  tons  had 


GERMANY 


230 


GERMANY 


thus  been  flown  in  by  the  combined  western  air  ' 
forces. 

On  July  14,  Moscow  flatly  rejected  the  western 
powers*  protests  and  indicated  that  the  siege  of 
Berlin  would  be  lifted  only  if  the  western  powers 
agreed  to  reopen  negotiations  on  the  whole  Ger- 
man question.  A  beginning  towards  such  negotia- 
tions was  made  on  July  31,  when  the  envoys  of  the 
western  powers  in  Moscow  called  on  Foreign  Min- 
ister Molotov  with  proposals  to  settle  the  Berlin 
dispute.  On  August  2,  the  same  envoys  met  with 
Premier  Stalin  at  the  Kremlin,  giving  rise  to  world- 
wide hopes  of  an  early  settlement.  More  meetings 
with  Molotov  and  Stalin  followed  and  on  August 
27  the  outlines  of  a  solution  emerged  under  which 
Russia  would  lift  the  blockade  in  exchange  for 
recognition  of  the  East  Mark  as  the  sole  currency 
for  Berlin. 

Yet,  when  the  military  governors  met  in  Berlin 
on  August  31  to  implement  the  Moscow  decisions, 
they  were  unable  to  reach  agreement  on  practical 
measures  and  the  dispute  was  back  where  it  had 
been  before  the  Kremlin  talks.  After  another  futile 
appeal  to  Moscow,  the  western  powers  on  Sep- 
tember 29  referred  the  case  to  the  United  Nations. 
It  was  taken  up  by  the  Security  Council  and,  after 
a  futile  attempt  at  mediation  by  the  six  "neutral" 
members  of  the  Council,  was  brought  to  a  vote  on 
October  25.  The  Council,  by  a  vote  of  9  to  2, 
approved  a  resolution  calling  for  an  immediate  end 
of  the  blocckade  and  new  talks  between  the  mili- 
tary governors  with  a  view  to  introducing  the 
East  Mark  in  all  of  Berlin.  Russia  vetoed  the  reso- 
lution on  the  grounds  that  the  currency  situation 
must  be  straightened  out  before  the  blockade  could 
be  lifted.  An  attempt  by  UN  Secretary  General 
Trygve  Lie  and  the  President  of  the  General  As- 
sembly, Herbert  Evatt,  to  break  the  stalemate  by 
a  direct  appeal  to  the  powers  concerned  proved 
fruitless.  Then  Argentine  Foreign  Minister  Juan 
A,  Bramuglia,  President  of  the  Security  Council, 
took  a  hand.  After  long  negotiations,  which  lasted 
through  November,  he  obtained  agreement  in  prin- 
ciple on  the  appointment  of  a  commission  of  experts 
to  study  application  of  the  currency  reform  in  Ber- 
lin on  the  basis  of  the  Moscow  directive  of  Aug. 
30,  1948. 

Meanwhile,  however,  new  and  serious  compli- 
cations were  shaping  up  in  Berlin.  On  November 
30,  die  Communists  seized  the  Berlin  City  Hall,  in 
the  Soviet  sector,  "deposed"  the  administration 
elected  in  December,  1946,  and  proclaimed  Fritz 
Ebert,  Jr.,  son  of  the  late  Reich  president,  as  the 
new  mayor,  while  the  lawful  city  government  with- 
drew into  the  western  sectors. 

The  Eastern  Zone.  Political  developments  in  the 
Russian  zone  of  Germany,  in  1948,  mostly  hinged 
on  the  creation  of  a  comprehensive  governmental 
setup  susceptible  of  being  extended,  at  short  no- 
tice, to  all  of  Germany. 

One  of  the  most  important  measures  taken  by 
the  Soviet  Military  Government  in  this  respect 
was  the  establishment  of  the  German  Economic 
Commission  (DWK).  This  body  was  first  organ- 
ized in  June,  1947,  as  the  Soviet  reply  to  the  Ger- 
man Economic  Council  at  Frankfurt.  It  was  de- 
signed to  coordinate  the  activities  of  the  five  state 
governments  of  die  zone  and  of  the  14  "central 
administrations"  in  Berlin,  which  frequently  had 
been  working  at  cross  purposes. 

In  its  original  form,  the  DWK  did  not  work  out. 
Its  executive  powers  were  limited  and  its  machin- 
ery was  hampered  by  the  requirement  of  a  unani- 
mous vote  of  its  seven  members.  For  eight  months, 
the  organ  led  a  shadowy  existence,  while  the  east- 


ern zone  economy  showed  signs  of  disintegration. 

On  Feb.  13,  1948,  Marshall  Sokolovsky  issued 
Order  No.  32  which  completely  reorganized  the 
DWK.  The  Commission  was  granted  almost  un- 
limited powers  in  the  economic  field,  with  author- 
ity to  override  the  state  governments.  The  central 
administrations,  with  few  exceptions,  were  dis- 
solved and  turned  into  subordinate  agencies  of  the 
DWK.  The  membership  of  the  Commission  was 
broadened  to  25  and  the  prerequisite  of  unanimity 
was  dispensed  with.  On  March  10,  the  Commission 
elected  Heinrich  Rau,  a  hitherto  little-known  Com- 
munist who  had  been  Minister  of  Economic  Affairs 
in  the  Brandenburg  State  Government,  as  its  chair- 
man. 

In  the  following  months,  the  DWK  took  a  num- 
ber of  sweeping  measures  designed  to  put  the  east- 
ern zone  economy  on  an  even  keel.  In  April,  the 
socialized  sector  of  industry  ( the  so-called  "people- 
owned  plants")  was  declared  inalienable  and  was 
consolidated  into  large  combines  on  a  zonal  basis. 
A  Commission  for  the  Protection  of  People's  Prop- 
erty was  set  up,  which  in  October  and  November 
carried  out  drastic  purges  especially  in  the  textile 
industry  of  Saxony.  According  to  official  figures 
made  public  in  July,  eight  percent  of  the  zone's 
industrial  enterprises,  representing  40  percent  of 
the  total  output  volume,  had  been  socialized  at 
that  time. 

On  July  1,  a  Two- Year  Plan,  designed  to  raise 
the  over-all  level  of  industrial  production  to  81 
percent  of  the  1936  output,  by  the  end  of  1950, 
was  announced.  Vast  increases  in  pig  iron  and  steel 
production  figured  among  the  principal  targets 
of  the  Plan.  In  spite  of  all  efforts  of  the  planners, 
and  numerous  efficiency  drives  organized  during 
the  year,  production  in  the  eastern  zone  in  1948 
showed  no  signs  of  appreciably  climbing  beyond 
the  60  percent  level  (of  1936  standards)  already 
attained  in  1947. 

Meanwhile,  on  the  political  front,  a  "national 
unity"  maneuver  in  the  grand  manner  unfolded. 
In  December,  1947,  a  so-called  "People's  Con- 
gress," ostensibly  representing  all  "democratic" 
parties  of  the  eastern  zone,  but  in  fact  wholly  con- 
trolled by  the  Socialist  Unity  Party,  i.e.  the  Com- 
munists, convened  in  Berlin.  At  a  second  meeting, 
in  March,  1948,  the  Congress  gave  birth  to  a  400- 
man  "People's  Council,"  which  constituted  itself 
as  a  provisional  parliament  for  all  of  Germany,  in- 
cluding the  western  zones. 

On  March  18, — centennial  anniversary  of  the 
1848  Revolution — the  Council  elected  a  ten-man 
executive  organ  (Presidium)  headed  by  Wilhelm 
Pieck,  Otto  Nuschke,  and  Wilhelm  Kuelz  (after 
the  latter's  death,  on  April  10,  Hermann  Kastner 
took  his  place^) .  From  the  first  this  executive  agency 
of  the  People's  Council  quite  openly  aspired  to  be 
regarded  as  an  unofficial  central  government  for 
Germany. 

One  of  its  most  spectacular  acts  was  the  organi- 
zation of  a  referendum  on  a  petition  to  the  four 
Allied  Military  Governors  to  respect  the  "indivisi- 
ble" unity  of  Germany.  The  referendum  was  held 
in  the  days  from  May  23  to  June  13.  It  yielded  the 
inevitable  95-96  percent  of  favorable  votes  in  the 
Soviet  zone,  the  only  one  where  it  was  permitted. 
The  three  western  military  governments  ignored  it, 
as  they  did  with  the  People's  Congress  and  the 
People's  Council  in  general. 

A  committee  entrusted  by  the  People's  Council 
with  the  task  of  preparing  a  draft  constitution  for 
Germany  completed  its  labors  on  October  21.  The 
draft  was  presented  at  the  fourth  plenary  session 
of  the  People's  Council,  October  22-24.  Based  by 


GIBRALTAR 


231 


GOLD 


and  large  on  the  old  Weimar  Constitution,  except 
for  a  stronger  emphasis  on  Socialism,  it  differed 
from  the  Bonn  charter  (see  ahove)  especially  by 
its  centralistic  character. 

The  Ruhr  Problem.  Next  to  the  Berlin  fracas,  the 
question  of  what  to  do  with  the  Ruhr  was  the  prin- 
cipal German  issue  of  the  year.  To  the  French,  it 
was  a  matter  of  far  more  absorbing  concern  than 
Berlin.  The  Paris  government  was  thoroughly 
aroused  when  the  American  and  British  military 
governors  on  November  10  issued  an  ordinance  re- 
turning the  coal,  iron,  and  steel  industries  of  the 
Ruhr  to  German  ownership.  Under  this  order,  Ger- 
man trustees  were  to  administer  the  industries,  un- 
der Allied  supervision,  pending  ultimate  decision 
on  the  question  of  ownership  by  a  freely  elected 
German  government.  A  formal  protest  against  this 
move  was  immediately  lodged  by  French  Foreign 
Minister  Robert  Schuman,  who  reiterated  the 
French  view  that  the  question  of  Ruhr  ownership 
should  be  decided  by  all  "interested  powers/' 

The  dispute  cast  a  shadow  on  the  third  six- 
power  conference  on  the  Ruhr  which  opened  on 
November  11  in  London  for  the  purpose  of  draft- 
ing a  statute  for  the  International  Ruhr  Authority 
decided  upon  in  principle  in  June  (see  above). 
While,  in  the  American-British  view,  the  Authority 
should  exercise  supervisory  functions  and  regulate 
the  allocation  of  the  Ruhr  industries*  output  during 
the  control  period  only,  the  French  would  give  it 
permanent  status.  Eventually  a  compromise  was 
worked  out  and  on  December  28  a  draft  agreement 
establishing  the  "International  Authority  for  the 
Ruhr"  was  announced. 

War  Crimes.  See  WAR  CRIMES  TRIALS. 

— JOACHIM  JOESTEN 

GIBRALTAR.  A  British  colony  and  fortified  naval 
base  at  the  western  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean. 
It  comprises  a  narrow  peninsula  which  includes  a 
long  mountain  called  the  "Rock/*  There  is  a  deep- 
water  Admiralty  harbor  with  an  area  of  440  acres, 
containing  three  graving  docks.  Area,  1%  square 
miles.  Total  fixed  population  (Jan.  1,  1947):  21,- 
233.  The  supply  of  fuel  and  provisions  to  ships  and 
the  transit  of  goods  to  Spain  and  Morocco  form  the 
chief  trade  of  the  port.  In  1946  revenue  totaled 
£545,325;  expenditure  £751,630.  The  governor 
is  assisted  in  the  administration  by  an  Executive 
Council  of  seven  members.  Governor  and  Com- 
mander-in-Chief :  Lt.  Gen.  Sir  Kenneth  A.  N.  An- 
derson (assumed  office  Mar.  21,  1947). 

GILBERT  AND  ELLICE  ISLANDS.  A  British  island  colony 
in  the  Pacific,  comprising  the  Line  Islands  and  the 
Gilbert,  Ellice  and  Phoenix  groups.  Total  area:  312 
square  miles.  Population  (1940):  34,202.  The  is- 
lands, with  the  exception  of  Ocean  Islands,  are 
coral  atolls.  The  natives  are  chiefly  Polynesians  and 
Micronesians;  there  is  no  linguistic  similarity  be- 
tween the  Gilbert  and  Ellice  groups.  Chief  crops 
are  pandanus  fruit  and  coconuts.  Phosphate  of  a 
high  quality  is  present  on  Ocean  Island.  Foreign 
trade  (1945-46):  imports  £45,215;  exports  £53,- 
140.  Finance  (1946):  revenue  £287,281;  expendi- 
ture £226,561.  The  High  Commissioner  for  the 
Western  Pacific  administers  the  colony  through  a 
resident  commissioner  with  headquarters  on  Ocean 
Island.  Resident  Commissioner:  H.  E.  Maude. 

GLASS  AND  GLASSWARE.  The  value  of  total  glass  out- 
put in  the  United  States  during  the  first  eleven 
months  of  1948  was  estimated  at  $710,150,000,  a 

fain  of  approximately  eight  percent  over  compara- 
le  1947  figures.  The  number  of  persons  employed 


in  the  glass  industry  during  the  year  roughly 
equaled  that  of  1947  but  annual  payroll  totals 
showed  an  increase  of  approximately  two  percent. 
This  was  accounted  for  by  wage  increases  agreed 
upon  by  labor  and  management  in  various  divisions 
of  the  industry. 

Chief  contributor  to  over-all  production  gains 
was  the  flat  glass  industry  which,  to  meet  record 
demands  of  building  construction  and  automotive 
production,  hit  peak  figures  in  the  production  of 
polished  plate  glass,  window  glass,  and  safety  glass. 
Glass  container  production,  in  spite  of  a  concerted 
effort  on  the  part  of  manufacturers  to  regain  war- 
year  markets,  was  more  than  ten  percent  below 
1947  totals.  Increasing  public  acceptance,  however, 
of  "one-way,"  non-returnable  bottles  for  beer, 
soda,  milk,  etc.  was  foreseen.  Pressed  and  blown 
table  glassware  production  also  fell  below  that  of 
the  previous  year  and,  as  a  result,  an  active  con- 
sumer publicity  campaign  was  begun  to  promote 
American-made  ware. 

The  three-and-a-half-y ear-old  government  anti- 
trust suit  against  eight  major  flat  glass  companies 
was  ended  in  November  by  consent  decree.  The 
companies  involved  were  permitted  to  retain  all 
their  plants  but  were  placed  on  probation  for  three 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  divestiture  will  be  or- 
dered if  full  competition  has  not  been  restored.  By 
another  provision  of  the  decree,  187  flat  glass  pat- 
ents were  made  available  to  the  public  on  a  royalty- 
free  basis  and  733  other  patents  were  licensed  on 
a  reasonable  royalty  basis. 

Among  the  technical  advancements  in  the  glass 
industry  in  1948  was  the  development,  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  Alexander  Silverman  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pittsburgh,  of  a  new  type  of  glass  con- 
taining 20  percent  tungsten.  The  product  is  ex- 
pected to  be  of  considerable  value  in  atomic  re- 
search work,  offering  unrestricted  visibility  while 
filtering  out  harmful  rays  emitted  by  radio-active 
materials.  Another  development  was  that  of  a  spe- 
cial glass  for  use  in  face  plates  of  television  picture 
tubes.  Improvement  of  methods  of  production  of 
these  tubes  permitted  a  sharp  increase  in  output 
and  gave  promise  of  an  ever-expanding  field  for 
glass  manufacture. 

European  production  of  glassware  continued  to 
improve  as  war-crippled  factories  gradually  swung 
back  into  operation.  Major  problems  still  faced  by 
factories  in  England,  France,  Belgium,  Czechoslo- 
vakia and  other  countries  were  fuel  shortages  and  a 
scarcity  of  skilled  glass  workers.  In  Japan,  produc- 
tion of  sheet  glass  in  1948  approximately  doubled 
1947  figures.  Steps  were  taken  toward  alleviating 
the  severe  glass  shortage  in  Australia  with  the  con- 
struction of  two  large  domestic  glass  furnaces,  one 
at  Sydney  and  the  other  at  Melbourne.  A  new  fur- 
nace with  a  capacity  of  eight  metric  tons  of  glass 
began  operation  at  Guadalajara,  Mexico,  (See 
CERAMICS  . )  — DONALD  DOCTOROW 

GOLD.  World  production  has  fallen  off  in  postwar 
years  due  to  rising  labor  and  other  production  costs 
that  squeeze  operators  in  a  market  dominated  by 
the  U.S.  Government  buying  price  of  $35  per  fine 
oz.  The  Bank  for  International  Settlements  esti- 
mated 1947  production  by  all  countries,  including 
the  U.S.S.R.  whose  statistics  are  not  released,  at 
27.7  million  oz.,  which  may  be  compared  with  the 
1940  peak  of  40.9  million  oz.  Last  year's  output  is 
expected  to  be  even  lower. 

In  1947,  the  Union  of  South  Africa  continued  as 
the  largest  producer,  with  11,198,000  oz.  The  So- 
viet Union  was  second,  with  production  estimated 
at  4  to  5  million  oz.;  Canada  third,  with  3,069,476 


GOID  COAST 


232 


GOLF 


oz>;  the  United  States  fourth,  with  2,109,180  oz.; 
Australia  fifth,  with  937,556  oz. 

Domestic  mine  production  in  1948  was  reported 
by  the  Bureau  of  Mines  to  be  2,001,380  oz.  Utah, 
in  which  gold  mining  is  a  by-product  of  copper 
production,  was  edged  out  by  California  as  the 
leading  gold-producing  State  due  to  a  year-end 
strike  at  the  Bingham  Canyon,  Utah,  copper  mine. 
South  Dakota  was  second. 

United  States  Treasury  gold  holdings  reached  a 
record  high  of  $24,230  million  on  December  15, 
estimated  at  about  64  percent  of  total  world  mone- 
tary reserves.  Gold  continues  to  flow  into  this 
country  to  pay  for  exports  from  the  United  States, 
supplementing  postwar  United  States  loans  and 
Economic  Cooperation  Administration  grants  to 
foreign  nations.  The  principal  shippers  of  gold  to 
the  United  States  were  Great  Britain,  the  Union  of 
South  Africa,  and  Belgium.  As  the  result  of  the 
flow  of  gold  and  limited  production,  the  reserves 
of  many  nations  are  perilously  near  the  danger 
point. 

Gold  stocks  in  most  countries  were  held  largely 
or  entirely  by  central  banks  or  treasuries  for  mone- 
tary reserves.  But  there  were  still  some  free,  semi- 
free,  and  black  markets  for  gold.  The  principal 
ones  being  Bombay,  Hong  Kong,  Alexandria,  Lis- 
bon, Paris,  Tangier,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  In  the 
United  States,  gold  can  be  held  by  individuals 
only  if  it  has  not  been  melted,  smelted,  chemically 
treated,  or  otherwise  refined.  Trade  in  placer-mined 
gold,  80  to  90  percent  fine,  at  prices  equivalent  to 
$40  to  $42  per  fine  oz.,  as  a  hedge  against  inflation 
was  reported  in  the  United  States. 

— JOHN  ANTHONY 

GOLD  COAST.  A  British  colony  in  West  Africa,  along 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  Attached  to  the  Gold  Coast 
for  administrative  purposes  are  Ashanti,  Northern 
Territories,  and  the  United  Nations  Trust  Terri- 
tory of  Togoland.  Total  area,  including  the  at- 
tached territories:  91,843  square  miles.  Total  pop- 
ulation (1948  census):  4,095,267.  Chief  towns: 
Accra  (1948  census)  135,456,  Kumasi  47,054,  Se- 
kondi  23,847,  Tamale  215303,  Cape  Coast  20,242, 
and  Koforidua  15,307.  Education  (1946-47):  21 
government  and  557  aided  schools  with  90,508  pu- 
pils; 2,175  unaided  schools  with  110,880  pupils. 
There  is  also  a  government  technical  school  and  a 
college. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  country  grows  suffi- 
cient food  for  domestic  needs  and  the  government 
is  making  serious  attempts  to  increase  cultivation 
of  staple  food  crops  and  to  introduce  new  ones. 
Cocoa  is  the  principal  export  crop  ( 1947-48  crop 
est.  200,000  tons),  followed  by  oilseeds,  vegetable 
oils,  rubber,  copra,  ginger,  and  palm  kernels. 

Mineral  production  (1947;  9  months):  gold, 
468,569  fine  oz.  troy  valued  at  £4,035,559;  man- 
ganese ore,  485,890  dry  tons  valued  at  £1,821,- 
265;  bauxite,  81,035  tons  valued  at  £259,312; 
diamonds,  474,713  carats  valued  at  £456,157.  All 
of  the  gold  mined  is  exported  to  the  United  King- 
dom, as  is  nearly  all  of  the  bauxite  and  the  dia- 
monds, 

All  timber  comes  from  the  Closed  Forest  Zone 
which  covers  about  28  percent  of  the  total  land 
area.  Total  timber  production  for  the  year  ended 
Mar.  31,  1947,  amounted  to  172,265,100  solid  cu. 
ft.,  valued  at  £1,175,000.  Of  the  total  log  export 
of  4,093,677  cu.  ft.,  mahogany  accounted  for  80 
percent.  There  were  13  sawmills  in  operation  in 
1947,  and  two  under  construction.  During  the  year 
legislation  was  passed  establishing  the  Gold  Coast 
Industrial  Corporation.  Its  purpose  is  to  establish 


secondary  industries  based  on  the  country's  agri- 
cultural output  and  to  set  up  pilot  plants.  Trade 
(1947):  total  imports  £25,453,661;  total  exports 
£20,779,154. 

Transportation.  There  were  614  miles  of  govern- 
ment-operated railroad  in  1947.  Total  mileage  of 
all  kinds  of  roads  was  7,955,  of  which  2,629  miles 
were  all-weather  roads.  Accra  is  the  West  African 
terminus  of  the  trunk  air  route  between  Great 
Britain  and  West  Africa.  In  1947,  Accra  was  made 
a  stop  on  the  Pan  American  Airways  run  between 
New  York  and  Johannesburg,  and  there  are  two 
weekly  flights  each  way. 

Government.  Finance  (1946-47):  revenue  £9,- 
850,177,  expenditure  £8,009,655.  On  Mar.  31, 
1947,  the  public  debt  amounted  to  £8,410,000. 
The  Gold  Coast  is  administered  by  a  governor,  as- 
sisted by  an  executive  council,  and  a  legislative 
council  of  18  elected  members  and  12  official  and 
nominated  members.  Under  the  new  constitution 
which  became  effective  Mar.  29,  1946,  the  Gold 
Coast  is  the  first  British  African  colony  to  be 
granted  an  unofficial  African  majority  in  the  legisla- 
tive council.  Governor:  Sir  Gerald  Creasy  (assumed 
office  Jan.  13,  1948), 

GOLF.  Little  Ben  Hogan,  Texas-born  star  who  plays 
out  of  Hershey,  Pa.,  proved  the  biggest  man  on  the 
links  in  1948  and  was  named  "Golfer  of  the  Year" 
by  the  Professional  Golfers'  Association.  Winning 
six  straight  tourneys  from  June  10  through  August 
22,  Ben  practically  spread-eagled  the  pro  field  and 
closed  the  Summer  season  with  victories  in  9  of 
the  last  16  tourneys  in  which  he  competed. 

After  winning  the  national  P.G.A.  championship 
in  May,  the  Texan  annexed  the  national  open  in 
June,  thereby  accomplishing  a  feat  which  had  not 
been  achieved  since  1922,  when  Gene  Sarazen 
turned  the  trick  of  winning  both  the  prized  titles 
in  the  same  year. 

Hogan  captured  P.G.A.  laurels  by  routing  Mike 
Turnesa  of  White  Plains,  N.Y.,  7  and  6,  in  the  final 
at  the  Norwood  Hills  Country  Club  in  St.  Louis, 
but  his  greatest  triumph  came  in  June  at  the  Ri- 
viera Country  Club  at  Los  Angeles,  where  he  shot 
a  276  to  break  the  U.S.  open  record  by  five  strokes. 
Jimmy  Dernaret  of  Ojai,  Cal.,  was  runner-up  with 
278  and  Jim  Turnesa  of  Elmsford,  N.Y.,  finished 
third  at  280. 

Among  Hogan's  other  major  triumphs  were  the 
Motor  City  open  at  Detroit;  the  Western  open 
championship,  in  which  he  defeated  Ed  Oliver  of 
Seattle,  Wash.,  64-73,  in  a  play-off;  the  Denver 
open;  the  Reno  open;  and  the  Glendale  open. 

The  race  between  Hogan  and  Lloyd  Mangrum 
of  Chicago  for  top  money  laurels  held  the  interest 
of  fans  most  of  the  year.  Within  a  week  in  August, 
Mangrum  captured  more  than  $20,000  in  prizes  at 
Chicago,  taking  the  All-America  open  with  a  277, 
then  winning  a  special  winner-take-all  award  of 
$10,000  in  a  match  with  the  12  leading  pros  over 
the  Tarn  O'Shanter  links.  Mangrum  carded  70  in  a 
play-off  to  conquer  Dutch  Harrison  and  Sammy 
Snead  after  a  three-way  tie  at  135  for  36  holes. 

On  over-all  money  earned  Mangrum  was  first 
with  $45,898  and  Hogan  second  with  $36,812. 
However,  Hogan  was  top  man  in  P.G.A.  contests 
with  $82,112  with  Mangrum  a  close  pursuer  with 
$31,289,99.  Hogan  also  won  the  Vardon  Trophy 
with  a  P.G.A.  stroke  average  of  69.3. 

American  stars  fared  badly  in  the  British  open 
championship  at  Muirfield,  Scotland,  in  July, 
Henry  Cotton  capturing  the  honors  for  the  third 
time  with  a  284,  leading  home  Fred  Daly,  Ireland's 
titleholder,  by  five  shots.  The  best  of  the  U.S.  dele- 


GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 


233 


GREAT  BWTAfN 


gation,  Johnny  Bulla  of  Phoenix,  Ariz.,  scored  291, 
for  seventh  place. 

However,  it  was  a  different  story  in  the  British 
amateur,  when  Frank  Stranahan  of  Toledo  took  the 
crown  by  routing  Charles  Stowe  of  Engknd,  5  and 
4,  in  the  final  at  Sandwich,  England,  in  May.  Stran- 
ahan,  one  of  the  top  amateurs  of  the  year,  retained 
his  Canadian  amateur  title  by  beating  Joe  Stoddard 
of  Hamilton,  9  and  7,  and  led  the  simon-pures  in 
the  All- America  open  with  a  283.  Charles  Congdon 
of  Tacoma,  Wash.,  won  the  Canadian  open  with 
a  280. 

The  U.S.  amateur  championship  went  to  a  mem- 
ber of  the  famous  Turnesa  family  when  Willie  de- 
feated Ray  Billows  of  Poughkeepsie,  N.Y.,  2  and  1, 
in  the  final  at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  in  September.  The 
Masters'  tourney  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  in  April  was  won 
by  Claude  Harmon  of  Mamaroneck,  N.Y.,  who 
posted  279  to  tie  the  tourney  mark  set  by  Ralph 
Guldahl  in  1939. 

Honors  among  the  women  golfers  were  divided 
by  several  competitors.  However,  Louise  Suggs  of 
Atlanta,  and  Grace  Lenczyk  of  Hartford,  Conn., 
were  consistently  in  the  headlines.  Miss  Suggs 
gained  her  most  sparkling  triumph  in  the  British 
championship  at  St.  Anne's-on-Sea  in  June,  defeat- 
ing Jean  Donald,  one  up,  on  the  thirty-sixth  green. 
Among  her  other  major  conquests  was  a  victory  in 
the  North-South  tourney  in  which  she  halted  Miss 
Lenczyk.  She  also  helped  the  United  States  con- 
quer Britain's  squad  to  retain  the  Curtis  Cup.  Miss 
Suggs  joined  the  pro  ranks  in  July. 

Miss  Lenczyk  repeated  her  victories  o£  1947  in 
the  Canadian  amateur  and  United  States  intercol- 
legiate 'championships  and  succeeded  Miss  Suggs 
as  U.S.  amateur  queen.  The  Connecticut  star  took 
the  national  crown  by  defeating  Helen  Sigel  of 
Philadelphia,  4  and  3,  at  Pebble  Beach,  Cai,  in 
September.  She  also  led  the  amateur  ladies  in  the 
U.S.  open  and  was  a  member  of  the  Curtis  Cup 
squad. 

U.S.  women  never  have  been  defeated  in  Curtis 
Cup  play  and  the  1948  team  won  by  6%  to  2%. 

Party  Berg,  Minneapolis  pro,  Mrs.  Mildred 
(Babe)  Didrikson  Zaharias  of  Ferndale,  N.Y.,  and 
Miss  Riley  were  other  stars  of  1948.  Listed  high 
among  Miss  Berg's  achievements  were  first  prizes 
in  the  Western  open  and  the  Augusta  titleholders* 
tournament.  Mrs.  Zaharias  captured  the  U.S.  wom- 
en's open  with  a  300  and  the  All-America  open 
with  309.  Miss  Riley  triumphed  in  many  big  events 
including  the  Florida  East  Coast,  Trans-Mississippi 
and  Texas  open  tourneys,  her  victory  over  Mrs. 
Zaharias  by  10  and  9  in  the  Texas  final  being  one 
of  the  season's  surprises.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE,  U.S.  (GPO).  The  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office  was  created  by  Congres- 
sional Joint  Resolution  25,  June  23,  1860.  A  then- 
existing  commercial  printing  plant  was  purchased 
for  $135,000,  under  an  appropriation  made  Feb. 
18,  1861.  Possession  was  taken  Mar.  4,  1861,  and 
the  office  was  named  the  Government  Printing  Of- 
fice. It  is  now  the  largest  and  best-equipped  print- 
ing plant  in  the  world.  The  activities  of  the  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office  are  outlined  and  defined 
in  the  Printing  Act  of  Jan.  12,  1895,  as  amended 
(28  Star,  603;  ILS.C.  Title  44). 

Purpose.  The  Government  Printing  Office  exe- 
cutes orders  for  printing  and  binding  placed  by 
Congress  and  the  departments,  independent  es- 
tablishments, and  agencies  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment; furnishes,  on  order,  blank  paper,  inks,  and 
similar  supplies  to  all  Governmental  activities;  dis- 
tributes Government  publications  as  required  by 


law,  and  maintains  necessary  catalogs  and  a  li- 
brary of  these  publications;  prints,  for  sale  to  the 
public,  such  documents  as  are  not  of  a  confidential 
nature. 

The  total  area  occupied  by  the  Government 
Printing  Office  proper  in  1948  was  1,396,973 
square  feet  or  32.1  acres.  During  the  fiscal  year 
1948,  it  was  necessary  to  place  orders  with  outside 
contractors  for  printing  in  the  amount  of  $8,672,- 
839.28,  as  the  Government  Printing  Office  was 
unable  to  handle  the  volume  of  printing  ordered. 
The  value  of  the  office  buildings  in  1948  was  $11,- 
948,735;  machinery  and  equipment,  $7,108,697; 
making  the  total  value  of  the  plant  $19,057,442. 
During  the  fiscal  year  1948,  there  were  6,894  em- 
ployees on  the  rolls  with  a  payroll  of  $23,502,- 
632.  The  office  made  charges  for  576,884,346 
copies  of  publications  of  all  classes.  This  total  in- 
cluded 6,467,453  copies  of  the  Congressional  Rec- 
ord, 3,563,573  copies  of  the  Federal  Register, 
3,440,778  copies  of  specifications  of  patents,  trade- 
marks, designs,  etc.,  and  371,501  copies  of  the  Pat- 
ent Office  Official  Gazette  and  annual  indexes.  The 
number  of  postal  cards  printed  amounted  to  3,83.5,- 
964,000  and  money  orders,  303,803,650.  The 
Stores  Section  and  warehouses  handled  2,386  car- 
loads of  paper,  weighing  116,653,853  Ib.  The  Di- 
vision of  Public  Documents  mailed  out  121,338,- 
654  publications;  its  receipts  from  the  sale  of 
Government  publications  during  the  year  amounted 
to  $3,233,395.  The  total  charges  made  to  Congress 
and  all  other  Government  agencies  during  the  fiscal 
year  were  $55,088,399.  — JOHN  J.  DEVINY 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  Official  designation  for  the  political 
union  embracing  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales. 
Great  Britain,  together  with  Northern  Ireland,  the 
Isle  of  Man-  and  the  Channel  Islands,  forms  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Northern 
Ireland.  For  statistical  purposes  the  Isle  of  Man 
and  the  Channel  Islands  are  included  under  Great 
Britain.  Capital,  London.  See  IRELAND,  NORTHERN. 
Area  ami  Population.  The  area  of  Great  Britain, 
the  census  population  of  1931  and  the  estimated 
civilian  population  in  June,  1947,  are  shown  in  the 
accompanying  table. 

Area  in  Population 

Divisions  sq.mi.  19  SI  1947 

England  « 50,874  37,794,003  \  ,  a  97n  ^ 

Wales 7,466  2,158,374/  43,270,000 

Scotland 30,405  4,842,980  5,139,000 

Isle  of  Man 221  49,3081 

Channel  Islands 75  93,205 J 


140,000 


Total 89,041          44,937,444          48,549,000 

a  Including  Monmouthshire.    b  1941  estimates. 

The  density  of  the  population  in  1947  was  742 
per  square  mile  for  England  and  Wales.  Chief 
cities:  London  (capital),  8,244,370  inhabitants; 
Glasgow,  1,106,000;  Birmingham,  1,097,900;  Liv- 
erpool, 769,170;  Sheffield,  514,290;  Leeds,  498,- 
650;  Edinburgh,  487,200.  In  1947  two  population 
records  were  set:  the  birth  rate  of  20.5  per  1,000 
was  the  highest  in  26  years  and  the  infant  death 
rate  of  41  per  1,000  was  the  lowest  on  record. 

Education.  Elementary  education  is  provided  free 
throughout  Great  Britain.  Under  this  heading  are 
included  large  numbers  of  schools  providing  sec- 
ondary education.  The  Education  Act  of  1944, 
which  came  into  force  on  Apr.  1,  1945,  raised  the 
school-leaving  age  for  all  children  to  15  immedi- 
ately, and  to  16  as  soon  as  more  schools  could  be 
built.  Secondary  education  was  made  compulsory 
for  all,  and  children  leaving  school  at  16  were  re- 
quired to  attend  special  County  Colleges  several 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


234 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


hours  a  week  In  their  employers'  time.  In  Scotland 
all  forms  o£  post-primary  education  up  to  18  are 
provided  free,  except  in  a  few  schools.  The  "pub- 
lic" (endowed)  schools  of  England  are  outside  of 
the  state  system. 

There  are  11  universities  in  England,  four  in 
Scotland,  and  one  in  Wales.  Total  university  en- 
rolment in  1947-48  was  78,440  in  England 
and  Wales.  Enrolment  in  primary  and  secondary 
schools  in  January,  1947,  was  5,340,091.  The  num- 
ber of  students  released  during  working  hours  by 
their  employers  in  1946-47  was  167,403. 

Religion.  The  Church  of  England,  with  a  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  form  of  government,  and  the  Church 
of  Scotland  (Presbyterian)  are  the  established 
churches  of  die  respective  countries.  In  Wales  the 
church  was  disestablished  in  1920.  The  leading 
denominations  in  England  and  Wales,  in  order  of 
membership,  are  Church  of  England,  Roman  Cath- 
olic, Methodist,  Congregationalist,  Baptist,  and 
Calvinist  Methodist. 

Production.  Great  Britain  is  a  predominantly  man- 
ufacturing country,  with  iron  and  steel  and  their 
manufactures  and  textiles  the  leading  industries  in 
value  of  product.  Manufacturing  employed  almost 
7  million  persons  in  1948,  of  whom  1  million  were 
in  general  engineering  and  engineers'  iron  and  steel 
founding,  The  index  of  industrial  production  in 
mid-1948  (1946  =  100)  was  122  for  all  industries, 
127  for  building  and  contracting,  124  for  manu- 
facturing, and  111  for  mining  and  quarrying.  Steel 
production  in  November  was  at  a  new  annual  rec- 
ord rate  of  15,756,000  tons,  compared  with  14,- 
174,000  tons  in  1947.  Cotton  yarn,  cotton  textiles, 
and  woolen  textiles  in  mid- 1948  were  above  the 
1947  averages.  Coal  production  was  close  to  the 
1947  figure  of  187  million  tons  of  saleable  deep- 
mined  coal 

Although  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  people  live 
on  the  land,  Britain  was  producing  about  one-half 
of  her  food  supply  in  1948,  as  against  one-third 
before  World  War  II.  The  number  employed  in 
agriculture  in  June,  1948,  was  about  850,000.  The 
acreages  of  the  main  crops  in  1948,  in  order  of  size, 
were  those  of  oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  potatoes. 
Harvests  of  cereals  in  1948  were  above  the  1947 
figures.  Food  consumption,  in  calories,  was  about 
2,700  per  person,  as  against  2,880  in  1947  and 
3,000  in  1939. 

The  merchant  ship  tonnage  under  construction 
in  June,  1948,  was  2,041,000,  surpassing  the  figures 
for  1947,  when  more  than  half  of  the  world's 
merchant  ship  tonnage  under  construction  was  in 
Great  Britain  and  Northern  Ireland. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  the  first  half  of  1948  Britain's 
total  deficit  on  overseas  payments  was  at  an  annual 
rate  of  £280  million,  well  under  half  the  1947  fig- 
ure. The  excess  of  British  commodity  imports  over 
commodity  exports  was  at  the  annual  rate  of  £312 
million,  compared  with  £438  million  in  1947.  The 
deficit  of  £192  million  in  invisible  trade  in  1947 
was  replaced  by  a  small  surplus  in  the  first  half 
of  1948.  In  spite  of  the  rise  in  dollar  prices  the 
British  deficit  with  the  Western  Hemisphere  was 
reduced  to  the  annual  rate  of  £390  million,  or 
£280  million  less  than  in  "1947,  which  was  a  year 
of  disastrous  strain  on  British  reserves. 

Machinery,  vehicles  (which  overtook  textiles  in 
the  fourth  quarter  of  1947),  and  textiles  were  the 
leading  exports  in  the  first  half  of  1948.  Two-fifths 
of  all  imports  were  food  and  tobacco,  with  all  other 
classes  relatively  small.  Oil,  seeds,  and  fats  were  in 
second  place  and  manufactured  oil  and  resins  in 
third.  Total  imports  for  the  first  6  months  of  1948 
were  £1,026  million,  as  compared  with  £820 


million  and  £460  million  in  the  corresponding 
periods  of  1947  and  1938  respectively. 

Transportation.  The  state-owned  British  railways 
(Vesting  Day  Jan.  1,  1948)  had  52,178  miles  of 
track  in  1947.  Traffic  receipts  in  1947  were  £5,- 
738,000  weekly.  The  London  Passenger  Transport 
Board  owned  188  miles  of  railway  in  1947.  About 
2,400  miles  of  canals  and  locked  rivers  were  in  use 
in  1948.  Tonnage  entering  British  ports  in  1947 
was  42,700,108  and  total  clearances  24,008,548 
net  tons.  British  civil  airlines  flew  3,286  miles 
monthly  in  1947  and  carried  almost  600,000  pas- 
sengers in  that  year. 

Finance.  For  the  financial  year  1947-48  revenue 
exceeded  expenditure  by  £  658  million.  The  budg- 
et estimates  for  1948-49  provided  for  revenue  of 
£3,765  million;  expenditure  of  £2,976  million;  a 
surplus  of  £789  million.  In  the  1948-49  budget 
(Apr.  6,  1948)  a  graduated  tax  of  10  to  50  per- 
cent, payable  Jan.  1,  1948,  was  laid  on  investment 
income,  and  concessions  were  made  to  low-income 
taxpayers.  The  national  income  in  1947  was- esti- 
mated at  £8,770  million. 

Government.  The  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Northern  Ireland  is  a  limited  monarchy  with 
an  unwritten  constitution,  under  which  final  legis- 
lative, judicial,  and  administrative  authority  is  vest- 
ed in  a  Parliament  of  two  houses,  acting  through 
a  Cabinet  drawn  from  its  members.  Parliament  is 
the  supreme  legislative  authority  in  the  territories 
held  by  the  United  Kingdom,  except  for  the  self- 
governing  dominions. 

The  upper  house,  the  House  of  Lords,  consists 
of  844  peers.  These  include  26  bishops,  16  Scottish 
representative  peers,  8  Irish  representative  peers, 
and  several  law  lords  who  hold  life  peerages  only, 
as  well  as  the  large  body  of  hereditary  peers.  Since 
1911  the  power  of  the  House  of  Lords  in  matters 
of  legislation  has  been  severely  limited,  and  in 
1948  further  limitation  was  voted;  but  it  remains 
the  highest  court  of  judicature.  The  lower  house, 
•die  House  of  Commons,  consists  of  640  members 
elected  by  universal  suffrage  on  the  basis  of  one 
member  for  every  70,000  of  the  population.  The 
maximum  duration  of  Parliament  is  five  years. 

In  July,  1945,  as  the  result  of  the  first  general 
election  since  1935,  the  wartime  Coalition  (largely 
Conservative)  Government  was  succeeded  by  a 
Labour  Government  with  an  absolute  majority  in 
the  House  of  Commons.  The  standing  of  the  chief 
parties  after  the  1945  election  was  as  follows: 
Labour,  393;  Conservative,  189;  Liberal,  12;  Lib- 
eral National,  13;  Independent,  14. 

Sovereign,  King  George  VI,  who  succeeded  to 
the  throne  upon  the  abdication  of  Edward  VIII 
on  Dec,  10,  1936;  Prime  Minister,  Clement  R. 
Attlee  (Labour);  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  Ernest  Bevin  (Labour);  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  Sir  Stafford  Cripps  (Labour);  Leader 
of  the  Opposition,  Winston  Churchill  (Conserva- 
tive). 

Events,  1948.  Britain's  domestic  situation  im- 
proved perceptibly  in  1948  and  furnished  encour- 
aging contrasts  to  die  economic  calamities  of  1947. 
Industrial  production  as  a  whole  increased,  the 
agricultural  outlook  improved,  the  deficit  in  foreign 
accounts  was  diminished,  and  economic  planning 
was  given  precision  by  the  requirements  of  the 
European  Recovery  Program.  At  the  same  time 
the  disturbed  situation  on  the  Continent  and  in 
Asia  required  increased  defense  precautions  and 
the  continued  austerity  at  home  insulated  the  ma- 
jority of  the  people  from  any  personal  benefit  from 
the  accelerated  national  effort. 

Economic  Gains.  By  June,  1948,  manufacturing 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


235 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


production  was  15  percent  above  1947  and  25  per- 
cent above  the  prewar  level;  exports  were  gaining 
steadily;  and,  although  imports  were  also  rising, 
the  gap  was  narrowing  so  rapidly  that  the  Chancel- 
lor of  the  Exchequer  was  able  by  September  16  to 
congratulate  the  British  people  on  a  ""really  fine 
effort."  Nevertheless  a  dollar  deficit  still  existed  at 
the  end  of  the  year,  and  no  way  was  in  sight  by 
which  Britain  could  revive  net  income  from  foreign 
investments  and  other  services  in  order  to  cover 
the  import  surplus. 

The  last  of  the  American  credit  of  $3,750  mil- 
lion, which  had  been  expected  to  cover  the  external 
deficit  for  four  or  five  years,  was  used  in  March, 
1948,  at  the  end  of  20  months.  At  about  the  same 
time  the  Economic  Survey  for  1943,  the  annual 
Government  White  Paper  which  sets  forth  the 
country's  problems  and  program,  estimated  Brit- 
ain's declining  dollar  reserves  at  £450  million  by 
July  1,  1948;  £225  million  by  December  31;  and 
nil  at  a  later  time  in  1949. 

Marshall  Plan  Aid,  This  forecast  took  no  account 
of  Marshall  Plan  aid,  which  at  that  time  was  not 
wholly  certain.  The  Foreign  Assistance  Act  signed 
by  President  Truman  on  April  4  gave  Britain  a 
welcome  respite  from  anxiety.  The  dollar  reserves, 
aided  by  £22  million  interim  assistance,  stood  at 
£473  million  at  the  beginning  of  July,  when  the 
Anglo-American  ERP  agreement  was  debated  in 
the  House  of  Commons. 

The  House  of  Commons  approved  the  ERP 
agreement  on  July  6  by  a  vote  of  409  to  12,  with 
little  criticism  of  its  terms.  A  Marshall  Plan  loan 
of  $310  million  announced  on  October  26  by  ECA 
and  the  Export-Import  Bank  was  the  first  Ameri- 
can credit  since  the  Anglo-American  Loan  of  1946. 
Counterpart  funds  amounted  to  $250  million  by 
the  beginning  of  October,  and  a  guaranteed  in- 
vestment project  for  a  carbon-black  plant  on  the 
Mersey  River  was  arranged  at  about  that  time.  By 
November  22  grants  to  Britain,  exclusive  of  the 
loan,  were  above  $1,000  million. 

An  Anglo-American  Productivity  Council,  the 
establishment  of  which  was  first  suggested  to  EGA 
Administrator  Paul  Hoffman  by  Sir  Stafford  Cripps, 
was  organized  in  September.  Because  the  Council 
was  expected  to  do  something  about  the  persistent 
American  criticism  of  low  output  per  man  in  Brit- 
ain and  about  the  facts  behind  the  criticism,  its 
organization  was  surrounded  by  political  fireworks. 
Both  the  extreme  left  and  the  extreme  right  in- 
timated, not  at  all  delicately,  that  Britain  was  sell- 
ing out  to  American  bosses  in  order  to  get  ECA 
aid. 

The  Council  held  its  first  meeting  on  October  25, 
with  Sir  Frederick  Bain,  President  of  the  Federa- 
tion of  British  Industries  and  Lincoln  Evans, 
Trades  Union  Council,  as  co-chairmen  of  the  Brit- 
ish group  and  Philip  D.  Reed,  Chairman  of  the 
Board  of  the  General  Electric  Company,  as  the 
head  of  the  American  group.  Both  delegations  in- 
cluded trade  union  leaders.  Reed  announced  in 
New  York  in  December  that  the  first  teams  of 
British  management  and  labor  to  visit  American 
plants  would  soon  arrive  and  that  thousands  would 
follow  eventually. 

Britain's  Four-Year  Plan.  Fulfilling  the  demand  of 
the  Organization  for  European  Economic  Coopera- 
tion on  the  countries  receiving  Marshall  Plan  aid, 
the  United  Kingdom's  four-year  plan  for  economic 
recovery  was  submitted  to  the  OEEC  in  Paris 
on  October  15.  The  plan  leaked  out  before  there 
was  official  comment  or  explanation,  far  ahead  of 
its  issuance  in  Great  Britain  as  a  White  Paper,  and 
in  advance  of  its  adjustment  to  the  national  plans 


of  the  other  OEEC  countries,  but  the  details  ap- 
peared to  be  well  authenticated. 

By  1952-53,  the  first  year  after  the  contemplated 
end  of  the  Marshall  Plan,  Britain  envisaged  in- 
dustrial production  one-quarter  higher  and  exports 
30  percent  higher  in  volume  than  in  1947.  That 
achievement,  together  with  the  estimated  increased 
agricultural  production  and  higher  net  income  from 
international  services,  would  make  the  standard 
of  living  15  to  20  percent  higher  than  when  Mar- 
shall Plan  aid  began.  As  long  as  the  plan  operated 
no  relaxation  of  existing  curbs  on  consumption  was 
planned. 

The  one-year  plan  ending  June  30,  1949,  as  sent 
to  the  Organization  for  European  Economic  Co- 
operation was  issued  as  a  White  Paper  on  October 
21.  This  revised  program  took  account  of  the  agree- 
ment on  the  aid  to  be  given  Great  Britain  and  on 
the  conditional  aid  to  be  given  by  Britain  to  other 
Marshall  Aid  participants,  and  thus  replaced  Eco- 
nomic Survey  estimates  for  the  calendar  year.  With 
aid  to  Britain  now  estimated  at  $1,263  million  and 
British  grants  to  other  countries  at  $312  million, 
it  was  belived  that  in  general  existing  consumption 
levels  could  be  maintained  in  1948-1949,  and  that 
the  anticipated  gains  in  all  major  fields  of  produc- 
tion would  go  into  the  restoration  of  Britain's 
external  financial  strength. 

As  the  pressure  to  develop  commodity  exports 
increased  the  individual  leaders  in  the  race  were 
acclaimed  as  if  they  were  sprinters.  The  biggest 
exporter  in  the  first  9  months  of  1948  was  the  mo- 
tor industry,  with  cotton  second,  and  iron  and  steel 
third.  Cotton  was  flagging,  however,  and  it  ap- 
peared that  iron  and  steel  would  forge  into  second 
place  by  the  end  of  the  year.  The  American  market 
took  the  biggest  share  of  both  the  47,000  tractors 
and  the  19,000  cars  exported  in  the  first  three- 
quarters  of  the  year. 

Wages,  Prices,  and  Rations.  Early  in  the  year,  fol- 
lowing the  issuance  on  February  4  of  a  White  Pa- 
per called  Statement  on  Personal  Incomes,  Costs 
and  Prices,  the  Government  got  voluntary  agree- 
ment from  manufacturers  and  trade  unions  to 
stabilize  prices  and  wages.  This  required  a  change 
in  the  food  subsidy  program,  from  one  of  pegging 
the  subsidies  and  allowing  prices  to  rise  to  a  new 
plan  of  stabilizing  prices  and  increasing  the  food 
subsidies.  Prices  of  imported  food  were  not  sus- 
ceptible to  control,  and  estimates  of  subsidy  cost 
for  the  year  rose  gradually  from  £382  million  to 
£500  million. 

The  Trades  Union  Congress  at  Margate  in  Sep- 
tember endorsed  the  stabilization  program,  but 
only  after  it  had  adopted  a  resolution  calling  on 
the  Government  to  take  more  effective  action  in 
effecting  a  substantial  reduction  in  consumer  prices, 
to  maintain  and  if  necessary  to  increase  subsidies, 
and  to  impose  stricter  limitations  on  profits.  At 
this  time  the  cost  of  living  figure  had  held  steadily 
to  108  since  spring,  except  for  a  seasonal  rise  in 
June  on  account  of  the  price  of  potatoes. 

Slight  increases  in  rations  came  at  intervals  in 
the  course  of  the  year.  Increases  in  children's  and 
priority  milk  allowances  were  made  in  May  and 
bread  rationing  was  given  up  at  the  end  of  July, 
about  two  years  after  its  introduction.  Potato  ra- 
tioning was  ended  when  the  food  crops  began  to 
come  in.  Nevertheless  the  average  food  intake  fell 
to  about  2,680  calories  per  head  in  the  first  half  of 
1948. 

Clothes  coupons  were  given  better  values  early 
in  May,  and  on  May  26  additional  clothes  coupeas 
became  valid.  At  this  time  a  few  articles  were  taken 
off  the  ration  list  and  some  reduced  rates  w«re 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


236 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


ordered.  In  July  more  clothes  concessions  were 
made.  In  December  a  one-sixth  increase  in  soap 
rations  was  announced  for  1949. 

Steel  Nationalization  Bill.  The  introduction  in  the 
House  of  Commons  on  October  29  of  the  bill  to 
nationalize  the  British  iron  and  steel  industry  was 
trie  concluding  step  in  the  fulfillment  of  the  Labour 
Party's  socialization  program  as  it  was  put  before 
the  electorate  in  1945.  In  the  interval  there  had 
been  some  hesitation,  but  at  die  Labour  Party's 
annual  conference  at  Scarborough  in  May  the 
membership  was  reassured  by  a  rereading  of  Prime 
Minister  Attlee's  nationalization  promise  of  Octo- 
ber, 1947,  and  by  their  executive  committee's  ex- 
pulsion from  the  Party  of  Albert  Edwards,  M.P., 
who  had  declared  that  it  would  be  suicidal  to  per- 
sist in  the  nationalization  plans. 

The  special  session  of  Parliament  from  Septem- 
ber 14-24  was  actually  called  because  of  steel  na- 
tionalization plans,  although  it  purported  to  deal 
with  the  power  of  the  House  of  Lords  to  delay  for 
two  years  legislation  to  which  it  was  opposed.  In 
order  that  the  steel  nationalization  bill  should  not 
be  delayed  past  1950,  the  year  of  the  next  general 
election,  the  Labour-dominated  House  of  Commons 
voted  a  reduction  of  the  period  to  one  year,  with  a 
retroactive  provision. 

Three  days  after  the  new  session  of  Parliament 
opened  on  October  26  the  Iron  and  Steel  Bill  was 
published.  It  proposed  to  nationalize  all  the  major 
firms  engaged  in  the  basic  processes  of  the  industry 
together  with  their  subsidiary  companies.  The  bill 
named  107  companies  which  would  be  transferred 
to  the  Government  corporation,  the  new  Iron  and 
Steel  Corporation  of  Great  Britain,  on  the  vesting 
date,  May  1,  1950,  or  a  later  date  within  18 
months. 

This  was  the  first  nationalization  plan  involving 
a  manufacturing  industry.  It  would  result  in  com- 
petition between  Government  plants  and  private 
firms.  Motor  car  manufacture  was  specifically  ex- 
cluded. The  Compensation  stock  to  be  issued  was 
estimated  at  $1,200  million  and  the  number  of  em- 
ployees about  300,000.  The  Government  planned 
to  continue  the  units  under  their  existing  names 
and  management  and  so  to  retain  the  good  will 
attached  to  the  products. 

The  extreme  differences  of  opinion  shown  as 
the  bill  was  given  its  first  and  second  reading  in 
the  House  of  Commons  surprised  few  people.  On 
October  1  the  Iron  and  Steel  Board  was  dissolved 
when  all  members  except  the  trade  unionists  de- 
clined to  serve  longer.  This  board  had  been  con- 
cerned with  the  execution  of  a  report  issued  in 
1946  by  the  Iron  and  Steel  Federation,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  (then)  Prime  Minister  Winston  Church- 
ill. Ivor  Thomas,  former  Parliamentary  Secretary 
for  Civil  Aviation  and  Colonial  Under-Secretary, 
in  resigning  from  the  Labour  Party  at  the  end  of 
October,  began  his  explanation  to  the  House  of 
Commons  with  an  attack  on  steel  nationalization. 

Bitterness  was  at  its  height  in  the  debate  on  the 
second  reading,  which  moved  the  proposal  past 
the  critical  legislative  stage  by  a  vote  of  373  to  211, 
More  members  of  the  House  voted  at  that  time 
(November  17)  than  on  any  piece  of  legislation 
since  the  Labour  Government  came  into  power  in 
1945.  The  Labour  Government  produced  373  out 
of  its  possible  393  votes,  and  the  191  Conservatives 
were  aided  by  10  Liberals  and  a  few  others. 

Coal  Problems.  The  nationalized  coal  mines  re- 
quired administrative  changes  in  1948,  when  op- 
eration in  general  was  disappointing.  In  May  Sir 
Charles  Reid,  who  was  a  member  of  the  National 
Coal  Board  serving  as  production  director,  resigned 


from  the  Board.  Sir  Charles  said  that  neither  his 
resignation  nor  his  explanatory  statement  should 
be  used  against  the  Government,  for  nationaliza- 
tion was  "wise  and  right;"  but  he  indicated  that 
the  managerial  duties  of  the  Board  members,  the 
over-centralization,  and  the  reliance  on  Civil  Serv- 
ice rather  than  on  business  methods  were  factors 
in  the  low  output  and  high  cost  of  the  mines. 

In  a  House  of  Commons  debate  on  coal  on  June 
24,  Minister  of  Fuel  and  Power  Gaitskell  argued 
that  changes  in  organization  would  not  change  the 
psychological  problems  of  the  industry.  He  sug- 

fested  that  it  was  difficult  to  get  the  miners  to  un- 
erstand  that  mechanization,  increased  output, 
and  reduced  costs  would  give  them  a  higher  stand- 
ard of  living. 

Action  was  speeded  up  after  the  report  of  the 
Coal  Board  for  1947  was  laid  before  Parliament  on 
July  13.  The  report  showed  a  deficit  of  about 
£-100  million,  increased  costs  of  production  per 
ton,  and  improvement  over  1946  in  total  output, 
output  per  man,  and  absenteeism;  but  a  poorer 
record  on  all  three  than  in  1938,  1939,  or  1940.  In 
the  first  week  in  October  the  Minister  of  Fuel  and 
Power  induced  the  National  Union  of  Mineworkers 
as  well  as  the  National  Coal  Board  to  promise  an 
immediate  increase  in  coal  output. 

Reforms  Proposed.  Later  in  October  the  Mine- 
workers'  Union  accepted  a  code  of  conduct  for 
miners  worked  out  by  a  council  of  miners,  union 
leaders,  and  nominees  of  the  National  Coal  Board 
for  the  increase  of  output.  The  Yorkshire  Division 
and  the  Scottish  Division  of  the  National  Union 
of  Mineworkers  rejected  the  proposals,  which  in- 
cluded fines  for  habitual  absenteeism  and  legal  ac- 
tion against  miners  who  participated  in  unofficial 
strikes. 

In  the  meantime  the  Coal  Board  and  the  Gov- 
ernment were  working  on  the  problems  that  were 
increasingly  pressing  as  production  fell  behind  the 
goal  set.  Sir  Robert  Burrows,  himself  a  member  of 
the  Coal  Board,  was  made  the  chairman  of  a 
"stock-taking  committee"  appointed  by  the  Board. 
The  Burrows  report,  issued  on  November  22,  rec- 
ommended increasing  trie  size  of  the  Board  from 
9  to  12  and  urged  that  board  members  be  freed 
from  the  duties  of  managing  departments  so  that 
they  could  concentrate  on  policy  matters. 

Proposals  were  now  coming  in  fast.  On  Novem- 
ber 22  reorganization  suggestions  by  Col.  C.  G. 
Lancaster,  M.P.,  were  published  in  pamphlet  form 
by  the  Conservative  Political  Center.  Sir  Charles 
Reid  wrote  a  series  of  articles  for  The  Times  of 
November  22,  23,  and  24  in  which  he  proposed 
to  set  up  26  corporations,  each  with  a  managing  di- 
rector and  other  necessary  executives.  Both  reports, 
in  short,  put  strong  emphasis  on  the  need  for  exec- 
utive autonomy  in  the  local  areas,  and  both  relieved 
the  central  board  of  most  of  its  executive  duties. 

At  the  end  of  November  Parliament  debated  a 
new  bill  to  increase  the  size  of  the  Coal  Board  and 
alter  the  duties  of  the  members.  The  Times  (No- 
vember 30)  then  observed:  "These  changes  clear- 
ly do  not  go  to  the  heart  of  the  matter.  When  do 
the  Government  expect  coal  to  become  more  plen- 
tiful, cleaner,  and  cheaper?"  The  deficit  reported 
by  the  Coal  Board  on  December  6  was  £373,000, 
although  a  profit  of  £3,477,000  had  been  planned. 

Other  Nationalized  Enterprises.  In  1948  only  the 
railway  part  of  transport  was  yet  taken  over  by 
the  British  Transport  Commission.  On  January  1 
the  state  took  the  railways  and  exchanged  Govern- 
ment stock  for  the  railway  securities.  Costs  were 
rising  and  a  deficit  of  £20  million  was  expected 
in  1948.  Cable  and  Wireless  showed  a  decline  in 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


237 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


profits  for  1947  but  brought  little  criticism  upon 
itself,  for  rate  reductions  and  accounting  changes 
were  partly  responsible. 

Three  State  air  companies,  the  British  Overseas 
Airways  Corporation,  British  European  Airways, 
and  British  South  American  Airways,  showed  defi- 
cits for  the  year  ended  Mar.  31,  1948,  but  only  5 
percent  more  than  in  the  previous  year.  In  Decem- 
ber BOAC  announced  a  cut  in  the  dollar  payroll 
staff  from  1,502  to  less  than  600,  effective  by 
March,  1949.  The  nationalized  Bank  of  Endand 
had  an  uneventful  year,  except  for  the  announce- 
ment by  Lord  Catto,  Governor,  of  his  plan  to  re- 
tire under  the  age  limit  rule  in  1949  and  the  ap- 
pointment of  C.  F.  Cobbold  to  succeed  him. 

Parliament's  Year.  Parliament  sat  for  three  periods 
in  1948:  from  January  20  until  the  end  of  July, 
when  the  outstanding  legislation  was  the  budget 
bill  and  the  bill  to  curb  monopolies;  from  Septem- 
ber 14-24,  a  special  session  for  pushing  ahead  the 
Parliament  Bill;  and  from  October  26  until  the 
holidays,  a  strenuous  period  in  which  steel  na- 
tionalization and  the  Parliament  bill  were  approved 
and  the  extension  of  conscription  was  decided 
upon. 

The  special  session  gave  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, with  its  large  Labour  majority,  the  chance 
to  pass  for  a  second  time— -the  first  was  in  the  pre- 
ceding session — the  Parliament  Bill  which  the 
House  of  Lords  had  rejected.  To  enact  the  bill  it 
was  necessary  for  the  Commons  to  pass  it  twice 
again  within  two  years  of  its  first  passage  in  the 
Commons.  All  this  had  to  be  accomplished  if  steel 
nationalization  (certain  to  be  disapproved  by  the 
House  of  Lords)  "was  to  go  through  before  the 

feneral  election  of  1950,  for  until  the  Parliament 
ill  was  passed  the  Lords  could  delay  legislation 
for  approximately  two  years  by  the  procedure 
outlined,  while  the  new  bill  reduced  the  time  to 
one  year. 

When  the  Parliament  Bill  passed  its  third  read- 
ing in  the  House  of  Commons  the  attendance  was 
sparse  and  the  debate  listless.  A  final  criticism  was 
made  of  the  retroactive  clause  applying  the  provi- 
sions of  the  bill  to  measures  introduced  before  its 
passage — meaning  steel  nationalization.  The  Na- 
tional Service  Bill  extending  conscription  from  12 
to  18  months  received  only  about  100  Labour 
votes,  with  many  members  abstaining,  at  the  time 
of  the  third  reading.  Conservative  votes  were  re- 
sponsible for  nearly  all  of  the  rest  of  the  218  votes. 
Twenty-five  were  opposed. 

At  the  end  of  October  the  House  of  Commons 
approved  unanimously  the  Government's  motion 
to  establish  a  tribunal  to  consider  allegations  of 
bribery  and  corruption  in  the  Board  of  Trade. 
Prominent  names  were  involved,  but  Churchill, 
Leader  of  the  Opposition,  urged  the  members  of 
Parliament  to  "set  the  example  in  not  indulging 
in  gossip  or  the  wide  diffusion  of  names  and  other 
scandals." 

Prime  Minister  Attlee  and  Herbert  Morrison, 
Lord  President  of  the  Council  and  Leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  were  absent  from  their  duties 
for  short  periods  for  reasons  of  health.  Former 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  Hugh  Dalton,  who 
resigned  that  office  in  1947  because  of  a  budget 
leak,  returned  to  the  Cabinet  at  the  end  of  May 
as  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  an  office 
without  specialized  duties.  The  foundation  stone 
of  title  new  Chamber  of  the  House  of  Commons 
was  laid  on  May  26.  The  former  Chamber  was 
rendered  unusable  by  World  War  II  bombing. 

July  Fifth.  Britain's  new  charter  of  social  security 
came  into  full  operation  on  July  5.  Four  new  acts 


— National  Insurance,  Industrial  Injuries,  National 
Assistance,  and  the  National  Health  Service — all 
part  of  a  general  plan,  went  into  force  on  that 
date.  Prime  Minister  Attlee,  broadcasting  to  the 
nation  on  the  eve  of  the  event,  described  the  com- 
pleted plan  as  "the  most  comprehensive  system  of 
social  security  ever  introduced  in  any  country."  A 
half-century  of  social  reform  was  now  embodied 
in  the  unified  "from-the-cradle-to-the-grave"  sys- 
tem advocated  and  drafted  five  years  before  by  Sir 
William  Beveridge  (now  Lord  Beveridge). 

Arrangements  with  the  doctors  who  were  ex- 
pected to  participate  in  the  Health  Act  operations 
were  difficult.  A  plebiscite  taken  by  the  British 
Medical  Association  in  February  showed  40,800 
against  the  act  and  only  4,700  for  it.  Concessions 
were  made  by  Minister  of  Health  Aneurin  Bevan, 
and  eventually  a  measure  of  participation  was  as- 
sured. 

Royal  Family.  The  birth  of  a  son  to  Princess  Eliza- 
beth, Duchess  of  Edinburgh  on  November  14  was 
an  event  which  brought  many  scenes  of  sponta- 
neous rejoicing  and  expressions  of  affection.  Only 
a  few  days  later,  on  November  23,  came  the  an- 
nouncement of  King  George's  illness  and  the  in- 
advisability  of  his  visiting  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land in  early  1949  as  he,  together  with  the  Queen 
and  Princess  Margaret,  had  planned  to  do.  Both 
Houses  of  Parliament  promptly  expressed  through 
the  leaders  of  the  chief  parties  their  regret,  to- 
gether with  appreciation  of  the  King's  onerous  la- 
bors in  the  12  years  of  his  reign. 

The  silver  wedding  anniversary  of  the  King  and 
Queen  on  April  26  was  made  a  day  of  celebration 
and  thanksgiving  in  which  the  public  participated. 
Ceremonies  were  held  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  and 
in  the  City  of  London,  In  May  Princess  Elizabeth 
and  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh  made  their  first  visit 
to  Paris,  during  which  most  of  their  time  was  given 
to  protocol  functions. 

Commonwea/fJi  and  Empire.  Changes  in  the  Com- 
monwealth— Burma's  departure  as  from  January  4, 
the  presence  of  India  and  Pakistan  as  Dominions 
since  1947,  and  Ceylon's  after  Feb.  4,  1948,  and 
Eire's  decision  to  sever  all  ties  with  Britain — were 
reflected  in  the  character  of  the  Conference  of 
Commonwealth  Prime  Ministers  held  in  London 
October  11-22.  The  Prime  Ministers  of  the  new 
Dominions,  Nehru  of  India,  Ali  Khan  of  Pakistan, 
and  Senanayake  of  Ceylon,  were  active  partici- 
pants, and  the  Prime  Minister  of  Southern  Rho- 
desia, Sir  Godfrey  Huggins,  whose  country  was 
next  in  line  for  dominion  status,  was  present  as  an 
observer. 

The  first  afternoon  was  taken  by  Sir  Stafford 
Cripps'  exposition  of  Britain's  four-year  economic 
plan,  in  order — as  the  final  statement  of  the  Con- 
ference phrased  it — "to  give  the  other  Common- 
wealth countries  an  opportunity  to  examine  its  im- 
plications for  their  own  economies."  The  United 
Kingdom  won  agreement  that  Western  Union  "was 
in  accordance  with  the  interests  of  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  Commonwealth,  the  United  Nations, 
and  the  promotion  of  world  peace," 

New  collateral  business  was  created  by  the  invi- 
tation of  the  Prime  Ministers  of  the  old  dominions, 
Canada,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand,  to  represent- 
atives of  the  Irish  Government  to  come  to  Chequers 
on  October  17  to  discuss  the  Commonwealth  im- 
plications of  the  Republic  of  Eire  bill  shortly  to  be 
laid  before  the  DaiL  Little  information  was  re- 
leased about  the  meeting,  at  which  Prime  Minister 
Attlee  was  present,  or  about  a  similar  one  in  Paris 
a  month  later,  but  obviously  imperial  preferences 
and  citizenship  rights  of  the  Irish  in  other  Domin- 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


238 


GREECE 


ions  were  matters  in  which  the  other  countries 
were  deeply  involved. 

The  final  statement  of  die  Conference  contained 
a  friendly  reference  to  the  "new  representatives 
of  sovereign  nations/'  India,  Pakistan,  and  Ceylon, 
who  "brought  to  the  deliberations  of  their  col- 
leagues from  the  other  free  countries  of  the  Com- 
monwealth the  wisdom  of  their  ancient  civiliza- 
tions vivified  by  the  dynamism  of  the  modern  age/' 
but  by  its  omissions  it  stirred  up  small  tempests, 
particularly  in  Australia  and  in  the  mood  of  Win- 
ston Churchill. 

The  omission  of  the  words  "British,"  "Empire/' 
and  "Dominion"  from  the  Conference  statements, 
undoubtedly  in  courtesy  to  the  three  eastern  coun- 
tries which  were  newly  and  aggressively  independ- 
ent, provoked  Churchill  on  October  28  into  what 
The  Times  called  "Churchillian  broadsides  which 
swept  the  globe  from  India  to  Eire."  In  the  name 
of  the  Conservative  Party  Churchill  said  that  any 
attempt  to  abandon  these  expressions  would  be 
resisted.  He  also  ^criticized  the  Socialist  Govern- 
ment for  carrying  "the  world-famed  British  Empire 
in  the  east  from  life  into  history"  and  Eire's  Prime 
Minister  Costello  for  digging  "the  gulf  between 
Southern  and  Northern  Ireland  deeper  than  ever 
before." 

Relations  with  Eire.  The  cordial  relations  between 
Britain  and  Eire  which  existed  in  the  early  part 
of  the  year  were  not  disturbed  by  the  passage  in 
Eire  of  the  Republic  of  Eire  Bill,  1948.  A  new 
trade  agreement  negotiated  in  June  appeared  to 
be  advantageous  to  both  countries,  with  its  im- 
proved volume  of  imports  for  Britain  and  its  higher 
prices  for  Eire.  As  for  the?  technical  problems 
raised  by  the  repeal  of  Eire's  External  Relations 
Act  embodied  in  the  Republic  of  Ireland  Bill, 
Britain  seemed  inclined  to  let  the  issues  lie  un- 
discussed  as  long  as  possible. 

On  November  25  Prime  Minister  Attlee  told  the 
House  of  Commons  that  despite  Eire's  move  to 
sever  her  last  connection  with  Britain,  the  United 
Kingdom  Government  still  recognized  the  "factual 
ties"  between  the  two  countries  and  would  not 
consider  Eire  foreign  or  her  citizens  foreigners. 
Churchill  replied  that  this  was  "inaction"  and  re- 
fused to  associate  the  Conservative  Party  with  it, 
but  Attlee  finally  suggested  that  until  Churchill 
could  offer  a  better  policy  he  should  accept  the 
Government's  decision  with  better  grace. 

Palestine  Policy.  Britain  gave  up  its  Palestine  man- 
date on  May  15  and  by  the  beginning  of  July  the 
last  of  the  British  troops  had  left  Haifa,  the  Co- 
lonial Office  and  the  Foreign  Office  took  the  occa- 
sion of  the  end  of  the  mandate  to  issue  jointly  a 
review  of  the  25  years  of  its  operation.  Since  the 
end  of  World  War  II,  according  to  the  report,  338 
British  subjects  had  been  killed  in  Palestine  and 
the  cost  to  the  British  taxpayer  had  been  £100 
million. 

After  months  of  unsuccessful  effort  from  several 
quarters  to  solve  the  Palestine  problem,  on  Novem- 
ber 18  the  British  Government  formally  introduced 
in  the  political  committee  of  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  United  Nations  a  resolution  calling  on  the 
General  Assembly  to  accept  and  take  steps  to 
apply  the  conclusions  of  the  Bernadotte  report. 
After  consultations  with  the  United  States  the  reso- 
lution was  so  revised  as  to  delete  its  previous  en- 
dorsement of  the  Bernadotte  proposals. 

Western  Union.  In  opening  a  foreign  affairs  debate 
in  the  House  of  Commons  on  January  22  Foreign 
Secretary  Bevin  declared  that  the  time  was  ripe 
for  a  consolidation  of  western  Europe.  He  antici- 
pated the  signing  of  treaties  with  the  Benelux 


countries,  thus  making,  with  the  treaty  with 
France,  an  important  nucleus  of  a  western  union. 
In  the  debate  the  proposal  was  endorsed  by  An- 
thony Eden,  Conservative. 

The  Treaty  of  Brussels  embodying  the  plan  of 
a  Western  Union  was  signed  by  the  five  countries 
on  March  17.  At  the  end  of  April  the  defense  min- 
isters of  the  powers  met  in  London,  and  on  Octo- 
ber 4  the  appointment  of  Field  Marshal  Lord 
Montgomery  as  Permanent  Military  Chairman  was 
announced. 

Relations  with  Russia.  The  Russian  blockade  of 
Berlin  beginning  in  June  harmed  Britain's  already 
strained  relations  with  the  U.S.S.R.  Foreign  Secre- 
tary Bevin's  reports  to  the  House  of  Commons  be- 
came more  outspoken,  and  on  September  22  he 
called  the  blockade  "dastardly."  On  October  11 
the  British  Foreign  Office  issued  a  White  Paper 
on  the  Berlin  question  in  which  it  was  said  that 
the  Soviet  Union  had  "embarked  upon  a  carefully 
prepared  attempt  to  compel  the  western  occupying 
powers  to  abandon  under  duress  their  rights  in 
Berlin."  Britain  participated  in  the  airlift  and 
joined  with  the  United  States  in  an  appeal  to  the 
Security  Council  of  the  United  Nations. 

Relations  with  the  United  States.  Britain  was  re- 
luctant to  acquiesce  in  the  arrangements  made  by 
EGA  Administrator  Paul  Hoffman  to  halt  the  dis- 
mantling and  removal  for  reparations  of  industrial 
plants  in  western  Germany,  and  on  September  14 
Sir  Oliver  Franks,  the  British  Ambassador  in  Wash- 
ington, delivered  to  the  State  Department  a  note 
from  Foreign  Secretary  Bevin  deprecating  the  pro- 
posal. Sir  Oliver,  who  succeeded  former  Ambassa- 
dor Lord  Inverchapel  in  May,  arrived  when  there 
was  lack  of  agreement  on  Palestine  policy,  and 
found  that  the  British  Consulate  and  British  busi- 
ness offices  in  New  York  were  being  picketed  by 
Zionists  urging  passersby  not  to  buy,  use,  or  travel 
British.  — ALZADA  COMSTOCK 

GREECE.  A  kingdom  in  southeastern  Europe.  King: 
Paul  I,  who  succeeded  his  brother,  George  II,  on 
Apr.  1,  1947.  Area:  51,182  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion (1948  est):  7,780,000,  including  the  Dodeca- 
nese. Chief  cities  ( 1939  pop.  est. ) :  Athens  ( capi- 
tal), 491,120;  Piraeus  281,340;  Salonika  (Thes- 
salinike)  263,690;  Patras  72,760;  Kavalla  49,980; 
Canea  26,608;  Corfu  (Kerkyra)  32,221.  The  den- 
sity of  population  is  133  per  square  mile. 

Religion  and  Education.  School  attendance  in 
1937-38  was:  Elementary,  985,018;  secondary, 
92,687;  university,  7,998.  The  1928  census  showed 
5,961,529  members  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church; 
126,017  Moslems;  72,791  Jews;  35,182  Roman 
Catholics;  9,003  Protestants. 

Production.  While  commerce  and  industry  are  not 
negligible,  the  mainstay  is  agriculture;  despite  the 
limited  available  arable  areas — 18.5  percent  of 
total  cultivated  in  1946.  Production  of  leading 
crops  in  1946,  compared  with  the  1935-38  aver- 
age, shown  within  parentheses,  was  as  follows :  ( in 
thousands  of  metric  tons):  wheat,  700  (767); 
other  grains,  593  (665);  tobacco,  33  (60);  dried 
fruits,  95  (229);  fresh  fruits,  65  (81);  olive  oil, 
90  (112);  edible  olives,  35  (44);  cotton,  25  (44). 
The  total  value  of  agricultural  production  ( includ- 
ing dairy  products  and  table  fruits)  was  estimated 
at  33,700,000,000  drachmas  ($270  million)  in  1940. 

Livestock,  which  is  important  in  Greece,  de- 
clined considerably  during  the  Nazi  occupation. 
The  number  of  livestock  at  the  end  of  1946 
(1938),  (estimated  in  thousands):  sheep  6,000 
(8,139);  goats,  3,130  (4,356);  cattle  and  calves, 
604  (967);  hogs,  400  (430);  horses,  mules,  and 


GREECE 


239 


colts,  354  (543);  milk  cows  (including  draft  milk 
cows),  252  (411);  draft  oxen,  240  (343);  other 
oxen,  108  (214);  donkeys,  332  (404);  and  poultry, 
7,500  (11,945). 

Recovery  of  industrial  production  since  libera- 
tion has  been  slower  than  the  recovery  of  agricul- 
tural output.  In  1939  total  industrial  output  was 
valued  at  14,112,679,000  drachmas  (about  $112 
million),  distributed  chiefly  among:  textiles,  chem- 
icals, foodstuffs,  electricity,  leather,  machinery,  and 
building  materials.  The  Athens-Piraeus  district  is 
the  country's  major  industrial  area;  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  total  number  of  enterprises,  which 
include  almost  all  types  of  industry,  are  located 
here,  and  production  accounts  for  60  to  70  per- 
cent of  total  output.  The  Salonika  district  ranks 
second  as  an  industrial  area,  and  includes  chiefly 
food  processors,  leather  makers,  machine  shops, 
and  tobacco  plants.  Greece  possesses  a  variety  of 
minerals,  of  which  magnesite,  iron  pyrites,  lead, 
emery,  and  chrome  ore  are  prominent  in  export. 
Other  mineral  resources  include  chiefly  iron  ore, 
magnesite,  nickel  and  zinc  ore,  bauxite,  and  lignite; 
there  is  no  petroleum  or  bituminous  coal. 

Foreign  Trade.  Greece  is  primarily  an  importer 
of  consumer  (including  foodstuffs)  and  capital 
goods,  and  an  exporter  of  agricultural  (chiefly  to- 
bacco and  fruits)  and  mineral  products.  Normally, 
exports  cover  only  about  65  percent  of  the  value 
of  imports.  Since  liberation,  Greek  foreign  trade 
has  recovered  very  slowly;  the  major  proportion 
of  Greece's  imports  from  liberation  until  the  end 
of  1946  was  supplied  by  UNRRA.  Foreign  ex- 
change is  subject  to  official  control. 

Finance.  Wartime  inflation  has  wiped  out  the 
internal  debt.  The  basic  monetary  unit  is  the 
drachma  (5,000  drachmas  =  U.S. $  since  Jan.  31, 
1946)  and  the  principal  fractional  unit  is  the  lep- 
tons  (1  drachma  equals  100  leptas).  The  1946-47 
budget  placed  revenue  at  1,572,000  million  drach- 
mas; expenditure  at  1,655,000  million.  The  prewar 
currency  was  withdrawn  and  replaced  by  a  new 
drachma  on  Nov.  11,  1944,  the  exchange  being 
at  the  rate  of  1  new  drachma  to  50  billion  old 
drachmas. 

Transportation.  The  railway  system  sustained  con- 
siderable damage  as  a  result  of  the  war,  rolling 
stock  was  greauy  reduced,  and  reconstruction  is 
proceeding  slowly.  The  principal  lines  are  those 
connecting  Athens  and  Piraeus  with  Patras,  Kala- 
mata,  and  Salonika.  At  the  end  of  1940,  the  length 
of  line  of  the  7  railway  companies  totaled  1,767 
miles,  of  which  840  were  Government  owned  and 
operated.  Little  highway  construction  has  been 
undertaken  and  the  general  condition  of  the  roads 
is  poor. 

At  the  end  of  1939  mileage  of  Greek  highways 
totaled  8,440,  of  which  7,064  miles  were  improved 
earth,  gravel,  and  waterbound  macadam;  1,191, 
surface  treated  and  penetration  macadam;  and  185, 
bituminous  concrete  and  asphalt  surfaced  cement. 
There  are  no  navigable  rivers,  and  less  than  10 
with  an  appreciable  year-round  flow.  There  is 
only  one  important  canal,  the  Corinth  canal,  which 
separates  continental  Greece  from  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. Coastwise  shipping  constitutes  a  major  form 
of  transport,  but  the  replacements  have  been  slow. 
Piraeus,  the  port  of  Athens,  is  the  most  important 
of  the  12  major  seaports  of  Greece;  normally  about 
two-thirds  of  total  Greek  imports  clear  here.  There 
is  one  large  free  zone  at  Piraeus,  and  Greek  and 
Yugoslav  free  zones  at  Salonika.  The  airport  serv- 
ice is  being  steadily  expanded. 

Government.  King  George  died  on  Apr.  1,  1947, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Prince  Paul 


Greece  is  a  constitutional  monarchy;  the  Govern- 
ment includes  a  Cabinet  and  an  elected  unicarn- 
eral  legislature.  According  to  a  resolution  of  the 
National  Assembly  of  Oct.  10,  1935,  the  Greek 
Constitution  of  1911  was  to  remain  in  force  until 
the  enactment  of  a  new  Constitutional  Charter. 
King  George  issued  a  royal  decree,  on  Oct.  22, 
1941,  regulating  the  functions  of  state  authorities 
in  cases  in  which  the  1911  Constitution  could  not 
be  fully  applied  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  Greek 
Government  during  World  War  II. 

Events,  1948.  The  grim  situation,  both  internal 
and  international,  showed  no  signs  of  improvement 
during  the  year.  As  in  1947,  Greece  was  unable  to 
devote  her  energy  to  the  urgent  task  of  recon- 
struction but  forced  to  keep  on  fighting  the  elusive 
guerrillas  on  the  northern  borders,  in  spite  of 
America's  help.  Thus  agricultural  production  (at- 
taining 70-80  percent  of  prewar  level  by  the  end 
of  1946)  deteriorated  again  despite  substantial  ir- 
rigation and  drainage  schemes,  due  to  the  flight 
of  the  farmers  from  the  guerrilla-plagued  regions. 
( Some  600,000  lived  as  refugees  in  or  near  the  big 
cities. ) 

Yet,  American  aid  produced  some  excellent  re- 
sults. The  Corinth  canal  was  reopened,  the  ports 
of  Piraeus,  Salonika,  and  Volos  rebuilt,  and  good 
work  done  in  repairing  the  Athens- Salonika,  Ath- 
ens-Peloponnese,  and  Salonika-Serres  roads.  Ade- 
quate supplies  of  food  were  sent  in  and  industry 
furnished  with  essential  machinery  and  raw  ma- 
terials to  the  limits  of  its  capacity  to  absorb  and 
employ  them. 

But  the  problem  of  the  guerrillas  remained  as 
acute  as  formerly.  In  the  spring,  the  Greek  Army, 
strengthened,  fed,  reinforced,  equipped  with  Amer- 
ican dollars,  and  advised  by  American  officers, 
commenced  a  major  effort  to  clear  the  country  of 
the  guerrillas.  But  in  October,  with  snow  coming 
on  in  the  Grammes  mountains  and  in  the  rest  of 
the  ragged,  vertical  terrain  along  Greece's  north- 
ern frontier,  the  guerrillas  were  still  fighting,  and 
numbered  perhaps  22,000  to  25,000  as  compared 
to  15,000  to  18,000  in  1947.  Greek  rebels  were 
able  to  escape  the  defeat  by  moving  across  the 
neighboring  frontiers  to  safety. 

On  November  10,  after  more  than  two  weeks' 
debate,  the  Political  and  Security  Committee  of 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  UN  found  Yugo- 
slavia, Albania,  and  Bulgaria  guilty  of  endanger- 
ing peace  in  the  Balkans  and  decided  to  keep  the 
UN  on-the-spot  observation  committee  at  work  in 
Greece  for  another  year.  On  November  27,  sitting 
in  full  session,  the  UN  General  Assembly  formally 
called  on  Albania,  Yugoslavia,  and  Bulgaria  to 
cease  all  aid  to  the  Greek  guerrilla  forces.  How- 
ever on  December  14,  Dr.  Herbert  Evatt,  President 
of  the  General  Assembly  announced  that  efforts 
of  his  conciliation  committee  to  bring  about  a  set- 
dement  of  outstanding  problems  between  the 
Greek  Government  and  the  governments  of  these 
three  neighboring  states  had  failed  because  of  the 
Greek  Government's  refusal  "to  treat  existing 
boundaries  between  Albania  and  Greece  as  defi- 
nite." 

The  military  reverses  reflected  themselves  in  the 
economic  and  administrative  problems  of  the 
country  where  the  aged  ..(88)  and  ailing  Premier 
Themostocles  SophouHs  resigned  on  November  12. 
But  the  Cabinet  crisis  was  settled  on  November  21, 
for  the  time  being,  without  bringing  about  any  real 
change  in  a  Government  that  had  been  criticized 
as  inept  in  both  military  and  economic  affairs* 
Sophoulis  returned  as  Premier  at  the  head  of  a 
,  Rightist  coalition,  with  only  a  few  minor  Cabinet 


GREENLAND 


240 


GUAM 


shifts;  was  approved  by  168  votes  (against  167) 
of  the  Chamber;  and  obtained  the  Chamber's  ad- 
journment until  Feb.  1,  1949. 

On  March  7,  the  Dodecanese  Islands  were  in- 
corporated into  the  realm  of  Greece.  The  Govern- 
ment protested,  on  June  2,  to  Yugoslavia,  Bulgaria, 
Poland,  Czechoslovakia,  Hungary,  Rumania,  and 
Albania,  through  the  United  Nations  Secretariat, 
asking  for  the  immediate  return  of  the  abducted 
children.  Following  the  visit  of  Secretary  of  State 
Marshall  to  Athens  on  October  17,  President  Tru- 
man told  Congress,  on  December  6,  that  Greek 
army  efforts  to  liquidate  Communist  guerrilla  forc- 
es had  produced  "a  military  stalemate"  despite  the 
delivery  of  $170  million  of  United  States  arms  and 
supplies — and  that  the  Greek  army  was  itself 
parBy  to  blame  for  the  failure  to  follow^  up  a  series 
of  victories  during  the  summer  with  a  "determined 
effort"  against  the  remaining  rebel  front.  But  by 
the  end  of  the  year,  the  Greek  situation  had  de- 
teriorated even  more  rapidly  than  Truman's  pessi- 
mistic report  indicated.  — JOSEPH  S.  ROUCEK 

GREENLAND.  This,  the  world's  largest  island,  is  a 
Danish  colony  situated  between  the  North  Atlantic 
and  the  Polar  sea.  Area:  839,782  square  miles,  of 
which  more  than  75  percent  is  covered  by  an  ice- 
cap. Population  (1945):  21,384,  of  whom  569 
were  Europeans.  Chief  settlements:  Julianehaab, 
Godthaab  (capital),  Sukkertoppen,  Egedesminde, 
Thule,  and  Angmagssalik.  The  natives  speak  an 
Eskimo  dialect.  Education  includes  grade  schools, 
high  schools,  and  a  training  school  for  teachers. 
The  official  religion  is  the  Lutheran. 

Production.  The  mainstay  of  the  native  population 
is  fishing  and  hunting.  A  total  of  7,945  metric  tons 
of  cod  was  produced  for  salting  in  1944.  Halibut 
and  seal  are  also  important.  Agriculture  is  limited 
to  sheep  raising  along  the  southwestern  coast.  The 
important  minerals  are  cryolite  (largest  deposits  in 
the  world),  of  which  20,106  tons  were  exported  to 
the  U.S.  in  1945,  and  lignite  coal,  of  which  about 
8,000  tons  were  mined  in  1945,  Marble  has  been 
quarried  and  deposits  of  pure  lead  ore  and  uranium 
layers  are  present.  Except  for  cryolite,  trade  is  a 
crown  monopoly. 

Government.  For  administrative  purposes  Green- 
land is  divided  into  two  inspectorates  (Godthaab 
and  Godhavn ) ,  each  with  a  governor  responsible  to 
the  Greenland  Administration  ( Gronlands  Styrelse) 
section  of  the  Ministry  of  State  in  Copenhagen. 

Negotiations  between  Denmark  and  the  United 
States  over  Danish  demands  for  the  abrogation  of 
the  pact  entered  into  in  1941,  have  brought  various 
proposals,  but  no  settlement 

GUADELOUPE.  A  department  o£  France  (since  Jan. 
1,  1947)  in  the  West  Indies,  consisting  of  two  main 
islands — Basse-Terre  (pop.  113,412)  and  Grande- 
Terre  (pop.  113,545) — and  the  five  Leeward  is- 
lands of  Desirade,  Les  Saintes,  Marie  Galante,  St. 
Barth&emy,  and  St.  Martin.  Total  area:  688  square 
miles;  total  population  (1946):  271,262  (1948 
est.  304,000).  Chief  towns:  Basse-Terre,  capital 
(13,638  inhabitants),  Pointe-a-Pitre,  chief  port 
(44,551  inhabitants).  The  population  is  mostly 
Negro  and  Mulatto.  Education  (1946-47):  131 
schools  and  29,221  pupils. 

Principal  agricultural  products  (1947):  sugar 
(50,000  metric  tons),  coffee,  cacao,  bananas  (48,- 
000  tons),  manioc,  and  vanilla.  There  is  consider- 
able manufacture  of  rum  and  spirits  ( 202,324  hec- 
toliters of  pure  alcohol  in  1947),  Total  imports 
(1946)  amounted  to  1,115  million  francs;  exports 
to  1,495  million  francs.  Chief  exports  are  rum, 


sugar,  and  bananas.  Finance  (1947):  revenue  and 
expenditure  balanced  at  1,049,313,000  francs.  On 
Jan.  1,  1948,  the  outstanding  debt  totaled  607,- 
627,000  francs.  Guadeloupe  is  represented  in  the 
National  Assembly,  the  Council  of  the  Republic, 
and  has  one  delegate  to  the  French  Union.  Prefect, 
M.  Philipson. 

GUAM.  The  largest  island  of  the  Marianas  group 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Spain  at  the 
close  of  the  Spanish- American  War  in  1898.  It  is 
situated  in  the  mid-Pacific,  1,500  miles  east  of  Ma- 
nila, 1,300  miles  south  of  Japan,  3,337  miles  from 
Honolulu,  and  5,053  miles  from  San  Francisco. 
The  island  has  a  land  area  of  217  square  miles, 
extending  30  miles  north  and  south,  and  is  4  to  8% 
miles  wide. 

Population.  The  population,  as  of  July  1,  1948, 
totaled  25,677  persons  of  whom  12,993  were  males 
and  12,684  females.  Of  these  24,452  were  native- 
bom  and  1,225  foreign-born.  The  local  population 
is  mainly  of  Chamorro  stock,  a  mixture  of  the  an- 
cient Chamorro  people  with  Spanish,  Mexican,  Fil- 
ipino, Anglo-Saxon,  Japanese,  and  Chinese  strains. 
In  addition,  the  transient  or  off-island  population 
consisting  of  military  personnel  and  their  depend- 
ents, civil  service  and  contract  employees  from  the 
United  States  mainland  and  Hawaii  and  other  off- 
island"  persons  is,  on  the  average,  65,000. 

While  English  is  the  official  language  of  the  gov- 
ernment and  of  the  schools,  the  native  Chamorro 
language  is  widely  spoken  in  the  daily  life  of  the 
people.  The  predominant  religion  is  Roman  Ca- 
tholicism. 

Education.  In  the  elementary  and  high  schools  the 
enrollment  for  the  1948-49  school  year  was  8,735, 
and  30  university  trained  teachers  and  supervisory 
personnel  from  the  United  States  were  employed 
in  the  Guam  educational  program. 

Production  and  Trade.  All  forms  of  agriculture  and 
business  were  disrupted  and  the  principal  towns 
demolished  during  the  war.  Most  o£  the  civilian 
population  are  earning  their  livelihood  at  present 
from  employment  by  the  United  States  Navy.  Im- 
ported goods  entering  the  commerce  of  Guam  for 
the  quarter  ending  Sept.  30,  1948,  were  valued  at 
$1,852,878.  Total  commercial  receipts  from  busi- 
nesses on  Guam  for  that  quarter  amounted  to  $4,- 
691,474.  The  Bank  of  Guam  had  total  resources  of 
$34,877,299  as  of  Nov.  4,  1947. 

Government.  Guam  is  classified  as  a  United  States 
possession.  The  inhabitants  of  Guam  are  nationals 
but  not  citizens  of  the  United  States.  A  senior 
Naval  officer  is  commissioned  by  the  President  as 
Governor  of  Guam,  and  the  same  officer  is  desig- 
nated by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  as  Commander, 
Marianas  Area.  The  government  is  administered  by 
departments.  In  each  municipality  of  Guam  a  Com- 
missioner is  appointed  as  a  district  representative 
of  the  Governor  in  an  advisory  and  informative  ca- 
pacity. The  Guam  Congress,  composed  of  a  House 
of  Council  and  a  House  of  Assembly,  is  elected  by 
popular  vote;  Councilmen  for  four  years  and  As- 
semblymen for  two  years.  Prior  to  Aug.  5,  1947, 
the  Guam  Congress  acted  in  an  advisory  capacity 
only  to  the  Governor.  On  tbat  date  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  by  proclamation  vested  certain  legislative 
powers  in  the  Guam  Congress.  Pursuant  thereto 
legislation  passed  over  the  veto  of  the  Governor 
goes  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  for  final  decision. 
Governor:  Rear  Admiral  Charles  A.  Pownall  (in- 
augurated May  30,  1946). 

Events,  1948.  During  1948  Eniwetok  Atoll  in  the 
Marshall  group  was  utilized  as  a  proving  ground 
for  routine  experiments  in  atomic  energy  develop- 


GUATEMALA 


241 


GUATEMALA 


merit  conducted  by  the  Atomic  Energy  Commis- 
sion. During  the  year  the  civil  administration  units 
at  Kwajalein  and  Yap  were  consolidated  with  units 
at  Majuro  and  Koror,  respectively.  A  leper  hospital 
for  the  entire  area  was  established  on  Tinian  in 
October,  1948,  and  a  tuberculosis  sanitarium  is  be- 
ing completed  on  Saipan.  Three  scientific  surveys 
were  in  progress  in  the  territory  during  the  year: 
of  the  people,  by  the  "Coordinated  Investigation  of 
Micronesian  Anthropology,"  a  group  of  scientists 
from  21  different  institutions  of  the  United  States 
and  Hawaii;  of  the  fishing  resources  of  the  area, 
by  the  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service  of  the  Department 
of  Interior  pursuant  to  Public  Law  329  of  the  80th 
Congress;  and  of  the  insect  pests  of  the  islands,  by 
the  Insect  Control  Committee  for  Micronesia,  un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  Pacific  Science  Board  of  the 
National  Research  Council  In  October,  1948,  a 
Chief  Justice  for  the  Trust  Territory,  responsible 
directly  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  was  appoint- 
ed to  preside  over  the  District  Court  and  Court  of 
Appeals.  Legislation  to  provide  an  organic  act  for 
the  Trust  Territory  and  to  confer  local  citizenship 
upon  the  indigenous  people  was  prepared  and  in- 
troduced in  the  80th  Congress  by  the  Department 
of  State  but  no  action  was  taken  thereon. 

In  June,  1948,  a  committee  of  6  senators  and  6 
representatives  was  authorized  by  the  Congress  to 
conduct  a  study  of  the  Trust  Territory  and  of  other 
islands  in  the  Pacific.  As  of  Feb.  15,  1949,  no  defi- 
nite time  had  been  announced  for  the  committee's 
projected  inspection  trip  to  the  territory.  At  the 
present  time  Admiral  DeWitt  C.  Ramsey  is  High 
Commissioner  and  Rear  Admiral  Leon  S.  Fiske  is 
Deputy  High  Commissioner  of  the  Trust  Territory. 

GUATEMALA.  A  republic  of  Central  America.  Area: 
45,452  square  miles.  Population:  3,706,205  (1946 
est.),  of  whom  55  percent  are  Indians;  the  remain- 
der are  either  mestizos  or  of  European  descent 
The  largest  cities  are  Guatemala  (capital),  176,780 
inhabitants,  Quezaltenango,  Puerto  Barrios,  Coban, 
and  Zacapa. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  Constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  Roman  Catholicism  is 
predominant.  Spanish  is  the  official  language,  but 
many  of  the  Indians  speak  their  own  dialects.  Over 
40  percent  of  the  population  is  literate.  According 
to  the  school  census  of  1947,  there  were  3,290 
primary  schools  with  189,950  pupils;  over  62  in- 
termediate schools  with  8,916  students.  There  is 
a  national  university  with  694  students  ( 1947 ) , 

Production.  The  country  is  primarily  agricultural. 
Coffee  is  the  most  important  crop,  occupying  % 
of  cultivated  land.  Largest  export  crops  are  coffee, 
bananas,  and  chicle.  Coffee  production  in  1946—47 
was  estimated  at  1  million  quintals  (of  101.4  lb.); 
sugar  521,200  quintals;  and  tobacco  (1947)  5 
million  lb.  Banana  exports  in  1946  were  valued  at 
8,687,588  quetzales  (quetzal  equals  U.S.$1).  Other 
agricultural  crops  are  corn,  beans,  rice,  and  wheat. 
Livestock  slaughtered  in  1946:  cattle,  136,000; 
sheep,  217,000.  Mineral  production  included  small 
quantities  of  gold,  lead,  chromite,  and  sulphur. 
Manufacturing  is  limited  to  consumer  goods,  chief 
among  these  are  cement,  beer,  cigarets,  lard,  and 
wheat  flour. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  exports  in  1947  were  valued 
at  $52,080,000;  imports  at  $57,360,000.  Of  this 
amount  coffee  accounted  for  some  70  percent,  or 
20,383,271  quetzales  in  1946.  Chief  buyers  are  the 
United  States,  Canada,  Switzerland,  Mexico,  and 
Nicaragua.  Guatemala's  principal  imports  come 
from  the  United  States,  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Aruba 
(Netherlands  West  Indies). 


Transportation,  There  are  four  railroads  operating 
in  the  country,  with  a  total  of  723  miles  of  track. 
Some  private  lines  are  owned  hy  die  banana  com- 
panies. Road  mileage  of  all  kinds  exceeds  5,000. 
There  were  over  5,000  motor  vehicles  registered  in 
1945.  Air  service  is  provided  by  Pan-American  Air- 
ways, and  some  local  companies  of  which  TACA 
is  the  most  important. 

Finance.  In  the  1948—49  budget  estimates,  reve- 
nue and  expenditure  were  balanced  at  $44,646,000. 
The  total  public  debt  was  $3,845,695  in  1948.  Cur- 
rency in  circulation  on  Dec.  31,  1947,  amounted  to 
31.8  million  quetzales,  bank  deposits  to  20.2  mil- 
lion. Gold  reserves  at  the  same  date  were  $27  mil- 
lion. There  is  no  import  or  exchange  control  in 
Guatemala. 

Government.  Guatemala  is  a  centralized  republic 
divided  into  22  departments.  The  Constitution  of 
Mar.  11,  1945,  provides  for  a  unicameral  congress 
(proportionally  elected  by  universal  suffrage  for 
a  4-year  term).  The  President  is  elected  for  a  6- 
year  term,  and  may  not  be  reelected  until  after  a 
lapse  of  12  years.  Dr.  Juan  Jose  Arevalo  Martinez 
was  elected  President  in  December,  1944,  and  took 
office  on  Mar.  15,  1945. 

Events,  1948.  The  year  opened  with  public  atten- 
tion centered  on  the  Belize  problem;  the  govern- 
ment policy  seemed  inclined  to  present  the  case 
to  the  Ninth  Conference  of  American  States  to  be 
held  in  Bogota. 

Reorganization  of  the  Government.  On  March  10, 
President  Arevalo  Martinez  substantially  reorgan- 
ized his  Cabinet.  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
Munoz  Meany  continued  in  his  post,  and  an- 
nounced that  he  would  follow  a  firm  policy  in  the 
Belize  affair.  The  Congress  met  on  March  11  to 
consider  the  severance  of  diplomatic  relations  with 
Great  Britain,  but  the  matter  was  referred  to  a 
commission,  which  has  made  no  decision.  Simulta- 
neously, the  new  Cabinet  requested  the  support  of 
the  Pan  American  Union  in  Guatemala's  trouble 
with  Great  Britain,  and  especially  with  regard  to 
the  tension  created  by  the  appearance  of  British 
warships  off  the  Guatemalan  coast.  All  through 
April  Belize  was  in  the  public  mind,  and  the  Con- 
gress acted  against  certain  newspapers  of  a  con- 
servative trend  who,  because  of  their  opposition 
to  the  Government,  were  defending  Britain's  po- 
sition. Finally,  the  administration  sent  a  diplomatic 
note  to  Great  Britain,  to  the  effect  that  a  favorable 
atmosphere  for  the  discussion  of  this  problem  by 
the  International  Court  of  Justice  could  not  exist 
until  the  British  battleships  were  ordered  to  leave 
Guatemalan  waters. 

Labor  Protests.  On  May  27,  numerous  labor  unions 
took  part  in  a  celebration  honoring  Augusto  Char- 
naut,  who  had  been  removed  from  his  post  as  Min- 
ister of  Labor.  Certain  workers  felt  that  this  dis- 
missal could  be  interpreted  as  a  change  in  the  Gov- 
ernment's social  program.  The  deposed  minister 
belongs  to  the  Action  Revolutionaries  party  and 
political  circles  were  inclined  to  believe  that  his 
removal  could  be  traced  to  disagreements  between 
that  party  and  a  new  organization  formed  by  dis- 
senters strongly  inclined  toward  the  right  Char- 
naut's  removal  affected  the  labor  unions  for  some 
time,  and  on  August  7  they  held  a  large  meeting  to 
resolve  that  they  would  stand  by  President  Arevalo. 
However,  if  the  conservatives  violated  the  Consti- 
tution, they  warned  that  a  general  strike  would 
be  called  immediately  in  defense  of  labor's  rights. 

International  Front.  Guatemala  participated  in  the 
Ninth  Conference  of  American  States  and  signed 
the  Charter  of  the  Organization  of  American 
States  in  Bogotd  (see  PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES). 


GUGGENHEIM  MEMORIAL  FOUNDATION 


242 


HAITI 


Apart  from  this,  the  international  problem  of  the 
year,  as  stated  above,  was  the  Belize  affair.  Tension 
was  at  its  highest  point  in  February,  when  the 
battleship  Sheffield  and  smaller  units  of  the  British 
navy  were  sent  to  Guatemalan  waters,  causing 
public  indignation.  The  Sheffield  left  a  few  weeks 
later,  and  rumor  had  it  that  its  departure  was  due 
to  the  friendly  intervention  of  Washington's  Am- 
bassador to  Guatemala.  — MIGUEL  JORRIN 

GUGGENHEIM  MEMORIAL  FOUNDATION,   John    Simon. 

Established  in  1925  in  order  to  improve  the  qual- 
ity of  education  and  the  practice  of  the  arts  and 
professions  in  the  United  States,  to  foster  research, 
and  to  provide  for  the  cause  of  better  international 
understanding,  the  Foundation  offers  a  limited 
number  of  fellowships,  tenable  under  the  freest 
possible  conditions,  for  research  in  any  field  of 
knowledge  and  for  creative  work  in  any  of  the  fine 
arts,  including  music.  The  fellowships  are  awarded 
annually  by  rhe  Trustees  upon  nominations  made 
by  a  Committee  of  Selection  and  carry  a  stipend 
not  exceeding  §3,000  per  annum.  The  1948  fellow- 
ships totaled  134,  including  renewals.  Member- 
ship: Nine  Trustees.  Officers  for  1948-49:  Presi- 
dent, Mrs.  Simon  Guggenheim;  Vice  President, 
Francis  H.  Brownell;  Secretary  General,  Henry 
Allen  Moe;  Treasurer,  Otto  L.  Myers.  Offices: 
551  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  17,  N.Y. 

GYMNASTICS.  The  national  A.A.U.  championships 
combined  with  the  final  Olympic  try-outs  at  Penn 
State  College  on  May  1  to  produce  one  of  the 
most  successful  gymnastic  meets  ever  held  in  the 
United  States.  Edward  Scrobe,  metropolitan  ama- 
teur king  from  New  York  City,  was  the  top  per- 
former, finishing  first  in  the  all-around  competi- 
tion. Scrobe  scored  10  points  more  than  Bill  Bon- 
sail  of  Penn  State,  his  closest  rival.  Don  Perry,  Cali- 
fornia high-school  boy,  set  a  new  world  record  of 
3.1  seconds  in  winning  the  20-foot  rope  climb. 

In  the  A.A.U.  tests  and  Olympic  trials  for  women 
at  Temple  University  in  Philadelphia  on  May  8, 
Miss  Clara  Schroth  of  Philadelphia  was  the  ace 
performer,  winning  titles  in  four  events  and  leading 
the  all-around  competition  to  capture  first  position 
on  the  Olympic  team.  See  OLYMPIC  GAMES. 

Penn  State  carried  off  team  honors  in  the  East- 
ern Intercollegiate,  National  Collegiate  Athletic 
Association,  and  national  A.A.U.  meets.  Minnesota 
was  champion  of  the  Western  Conference. 

— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

HAITI.  A  republic  of  the  West  Indies,  occupying  the 
western  part  of  the  island  of  Hispaniola.  More  than 
80  percent  of  the  surface  is  composed  of  highlands; 
the  remainder  is  made  up  of  lowlands  in  the  north 
and  west.  The  northern  lowlands  are  moist  and  the 
western  lowlands  semi-arid.  Rainfall  is  ample  in 
the  highlands,  but  its  effectiveness  is  lowered  by 
high  temperatures  and  excessive  evaporation. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  10,700  square  miles. 
Population,  3,500,000  inhabitants  (1947).  Approx- 
imately 95  percent  are  Negroes,  the  remainder 
mulatto.  The  capital  city  is  Port  au  Prince,  and 
other  important  cities  are  Cap  Haitien,  Gonaives 
and  Aux  Cayes, 

Education  and  Religion.  The  Constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  Roman  Catholicism  is 
predominant.  French  is  the  official  language,  but 
the  majority  speak  the  French  Creole  dialect.  Not 
more  than  8  to  10  percent  of  the  population  is  esti- 
mated to  be  literate.  In  1947,  there  were  212  urban 
primary  schools  reported,  with  42,858  pupils;  and 
424  rural  primary  schools  with  44,866*  Secondary 


education  is  provided  by  25  Lycees  with  23,777 
students.  Besides  the  Lycees,  there  are  other  sec- 
ondary schools.  The  University  of  Haiti  with  432 
students  in  1945  is  the  only  institution  of  higher 
learning. 

Production.  Haiti  is  an  agricultural  country  de- 
pending almost  exclusively  upon  the  production 
of  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  bananas,  sisal,  and  cacao. 
Coffee  exports  during  the  first  six  months  of  the 
fiscal  year  1947-48  amounted  to  12,307,375  kilo- 
grams, valued  at  29,851,706  gourds  (a  gourd 
equals  U.S.  $0.20),  as  compared  with  16,624,082 
kilograms  and  41,214,355  gourds  in  1946-47.  Sisal 
exports  for  the  same  period  increased  28  percent  in 
volume  and  63  percent  in  value  over  the  corre- 
sponding period  in  1946.  Rice  production  (1947): 
20,393,000  kilograms,  an  increase  of  9  percent  over 
1946;  rice  exports  (1947)  came  to  700,225  kilo- 
grams as  against  667,498  in  1946.  Other  crops  of 
importance  (1946)  were  (in  metric  tons):  cotton, 
4,868;  raw  sugar,  20,667;  molasses,  15,222;  cacao, 
1,254,  and  castor  beans,  1,986. 

Foreign  Trade.  Haitian  exports  amounted  to  $31.4 
million;  imports  to  $27.2  million  in  the  fiscal  year 
ending  Sept.  30,  1947.  Exports  consisted  chiefly  of 
coffee,  sisal,  raw  sugar,  and  cotton,  while  imports 
were  iron,  steel  products,  soap,  cotton  goods,  ma- 
chinery, trucks,  and  automobiles. 

Transportation.  There  are  about  143  miles  of 
railroad  and  1,792  miles  of  fairly  good  highways. 
9,233  motor  vehicles  were  registered  according  to 
latest  statistics  available,  which  also  showed  some 
2,000  telephones,  and  5,000  radio  sets. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  the  fiscal  year 
ended  Sept.  30,  1948,  were:  revenue  $10,350,410; 
expenditure  $10,349,921.  The  largest  appropria- 
tions were:  Public  Debt,  $2,348,405;  Interior, 
$2,806,970;  and  Education,  $1,136,966.  Currency 
deposits  on  Dec.  30,  1947,  were  29.4  million 
gourds. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  Nov.  22, 
1946,  Haiti  is  a  centralized  republic  of  five  depart- 
ments. The  President  is  elected  for  6  years  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  the  National  Assembly.  This 
body  consists  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  of  37 
members  (elected  for  4  years  by  popular  vote)  and 
a  Senate  of  21  members  (11  elected  by  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  and  10  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent). Dumarsais  Estime  was  elected  President  on 
Aug.  16,  1946,  by  the  General  Constituent  Assem- 
bly, and  took  office  on  the  same  day. 

Events,  1948.  Haiti,  in  recent  years  the  scene  of 
considerable  political  trouble,  had  a  year  of  peace 
and  progress. 

Domestic  Fronf.  Estrnie's  administration  devoted 
its  attention  to  the  development  of  the  educational 
system  and  to  economic  planning,  in  order  to  put 
to  good  use  the  favorable  trade  balance  enjoyed 
by  the  country.  An  important  project  undertaken 
was  the  establishment  of  a  hydroelectric  plant  at 
Onde  Verte  and  the  irrigation  of  about  40,000  acres 
of  farmland  in  the  Artibonite  Valley,  at  a  cost  of 
$2.5  million.  The  first  installment  of  $800,000  was 
appropriated  by  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works. 

In  July,  the  director  of  the  official  paper,  Le 
Moniteur,  Jean  Remy,  well-known  in  literary  cir- 
cles, was  shot  to  death  in  one  of  the  main  streets  of 
the  capital.  At  first,  a  political  outbreak  was  feared 
when  the  police  captured  the  assassin  who  was 
later  snatched  away  by  an  angry  mob  and  lynched. 
The  event  was  reminiscent  of  the  Gaitan  assassina- 
tion in  Bogotd  and  similar  repercussions  were 
dreaded,  but  it  was  found  in  time  that  Remy's  mur- 
der had  a  purely  personal  motive  and  nothing  fur- 
ther occurred.  The  killer  was  one  Gerard  Viau,  who 


HANDBALL 


243 


HAWAII 


thought  Remy  was  instrumental  in  his  having  Been 
denied  a  scholarship. 

International  Front.  The  Haitian  delegation  was 
active  in  the  Ninth  Inter-American  Conference  of 
American  States  held  in  Bogota  in  April  (see  PAN 
AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES  ) ,  and  signed  the  Charter  of 
the  Americas.  The  government  began  preparations 
for  die  International  Exposition  to  be  held  at  Port 
au  Prince  in  1949.  The  purpose  of  the  government 
to  contribute  to  this  international  event  was  favor- 
ably commented  upon  in  inter-American  circles, 
and  in  Haiti  it  was  considered  as  economically 
helpful  to  the  laborers  of  the  country. 

— MIGUEL  JoKidbsr 

HANDBALL.  A  record  entry  of  91  singles  players  and 
54  teams  sought  handball's  biggest  prizes  in  the 
thirtieth  annual  national  A.A.U.  four- wall  cham- 
pionships at  the  Town  Club,  Chicago,  in  April. 
Gus  Lewis,  Hollywood  A.C.,  California,  retained 
his  title  by  defeating  Bob  Brady,  San  Francisco 
Elks  Club,  in  the  final.  The  doubles  crown  went 
to  Frank  Gluckler  and  David  Pahl  of  New  York, 
who  previously  had  won  national  Y.M.C.A.  honors. 
In  the  national  one-wall  tournament  at  Brighton 
Beach,  Brooklyn,  in  July,  Victor  Hershkowitz,  New 
York,  took  singles  honors  then  combined  with  A. 
Wolfe,  Brooklyn  Central  Y.M.C.A.,  to  win  the 
doubles.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

HAWAII.  A  territory  of  the  United  States  consisting 
of  some  20  islands,  8  of  which  are  inhabited,  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean  about  2,091  miles  from  San 
Francisco.  The  principal  islands  of  the  group  are: 
Hawaii  (4,030  sq.  mi.,  pop.  70,871  in  1946);  Maul 
(728  sq.  mi.,  pop.  45,336);  Oahu  (604  sq.  mi., 
pop.  358,911);  Kauai  (555  sq.  mi.,  pop.  34,689); 
Molofcai  (260  sq,  mi.,  pop.  5,258).  Total  area  of 
8  principal  islands:  6,435  square  miles.  Capital, 
Honolulu,  268,913  inhabitants  in  1947. 

Population.  As  of  June,  1948,  the  population  was 
540,500,  an  average  density  of  84  per  square  mile. 
Of  the  total  population  466,480  or  86.3  percent  are 
citizens.  The  largest  single  racial  group  is  the  Cau- 
casians who  constitute  33.4  percent  of  the  total. 
The  second  largest  is  the  Japanese  with  32.6  per- 
cent of  the  total.  In  1940  the  Caucasians  had  only 
24.9  percent  and  the  Japanese  37  percent  of  the 
total.  During  a  period  of  eight  years  the  Caucasians 
increased  from  106,381  to  180,480,  an  increase  of 
69.6  percent,  while  the  Japanese  increased  from 
157,990  to  176,280,  an  increase  of  only  11.6  per- 
cent. The  percentage  of  other  racial  groups  also 
shows  considerable  change,  the  Puerto  Ricans  hav- 
ing increased  by  18  percent  and  the  Hawaiians  and 
part-Hawaiians  by  24.6  percent. 

Education.  The  public  schools  of  the  Territory  are 
operated  by  a  single  school  board  consisting  of 
seven  members.  The  school  system  is  made  up  of 
185  schools  comprised  of  elementary  schools,  inter- 
mediate schools  and  high  schools.  As  of  June,  1948, 
there  was  an  enrollment  of  83,347  pupils  and  an 
employed  staff  of  3,461.  Total  expenditures  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June,  1948,  were  $15,159,040. 
In  addition,  there  is  the  University  of  Hawaii 
which  in  its  organization  and  purpose  is  similar 
to  the  state  universities  of  the  mainland.  It  had  an 
enrollment  in  1948  of  4,346  and  a  faculty  of  433. 
Public  library  service  extends  to  all  important  lo- 
calities of  the  Territory. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  three  most  important 
products  are  sugar,  pineapples,  and  coffee.  In  1947 
a  total  of  872,187  tons  of  sugar  valued  at  $108,- 
439,000  were  produced;  18,443,675  cases  of 
canned  pineapples  and  juice,  which  together  with 


fresh  and  frozen  pineapples  were  valued  at  $75,- 
165,940;  7,250,000  Ib.  (green)  of  coffee  valued  at 
$1,892,000.  Fruits,  vegetables,  and  miscellaneous 
crops  amounted  to  $8,829,000;  livestock  and  poul- 
try products  to  $18,500,000.  During  1947,  818 
overseas  vessels,  representing  a  gross  tonnage  of 
6,212,486,  arrived  at  ports  in  Hawaii. 

Hawaii  purchased  from  the  mainland  United 
States  merchandise  valued  at  $340,446,264  and 
sold  to  the  mainland  goods  valued  at  $181,330,471. 
Edible  and  animal  products,  vegetable  food  prod- 
ucts, beverages,  textile  fabrics,  and  manufactured 
goods  were  the  chief  imports.  Principal  exports 
were  sugar,  canned  pineapple,  and  coffee. 

Transportation  and  Communication.  Before  World 
War  II  Hawaii  depended  almost  entirely  upon  sur- 
face transportation  for  both  freight  and  passengers. 
Ocean-going  vessels  of  the  United  States,  Canada, 
and  Japan  called  regularly  at  the  port  of  Honolulu. 
Disrupted  by  the  war,  this  service  has  now  been 
partially  .reestablished.  The  majority  of  passengers 
coming  to  and  departing  from  Hawaii  travel  by 
air.  Pan  American  World  Airways,  Northwest  Air- 
lines, and  United  Air  Lines  operate  regular  sched- 
uled flights  between  Hawaii  and  the  mainland. 
Overseas  scheduled  air  service  through  Honolulu 
is  provided  by  China  National  Aviation  Corpora- 
tion, British  Commonwealth  Pacific  Airlines,  Ltd., 
and  Philippine  Air  Lines,  Inc.  Within  the  Territory 
the  Hawaiian  Airlines,  Limited,  makes  50  sched- 
uled flights  daily  and  flew  314,608  paying  passen- 
gers a  total  of  2,116,108  air  miles  during  1947. 

The  Mutual  Telephone  Company  of  Hawaii  pro- 
vides telephone  and  radio-telephone  service  for  the 
entire  Territory  and  the  4  principal  islands  with 
the  United  States.  Communication  with  other  parts 
of  the  world  is  also  provided.  There  are  8  commer- 
cial broadcasting  stations. 

Finances.  Bank  clearings  in  1947  amounted  to 
$1,679,938,888.  The  volume  of  business  transacted 
was  $1,092,080,323,  an  increase  of  $109,262,962 
over  the  previous  year.  Total  territorial  tax  collec- 
tions on  business  and  otherwise  amounted  to  $54,- 
240,000  as  compared  with  $42,356,209  for  the  pre- 
vious year.  The  net  bonded  indebtedness  was  re- 
duced to  $8,993,617.  The  net  assessed  valuation 
of  real  and  personal  property  was  $737,450,986, 
the  highest  in  the  history  of  the  Territory.  Internal 
revenue  collections  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1947  totaled  $107,651,471  as  compared  with 
$105,865,662  in  1946. 

Government.  Hawaii  has  had  over  a  century  of 
experience  in  government — first  under  the  mon- 
archy, then  under  the  provisional  republic  and, 
since  1900,  as  a  Territory  of  the  United  States.  The 
Organic  Act,  under  which  it  is  governed,  was  ap- 
proved by  the  Federal  Congress  on  Apr.  30,  1900. 
The  head  of  the  government  is  Ingram  M.  Stain- 
back,  who  holds  office  by  appointment  of  the  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States  for  a  term  of  four  years. 
The  Governor  appoints  all  department  heads  with 
the  exception  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Territory, 
who  is  appointed  by  the  President.  The  legislative 
branch  of  the  government  consists  of  a  Senate  of 
15  members  and  a  House  of  Representatives  of  30 
members  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  Territory. 
The  powers  and  prerogatives  of  this  legislative 
body  corresponds  closely  with  those  of  mainland 
state  legislatures.  The  judiciary  consists  of  a  su- 
preme court  and  five  circuit  courts.  All  judges  of 
these  courts  are  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States.  District  magistrates  are  appointed 
by  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  territorial  Supreme 
Court,  Hawaii  elects  a  delegate  to  Congress  who 
has  the  right  to  debate  and  to  serve  as  a  member 


HAY 


244 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


of  committees  of  the  House  but  who  has  no  vote. 

Events,  1948.  Statehood.  At  the  time  Hawaii  was 
annexed  to  the  United  States  and  organized  as  a 
Territory,  there  was  a  general  understanding  that 
when  the  social  and  economic  structure  of  the  Ter- 
ritory warranted  it,  Hawaii  would  be  admitted  to 
the  Union  as  a  State.  Through  a  period  of  a  half- 
century  the  people  of  Hawaii  have  aspired  to  state- 
hood* On  14  different  occasions  their  elected  repre- 
sentatives in  the  Legislature  have  petitioned  Con- 
gress for  Statehood,  and  in  1940  the  people  voted 
for  statehood  in  a  plebiscite  by  a  majority  of  over 
two  to  one. 

A  bill  was  introduced  (H.R.  49)  in  the  House 
of  the  80th  Congress  of  the  United  States  calling 
for  immediate  Statehood.  This  was  adopted  by  a 
vote  of  196  to  133  on  June  30,  1948.  Although 
there  was  a  great  deal  of  support  for  the  bill  when 
it  was  sent  to  the  United  States  Senate,  it  was  not 
permitted  to  come  to  a  vote  before  that  body,  'and 
consequently  died  with  the  80th  Congress.  Plans 
were  made  immediately  for  reintroducing  the  bill 
in  modified  form  in  the  81st  Congress. 

— INGRAM  M.  STAINBACK 

HAY.  According  to  the  Crop  Reporting  Board  of 
the  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  as  of  December, 
1948,  the  production  of  hay  in  the  United  States 
during  1948  was  estimated  at  99,846,000  tons.  Of 
this  amount  alfalfa  accounted  for  34,083,000  tons, 
clover  and  timothy  29,309,000  tons,  wild  hay  12,- 
848,000  tons,  lespedeza  7,627,000  tons,  soybean, 
cowpea,  and  peanut  hay  3,358,000  tons,  grain  hay 
2,867,000  tons,  and  miscellaneous  kinds  of  hay  for 
9,754,000  tons. 

In  1948  the  yields  of  the  principal  producing 
States  (in  tons)  were:  New  York  6,306,000,  Cali- 
fornia 5,718,000,  Wisconsin  5,501,000,  Minnesota 
5,145,000,  Missouri  4,803,000,  Nebraska  4,382,000, 
Iowa  4,046,000,  Michigan  3,606,000,  Illinois  3,567,- 
000,  Kansas  3,565,000,  Ohio  3,516,000,  South  Da- 
kota 3,443,000,  Pennsylvania  3,430,000,  North 
Dakota  2,975,000,  and  Montana  2,932,000. 

HAYDEN  FOUNDATION,  Charles.  A  Foundation  estab- 
lished in  1937.  The  founder,  Charles  Hayden,  gave 
his  residuary  estate  to  establish  this  Foundation 
to  assist  needy  boys  and  young  men,  stating  in  his 
will  that  he  was  '"firmly  convinced  that  the  future 
of  this  nation  .  .  .  depends  in  no  small  part  upon 
the  young  men  of  the  United  States  and  that  if 
they  receive  proper  training  in  boyhood  and  youth 
.  .  ,  and  are  encouraged  in  the  manner  of  right 
and  proper  living  .  .  ,  we  shall  rear  a  nobler  race 
of  men  who  will  make  better  and  more  enlightened 
citizens,  to  the  ultimate  benefit  of  mankind." 

Charles  Hayden  was  particularly  interested  in 
boys'  clubs,  boys'  camps,  and  similar  projects  deal- 
ing with  underprivileged  boys,  and  for  the  time 
being  most  of  the  Foundation's  activities  are  de- 
voted to  that  type  of  aid,  and  as  the  will  suggests, 
preference  is  given  to  the  metropolitan  areas  of 
Boston  and  New  York. 

During  the  eleven  years  of  operations  ended 
Sept.  30,  1948,  the  Foundation  has  contributed 
$13,637,000  for  the  above  purposes  and  at  that 
date  there  was  approximately  $50  million  in  the 
Fund.  Officers:  President,  J.  Willard  Hayden,  (85 
Water  Street,  Boston  7,  Mass.);  Executive  Vice 
President  and  Treasurer,  Edgar  A.  Doubleday; 
Vice  President,  Erie  V.  Daveler.  Administrative 
offices:  25  Broad  St.,  New  York  4,  N.Y. 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATING.  Most  significant  to  those 
in  the  heating  and  ventilating  industries  and  to 


consumers  ?  as  well  was  the  changing  picture  of 
the  nation's  fuel  supply.  Trouble  in  the  Middle 
East,  which  cut  off  oil  imports,  and  boom  develop- 
ment of  the  domestic  oil-burning  market  brought 
home  to  consumers,  producers,  and  government 
officials  alike  the  fact  that  this  country  does  not 
have  the  natural  crude  oil  resources  to  support  a 
refining  capacity  adequate  for  peacetime  fuel 
needs,  to  say  nothing  of  military  emergency. 

A  secondary  blow  to  fuel  oil  supply  is  the  cata- 
lytic cracking  process  which  turns  more  crude  into 
gasoline  and  leaves  less  for  heating  plants.  The 
United  States,  however,  has  a  practically  inexhaus- 
tible supply  of  coal  and  lignite.  A  logical  conclu- 
sion was  that  solid  fuel  resources  should  be  ex- 
ploited— hence  the  pleas  of  Secretary  of  Interior 
Krug  for  an  elaborate  program  of  development  of 
synthetic  liquid  fuels  from  coal.  Hence,  too,  the 
steps  taken  by  private  industry  to  develop  those 
fuel  resources  which  are  abundant.  President  Tru- 
man signed  into  law  a  bill  authorizing  a  three-year 
extension  of  the  Interior  Department's  program  for 
development  of  synthetic  fuels,  chiefly  from  coal 
and  oil  shales.  The  bill  authorized  appropriation 
of  $30  million. 

Significant  of  the  changing  pattern  of  fuel  sup- 
ply was  erection  of  two  multimillion  dollar  plants 
for  conversion  of  either  natural  gas  or  coal  to  syn- 
thetic gasoline  and  oil.  One  plant  in  the  Hugoton 
gas  field  of  southwestern  Kansas  is  owned  by 
Stanolind  Oil  and  Gas  Co.,  a  wholly  owned  sub- 
sidiary of  Standard  Oil  of  Indiana. 

At  Brownsville,  Texas,  another  installation  of  the 
same  type  is  a  joint  project  of  eight  companies 
which  have  set  up  Carthage  Hydrocol,  Inc.,  to 
operate  it.  It  will  consume  50  million  cu.  ft.  of 
oxygen  and  90  million  cu.  ft.  of  natural  gas  daily 
to  synthesize  7,000  barrels  of  oil  products  and 
150,000  pounds  of  chemicals.  Oxygen  in  such 
quantities  had  never  been  produced  before,  but 
feasibility  of  the  idea  was  demonstrated  by  two 
plants  for  extracting  oxygen  from  the  air. 

The  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines  and  Bethlehem  Steel 
both  set  up  successful  variations  of  the  German 
Linde-Franld  process  which  can  extract  a  ton  ( 24,- 
000  cu.  ft.)  an  hour  of  oxygen  from  air.  Effective 
use  of  the  vast  lignite  deposits  of  the  Dakotas  and 
Montana  became  a  possibility  upon  completion  of 
test  runs  of  a  Bureau  of  Mines  pilot  plant  at  Grand 
Forks,  N.D. 

More  than  900,000  million  tons  of  lignite  (al- 
most one-third  of  total  solid  fuel  reserves  in  the 
United  States)  in  these  three  states  is  a  potential 
source  of  manufactured  water  gas  made  by  a  proc- 
ess set  up  in  the  plant.  This  plant  represents  the 
first  successful  attempt  to  manufacture  water  gas 
by  a  continuous  process  in  an  annular  vertical 
metal  retort,  according  to  James  Boyd,  Bureau  of 
Mines  director.  The  Bureau  of  Mines  dedicated  a 
new  $3  million  synthetic  fuels  laboratory  and  pilot 

emt  at  Bruceton,  Pa.  Coal-to-oil  conversion  by 
th  the  Fischer-Tropsch  and  Bergius  processes 
will  be  studied  at  the  plant. 

A  second  and  larger  underground  coal  gasifica- 
tion test  at  the  Gorgas,  Ala.,  mine  of  the  Alabama 
Power  Co.  was  launched  under  contract  signed  at 
midyear  by  the  company  and  the  U.S.  Bureau  of 
Mines.  Tests  will  continue  for  a  full  year  and  will 
cost  about  $411,000.  The  company  will  provide 
engineering  and  operating  services  at  cost  and 
the  experiment  will  involve  some  300  acres  of  Pratt 
seam  coal  averaging  40  inches  in  thickness.  Last 
year's  experiment  at  Gorgas  showed  that  combus- 
tion could  be  maintained  and  controlled,  that  coal 
in  place  could  be  gasified  completely,  and  that  roof 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


245 


HOCKSY 


rock  would  become  plastic,  expand,  and  settle 
down  behind  the  burning  coal  face  without  cut- 
ting off  the  air  or  gas.  Gas  obtained  was  of  lower 
heating  value  than  desired,  and  new  trials  will  go 
deeper  in  an  effort  to  avoid  dilution  by  leaking  air. 

Natural  gas  made  strides  in  the  fuel  market  as 
Texas  Eastern  pushed  capacity  of  the  Inch  lines 
from  140  million  cu.  ft.  a  day  toward  its  goal  of 
433  million  cu.  ft.  daily  delivery  to  ten  eastern 
utilities.  Total  expenditures  for  new  lines  by  nat- 
ural gas  transmission  companies  was  planned  to 
exceed  half  a  billion  dollars,  A  1,200-mile  pipeline 
from  the  Texas-New  Mexico  natural  gas  fields  to 
the  Los  Angeles  Area,  cooperative  venture  of  the 
southwestern  gas  companies,  was  completed  at  a 
cost  of  $70  million. 

The  Federal  power  Commission  approved  appli- 
cation of  Trans-Continental  Pipe  Line  Co.  for  con- 
struction of  a  1,840-mile  pipeline  to  bring  Texas 
natural  gas  to  the  Philadelphia,  New  Jersey,  and 
metropolitan  New  York  areas.  Condition  of  ap- 
proval was  that  the  line  must  be  completed  before 
Oct.  1,  1950.  In  an  effort  to  assure  adequate  han- 
dling of  peak  loads  by  natural  gas  lines  already 
pushed  to  near  capacity,  the  American  Gas  Asso- 
ciation and  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines  have  em- 
barked upon  a  cooperative  research  project  to  find 
means  of  removing  nitrogen  from  natural  gas  and 
thereby  increasing  the  heating  quality  of  the  re- 
maining gas. 

A  pilot  plant  has  been  completed  at  Amarillo, 
Texas,  and  various  physical  and  chemical  means  of 
nitrogen  removal  will  be  tested.  Automatic  domes- 
tic healing  equipment  which  burns  natural  gas  in 
mild  weather  and  switches  automatically  to  fuel 
oil  in  severely  cold  weather  was  developed  by  the 
Midwest  Research  Institute  on  a  project  sponsored 
by  The  Gas  Service  Co.  of  Kansas  City,  Mo.  Equip- 
ment is  intended  to  relieve  peak  loads  of  natural 
gas  lines  and  to  forestall  consequences  of  oil  short- 
age. Midwest  will  license  manufacturers  on  a  non- 
exclusive basis. 

Development  of  equipment  for  burning  extreme- 
ly fine  sizes  of  coal  resulted  in  an  upsurge  in  the 
reclamation  of  anthracite  fines  from  river  beds 
where  it  has  been  dumped  as  a  waste  product  from 
mines  over  the  years.  Over  a  million  tons  a  year 
of  this  so-called  river  coal  now  reach  the  market. 

Anthracite  silt,  the  hitherto  unusable  fines  which 
have  been  accumulating  at  mine  heads  for  years, 
will  be  converted  to  gas  and  liquid  fuels  by  adapta- 
tion of  a  German  process  for  utilization  of  brown 
coals.  About  200  million  tons  of  anthracite  silt  are 
available  now. 

The  largest  capacity  circulating  system  ever 
built  for  firing  pulverized  coal  was  put  into  regu- 
lar standby  service  at  the  Independence,  Kan., 
plant  of  the  Universal  Atlas  Cement  Co.  System 
will  grind  and  fire  18,250  Ib.  of  coal  in  three  kilns 
at  once  when  natural  gas  supply  is  interrupted. 

Smokeless  burning  of  bituminous  coal  received 
the  attention  of  Bituminous  Coal  Research,  Inc., 
in  experiments  resulting  in  development  of  a  new 
low  pressure  heating  boiler  said  to  meet  require- 
ments of  the  most  stringent  anti-smoke  ordinances. 
Boiler  is  a  gravity-feed,  magazine  type  unit  which 
operates  successfully  on  the  natural  draft  of  aver- 
age chimneys.  It  was  made  available  to  manufac- 
turers by  BCR  in  cooperation  with  Batelle  Memo- 
rial Institute. 

A  study  of  12  electrically  heated  houses  in  the 
Tennessee  Valley  showed  heating  costs  for  resist- 
ance heating  installations  averaging  from  0.6  to 
1.4  cents  per  cu.  ft  of  enclosed  space  for  the  sea- 
son. Fuel  (electric)  bills  were  from  $45  to  $116 


for  four  to  six  rooms.  The  average  bill  was  $70.50, 
and  average  electric  rate  was  0.58  cents  per  kwh. 
One  heat  pump  installation  in  Chattanooga  ran  up 
a  heating  bill  of  $52.69  and  the  house  was  cooled 
the  rest  of  the  year  for  $17.54.  This  house  had 
a  calculated  heat  loss  of  66,000  b.t.u.  per  hr  at  a 
70°  F.  temperature  difference,  inside  to  outside. 
A  KnoxviUe  house  of  6,384  cu.  ft.  (23,400  b.tu. 
per  hr  loss  at  70°  F.  difference)  was  heated  by 
U.S.  Rubber's  conductive  ceiling  panels  for  $53.79. 
Degree  days  in  the  area  run  from  3,200  to  3,900. 

Dr.  Maria  Telkes  of  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  spent  winter  weekends  in  a  $20,000 
house  wiui  a  $3,000  solar  heating  unit  that  traps 
and  stores  heat  in  chemical  bins.  The  heat  trap 
is  built  into  the  roof  and  consists  of  800  sq.  ft.  of 
black  sheet  metal  behind  two  glass  plates.  Air  is 
circulated  behind  the  sheet  and  conducted  to  bins 
containing  Glauber's  salt  which  melts  at  90°  F. 
The  heat  of  fusion  of  the  salt  increases  its  heat 
storing  capacity  within  the  range  of  temperatures 
required  for  house  heating.  From  the  bins,  heat 
is  released  as  required  by  living  spaces.  To  offset 
cloudy  days,  enough  heat  can  be  stored  for  ten 
days  supply  in  normal  weather. 

Promise  of  a  new  tool  for  air  cleaning  was  held 
in  development  of  new  and  powerful  generators  of 
high  frequency  sound.  Sound  at  inaudible  frequen- 
cies is  capable  of  coagulating  smokes  and  mists. 
The  problem  of  developing  high  energy  densities 
of  sound  at  high  frequency  has  been  solved  by  at 
least  two  siren-like  devices,  and  Ultrasonics  Corp- 
of  Boston  is  putting  sound  to  work  precipitating 
lampblack,  and  recovering  chemical  dusts. 

A  quarter-mile  of  heated  roadway  was  installed 
as  a  cooperative  snow-melting  venture  by  nine 
families  living  on  Snake  Hill  in  Belmpnt,  Mass. 
Residents  formerly  had  been  frequently  isolated  by 
heavy  snow  falls.  The  U.S.  Department  of  Com- 
merce Construction  Division  reported  that  52  per- 
cent of  houses  erected  in  1948  have  warm  air  fur- 
naces for  heating.  — WILLIAM  B.  FOXHALL 

HOCKEY,  Field.  The  World  Festival  of  Women's 
Hockey  at  Amsterdam  in  May  provided  the  high- 
light of  the  sport  in  1948.  A  strong  English  team 
captured  the  title  by  defeating  The  Netherlands 
lassies,  1—0,  in  a  tJarilling  final.  Scotland  placed 
third,  Ireland  fourth  and  the  United  States  fifth. 
Prior  to  participating  in  this  world  championship 
tourney  the  United  States  women  toured  Britain 
for  a  long  series  of  exhibitions. 

Men's  field  hockey  enjoyed  a  marked  revival 
featured  by  a  number  of  international  contests. 
The  climax  came  at  the  Olympic  Games  when  18 
teams  saw  action.  India  carried  off  premier  honors. 
See  OLYMPIC  GAMES.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

HOCKEY,  ke,  Toronto,  after  winning  the  National 
League  title,  swept  over  the  Detroit  Red  Wings  in 
four  straight  games  to  keep  the  Stanley  Cup,  em- 
blematic of  world  supremacy.  The  Maple  Leafs 
won  the  coveted  trophy  for  the  third  time  in  four 
campaigns  by  halting  the  Red  Wings,  5-3,  4-2, 
2-0,  7-2. 

Toronto  gained  the  final  play-offs  by  eliminating 
Boston  while  Detroit  reached  the  cup  round  by 
defeating  the  New  York  Rangers.  The  champions 
lost  only  the  fourth  game  to  Boston,  bowing  by 
3-2,  but  took  the  required  four  out  of  seven  from 
the  Bruins,  5-4,  5-3,  5-1  and  3-2.  Detroit  stopped 
the  Rangers,  2-1,  5-2,  only  to  have  the  Rangers 
come  back  and  tie  their  semi-final  series,  3-2,  3-1. 
Then  the  Red  Wings  clinched  a  place  in  the  finals 
by  nipping  the  New  Yorkers,  8-1,  4-2. 


HONDURAS 


HONDURAS 


The  National  League  enjoyed  its  most  successful 
campaign  at  the  gate,  a  total  of  2,519,278  fans 
paying  to  see  the  scheduled  180  games.  These  fig- 
ures represent  a  gain  of  116,168  over  the  previous 
season's  attendance. 

Scoring  honors  were  won  by  Elmer  Lach  of  the 
Montreal  Canadians,  whose  62  markers  led  Buddy 
O'Connor,  Rangers'  star,  by  only  one  point.  O'Con- 
nor, however,  came  in  for  his  share  of  glory  by 
winning  the  Hart  Trophy  as  the  league's  most  val- 
uable player  and  the  Lady  Byng  Trophy,  awarded 
for  sportsmanship  and  gentlemanly  conduct  com- 
bined with  playing  ability.  The  two  prizes  carried 
a  league  bonus  of  $2,000,  and  the  Rangers  gave 
the  young  ace  a  $500  bonus  for  being  runner-up 
in  scoring. 

Turk  Broda,  Toronto  star,  was  the  recipient  of 
the  Vezina  Trophy,  awarded  to  the  goalie  with 
the  best  defensive  record.  Broda  allowed  only  143 
tallies.  The  Calder  Trophy  for  the  season's  best 
rookie  went  to  Jimmy  McFadden,  Detroit  center. 

A  heated  dispute  as  to  who  would  represent  the 
United  States  in  the  Olympic  Games  marred  the 
amateur  campaign,  the  Amateur  Athletic  Union 
and  U.S.  Amateur  Hockey  Association  both  claim- 
ing the  right  to  select  Uncle  Sam's  sextet.  The  re- 
sult was  that  the  United  States  had  no  official  en- 
try in  the  Winter  Olympics,  the  big  prize  going  to 
the  strong  Royal  Canadian  Air  Force  team.  See 
OLYMPIC  GAMES. 

National  A.A.U.  honors  went  to  Colgate,  which 
defeated  the  Holling  Press  team  of  Buffalo,  7-4,  in 
the  final.  Other  major  champions  were:  American 
League,  Cleveland  Barons;  United  States  League, 
Houston  Huskies;  U.S.  Amateur  Hockey  Associa- 
tion (senior),  Toledo  Mercurys;  Metropolitan 
League,  Manhattan  Arrows;  National  Collegiate 
Athletic  Association,  Michigan;  International  In- 
tercollegiate, Toronto  University;  Allan  Cup,  Ed- 
monton Flyers.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

HONDURAS.  A  republic  of  Central  America.  Apart 
from  a  small  coastal  lowland  and  river  valley,  the 
country  is  essentially  mountainous.  The  north  has 
a  wet  tropical  climate,  and  dry  winters  prevail  in 
the  south  and  southwest. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  59,161  square  miles. 
Population:  1,240,000  (1947  est);  1,200,542  (1945 
census).  About  80  percent  are  mestizos,  10  percent 
Indians,  8  percent  of  European  descent,  and  2  per- 
cent Negroes.  Principal  cities  are  Tegucigalpa 
(capital),  San  Pedro,  Sula,  and  La  Ceiba. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  Constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  Roman  Catholicism  is  die 
predominant  religion.  Spanish  is  the  official  lan- 
guage. About  40  percent  of  the  population  is  il- 
literate. In  October,  1947,  there  were  136,031  chil- 
dren of  school  age,  of  whom  70,360  were  receiving 
education  from  2,292  teachers.  There  were  26  sec- 
ondary schools,  with  4,316  pupils,  and  a  National 
University  with  484  students. 

Production.  Honduras  is  essentially  agricultural. 
The  latest  available  production  figures,  in  quintals 
(crop  year  1945-46)  are  as  follows:  bananas,  14,- 
111,000;  corn,  3,547,000;  plantains,  2,971,000;  In- 
dian corn,  1,033,000;  sugar  cane,  507,000  and 
beans,  359,000.  In  the  same  year,  the  cattle  popu- 
lation amounted  to  98,000  head,  and  83,000  hogs. 
Industrial  production  is  limited  to  consumer  goods. 
Production  in  pounds  for  1946  was  as  follows: 
wheat,  9,042,000;  soap,  3,328;  lard,  712,000,  and 
coconut  oil,  266,000.  Other  items  of  consumer 
goods  include  matches,  shoes,  carbonated  bever- 
ages, drill  cotton,  and  straw  hats.  Silver  was  pro- 
duced ia  the  amount  of  2,986  troy  ounces, 


Foreign  Trade.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending  Sept.  30, 
1947,  total  exports  were  valued  at  $17.5  million 
and  imports  at  $29.4  million.  Principal  exports  were 
bananas  ( 27  percent ) ,  silver,  coconuts,  coffee,  cat- 
tle, and  tobacco.  Chief  buyers  were  the  United 
States  (62.8  percent),  El  Salvador,  Canada,  Nica- 
ragua, and  Mexico.  Most  important  exporters  to 
Honduras  are  the  United  States  (76.2  percent), 
El  Salvador,  Mexico,  the  Netherlands  West  Indies, 
and  Peru. 

Transportation.  There  are  830  miles  of  railway 
and  780  miles  of  highways.  In  his  last  message  to 
Congress  (December,  1947),  the  President  report- 
ed the  construction  of  126  bridges  and  also  the  ad- 
dition of  14  miles  of  railway.  Latest  data  show 
1,342  motor  vehicles  registered,  12,000  radio  sets, 
and  1,943  telephones. 

Finance.  In  the  budget  estimates  for  1947-48, 
revenue  and  expenditures  were  equally  estimated 
at  15,819,006  lempiras  (a  lempira  equals  $0.49). 
Foreign  debt  on  June  30,  1947,  was  2,323,875  lem- 
piras;  internal  debt,  10,353,464  lempiras.  Ex- 
change control  is  established  in  Honduras.  Foreign 
exchange  holdings  in  December,  1947,  amounted 
to  $14  million. 

Government.  Honduras  is  a  centralized  republic 
of  17  departments  and  one  territory,  under  the  con- 
stitution of  1936.  Legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
unicameral  Congress  of  Deputies,  composed  of  45 
members.  Executive  power  is  exercised  by  a  Presi- 
dent assisted  by  a  Cabinet.  On  Oct.  10,  1948,  Dr. 
Juan  Manuel  Galvez  was  elected  President,  to  take 
office  on  Jan.  1,  1949. 

Events,  1948.  Most  significant  event  of  the  year 
was  the  announcement  made  by  dictator  Tiburcio 
Carias  Andino  that  he  would  give  up  the  political 
control  he  had  held  since  1932.  Noteworthy  were 
the  general  elections,  and  the  diplomatic  tension 
between  Honduras  and  the  other  Central  American 
and  Caribbean  countries. 

Electoral  Campaign.  Presidential  elections  were 
scheduled  to  take  place  on  October  10,  and  Presi- 
dent Carias  stated  that  all  parties  would  have  full 
guarantees.  The  government-backed  Nationalist 
Party  held  a  convention  that  nominated  Dr.  Juan 
Manuel  Galvez  to  the  presidency.  He  was  Carias' 
Minister  of  War.  Julio  Lozano,  ex-Ambassador  to 
the  United  States,  won  the  Vice  Presidential  nomi- 
nation. It  was  rumored  early  in  the  year  that  Angel 
Zuiiiga  Huete,  Carias'  old  opposer,  would  return 
to  his  country  to  be  the  Liberal  Party  candidate. 
The  electoral  campaign  was  conducted  under 
strong  Government  pressure  in  favor  of  the  Na- 
tionalist candidate.  Although  the  Government  stat- 
ed that  suffrage  would  be  compulsory,  it  was  ex- 
pected that  many  would  abstain  from  voting,  if 
full  guarantees  were  not  given  the  opposition.  In 
several  anti-administration  rallies,  the  army  inter- 
vened and  used  force  against  the  public, 

Election  Results.  Shortly  before  the  elections,  the 
Liberals  withdrew  their  candidate,  Zuniga  Huete, 
because:  (1)  guarantees  were  insufficient  for  the 
normal  development  of  an  honest  campaign;  (2) 
the  Government  had  prevented  the  organization  of 
Liberal  committees  in  several  places;  and  (3)  in 
most  of  the  villages,  Liberal  Party  councils  had 
been  dissolved  by  Government  pressure.  The  elec- 
tions were  held  as  scheduled  on  October  10,  and 
no  serious  disturbances  were  reported.  Many  voters 
cast  blank  ballots,  and  many  more  abstained  from 
voting.  As  was  expected,  Gilvez'  victory  was  im- 
mediately announced  by  the  Government.  It  was 
generally  felt  that  the  Liberals  would  revolt  if  help 
from  neighboring  countries,  Guatemala  in  particu- 
lar, could  be  obtained, 


HONG  KONG 


247 


HOUSING  EXPEDITER 


International  Front.  Toward  the  end  of  the  year, 
there  were  rumors  that  a  revolutionary  force,  called 
the  Caribbean  Legion,  was  being  organized  in 
Guatemala  in  order  to  overthrow  the  Carias  regime. 
This  plan  was  said  to  be  part  of  a  large  movement 
in  which  political  exiles  residing  in  Costa  Rica, 
Cuba,  and  Venezuela  were  planning  to  do  away 
with  the  governments  not  only  of  Honduras,  but 
also  of  Nicaragua  and  the  Dominican  Republic, 
where  severe  dictatorships  exist  (see  NICABAGUA 
and  the  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC).  Honduras  signed 
the  Charter  of  the  Americas  at  the  Ninth  Inter- 
American  Conference  at  Bogota. 

— MIGUEL  JORRIN 

HONG  KONG.  A  British  crown  colony  in  southeast- 
ern China  at  the  mouth  of  the  Canton  River.  It 
consists  of  the  island  of  Hong  Kong  (area  about 
32  sq.  mi.),  the  Kowloon  peninsula  and  the  New 
Territories.  Total  area  of  colony,  391  square  miles. 
Population  (1947  est):  1,750,000  of  whom  some 
7,0*00  were  British  subjects  and  2,500  were  Indians. 
Capital,  Victoria  (pop.  447,829).  Education 
(1947):  101,921  students  attended  the  various 
government,  grant,  subsidized,  and  private  schools. 
Two  training  colleges  had  97  students  and  the 
University  of  Hong  Kong  276  undergraduates. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  industries  are  ship- 
building and  fishing.  The  manufacture  of  paint, 
cement,  matches,  and  tobacco  also  is  carried  on; 
chief  agricultural  products  are  sugar  and  rice. 
Hong  Kong  is  a  free  port  and  a  port  of  call  for 
trans-Pacific  steamers,  approximately  500,000  tons 
of  shipping  entering  and  clearing  the  port  monthly. 
Foreign  trade  (1947):  imports  $HK1,550  million; 
exports  $HK1,217  million, 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  1947-48  placed  rev- 
enue at  $HK109,839,750;  expenditure  at  $HK109,- 
834,355.  The  1948^19  budget  was  estimated  to 
balance  at  $HK150  million  ($HK3.970  equals 

U.S.$). 

Government.  The  colony  is  administered  by  a 
governor  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  and  a 
legislative  council  of  appointed  members,  both  offi- 
cial and  unofficial  Proposals  for  a  constitutional 
revision  were  approved  during  1947,  providing  for 
an  unofficial  majority  in  the  legislative  council,  and 
for  the  creation  of  a  municipal  council  of  30  mem- 
bers, 15  to  represent  the  Chinese  and  15  the  non- 
Chinese  sections  of  the  population.  Governor:  Sir 
Alexander  Grantham. 

HORSE  RACING.  Citation,  bred  and  owned  by  War- 
ren Wright's  Calumet  Farm,  wrote  the  story  of  the 
turf  for  1948.  The  bay  colt,  competing  on  nine  dif- 
ferent tracks  during  his  arduous  campaign,  was 
hailed  by  many  as  the  greatest  racer  of  all  time. 
Trained  by  H.  A.  (Jimmy)  Jones  and  ridden  most 
of  the  time  by  Eddie  Arcaro,  Citation  went  to  the 
post  for  20  races  and  won  19,  his  sole  loss  coming 
after  a  bit  of  bad  racing  luck. 

During  the  year,  Citation  earned  $709,470,  for 
a  two-season  total  of  $865,150.  Citation  now  ranks 
second  on  the  world  roster  of  all-time  money  win- 
ners, Stymie  holding  the  top  spot  with  $911,335. 
However,  Stymie's  imposing  total  was  compiled 
in  126  starts  while  Citation  has  gone  postward  only 
29  times  and  won  27  races. 

Citation  started  the  year  by  capturing  the  fa- 
mous "triple  crown,"  the  Kentucky  Derby,  the 
Preakness,  and  the  Belmont  Stakes,  and  quickly 
added  to  his  feats  by  annexing  the  Empire  Gold 
Cup  in  an  international  field.  The  lone  setback  for 
the  Calumet  star  came  at  Havre  de  Grace,  Md.,  in 
April  when  he  lost  to  Saggy  in  a  6-furlong  sprint 


after  being  carried  wide  at  the  head  of  the  stretch 
by  a  horse  named  Hefty. 

Other  turf  leaders  of  the  campaign  were  Blue 
Peter,  2-year-old  colts;  Myrtle  Charm,  2-year-old 
fillies;  Miss  Request  3-year-old  fillies;  Conniver, 
Coal  town,  Mr.  Busher,  Stymie,  and  Shannon  II. 
Blue  Peter,  the  property  of  Joseph  M.  Roebling 
and  a  grandson  of  the  immortal  Man  o'  War,  was 
the  champion  2-year-old  of  the  year  and  won  the 
fastest  Futurity  ever  run. 

Johnny  Longden  became  the  first  American 
jockey  to  ride  more  than  3,000  winners  early  in 
the  year  and  went  on  to  again  capture  honors  as 
the  leading  rider.  Calumet  Farm  was  first  among 
money-winning  stables,  with  its  Jimmy  Jones  gain- 
ing the  first  spot  among  trainers  on  the  basis  of 
winnings.  Willie  Molter  led  the  trainers  in  num- 
ber of  winners  saddled. 

Although  New  York  had  196  days  of  racing,  its 
longest  campaign  on  record,  both  attendance  and 
wagering  fell  off,  a  trend  that  seemed  to  be  nation- 
wide. Unofficial  reports  showed  a  shrinking  of  ap- 
proximately 8  percent  in  pari-mutuel  betting  and 
5  percent  in  turf  audiences;  However,  almost  25 
million  fans  pushed  their  way  through  the  nation's 
turnstiles  to  pour  $1,555  million  into  the  betting 
machines. 

Harness  racing  on  the  other  hand  had  one  of  its 
best  campaigns  of  all  time,  attracting  6,530,417 
fans  to  the  pari-mutuel  plants,  where  they  wagered 
$193,781,300  for  a  64  percent  attendance  gain  and 
41  percent  betting  advance  over  the  previous  year. 

Demon  Hanover,  owned  and  driven  by  Harrison 
Hoyt,  won  the  classic  Hambletonian  at  Goshen, 
N.Y.,  blue-ribbon  event  of  the  harness  world.  Hoyt 
became  the  first  amateur  driver  to  ever  win  the 
event.  However,  a  poll  of  turf  experts  selected  Rod- 
ney, who  won  the  $50,000  Golden  West  Trot, 
among  other  big  races,  as  the  harness  "Horse  of  the 
Year."  Bi  Shively  was  at  the  reins  for  most  of  Rod- 
ney's outings.  — THOMAS  V.  HANKY 

HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES.  See  CONGRESS,  U.S. 

HOUSING  EXPEDITER,  Office  of.  This  office  has  re- 
sponsibility for  the  administration  of  rent  control 
and  certain  controls  remaining  in  effect  from  the 
Veterans  Emergency  Housing  Program. 

The  Expediter's  office  was  established  formally 
in  January,  1946,  with  authority  to  develop  pro- 
grams and  recommend  legislation  for  the  provision 
of  housing  at  moderate  prices  and  rentals  for  vet- 
erans and  to  make  use  of  existing  Federal  author- 
ity to  that  end.  The  Office  of  Housing  Expediter 
and  the  National  Housing  Agency  were  shortly 
consolidated  and  had  joint  responsibility  for  ad- 
ministering the  Veterans  Emergency  Housing  Pro- 
gram subsequently  authorized  by  Congress.  Fol- 
lowing the  termination  of  most  of  this  program, 
the  two  agencies  were  separated  in  January,  1947, 
with  the  Expediter  retaining  responsibility  for  con- 
tinuing emergency  controls  and  for  liquidating  cer- 
tain other  phases  of  the  program.  In  May,  1947, 
administration  of  rent  control  was  transferred  to 
this  office. 

The  first  rent  control  legislation  in  December, 
1941,  was  authorized  only  for  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia and  in  the  following  month,  under  the 
Emergency  Price  Control  Act,  it  was  authorized  for 
all  other  areas  in  the  United  States  where  it  was 
determined  to  be  essential  for  the  successful  prose- 
cution of  the  war.  Under  this  legislation  the  Office 
of  Price  Administration  froze  rents  in  designated 
defense-rental  areas  at  the  rates  being  charged  at 
specific  dates  for  the  accommodations  and  accom- 


HOUSING  EXPEDITER 


248 


HOUSING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


panying  services,  made  adjustments  when  condi- 
tions warranted,  established  ceilings  for  accommo- 
dations made  available  for  rent  after  the  freeze 
dates,  prohibited  evictions  except  under  certain 
conditions,  and  prosecuted  violations.  The  ceiling 
rents  applied  to  all  rental  accommodations  in  the 
defense-rental  areas,  including  family  dwellings, 
hotels,  rooms,  tourist  courts,  trailers,  and  the  like. 

In  June,  1947,  Congress  extended  rent  control, 
but  with  modifications  reflecting  its  expressed  in- 
tent to  terminate  such  control  as  soon  as  feasible. 
In  March,  1948,  rent  control  was  further  extended, 
with  minor  modifications,  until  Apr.  1,  1949. 

Rent  control  under  the  1948  Act  is  authorized 
only  for  family  dwellings  or  other  housekeeping 
accommodations  and  for  rooms  in  rooming  and 
boarding  houses  in  defense-rental  areas  designated 
under  the  Emergency  Price  Control  Act.  Excluded 
are  hotels  with  customary  hotel  services,  tourist 
courts,  trailers  or  trailer  spaces,  tourist  homes  serv- 
ing transient  guests  exclusively  and  individual 
rooms  in  private  dwellings  containing  not  more 
than  two  paying  guests  outside  the  immediate  fam- 
ily, all  of  which  were  at  one  time  under  rent  con- 
trol. Also  excluded  are  new  housing  accommoda- 
tions completed  or  made  available  by  conversion 
after  Feb,  1,  1947  (except  that  contracts  for  the 
rental  of  housing  accommodations  to  veterans  and 
their  families  which  were  assisted  by  allocations  or 
priorities  under  the  Veterans  Emergency  Housing 
Act  remain  in  force)  and  other  accommodations  not 
rented  for  any  continuous  2-year  period  between 
Feb.  1,  1945  and  Mar.  30,  1948. 

For  the  accommodations  still  under  control  the 
ceilings  established  under  the  Emergency  Price 
Control  Act  remain  in  effect  with  important  excep- 
tions. 

The  Expediter  is  required  to  make  individual 
or  general  adjustments  to  remove  hardships  and 
correct  inequities.  He  is  authorized  to  remove  in 
whole  or  in  part  maximum  rents  in  any  defense- 
rental  areas  if  he  determines  the  need  for  control 
no  longer  exists,  and  is  required  to  make  periodic 
surveys  to  determine  such  needs.  He  is  required 
also  to  follow  recommendations  of  local  advisory 
boards  established  in  defense-rental  areas  as  to 
decontrol,  general  adjustments  of  maximum  rents, 
and  operations  of  local  rent  offices,  if  the  recom- 
mendations have  been  appropriately  substantiated 
and  certain  requirements  as  to  hearings,  notices, 
and  records  have  been  complied  with.  If  he  does 
not  approve  these  recommendations,  he  is  required 
to  submit  all  essential  documents  to  the  Emergency 
Court  of  Appeals  which  enters  a  final  judgment 
and  decree  as  to  the  case. 

Under  leases  which  fulfill  certain  requirements 
of  the  Housing  and  Rent  Act  of  1948,  landlords 
and  tenants  may  voluntarily  agree  to  increases  up 
to  15  percent  over  the  maximum  rents  otherwise  in 
effect. 

As  of  June  30,  1948,  rent  control  covered  ap- 
proximately 14  million  housing  accommodations, 
exclusive  of  those  subject  to  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia Act.  Since  June  30,  1947,  the  effective 
date  of  the  Housing  and  Rent  Act  of  1947,  56,257 
units  had  been  decontrolled  and  rent  adjustments 
had  been  made  on  485,856  other  accommodations 
by  administrative  action.  A  total  of  1,660,906  in- 
dividual adjustments  had  been  made  since  rent 
control  began.  Voluntary  lease  agreements  had 
provided  increases  averaging  15  percent  on  2,000,- 
000  accommodations. 

A  further  responsibility  under  the  Housing  and 
Rent  Acts  of  1947  and  1948  is  the  enforcement  of 
the  veterans'  preference  in  the  occupancy  of  new 


housing  accommodations  completed  prior  to  Apr.  1, 
1949.  Single-family  dwellings  may  not  be  offered 
for  sale,  prior  to  the  expiration  of  30  days  after 
completion,  for  occupancy  by  persons  other  than 
veterans  and  their  families  and  may  not  be  offered 
to  others  at  prices  lower  than  those  available  to 
veterans.  Similar  restrictions  apply  to  the  rental 
and  rental  rates  of  new  housing  accommodations 
made  available  for  rent  (except  to  transients). 

The  Office  of  Housing.  Expediter  also  investi- 
gates complaints  of  veterans  regarding  violations 
of  provisions  as  to  construction  and  other  matters 
for  housing  assisted  by  allocations  and  priorities 
under  the  Veterans  Emergency  Housing  Act  and, 
if  substantiated,  pursues  corrective  measures  and 
prosecution.  — TIGHE  E.  WOODS 

HOUSING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Homebuilding  ac- 
tivity continued  at  a  high  level  in  the  United  States 
during  1948.  By  late  summer,  however,  housing 
starts  had  begun  to  decline,  giving  some  evidence 
that  homebuilding  was  showing  the  effect  of  high 
construction  costs  and  prices.  With  the  large  need 
for  new  housing  and  for  a  continued  high  volume 
of  home  construction,  legislation  was  directed  to- 
ward a  lowering  of  housing  costs  and  toward  the 
encouragement  of  building  for  rental  purposes,  the 
housing  shortage  being  felt  most  acutely  in  the 
rental  and  low-cost  sales  market. 

Residential  Construction.  Preliminary  estimates  of 
nonfarm  residential  building  place  the  volume  of 
new  homes  started  in  1948  at  about  925,000  family 
dwellings,  almost  9  percent  more  than  the  849,000 
dwellings  started  in  1947.  Most  of  this  increase  oc- 
curred during  the  first  seven  months  of  the  year, 
when  each  month's  volume  of  homebuilding  was 
substantially  in  excess  of  that  estimated  for  the 
corresponding  month  of  1947.  By  August,  however, 
the  trend  reversed,  and  1948  homebuilding  f(H 
that  month  and  for  the  three  succeeding  months 
fell  below  the  volume  reported  for  August,  Sep- 
tember, October,  and  November,  1947,  the  latest 
months  for  which  figures  are  available  at  this  writ- 
ing. 

Home  Financing,  Home  mortgage  lending  con- 
tinued at  a  high  volume.  However,  throughout  the 
third  quarter  of  the  year  there  were  indications 
that  real  estate  lending  involving  loans  of  $20,000 
or  less  was  leveling  off.  During  the  first  nine 
months  of  1948  a  total  of  1,894,000  loans  were 
recorded  in  amounts  of  $20,000  or  less.  The  aggre- 
gate amount  of  these  loans  is  $8,769  million.  This 
represents  an  increase  of  1,7  percent  in  the  number 
and  a  gain  of  5  percent  in  combined  amount  as 
compared  with  activity  during  the  corresponding 
nine  months  of  1947.  However,  in  July,  August 
and  September,  the  number  of  loans  recorded  in 
each  month  was  less  than  the  number  recorded  in 
the  corresponding  montb  of  1947,  and  in  Septem- 
ber the  dollar  amount  of  these  loans  fell  below 
that  reported  in  September. 

Home  Loans  to  Veterans.  Home  loan  activity  under 
the  Loan  Guaranty  Program  of  the  Veterans  Ad- 
ministration dropped  sharply  during  the  first  nine 
months  of  1948.  The  281,737  guaranteed  home 
loans  aggregating  almost  $1,551  million  that  were 
closed  during  the  January-September  period  rep- 
resented a  decline  of  31  percent  in  number  and 
37  percent  in  amount  in  comparison  with  lending 
under  this  program  during  the  corresponding  nine 
months  of  1947. 

Increase  in  FHA  Mortgage  Insurance.  During  the 
first  nine  months  of  1948  a  total  of  228,545  new 
homes  was  started  under  FHA  first  compliance  in- 
spection. This  represents  an  increase  of  more  than 


HOUSING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


249 


HOUSING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


50  percent  over  the  number  started  under  FHA  in- 
spection in  the  first  nine  months  of  1947  and  ac- 
counts for  approximately  one-third  of  all  nonfarm 
housing  started.  In  the  first  nine  months  of  1947, 
FHA  inspected  starts  accounted  for  less  than  one- 
sixth  of  tha  nonfarm  total. 

FHA  mortgage  insurance  written  under  Titles  II 
and  VI  of  the  National  Housing  Act  ( covering  the 
financing  of  both  new  and  existing  small  homes 
and  new  rental  housing  projects)  totaled  $1,970,- 
140,987.  This  nine-month  volume  is  57  percent 
greater  than  the  volume  of  mortgage  insurance 
written  by  FHA  during  the  entire  12  months  of 
1947,  which  in  itself  had  been  a  record  year. 

More  than  one-fourth  of  the  face  amount  of 
this  mortgage  insurance  was  written  on  new  rental 
housing  projects  in  the  first  nine  months  of  1948 — 
all  such  rental  project  mortgages  being  insured 
under  the  liberal  Title  VI  provisions.  This  repre- 
sented an  increase  of  40  percent  above  the  volume 
of  rental  housing  mortgage  insurance  written  in 
the  entire  12  months  of  1947. 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  relate  largely  to  the 
expansion  of  FHA  insuring  operations  under  the 
authority  of  the  National  Housing  Act  as  it  existed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  Substantial  changes 
were  to  be  made  in  the  nature  and  scope  of  these 
functions  in  the  course  of  the  Special  Session  of 
Congress  in  the  Summer  of  1948.  A  discussion  of 
these  changes  is  contained  in  a  subsequent  section 
on  legislation. 

Estimates  of  Housing  Need.  The  large  volume  of 
housing  production  that  has  taken  place  in  this 
country  since  the  war  has  been  a  partial  reflection 
of  the  enormous  need  for  housing  that  had  been 
accumulating  throughout  the  depression  and  war 
years.  In  March,  1948,  the  Joint  Congressional 
Committee  on  Housing  estimated  the  quantitative 
need  for  dwellings  over  the  next  12  years  at  be- 
tween 15,450,000  and  17,300,000  nonfarm  units 
and  from  2,400,000  to  3,600,000  units  of  farm 
housing.  To  meet  these  needs,  the  Committee  esti- 
mated, it  would  be  necessary  to  build  at  an  aver- 
age annual  volume  of  from  1,300,000  to  1,500,000 
nonfarm  homes  and  from  200,000  to  300,000  farm 
houses. 

The  housing  need,  as  measured  by  the  severity 
of  shortage  and  the  condition  of  occupied  struc- 
tures is  concentrated  in  urban  areas  and  is  the 
more  pressing  among  two  overlapping  population 
groups,  i.e.,  among  those  seeking  rental  housing 
and  among  the  nonwhite  population.  The  intensity 
of  the  housing  shortage  among  the  nonwhite  pop- 
ulation, and  the  higher  incidence  of  overcrowding 
and  substandard  housing  conditions  were  indica- 
tions of  nonwhite  housing  need.  With  the  rise  in 
incomes  of  nonwhites  their  demand  for  housing 
likewise  has  increased. 

The  institution  of  legal  action  to  bring  court  en- 
forcement of  restrictive  covenants  based  upon  race 
was  an  outgrowth  of  this  increased  housing  de- 
mand among  nonwhites.  In  the  Spring  of  1948 
one  of  these  cases  was  appealed  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  at  which  time  it  was 
ruled  that  the  courts  could  not  be  used  to  enforce 
restrictive  covenants  based  upon  race,  thereby  re- 
moving a  formidable  legal  barrier  which  had  con- 
fronted minorities  seeking  housing. 

Housing  Costs.  Although  a  large  volume  of  hous- 
ing was  started  in  1948,  a  substantial  portion  of 
this  construction  was  being  built  at  cost-price 
ranges  beyond  the  financial  reach  of  a  great  portion 
of  the  homeseeking  public.  In  that  respect.,  our 
housing  production  was  not  tailored  to  meet  our 
housing  need. 


Homebuilding  costs  had  continued  their  upward 
course  throughout  1948.  By  September,  1948,  the 
cost  of  residential  construction  was  two  and  one- 
fifth  times  as  high  as  it  was  in  the  prewar  year 
of  1939.  In  the  first  nine  months  of  1948  the  cost 
of  residential  building  had  increased  almost  7 
percent.  Higher  materials  prices  and  higher  wage 
rates  had  both  contributed  to  this  rise.  Wholesale 
prices  of  all  building  materials,  which  in  1947  had 
averaged  200.7  percent  of  the  1935-1939  base  in- 
dex in  1947,  had  increased  to  227.7  percent  by 
September,  1948. 

By  1948  most  of  the  shortages  in  materials  which 
had  aggravated  the  rise  in  building  costs  immedi- 
ately after  the  war  had  been  overcome,  although 
a  few  items,  such  as  nails  and  cast  iron  bOil  pipe, 
were  still  difficult  to  obtain  in  a  number  of  locali- 
ties. The  continuing  rise  in  costs  in  1948  was  pri- 
marily the  result  of  the  heavy  demand  for  construc- 
tion of  all  types. 

Attack  on  High  Building  Costs.  Among  other  things, 
apprehension  as  to  the  effects  of  the  rise  in  build- 
ing costs  upon  the  economy  in  general  as  well  as 
upon  future  trends  of  homebuilding  had  led" to  the 
establishment  of  the  Joint  Congressional  Committee 
on  Housing  in  1947,  Following  extensive  hearings 
conducted  throughout  the  country,  the  final  ma- 
jority report  of  this  committee  was  submitted  on 
Mar.  15,  1948.  Most  of  the  Committee's  recom- 
mendations were  incorporated  in  amendments  to 
S.866,  the  Taft-Ellender-Wagner  bill,  a  long-range 
housing  bill  then  pending  before  the  Senate. 

In  its  final  majority  report,  submitted  in  March, 
1948,  the  Joint  Committee  on  Housing  recom- 
mended a  tJiree-way  approach  to  the  housing  cost 
problem.  First,  it  made  a  series  of  recommenda- 
tions designed  to  lower  costs  by  increasing  the 
efficiency  of  the  homebuilding  industry.  Seconcf, 
it  made  recommendations  to  encourage  a  larger 
volume  of  lower-cost  sale  and  rental  housing  with- 
out contributing  to  further  increases  in  costs,  and, 
third,  it  recommended  approval  of  a  Federally-aid- 
ed program  of  locally-sponsored  public  low-rent 
housing  to  meet  the  housing  need  of  low-income 
families  whose  housing  needs  cannot  be  met  eco- 
nomically by  private  enterprise. 

Housing  Legislation.  The  investigation  conducted 
by  the  Joint  Committee  on  Housing  which  culmi- 
nated in  the  report  of  March,  1948,  was  the  latest 
in  a  long  series  of  Congressional  investigations  of 
the  over-all  housing  problem.  Stemming  from 
earlier  investigations  long-range  housing  legisla- 
tion had  been  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
panding and  adapting  the  Federal  role  in  housing 
to  the  nation's  housing  needs,  and  this  pending 
legislation  was  amended  to  incorporate  most  of 
the  Joint  Committee's  recommendations.  This  bill 
was  passed  by  the  Senate,  but  failed  to  reach  the 
House  floor  before  the  adjournment  of  the  80th 
Congress  in  June,  1948. 

However,  during  the  course  of  the  Special  Ses- 
sion of  Congress  in  the  Summer  of  1948,  most  of 
those  provisions  of  the  Taft-Ellender-Wagner  Bill 
which  provided  aids  to  private  homebuilding  were 
enacted  in  the  Housing  Act  of  1948,  This  Act, 
however,  omitted  those  provisions  of  the  Taft- 
Ellender-Wagner  Bill  which  would  have  author- 
ized Federal  aids  to  communities  for  the  clearance 
and  redevelopment  of  slum  areas,  and  Federal  aid 
for  locally-sponsored  low-rent  public  housing.  The 
Housing  Act  of  1948  also  omitted  the  aids  to  rural 
housing  contained  in  S.866,  and  provided  for  only 
limited  housing  research  by  the  Federal  govern- 
ment. 

The  Housing  Act  of  1948.  The  Housing  Act  of  1948 


HOUSING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


250 


HOUSING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


concentrated  the  more  liberal  aids  of  sale  housing 
OB  new  construction,  particularly  low-cost  con- 
struction; continued  and  expanded  aids  to  rental 
and  cooperative  housing  projects,  and  provided 
means  for  the  encouragement  of  a  lowering  of 
huilding  costs.  The  concentration  of  the  more  lib- 
eral financing  aids  for  sale  housing  was  accom- 
plished by  amending  Titles  I  and  II  of  the  Na- 
tional Housing  Act,  which  provide  authority  for 
the  permanent  program  of  FHA  home  loan  insur- 
ance. 

Title  I  was  amended  to  increase  the  maximum 
loan  amount  on  mortgage  financing  new  small 
home  construction  under  this  title  to  $4,500.  These 
loans,  which  may  be  made  for  terms  as  long  as  20 
years  and  5  months,  bear  interest  at  4%  percent 
plus  }4  of  1  percent  insurance  premium  and  may 
cover  a  mortgage  up  to  95  percent  of  property  val- 
uation. 

Title  II,  Section  203  of  the  National  Housing 
Act  was  amended  to  provide  expanded  aid  for  the 
financing  of  new  construction,  particularly  low- 
cost  building.  On  new  single-family  homes  valued 
up  to  $6,800,  loans  up  to  95  percent  of  property 
value  may  be  insured,  such  loans  bearing  terms  of 
up  to  30  years.  On  homes  valued  up  to  $11,000, 
loans  may  be  made  up  to  90  percent  of  the  first 
$7,000  of  value  plus  80  percent  of  the  valuation  in 
excess  of  $7,000.  In  effect,  this  places  a  maximum 
insured  loan  limit  of  $9,500  on  a  home  valued  at 
$11,000. 

One-  to  four-family  housing  valued  at  more  than 
$11,000  is  eligible  for  loans  up  to  80  percent  of 
value,  with  a  maximum  valuation  under  Section 
203  of  $20,000,  making  the  maximum  loan  insur- 
able  under  this  section  not  more  than  $16,000. 
Mortgages  insured  under  Section  203  bear  inter- 
est at  4^  percent  plus  %  of  1  percent  insurance 
premium.  With  the  exception  of  the  30-year  loans 
on  new  low-cost  homes,  loans  under  Section  203 
financing  new  housing  may  have  terms  up  to  25 
years.  The  maximum  term  on  mortgages  on  exist- 
ing homes  insured  under  this  section  is  20  years. 

All  mortgage  insurance  relating  to  the  financing 
of  one-  to  four-family  structures  is  now  being  writ- 
ten under  Title  I  and  II — the  permanent  programs 
of  FHA  home  loan  insurance  based  on  economic 
soundness  (long  term  value ) .  Emergency  authority 
to  insure  loans  on  one-  to  four-family  structures  on 
the  basis  of  "current  necessary  costs"  under  Title 
VI  expired  at  the  end  of  April,  1948,  and  was  not 
included  in  the  reconstituted  version  of  Title  VI 
contained  in  the  Housing  Act  of  1948. 

Aids  for  rental  housing  and  cooperatively-owned 
projects  were  contained  in  amendments  to  Section 
207,  Title  II  and  Section  608,  Title  VI,  as  well  as 
in  the  new  Title  VII  of  the  National  Housing  Act. 

Section  207  of  Title  II,  which  permits  the  in- 
surance of  loans  up  to  $5  million  for  the  financing 
of  new  rental  housing  projects  was  liberalized  as 
to  the  maximum  loan  size  by  substituting  an  aver- 
age limitation  of  $8,100  per  family  unit  for  the 
previous  limitation  of  $1,350  per  room.  Loans  in- 
sured under  this  title  are  permitted  to  bear  a  ratio 
of  up  to  80  percent  of  the  value  of  the  project, 
based  on  long-term  value.  However,  where  such 
loan  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  financing  a  non- 
profit cooperative  housing  project,  the  maximum 
ratio  is  90  percent  of  value.  In  the  case  of  a  loan 
to  a  veterans'  cooperative,  the  maximum  ratio  is 
established  at  95  percent  of  the  replacement  cost 
on  the  basis  of  replacement  costs  prevailing  on 
Dec.  31,  1947.  For  cooperative  projects  permits, 
the  cost  limit  may  be  either  $1,800  per  room  or 
$8,100  per  family  unit,  whichever  is  the  more 


appropriate  to  meet  the  financing  requirements  of 
the  cooperative.  Further  amendments  to  this  title 
authorize  the  insurance  of  loans  up  to  $50  million 
to  Federal,  State,  or  municipal  instrumentalities  or 
limited  dividend  housing  corporations  for  the  pur- 
pose of  financing  projects  restricted  by  law  as  to  - 
rents,  charges,  capital  structure,  rate  of  return  or 
methods  of  operation. 

Section  608  of  Title  VI  was  reconstituted  in 
modified  form  to  permit  the  insurance  of  loans  fi- 
nancing new  rental  housing  projects.  Loans  under 
this  Title  may  be  made  up  to  90  percent  of  re- 
placement costs  prevailing  at  the  end  of  1947.  The 
loan  may  not  exceed  on  the  average  $8,100  per 
family  unit.  Futhermore,  it  was  required  that  as  a 
condition  to  mortgage  insurance,  the  borrower 
agree  that  there  would  be  no  discrimination  against 
families  with  children  in  the  selection  of  tenants. 

The  other  major  aid  to  rental  housing  contained 
in  the  Housing  Act  of  1948  was  FHA  authority  to 
insure  yields  on  equity  investments  in  new  rental 
housing  constructed  for  the  moderate-income  mar- 
ket. Title  VII9  which  was  added  to  the  National 
Housing  Act,  authorizes  FHA  to  approve  rents 
estimated  to  produce  a  net  annual  return  of  3% 
percent  on  insured  projects,  and  to  insure  an  annual 
amortization  of  2  percent  of  the  original  invest- 
ment plus  an  annual  return  of  not  more  than  2% 
percent  of  the  outstanding  investment.  This  pro- 
vision is  designed  to  encourage  large  aggregates  of 
long-term  investment  capital,  such  as  funds  of  in- 
surance companies  and  trusts,  to  look  to  rental 
housing  projects  as  one  field  of  long-term,  secure 
investment. 

To  encourage  a  lowering  of  basic  construction 
costs,  the  Housing  Act  of  1948  reconstituted  and 
expanded  Section  609,  Title  VI  of  the  National 
Housing  Act  to  permit  FHA  insurance  of  produc- 
tion loans  to  manufacturers  of  prefabricated  hous- 
ing and  to  insure  dealer  credit  where  the  produc- 
tion loan  was  FHA  insured.  A  new  section,  Section 
611,  was  added  to  Title  VI  to  allow  the  insurance 
of  construction  advances  to  builders  for  the  pur- 
pose of  financing  the  construction  of  developments 
of  25  or  more  single-family  houses  in  order  to  en- 
courage large-scale  cost  saving  operations  and 
techniques.  Insured  loans  to  buflders  may  not  ex- 
ceed $6,000  per  home  or  80  percent  of  the  value 
of  the  homes,  whichever  is  the  lesser  amount. 

In  addition  to  the  credit  aids  intended  to  lower 
basic  building  costs,  a  program  of  housing  research 
was  authorized  to  promote  standardized  and  im- 
proved design  and  production  methods  relating  to 
materials  production  and  site  construction.  This 
program  of  research,  which  was  placed  under  the 
administration  of  the  Housing  and  Home  Finance 
Agency,  was  also  intended  to  promote  the  adoption 
of  standardized  and  improved  local  building  codes. 

Other  provisions  of  the  Housing  Act  of  1948 
afforded  a  government  secondary  market  for  GI 
guaranteed  home  loans  by  expanding  the  author- 
ity of  the  Federal  National  Mortgage  Association. 
FNMA  was  already  serving  as  a  government  sec- 
ondary market  for  FHA  insured  mortgages. 

Other  Housing  Legislation  During  1948.  In  addition 
to  the  Housing  Act  of  1948,  the  second  session  of 
the  80th  Congress  enacted  the  following  laws  af- 
fecting housing: 

Public  Law  464  continued  national  rent  control 
with  some  modifications  until  Apr.  1,  1949.  Under 
this  law,  local  rent  control  boards  are  empowered 
to  authorize  rent  increases  or  to  decontrol  rents  in 
their  areas,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Housing 
Expediter.  Landlords  and  tenants  may  enter  into 
voluntary  agreements  for  leases  providing  up  to 


HOUSING  IN  7H£  UNITED  STATES 


251 


HOUSING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


15  percent  increase  in  rents.  Rents  were  decon- 
trolled for  transient  accommodations  and  for  cer- 
tain categories  of  housing  including  that  construct- 
ed after  February,  1947,  with  the  exception  of 
priorities-aided  rental  housing  for  veterans  of 
World  War  II. 

Public  Law  702  provided  plans  at  government 
expense  for  the  building  of  special-type  homes  for 
veteran  paraplegics  and  for  payment  by  the  Fed- 
eral government  of  one-half  the  cost  of  such  homes, 
subject  to  a  maximum  dollar  limitation  per  house 
on  the  government's  contribution  of  $10,000. 

Public  Law  796  authorized  the  Federal  govern- 
ment to  transfer  temporary  government-owned 
housing  used  for  student  veterans  and  located  on 
land  owned  or  controlled  by  educational  institu- 
tions to  the  educational  institutions  without  mone- 
tary consideration. 

Public  Law  689  permitted  the  sale  of  permanent- 
type  government  war  housing  to  veterans  for  their 
own  occupancy  at  a  purchase  price  not  in  excess 
of  the  cost  of  construction,  or  the  long-term  mar- 
ket value,  whichever  is  the  lesser  amount. 

Scope  of  Government  Activity  in  Housing.  The  SCOpe 
of  Federal  government  activity  in  the  housing  and 
related  fields  in  1948  covers  aids  to  private  enter- 
prise as  well  as  assistance  to  educational  institu- 
tions and  local  government  bodies.  It  includes  pro- 
grams intended  to  stimulate  a  greater  volume  of 
new  residential  construction  and  regulatory  func- 
tions such  as  control  of  rents  and  the  enforcement 
of  regulations  affecting  priorities-aided  veterans 
housing. 

The  administrative  structure  of  Federal  housing 
functions  places  the  major  activities  in  a  single 
housing  agency,  the  Housing  and  Home  Finance 
Agency,  which  was  established  by  Presidential  Re- 
organization Plan  No.  3  on  July  27,  1947.  The 
Housing  and  Home  Finance  Agency  consists  of 
the  Office  of  the  Administrator  and  three  constitu- 
ent agencies:  the  Home  Loan  Bank  Board,  the  Fed- 
eral Housing  Administration,  and  the  Public  Hous- 
ing Administration. 

The  Housing  and  Home  Finance  Administrator 
is  responsible  for  the  coordination  of  the  operations 
of  these  constituent  agencies,  for  the  determination 
of  policy  governing  the  management  and  disposi- 
tion of  Federally-owned  war  and  veterans  emer- 
gency housing,  and  for  the  administration  of  the 
program  of  technical  research  intended  to  promote 
the  standardization  of  local  home  building  codes 
and  the  standardization  of  dimensions  and  methods 
of  assembly  of  home  building  materials. 

The  Home  Loan  Bank  Board  is  responsible  for 
the  supervision  of  the  Federal  Home  Loan  Bank 
System,  a  reserve  banking  pool  serving  home  fi- 
nancing institutions;  the  management  of  the  Fed- 
eral Savings  and  Loan  Insurance  Corporation, 
which  insures  savings  in  insured  savings  and  loan 
associations  up  to  $5,000  per  investor;  for  the  char- 
tering and  supervision  of  Federal  savings  and  loan 
associations;  and  for  the  liquidation  of  the  Home 
Owners*  Loan  Corporation,  a  relief  agency  organ- 
ized during  the  depression  to  halt  the  wave  of 
foreclosures  of  distressed  home  mortgages. 

The  Federal  Housing  Administration  is  respon- 
sible for  administering  the  programs  of  home  loan 
insurance  and  equity  yield  insurance  authorized  in 
the  National  Housing  Act  of  1934,  ,as  amended. 

These  include  the  Title  I  programs  of  insurance 
of  lending  institutions  against  loss  on  property  im- 
provement loans  and  "f£e  insurance  of  mortgage 
loans  financing  the  construction  of  small  homes; 
the  Title  II  program  applying  to  the  insurance  of 
mortgage  loans  financing  one-  to  four-family  hous- 


ing and  large-scale  rental  and  cooperative  housing 
projects;  the  Title  VI  programs  covering  the  insur- 
ance of  mortgages  on  large-scale  rental  projects, 
the  insurance  of  production  and  dealer  credit  ex- 
tended to  manufacturers  and  distributors  of  prefab- 
ricated housing,  and  the  insurance  of  construction 
advances  to  Targe-scale  builders  using  modern 
building  methods;  and  the  Title  VII  program  of 
insurance  of  minimum  yields  on  equity-financed 
new  rental  housing  for  moderate  income  families. 

The  Public  Housing  Administration,  the  third 
constituent  agency  of  the  Housing  and  Home  Fi- 
nance Agency,  is  responsible  for  administering  the 
program  of  Federal  loan  and  subsidy  aids  to  locally 
sponsored  public  low-rent  housing  projects  pro- 
vided under  the  U.S.  Housing  Act  of  1937,  and  for 
carrying  out  the  HHFA  Administrator's  policies  for 
the  management  and  disposition  of  Federally- 
owned  war  housing  and  emergency  housing  for 
veterans.  PHA  is  also  responsible  for  the  disposi- 
tion of  Federally-owned  subsistence  homesteads 
and  Greenbelt  towns. 

Through  the  various  programs  of  the  Public 
Housing  Administration,  the  Federal  government 
had  a  direct  interest  in  more  than  800,000  dwelling 
units  in  mid-194$,  three-fourths  of  which  consisted 
of  war  housing  and  postwar  veterans'  emergency 
housing,  and  over  189,500  units  of  which  were 
low-rent  housing  units  operated  under  provisions 
of  die  prewar  low-rent  housing  program. 

The  National  Housing  Council,  created  by  Presi- 
dential Reorganization  Plan  No.  3,  was  organized 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  fullest  use  of  the 
Federal  government's  housing  resources,  assuring 
the  conformity  of  housing  policy  with  the  overall 
fiscal  and  economic  policy  of  the  government,  and 
avoiding  duplication  and  overlapping  functions. 

The  Administrator  of  the  Housing  and  Home 
Finance  Agency  serves  as  chairman  of  the  National 
Housing  Council.  Other  members  of  the  Council 
are  the  Chairman  of  the  Home  Loan  Bank  Board, 
the  Commissioner  of  the  Federal  Housing  Adminis- 
tration, the  Commissioner  of  the  Public  Housing 
Administration,  and  the  following  officials  or  their 
designees:  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  Secre- 
tary of  Commerce,  the  Administrator  of  Veterans 
Affairs,  and  the  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  the  Re- 
construction Finance  Corporation. 

The  housing  functions  of  agencies  and  depart- 
ments other  than  the  Housing  and  Home  Finance 
Agency  and  its  constituent  agencies  are  as  follows: 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  has  primary  in- 
terest in  matters  related  to  farm  housing  as  part 
of  its  general  farm  programs. 

The  Department  of  Commerce  collects  housing 
and  construction  statistics,  tests  building  materials, 
and  administers  export  controls. 

The  Department  of  Labor  collects  and  analyzes 
residential  construction  statistics  and  conducts  pro- 
grams to  increase  the  volume  of  construction  labor. 

The  Veterans  Administration  is  responsible  for 
handling  GI  home  loan  guarantees  as  part  of  the 
general  GI  home  loan  program  under  the  Service- 
men's Readjustment  Act. 

The  Reconstruction  Finance  Corporation  directs 
the  Federal  National  Mortgage  Association,  which 
provides  a  secondary  market  for  eligible  FHA- 
insured  and  VA-guaranteed  loans,  RFC  also  has 
authorization  to  make  plant  and  equipment  loans 
to  manufacturers  of  prefabricated  housing. 

The  Office  of  the  Housing  Expediter  ( q.v. ) ,  ex- 
cept for  a  few  remaining  functions  carried  over 
from  the  Veterans  Emergency  Housing  Program  of 
1946-1947,  is  primarily  concerned  with  adminis- 
tration of  rent  control  — JACK  H.  BRYAN 


HOWLAND  ISLAND 


252 


HUNGARY 


HOWLAND  ISLAND.  A  mid-Pacific  island  (0°  49' 
N.  and  176°  40'  W.),  belonging  to  the  United 
States.  It  lies  athwart  the  main  steamship  lanes  and 
the  Pan  American  Airways  route  from  Honolulu  to 
New  Zealand  and  Australia.  An  aerological  station 
was  established  during  1936  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  the  Interior* 

HUNGARY.  A  central  European  republic.  Area:  35,~ 
902  square  miles.  Population  in  1947  was  estimated 
at  9,368,000.  In  1947  the  population  of  Budapest 
was  estimated  at  1,073,444.  Magyars  comprise 
about  93  percent  of  the  total  population,  Germans 
5  percent,  and  Slovaks  1  percent. 

Education  and  Religion.  In  the  school  year  1946- 
47  there  were  1,173  infants'  schools  with  2,544 
teachers  and  77,031  infants;  4  training  colleges  for 
teachers  of  infant  schools;  364  higher  elementary 
schools,  to  be  absorbed  next  year  into  general 
schools  (for  age-group  6-14),  numbering  7,497, 
with  380,000  pupils;  175  middle  schools;  37  agri- 
cultural and  horticultural  schools;  26  industrial  and 
75  commercial  (secondary)  schools;  and  58  ele- 
mentary school  teachers'  training  colleges.  In  1946- 
47  there  were  44  colleges  with  about  25,000  stu- 
dents, 26  theological  colleges,  3  academies  of  law, 
and  9  otiber  academies.  School  attendance  is  com- 
pulsory for  children  from  6  to  14. 

According  to  the  1941  census,  Roman  Catholics 
comprise  65.7  percent  of  the  population,  Helvetian 
Evangelicals  (Calvinist)  20.8  percent,  Augsburg 
Evangelicals  (Lutheran)  6  percent,  Jews  4.3  per- 
cent, and  Greek  Catholics  2.3  percent. 

Production.  Preliminary  figures  for  the  yields  of 
chief  crops  in  1946-47  in  quintals:  wheat,  10,019,- 
743;  rye,  4,430,108;  barley,  3,813,310;  oats,  1,781,- 
128;  potatoes,  14,090,986;  maize,  18,300,920;  sug- 
ar-beet, 9,953,741,  turnips  for  fodder,  18,727,159. 
In  1946  there  were  424,364  horses,  1,222,835  cat- 
tle, 396,910  sheep,  and  1,716,828  pigs.  The  forest 
area  in  1946  was  2,682,300  acres.  In  1947  the  av- 
erage monthly  production  in  thousands  of  metric 
tons:  coal,  88;  lignite,  646;  crude  petroleum,  47.5; 
iron  ore,  20.3;  pig-iron  and  ferro-alloys,  25.3;  steel 
ingots  and  castings,  49.7. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1948  (9  months  actual,  3  months 
estimated)  imports  were  valued  at  1,958.2  million 
forints  (1,459.2  million  in  1947);  exports,  2,395.3 
million  forints  (1,045.2  million). 

Communications.  In  1946  there  were  18,508  miles 
of  road  and  5,416  miles  of  railway,  A  total  of 
2,947,348,906  passengers  was  carried  on  state  rail- 
ways, and  1,659,494,797  metric  tons  of  freight. 
There  were  79,010  telephones  in  1947. 

Finance.  Budget  (1947):  revenue  4,045  million 
forints;  expenditure  4,420.7  million  forints.  Note 
circulation  on  Oct.  31,  1948,  was  2,586  million 
forints.  The  cost  of  living  index  number  for  Sep- 
tember, 1948,  was  377  (all  items)  and  537  (food). 
(1937  =  100) 

Government.  The  Hungarian  Republic  was  pro- 
claimed on  Feb.  1,  1946,  by  the  National  Assembly. 
In  the  preamble  of  the  new  Constitution,  among 
other  things,  it  is  stated  that  "The  National  As- 
sembly, elected  on  the  basis  of  universal,  equal, 
direct  and  secret  suffrage,  will  now  in  the  name  of 
and  by  virtue  of  the  authority  vested  in  it  by  die 
Hungarian  people,  constitute  that  form  of  govern- 
ment which  best  complies  with  the  will  and  inter- 
ests of  the  nation;  The  Hungarian  Republic."  For 
changes  in  1948,  see  Events  below. 

Events,  1948.  In  the  "cold  war". between  East 
and  West,  Hungary's  full  incorporation  into  the 
Moscow-oriented  bloc  of  "People's  Democracies" 
was  consummated  in  the  course  of  1947  ( see  YEAR 


BOOK,  Events  of  1947,  pp.  226-228).  Subsequent 
developments  during  the  centenary  year  of  the  rev- 
olutionary upheavals  of  1848  were  marked  by  the 
consolidation  of  the  new  order,  by  closer  ties  with 
the  U.S.S.R.  and  sharper  conflicts  with  the  U.S.A., 
and  by  further  steps  toward  "socialism"  of  the 
Eastern  variety. 

Magyar  Economics,  Moscow-Style.  The  diminution 
of  marketable  farm  produce  which  almost  invaria- 
bly accompanies  the  division  of  large  estates  into 
small  farms  troubled  the  new  Hungary  no  less  than 
its  neighbors.  In  1945  over  600,000  peasant  fami- 
lies, comprising  3,000,000  persons,  shared  in  the 
partition  of  the  lands  of  the  magnates.  Any  pro- 
gram for  collectivized  agriculture  on  the  Soviet 
model  was  certain  to  meet  with  widespread  peas- 
ant resistance.  The  Government  therefore  moved 
cautiously,  relying  for  increased  rural  production 
on  agricultural  cooperatives,  popular  education, 
and  promotion  of  improved  methods  of  cultivation. 

By  November,  however,  Communist  leader  Ma- 
tyas  Rakosi  was  declaring  that  farmers  must  learn 
to  see  the  advantages  of  the^  kolkhoz  form  of  agri- 
culture. "Class  war"  against  "Tculaks"  or  more  pros- 
perous peasants  was  hinted  at.  Yet  the  Communist 
Party  still  shrank  from  coercive  measures,  lest  the 
economic  and  political  price  of  open  conflict  with 
the  peasantry  should  prove  too  great  for  the  regime 
to  pay. 

With  80  percent  of  industry  nationalized,  the 
economic  structure  of  urban  Hungary  came  more 
and  more  to  resemble  that  of  the  U.S.S.R.,  despite 
flourishing  private  business  in  small-scale  manu- 
facturing and  in  the  distributive  and  service  trades. 
For  all  practical  purposes,  strikes  were  outlawed. 
Wages  were  frozen.  Production  norms  were  set. 
"Stakhanovite"  methods  of  raising  output  were  in- 
troduced, along  with  piece-work,  bonuses,  and 
other  incentives. 

The  three-year  plan  of  reconstruction  and  in- 
dustrialization inaugurated  in  the  summer  of  1947 
was  officially  declared  to  be  progressing  success- 
fully. In  December,  1948,  Communist  Ermo  Gero, 
Minister  of  Communications,  announced  that  Hun- 
gary would  overcome  the  effects  of  the  American 
loan  embargo  and  of  U.S.  restrictions  on  trade, 
through  heavier  taxation  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
proposed  five-year  plan,  to  begin  Jan.  1,  1950.  This 
program  contemplated  State  investments  of  2"5,000 
million  forints  ($2,000  million),  roughly  equal  to 
estimated  total  national  income  for  the  year  1949. 
In  spite  of  a  substantial  one-way  flow  of  goods  to- 
ward the  East  on  reparations  account  and  through 
Soviet  participation  in  joint  companies,  urban 
workers  shared  in  the  benefits  of  increasing  pro- 
duction, relative  prosperity,  and  expanding  social 
services.  The  extent  to  which  political  regimenta- 
tion and  demands  for  new  sacrifices  provoked  pop- 
ular dissatisfaction  remained  uncertain  and  highly 
controversial. 

Politics  by  Purge.  In  Hungary,  as  elsewhere  in  the 
Soviet  sphere,  official  preoccupation  with  "spies" 
and  "subversives"  was  even  greater  than  in  the 
U.S.A.  On  March  8,  the  Social  Democratic  Party 
(cleansed  of  dissidents  in  February  and  led  by 
Arpad  Szakasits)  voted  unanimously  at  its  37th 
annual  congress  to  merge  with  the  Communists  in 
a  United  Workers'  Party.  On  July  30,  President 
Zoltan  Tildy  resigned,  following  the  announce- 
ment that  his  son-in-law,  Victor  Csornoky,  former 
Minister  to  Egypt,  had  been  arrested  for  espionage 
and  high  treason.  "It  is  not  political  disagreement 
that  made  me  resign,"  asserted  Tildy.  "A  person 
who  belongs  to  my  close  entourage  committed  a 
great  crime  against  the  interests  of  the  Hungarian 


HUNGARY 


253 


HUNGARY 


State  Republic  and  our  people,  and  consequently  I 
feel  that  I  cannot  expect  the  confidence  of  the 
Hungarian  people  that  is  indispensable." 

On  August  3,  as  58  members  of  opposition 
groups  walked  out  of  Parliament,  Deputy  Premier 
and  former  bricklayer  Arpad  Szakasits,  now  chair- 
man of  the  United  Workers*  Party,  was  elected 
President,  unanimously  and  by  acclamation.  Csorn- 
oky  was  subsequently  found  guilty  of  conspiring 
with  emigres  and  Anglo-American  agents  to  over- 
throw the  government  He  was  hanged  on  Decem- 
ber 7. 

The  Cabinet  remained,  in  form,  a  coalition  of 
the  Smallholders,  National  Peasants,  and  United 
Workers'  Party.  Premier  Lajos  Dinnyes  resigned 
on  December  8,  following  a  purge  of  "bourgeois 
elements"  in  his  party  and  sharp  criticism  directed 
against  him  for  insufficient  vigilance.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  premiership  by  Istvan  Dobi,  Minister 
of  Agriculture  and  a  leader  of  the  Smallholders. 

Church  and  State.  Parliament  adopted  a  bill  in 
June  nationalizing  all  church-conducted  schools, 
comprising  some  5,000  institutions  or  60  percent 
of  all  schools.  Joseph  Cardinal  Mindszenty  bitterly 
fought  the  measure  and  excommunicated  all  Cath- 
olic Deputies  who  voted  for  it.  The  Cabinet  re- 
torted that  the  measure  would  be  fully  enforced, 
since  the  education  of  children  in  church  schools 
was  intolerable. 

The  Cardinal  accused  the  regime  of  "falsehoods, 
deceit,  and  terror."  Local  riots  in  mid-June  led  to 
the  arrest  of  a  number  of  priests.  By  the  close  of 
the  year  the  Cardinal  himself  was  being  threatened 
with  prosecution.  The  Roman  hierarchy,  however, 
was  not  wholly  united  against  the  regime.  Father 
Istvan  Balogh,  leader  of  the  Independent  Demo- 
cratic Party,  urged  compromise  with  Communism 
and  inferentially  criticised  the  Cardinal  for  making 
the  secularization  of  education  the  central  issue  of 
conflict.  The  Calvinist  church  sponsored  complete 
cooperation  with  the  State. 

On  December  27,  Cardinal  Mindszenty  was  ar- 
rested on  charges  of  high  treason,  espionage,  and 
black-market  speculation.  This  action,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  sensational  trial,  precipitated  a  new 
crisis  of  major  proportions  between  the  Budapest 
regime,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Vatican  and  the 
U.S.A.  on  the  other. 

Relations  With  the  U.S.S.R.  On  Feb.  18,  1948,  Radio 
Moscow  announced  the  signature  by  Molotov  and 
Dinnyes  of  a  20-year  mutual  defense  treaty,  pro- 
viding for  joint  action  against  any  future  aggres- 
sion by  Germany  "or  any  other  State  which  mav 
unite  with  Germany  directly  or  in  any  other  form. ' 
A  New  Jork  Times  report  of  May  that  the  unpub- 
lished Soviet-Hungarian  trade  agreement  of  Dec,  9, 
1947,  had  been  concluded  by  the  Finance  Minister 
without  the  approval  of  the  Cabinet  was  promptly 
denied  by  the  Budapest  authorities. 

The  rift  between  the  Kremlin  and  Marshall  Tito 
led  to  Magyar- Yugoslav  friction  during  the  summer 
and  autumn.  Rakosi  and  other  Communist  leaders 
denounced  "the  Belgrade  regime  for  its  deviation 
from  orthodoxy.  On  August  27  Belgrade  formally 
accused  Hungary  of  seeking  to  instigate  revolution 
in  Yugoslavia.  Budapest  replied  on  September  1 
that  the  charge  was  "unfriendly,  untrue,  and  ma- 
levolent" and  intended  to  "disguise  the  anti-Soviet 
policy  of  the  present  leaders  of  the  Yugoslav  Com- 
munist Party."  By  late  October  Belgrade  was  ac- 
cusing Budapest  of  using  "Nazi  police  methods" 
against  the  Yugoslav  Legation  in  an  attempt  to 
compel  its  members  to  break  with  Tito.  Ten  mem- 
bers of  the  staff  were  expelled  from  Hungary  early 
in  November. 


Relations  With  the  US.A,  Budapest's  collaboration 
with  Moscow  inevitably  meant  conflict  with  Wash- 
ington. When  asked  in  December  by  Homer  Bigart 
of  the  New  Jork  Herald  Tribune  why  the  press 
distorted  news  of  America,  Zoltan  Vas,  head  of 
the  Supreme  Economic  Council,  replied  (accord- 
ing to  Bigart) :  "It  is  necessary  to  teach  our  people 
to  hate  the  United  States  so  long  as  there  is  dan- 
ger of  attack  from  the  West." 

American  films  starring  prominent  "Red-baiting" 
actors  were  banned  in  January.  Elizabeth  P.  Pallos, 
American-born  secretary  to  AP  correspondent  Jack 
Guinn  (expelled  in  November,  1947),  was  brought 
to  trial,  with  thirteen  other  defendants,  on  charges 
of  plotting  with  foreign  agents  against  the  regime. 
On  February  16  she  was  sentenced  to  six  months 
in  jail  for  failing  to  report  allegedly  subversive  ac- 
tivities to  the  police. 

In  April  Gen.  Clay  expelled  the  two  Hungarian 
missions  in  the  U.S.  zone  of  Germany  in  retaliation 
for  Budapest's  failure  to  reply  satisfactorily  to  pro- 
tests at  interference  with  U.S.  repatriation  officials 
in  Hungary,  looting  of  an  American  repatriation 
train  by  Soviet  soldiers,  and  the  beating  and  arrest, 
by  Hungarian  police,  of  a  Hungarian  girl  aboard 
the  train,  On  July  9  the  State  Department  de- 
nounced the  Hungarian  Government  for  arresting 
persons  who  listened  to  the  "Voice  of  America."  A 
fortnight  later  43  Hungarians,  including  officials 
and  army  officers,  were  brought  to  trial  at  Szeged 
on  charges  of  setting  up  an  underground  organiza- 
tion to  cooperate  with  a  future  American  military 
occupation  of  Hungary.  On  September  20  George 
BannentJne  and  Karl  Ruedemann,  American  heads 
of  the  Hungarian-American  Oil  Co.  (MAORT, 
owned  by  Standard  Oil  of  N.J.),  were  arrested  on 
charges  of  sabotaging  oil  production.  Upon  their 
expulsion  a  week  later,  they  asserted  that  they  had 
been  coerced  by  bad  treatment  into  signing  false 
confessions.  The  State  Department  sharply  de- 
nounced the  arrest  and  protested  strongly  in  De- 
cember against  Hungarian  seizure  of  the  properties 
of  MAORT.  On  December  15  Budapest  accused 
the  U.S.  of  responsibility,  threatened  nationaliza- 
tion of  the  properties,  and  told  the  State  Depart- 
ment to  "mind  its  own  business." 

Meanwhile  the  second  postwar  conference  of 
the  Women's  International  Democratic  Federation 
met  in  the  Magyar  capital  early  in  December,  with 
the  Congress  of  American  Women  represented  by 
Muriel  Draper  and  some  thirty  other  U.S.  dele- 
gates. The  Federation  adopted  resolutions  con- 
demning American  foreign  policy  and  praising 
the  achievements  of  the  "Peoples  Democracies." 
As  a  sequel  to  his  unsympathetic  accounts  of  the 
conference  and  of  other  developments  in  Hungary, 
Homer  Bigart  was  expelled  on  December  10. 

Hungary  in  Exile.  The  ranks  of  anti-Communist 
emigres  were  reinforced  during  the  year.  Karl 
Peyer,  right-wing  Socialist,  fled  to  Germany  in  late 
November,  1947.  When  Admiral  Horthy  attended 
the  February  wedding  of  an  American  Consul  in 
Munich,  Yugoslavia  protested  on  the  ground  that 
he  was  a  war  criminal — a  view  which  Washington 
repudiated.  Horthy  was  reported  in  November  to 
be  preparing  to  go  to  Argentina.  In  June  Aurel 
Alth,  Hungarian  Consul  General  in  New  York,  re- 
signed his  post  in  protest  at  Communist  control  of 
his  Government.  In  October  Josef  Garzuly,  Charge 
d' Affaires  in  Vienna,  did  likewise,  following  the 
example  of  Lazlo  Bartok,  former  Minister  to  Aus- 
tria. Rustem  Vambery,  Minister  to  the  United 
States,  resigned  his  post  in  May  and  was  succeeded 
by  Andrew  Sik,  a  Communist  Party  member.  Dr. 
Vambery  died  on  October  26. 


ICELAND 


254 


ILLUMINATION 


Among  exiled  Hungarians  the  most  prominent 
were  former  Premier  Ferenc  Nagy,  Dezso  Sulyok, 
Imre  Kovacs,  and  Karl  Peyer.  They  found  it  diffi- 
cult to  formulate  a  united  program  of  action  against 
the  Budapest  regime.  A  plan  to  establish  a  "gov- 
ernment-in-exile"  in  Paris  fell  through  in  April 
because  of  the  alleged  insistence  of  the  French 
General  Staff  that  it  be  headed  by  Gen.  Ferenc 
Farkas,  a  former  Nazi  living  in  the  American  zone 
of  Germany.  In  August  an  "Executive  Committee 
of  Hungarian  Social  Democrats  in  Exile"  was 
founded  in  Switzerland.  Peyer  challenged  its  au- 
thority and  summoned  a  rival  Social  Democratic 
Congress  to  meet  in  Paris  in  October.  Unity  among 
the  exiles  seemed  remote.  Their  return  to  power  in 
Hungary  appeared  to  be  even  more  remote. 

See  AUSTRIA,  CZECHOSLOVAKIA,  YUGOSLAVIA,  RU- 
MANIA, POLAND,  the  U.S.S.R.,  and  UNITED  STATES. 

Consult  also  J.  F.  Montgomery,  Hungary:  The 
Unwilling  Satellite  ( Devin-Adair,  N.Y.,  1947); 
Ferenc  Nagy,  The  Struggle  Behind  the  Iron  Cur- 
tain (Macmillan,  N.Y.,  1948);  Andrew  Gyorgy, 
"Political  Trends  in  Eastern  Europe,"  Foreign  Pol- 
icy Reports,  Nov.  15,  1948;  Endre  Hevesi  (Ed.), 
This  Is  Hungary  (Budapest,  1948);  and  H.  F.  A. 
Schoenfeld,  "Soviet  Imperialism  in  Hungary,"  For- 
eign Affairs,  April,  1948. 

— FREDERICK  L.  SCHUMAN 

ICELAND.  An  island  republic  in  the  North  Atlantic, 
situated  200  miles  east  of  Greenland  and  about  540 
miles  northwest  of  Scotland.  Area,  39,709  square 
miles,  only  one  fourth  of  which  is  habitable.  Pop- 
ulation in  1947,  132,750.  Populations  of  the  chief 
towns:  Reykjavik  (capital),  51,011;  Akureyri,  6,180; 
Hafnafjordur,  4,050. 

Production.  Fishing  is  the  chief  industry;  it  sup- 
ports nearly  30  percent  of  the  population  directly. 
In  1946,  the  fish  catch  amounted  to  368,000  tons, 
well  below  average.  About  36  percent  of  the  in- 
habitants live  by  agriculture,  sheep  raising,  and 
dairy  farming.  Potatoes,  turnips  and  hay  are  the 
chief  crops.  There  are  very  few  trees  and  only  low 
grade  coal  deposits,  but  extensive  peat  deposits 
are  used  for  fuel  and  many  buildings  in  Reykjavik 
are  heated  by  water  from  hot  springs. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  in  1947  were  valued  at 
290,400,000  crowns,  while  imports  amounted  to 
519,600,000  crowns.  The  official  selling  rate  of 
the  crown  was:  6.5050  crowns  =  U.S.$1.  The  cost 
of  living  index  (1937=100)  rose  from  319  in 
January,  1948,  to  324  in  October,  1948. 

Government.  Iceland  has  been  an  independent 
republic  since  June  17,  1944,  when  the  union  with 
Denmark  was  dissolved.  Legislative  power  is  exer- 
cised by  the  Althing,  the  oldest  parliament  in  the 
world,  established  930  A.D.  The  Althing  consists 
of  52  elected  members,  one-third  of  whom  are 
elected  to  the  upper  chamber  by  the  whole  Althing; 
the  other  two-thirds  form  the  lower  chamber.  Pres- 
ident of  the  republic:  Sveinn  Bjornsson,  who  was 
elected  on  June  7,  1945,  for  a  four-year  term.  Pre- 
mier, Stefan  J.  Stefansson  (Labor  party),  since 
Feb.  4,  1947.  — JOACHIM  JOESTEN 

IDAHO.  A  mountain  State.  Area:  83,888  sq.  mi.  Pop- 
ulation: (July  1,  1948)  530,000,  compared  with 
(1940  census)  524,873.  Chief  city:  Boise  (capital), 
26,130  inhabitants  in  1940.  See  AGRICULTURE,  ED- 
UCATION, MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNI- 
VERSITIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $39,982,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $37,183,000. 

Elections.  The  4  electoral  votes,  Roosevelt's  in 


1944,  remained  Truman's  in  1948,  who  won  a 
small  majority  over  Dewey  and  Wallace.  Democrat 
Bert  H.  Miller  defeated  incumbent  Republican 
Henry  C.  Dworshak  in  a  race  for  the  U.S.  Senate. 
Democrats  and  Republicans  each  got  one  seat  in 
the  lower  house,  a  gain  of  one  for  the  Democrats. 
There  were  no  statewide  contests  for  State  office. 
Officers,  1948.  Governor,  C.  A.  Robins;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Donald  S.  Whitehead;  Secretary  of  State, 
J.  D.  (Cy)  Price;  Attorney  General,  Robert  E. 
Smylie;  State  Treasurer,  Lela  D.  Painter;  State 
Auditor,  N.  P.  Nielson. 

ILLINOIS.  An  east  north  central  State.  Area:  56,- 
400  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  8,670,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  7,897,241.  Chief 
cities:  Springfield  (capital),  75,503  inhabitants  in 
1940;  Chicago,  3,396,808.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDU- 
CATION, MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVER- 
SITIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $438,745,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $399,689,000. 

Elections.  Democrats  made  a  clean  sweep  of  state- 
wide races.  Out  of  4  million  votes  cast,  Truman 
•held  a  plurality  over  Dewey  of  about  60,000  and 
won  the  28  electoral  votes.  Democrat  Paul  H. 
Douglas  defeated  incumbent  Republican  C.  Way- 
land  Brooks  in  the  Senatorial  contest;  and  the 
Democrats  won  6  new  seats  in  the  House  by  cap- 
turing 12  to  14  now  held  by  Republicans.  Adlai  E. 
Stevenson,  Democrat,  defeated  incumbent  Dwight 
H.  Green  in  the  gubernatorial  race,  and  Democrats 
took  the  following  offices:  Lieutenant  Governor — 
Sherwood  Dixon;  Secretary  of. State — Edward  J. 
Barrett;  Attorney  General — Ivan  A.  Elliott;  Treas- 
urer— Ora  Smith;  Auditor — Benjamin  O.  Cooper. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Dwight  H.  Green;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Hugh  W.  Cross;  Secretary  of  State,  Ed- 
ward J.  Barrett;  Attorney  General,  George  F.  Bar- 
rett; State  Treasurer,  Richard  Yates  Rowe;  State 
Auditor,  Arthur  C.  Lueder. 

ILLUMINATION.  Perhaps  the  most  important  event 
in  the  progress  of  illumination  during  the  year  was 
the  June  meeting  of  the  International  Commission 
on  Illumination  in  Paris  which  marked  the  resump- 
tion of  the  interchange  of  knowledge  after  a  7-year 
wartime  interruption.  The  approximately  300  dele- 
gates from  some  20  nations  considered  many  im- 
portant items  of  standardization. 

Improvements  in  existing  types  of  lamps  and 
introduction  of  some  new  types  accompanied  a 
continued  growth  in  applications.  An  arc  bright- 
ness intrinsically  brighter  than  the  surface  of  the 
sun  was  reached  with  superhigh-wattage  mercury 
lamps  on  which  work  was  done  in  England  and  in 
the  United  States.  A  typical  lamp  may  be  rated  at 
10  kw  with  a  100-millimeter-diameter  quartz  bulb 
operating  at  705°  C.,  and  requires  seals  carrying 
as  much  as  250  amperes.  Its  importance  lies  in 
providing  a  small  source  that  may  supplement  the 
carbon  arc,  particularly  in  studio  projection  work. 
At  the  other  extreme,  a  one-watt  fluorescent  glow 
lamp  was  made  available  with  a  parallel-blade  plug 
for  insertion  in  any  receptacle  as  a  night  light. 
Rated  life  is  10,000  hours,  and  average  operating 
cost  is  three  cents  per  month. 

The  tenth  anniversary  of  the  fluorescent  lamp 
in  the  United  States  was  observed  on  April  21.  To- 
tal estimated  sales  in  1948  were  101  million  units, 
compared  to  79  million  in  1947.  New  lamps  re- 
cently announced  include  a  40-watt  decorative 
lamp  with  a  spiral  marking  which  gives  an  inter- 
esting color  pattern  as  the  arc  stream  is  seen 


ILLUMINATION 


255 


ILLUMINATION 


through  the  clear  lines,  a  photographic  lamp  suit- 
able for  use  with  color  film,  and  a  25-watt  33-inch 
lamp  which  starts  at  115  volts  and  operates  on  53 
volts.  With  krypton  gas  filling  and  other  improve- 
ments, an  85-watt  lamp  was  developed  having  the 
same  light  output,  life,  and  over-all  dimensions  as 
the  older  100-watt  lamp.  As  an  aid  to  starting  long 
slim  lamps,  a  silicone  coating  was  found  to  be  sat- 
isfactory instead  of  a  thin  metallic  strip  that  for- 
merly was  run  lengthwise  on  the  tube.  The  change 
improves  appearance  and  removes  the  possibility 
of  grounding. 

A  warm  white  or  warm-tone  fluorescent  lamp  in 
several  sizes  was  announced  in  the  United  States 
which  matches  closely  the  color  of  large-wattage 
incandescent  lamps  having  tungsten  filaments.  An- 
other new  tint  is  a  "soft  white"  that  may  appear 
slightly  less  orchid  than  the  original  soft  white. 
Slightly  different  tints  are  standard  in  Western 
Europe. 

Experimental  installations  of  fluorescent  street 
lighting  were  made  at  widely  scattered  points — 
Tel  Aviv,  Buenos  Aires,  Dublin,  and  Nairobi 
among  them — as  the  possibilities  of  this  type  of 
lighting  continue  to  be  explored.  Experience  gained 
in  England,  where  the  first  recorded  installation 
was  made  at  Rugby  two  years  ago,  suggests  spac- 
ings  of  from  80  to  150  feet,  a  mounting  height  of 
at  least  25  feet,  and  an  output  of  7,000  lumens  per 
unit,  or  5,000  per  100  running  feet.  The  English 
trials  generally  use  three-light  fixtures  with  80-watt 
five-foot  lamps.  Depreciation  of  light  output  of  the 
complete  unit  was  found  to  be  38  percent  after 
five  months'  service,  and  total  operating  cost  per 
mile  in  London  was  found  to  be  about  $2,000. 

Cold-cathode  fluorescent  lighting  was  brought 
to  the  attention  of  the  public  in  New  York,  N.Y., 
with  the  delivery  of  the  first  of  an  order  of  new 
subway  cars  having  this  type  of  lighting.  Steps 
were  taken  toward  standardization  of  length  and 
to  increase  safety,  since  the  high  voltages  used  with 
these  lamps  may  become  hazardous  under  some 
conditions.  Very  modest  trials  of  this  type  of  lamp 
for  street  lighting  were  reported. 

Sales  of  large  lamp  bulbs  in  the  United  States 
were  estimated  to  total  880  million,  an  increase  of 
about  six  percent  over  1947.  For  a  decade  the  sales 
curve  has  paralleled  almost  exactly  the  curve  of 
total  kw-hr  sales,  and  now  indicates  per  capita 
consumption  in  the  United  States  of  approximately 
six  large  lamp  bulbs  annually. 

New  luminaires  for  street  lighting  featured  more 
accurate  control  of  the  distribution  of  light.  A  giant 
unit  for  whiteway  lighting  is  designed  for  lamps  up 
to  25,000  lumens,  while  another  unit  features  a 
built-in  photoelectric  control.  To  simplify  installa- 
tions and  provide  flexibility,  a  universal  street- 
lighting  head  or  holder  adaptable  to  any  type  of 
hood,  globe,  or  reflector  fitting  was  introduced  by 
manufacturers  in  the  United  States. 

Two  voltage  ratings,  600  volts  for  multiple  and 
5,000  volts  for  series,  were  established  by  industry 
standardization  for  street  lighting  service.  Lamps 
in  corresponding  sizes  for  series  and  multiple  serv- 
ice now  have  approximately  equal  mean  lumens, 
and  series  sockets  have  been  made  interchangeable. 
Maintenance  has  been  aided  by  mechanical  im- 
provements such  as  latch-on  simplicity  and  stain- 
less steel  fittings. 

Growth  of  airport  lighting  continued  through- 
out the  world,  but  was  particularly  stimulated  in 
the  United  States,  where  a  seven-year  program  was 
started  which  will  include  the  lighting  of  2,900 
small  airports;  the  first  year  saw  200  scheduled  for 
completion,  For  airport  use,  neon  tubes  were  pro- 


duced in  which  the  flash  time  and  discharge  can 
be  controlled;  with  suitable  reflectors,  candlepow- 
ers  in  multiples  of  ten  from  100  to  10  million,  in- 
clusive, may  be  obtained. 

Colored  filament  lamps  in  which  the  color  is 
supplied  by  a  ceramic  or  glaze  coating  are  becom- 
ing available  and  in  some  sizes  are  expected  to  re- 
place former  types  of  lamps  having  applied  colors. 
Other  lamps  showed  advancement  in  the  applica- 
tion of  white  ceramic  diffusing  finishes  and  silver- 
ing. In  England  low-voltage  projection  lamps,  for 
example,  12  volts  and  300  watts,  were  made  with 
the  adjacent  filament  coils  uniformly  touching  each 
other  throughout  their  length.  No  arcing  occurs 
with  careful  proportioning,  and  a  source  having 
minimum  area  is  produced.  In  the  6-to-8-volt  class, 
several  automotive-type  sealed  reflector-bulb  lamps 
formerly  in  the  5%-inch  diameter  have  become 
available  in  the  4^inch  diameter  bulb. 

Germicidal  lamp  sales  in  the  United  States  were 
estimated  to  total  675,000  units  for  the  year,  with 
a  power  consumption  exceeding  30  million  kw-hr. 
A  glass  was  developed  with  high  transmission  in 
the  region  of  2,537  angstroms.  Evidence  of  general 
health  benefits  from  prolonged  exposure  to  mild 
amounts  of  short-wave  ultraviolet  radiation,  in 
addition  to  the  reduction  or  killing  of  micro-organ- 
isms, was  found  by  investigators,  notably  in  Swe- 
den. Studies  of  these  same  benefits  have  been  made 
in  connection  with  poultry  raising. 

New  fluorescent  sun  lamps  were  announced  in 
20-watt  24-inch  and  40-watt  48-inch  sizes,  with 
outputs  of  55,000  and  140,000  E-vitons,  respec- 
tively, at  3,000  angstroms.  They  operate  on  the 
same  accessories  as  the-  corresponding  fluorescent 
lighting  lamp.  New  ultraviolet-radiation  measuring 
instruments  also  appeared.  At  least  one  permanent 
hotel  installation  was  made  using  various  types  of 
lamps  to  duplicate  sunshine  qualities,  colors,  and 
intensities. 

Ultraviolet  radiation  or  so-called  "black  light" 
found  a  new  use  in  the  determination  of  the  age 
and  condition  of  eggs  by  the  color  of  fluorescence. 
New  sources  included  a  portable  battery-operated 
hand  lantern  employing  a  miniature  fluorescent 
lamp  and  a  250-watt  mercury  projector  unit  self- 
contained  in  a  cubical  box. 

Experimental  work  was  conducted  with  the  ob- 
ject of  correcting  the  color  of  high  intensity  mer- 
cury arc  lamps  by  the  use  of  phosphors  on  the 
outer  bulb,  or  on  the  enclosing  glassware,  and  by 
the  addition  of  the  metal  cadmium  to  the  mercury. 
The  latter  was  investigated  for  color  motion-picture 
photography. 

The  rare  gas  xenon  has  been  used  in  flash  tubes 
of  10-,  20-,  and  30-centimeter  lengths  in  which 
large  amounts  of  power,  of  the  order  of  300  joules, 
are  released  at  each  flash  at  a  frequency  of  100 
cycles  per  second.  To  aid  photographers  in  the  in- 
door production  of  outdoor  scenes  with  true  color 
and  appearance,  a  photographic  flash  tube  was 
made  available  with  750  million  peak  lumens. 

Wide  application,  notably  on  roadside  advertis- 
ing signs,  of  a  highly  reflective  paint  based  on  a 
military  development  has  brightened  the  night- 
driving  scene.  Tiny  glass  spheres  are  contained  in 
the  paint,  which  is  laid  over  a  fluorescent  tape;  the 
day  and  night  colors  may  be  different 

Progress  was  reported  in  plastics  and  glass, 
which  are  closely  associated  with  lighting.  Large 
sectional  glass  panels  in  metal  frames,  tinted  sheet 
prismatic  glass,  and  sheet  plastic  that  can  be  edge- 
joined  in  tongue-and-groove  fashion  were  among 
the  new  forms.  For  the  formation  of  a  surface  for 
a  searchlight  mirror,  a  process  was  developed  for 


IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION,  NATURALIZATION 


256 


IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION,  NATURALIZATION 


depositing  vaporized  aluminum  on  a  metal  base 
and  protecting  the  specular  surface  with  vaporized 
and  deposited  silicon  monoxide.  An  interference 
filter  with  low  reflectivity  in  the  visible  spectrum 
and  high  reflectivity  in  tie  infra-red  may  be  pro- 
duced by  depositing  a  semitransparent  film  of  alu- 
minum on  silicon-monoxide-coated  mirrors.  As  the 
year  closed,  the  General  Electric  Company  an- 
nounced the  development  of  a  new  silica  inside 
finish  providing  a  diffusion  of  light  superior  to  that 
from  regular  inside  frosted  lamps  and  said  to 
represent  "the  most  outstanding  improvement  in 
filament  lamps  since  the  introduction  of  the  first 
successful  inside  frosted  lamp  in  1925." 

— G.  Ross  HENNINGER 

IMMIGRATION,   EMIGRATION,  AND   NATURALIZATION. 

The  immigration  and  nationality  laws  are  admin- 
istered by  die  Immigration  and  Naturalization  Serv- 
ice of  the  United  States  Department  of  Justice. 

Immigration  and  Emigration.  The  continued  favor- 
able economy  in  the  United  States,  and  improved 
transportation  facilities  were  factors  leading  to  fur- 
ther increases  in  immigration  to  the  United  States 
in  the  year  ended  June  30,  1948.  Immigrant  aliens, 
those  admitted  for  permanent  residence,  numbered 
170,570  as  compared  with  147,292  admitted  dur- 
ing the  preceding  fiscal  year. 

Quota  immigrants  are  those  admitted  under  the 
established  quota  from  European  countries,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  lie  Pacific,  and  colonies,  dependencies, 
and  protectorates  of  European  countries.  The  total 
authorized  quota  for  all  countries  is  153,929.  The 
numerical  limitations  established  in  1930  have 
remained  substantially  the  same  since  that  time. 
In  1930,  quotas  were  practically  filled  but  in  the 
18  years  since  until  the  year  ended  June  30,  1948, 
there  has  been  no  time  when  the  quotas  were  even 
half  completed.  In  the  past  fiscal  year,  more  than 
three-fifths  of  the  quota  was  filled. 

The  increase  in  quota  immigration  came  par- 
tially from  the  increase  in  displaced  persons  ad- 
mitted who  could  make  use  of  Germany  s  compara- 
tively large  quota,  and  in  a  considerable  increase 
in  the  number  of  quota  immigrants  making  use  of 
tihe  British  quota. 

Nonquota  immigrants  are  natives  of  the  inde- 
pendent countries  of  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
their  wives  and  unmarried  children  under  18  years 
of  age;  wives,  husbands,  and  unmarried  children 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States;  ministers  and  pro- 
fessors who  enter  to  carry  on  their  professions  and 
their  wives  and  children;  and  other  classes.  The 
number  of  nonquota  immigrants  admitted  in  the 
past  fiscal  year,  78,044,  is  only  slightly  above  the 
figure  for  last  year.  Wives  of  citizens  and  natives 

TABLE    1— NONQUOTA    IMMIGRANTS    ADMITTED 
[Years  ended  June  30] 


Total  nonquota  immigrants  admitted  
Husbands  of  citizens  

1948 
78,044 
647 

1941 
76,591 
579 

Wives  of  citizens                       .       .    . 

30086 

31,698 

Unmarried  children  of  citizens 

6097 

6462 

Natives  of  nonquota  countries 

37506 

35309 

Wives  and  children  of  natives  of  non- 

462 

331 

Ministers,  their  wives  and  children.  .  .  . 
Professors,  their  wives  and  children.  ,  .  . 
Women  who  had  been  citizens   

1,592 
997 
136 

1,336 
534 
91 

Other  non  Quota  classes    

521 

251 

of  nonquota  countries  are  the  principal  groups  ad- 
mitted. Of  the  37,506  natives  of  nonquota  coun- 
tries admitted  19,423  were  from  Canada,  8,060 
from  Mexico,  3,760  from  the  West  Indies,  and  most 
of  the  remainder  from  South  and  Central  America. 


Numbered  among  the  immigrants  were  20,755 
displaced  persons  admitted  under  the  President's 
Directive  of  Dec.  22,  1945,  and  21,954  war  brides. 
The  number  of  immigrant  aliens  admitted,  show- 
ing the  countries  in  which  they  last  resided,  and 
the  number  of  resident  aliens  departing  for  future 
permanent  residence  abroad  are  shown  in  Table  2. 

TABLE   2— IMMIGRANT    ALIENS    ADMITTED    AND 

EMIGRANT  ALIENS  DEPARTED  BY  COUNTRIES  OF 

LAST  OR  FUTURE  PERMANENT  RESIDENCE 

[Years  ended  June  301 


Immigrant 

Emigrant 

Countries 

1947 

1948 

1947 

1948 

All  countries  

..147,292 

170,570 

22,501 

20;875 

Europe  

..  83,535 

103,544 

11,153 

10,258 

Austria  

.  .     1,545 

2,271 

26 

53 

Belgium  

.  .     2,465 

2,041 

259 

244 

Bulgaria  

51 

119 

12 

18 

Czechoslovakia  

.  .     2,053 

2,310 

254 

145 

Denmark 

999 

1,335 

216 

285 

Eire  

.  .      1,445 

5,823 

427 

285 

Estonia  

25 

49 

2 

2 

Finland  

514 

492 

54 

119 

France  

.  .     7,285 

5,550 

1,148 

953 

Germany  

..   13,900 

19,368 

301 

134 

{England  .  . 

.  .   20,147 

21,257 

1,793 

2,262 

Scotland  .  . 

.  .     2,962 

4,504 

260 

320 

Wales  

679 

642 

30 

51 

Greece  

.  .     2,370 

2,250 

470 

349 

Hungary  

803 

947 

32 

32 

Italy  

.  .   13,866 

16,075 

1,851 

1,498 

Latvia  

28 

92 

2 

Lithuania  

24 

180 

2 

Netherlands  

.  .     2,936 

3,999 

408 

354 

Northern  Ireland  

.  .     1,129 

1,711 

51 

87 

Norway  ,  

.  .     1,967 

2,447 

509 

577 

Poland  

745 

2,447 

55 

127 

Portugal  

633 

890 

765 

394 

Rumania  

..    .      93 

273 

8 

10 

Spain  

260 

404 

286 

323 

Sweden  

.  .     1,848 

2,260 

409 

510 

Switzerland  

.  .     1,779 

2,026 

311 

318 

U.S.S.R  

170 

84 

873 

345 

Yugoslavia  

221 

478 

88 

192 

Other  Europe  

593 

1,220 

255 

267 

Asia  

.  .     5,823 

10,739 

2,861 

3,220 

China  

.  .     3,191 

7,203 

2,249 

2,287 

India  

432 

263 

113 

295 

Japan  

131 

423 

57 

143 

Palestine  

.  .     1,272 

1,150 

113 

182 

Other  Asia  

797 

1,700 

329 

313 

Canada  

.  .  23,467 

24,788 

861 

1,055 

Newfoundland  

875 

697 

37 

110 

Mexico  

.  .     7,558 

8,384 

884 

849 

West  Indies  

.  .     6,728 

6,932 

2,426 

1,024 

Central  America  

.  .     3,386 

2,671 

398 

389 

South  America  

.  .     3,094 

3,046 

1,216 

1,862 

Africa  

.  .     1,284 

1,027 

261 

363 

Australia  &  New  Zealand  .  . 

.  .     2,821 

1,218 

270 

586 

Philippines  

910 

1,168 

1,685 

615 

Other  Countries  

.  .     7,811 

6,356 

449 

544 

Aliens  admitted  for  temporary  stay  and  resident 
aliens  returning  from  a  brief  sojourn  abroad  totaled 
476,006,  a  80  percent  increase  over  last  fiscal  year. 
This  number  comprised  16,822  government  offi- 
cials, 4,059  members  of  international  organizations, 
284,983  visitors  for  business  or  pleasure,  124,780 
transits,  32,464  returning  residents,  11,914  stu- 
dents, 984  other  classes. 

Importation  of  agricultural  or  industrial  laborers 
is  authorized  after  a  showing  has  been  made  that 
there  is  a  need  for  the  labor,  that  prevailing  wage 
rates  in  the  area  of  employment  will  be  paid,  and 
that  United  States  residents  will  not  be  displaced 
by  the  aliens  employed. 

Approximately  11,000  agricultural  laborers  were 
imported  during  the  year  from  Mexico  and  12,000 
already  temporarily  employed  in  the  United  States 
under  previous  arrangements  were  recontracted  for 
continued  employment.  Under  informal  arrange- 
ments made  by  employers  through  the  British  West 
Indies  Central  Labor  Organization,  authority  was 
granted  for  the  importation  of  some  10,000  British 
West  Indian  agricultural  laborers.  Authority,  also, 


IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION,  NATURALIZATION 


257 


IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION,  NATURALIZATION 


was  granted  for  the  admission  of  2,000  Canadian 
unskilled  farm  laborers  and  industrial  workers. 

Emigrants  and  Nonemigrants.  During  the  fiscal 
year  1948,  there  were  448,218  aliens  (exclusive  of 
border-crossers,  Mexican  agricultural  laborers,  and 
crewmen)  who  departed  from  the  United  States. 
Only  20,875  were  emigrants,  i.e.  aliens  who  left 
a  permanent  residence  in  the  United  States  for  a 
permanent  residence  abroad;  25,597  nonemigrants 
were  resident  aliens  who  planned  to  return  to  the 
United  States  after  a  temporary  stay  abroad;  and 
401,746  were  aliens  who  had  been  admitted  as 
visitors,  persons  in  transit,  and  others  temporarily 
admitted. 

The  greatest  volume  of  travel  into  and  out  of 
the  United  States  from  foreign  countries  occurs  at 
the  Canadian  and  Mexican  borders  where  aliens 
and  citizens  frequently  make  daily  or  weekly  cross- 
ings and  recrossings.  During  the  fiscal  year  1948, 
there  were  78,362,207  such  entries  of  which  38,- 
892,545  were  aliens  and  39,469,662  were  citizens. 

Allen  Crewmen.  There  were  63,494  vessels  and 
85,122  planes  inspected  by  immigration  officers  on 
arrival  in  the  United  States.  The  number  of  crew- 
men examined  on  arrival  increased  by  9.9  percent 
over  last  year  to  1,937,874  made  up  of  922,349 
aliens  and  1,015,525  citizens.  There  were  4,353 
deserting  crewmen,  a  number,  no  doubt,  expanded 
by  the  practice  of  bringing  overcrews,  or  crews 
considerably  larger  than  the  normal  number  em- 
ployed to  man  ships. 

Deportation  and  Vo/untory  Departures.  With  greater 
emphasis  placed  on  ridding  the  country  of  aliens 
illegally  present  in  the  United  States  came  an  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  deportations  and  voluntary 
departures,  as  20,371  aliens  were  deported  and 
197,184  aliens  who  had  been  adjudged  deportable 
were  allowed  to  depart  in  the  fiscal  year  1948.  Con- 
certed efforts  have  been  made  to  ferret  out  aliens 
engaged  in  subversive  activities  resulting  in  the  is- 
suance of  warrants  of  arrest  in  a  number  of  cases. 

Border  Patrol.  During  the  fiscal  year  1948  Border 
Patrol  officers  patrolled  10,095,461  miles,  examined 
1,863,409  conveyances,  and  questioned  5,529,685 
persons.  They  also  seized  215  automobiles  and 
trucks  and  26  other  conveyances,  the  value  of  all 
seizures  amounting  to  $234,125.  Apprehensions 
again  approached  the  200,000  figure  as  compared 
with  the  approximate  35,000  in  1929  which  was 
considered  to  be  a  peak  year  for  illegal  entries  for 
the  period  1924  to  1943.  The  majority  of  the  ap- 
prehensions were  of  Mexicans  coming  to  engage  in 
agricultural  labor.  The  demand  for  such  labor,  and 
the  difference  in  economic  conditions,  of  course, 
create  the  incentive  which  results  in  the  coming  to 
the  United  States  of  such  large  numbers  of  aliens. 

The  efforts  of  the  Border  Patrol  are  largely  taken 
up  by  the  illegal  entry  of  Mexican  farm  laborers, 
and  more  effort  must  be  directed  to  the  task  of  pre- 
venting the  illegal  entry  of  other  classes  of  aliens. 
The  smuggling  of  such  other  aliens  ceased  to  be 
only  a  potential  problem  and  during  the  year  began 
to  be  a  real  one. 

Afierts  and  Alien  Registration.  All  aliens  remaining 
in  the  United  States  for  29  days  or  longer  are  re- 
quired to  register  under  the  provisions  of  the  Alien 
Registration  Act  of  1940.  The  initial  registration 
for  aliens  began  on  Aug.  27,  1940,  and  continued 
through  Dec.  26,  1940.  During  this  period  4,889,- 
770  aliens  registered  as  residents  of  continental 
United  States.  Factors  determining  the  alien  popu- 
lation are  net  immigration,  naturalization,  and  mor- 
tality. By  using  the  true  figures  for  immigration 
and  naturalizations,  and  estimating  the  alien  mor- 
tality for  the  period,  it  is  possible  to  arrive  at  the 


approximate  alien  population.  On  such  a  basis  it  is 
estimated  that  there  were  approximately  3  million 
resident  aliens  in  continental  United  States  on  June 
30,  1946.  This  estimate  does  not  take  into  account 
those  here  temporarily;  that  is  nonimmigrants,  bor- 
der crossers,  and  imported  laborers. 

Naturalization.  The  number  of  noncitizens  who 
were  naturalized  in  the  fiscal  year  1948  was  70,150, 
the  lowest  number  since  1911.  Of  the  number  nat- 
uralized, 69,080  were  civilian  and  1,070  military 
naturalizations.  The  number  of  noncitizens  natu- 
ralized during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1948,  is 
shown  in  the  table. 

TABLE   3— ALIENS   NATURALIZED   DURING  YEAR 
ENDED  JUNE  30,  1948 

Country  of  Former  Allegiance  Total  Civilian     Military 

All  countries 70,150  69,030  1,070 

Austria 1,285  1,283  2 

British  Empire 12,361  12,157  204 

Canada 3,860  3,806  54 

China , 763  707  £6 

Czechoslovakia 1 ,459  1,448  1 1 

Eire 1,146  1,136  10 

Germany 7,486  7,416  70 

Greece 1,683  1,660  23 

Hungary 1,271  1,264  7 

Italy 9,452  9,334  118 

Mexico 1,895  1,768  127 

Philippines 5,768  5,635  133 

Poland 5,136  5,107  29 

U.S.S.R , 3,143  3,107  36 

Yugoslavia 858  847  11 

Other  Countries 12,584  12,405  179 

Throughout  the  year,  2,887  petitions  for  natu- 
ralization were  denied,  as  compared  with  3,953 
denied  during  the  previous  year.  There  were  163 
judgments  of  naturalization  revoked  and  certifi- 
cates of  naturalization  canceled  during  the  year, 
an  increase  of  69  as  compared  with  the  preceding 
year.  In  150  cases  the  Foreign  Service  of  the  De- 
partment of  State  initiated  the  action  because  nat- 
uralized citizens  of  this  country  became  permanent 
residents  of  foreign  countries  within  five  years  of 
naturalization.  In  13  cases  the  Immigration  and 
Naturalization  Service  initiated  action  because  nat- 
uralization was  otherwise  fraudulently  or  illegally 
procured. 

During  the  last  year  there  was  an  increasing 
number  of  cases  of  naturalized  persons  who  had 
resided  abroad  for  many  years,  had  failed  to  make 
a  timely  return  to  the  United  States,  and  hence  had 
lost  their  citizenship  under  Section  404  of  the  Na- 
tionality Act  of  1940,  These  persons  returned  to 
this  country  after  the  time  limited  by  law,  and 
being  admitted  as  aliens,  sought  to  have  their 
status  as  citizens  reestablished  on  the  basis  of  meri- 
torious facts.  The  policy  has  been  adopted  of  re- 
garding such  persons  as  not  having  been  expatri- 
ated if  their  return  to  the  United  States  before  Oct. 
14,  1946,  was  prevented  by  conditions  of  travel  be- 
yond their  control. 

Aside  from  this  ground,  nationality  may  be  lost 
involuntarily  through  conviction  of  treason,  con- 
viction by  court-martial  of  desertion  from  the 
armed  forces  in  time  of  war,  and  departing  or  re- 
maining away  from  the  United  States  to  avoid 
training  and  service  in  the  land  or  naval  forces.  It 
may  be  lost  voluntarily  by  naturalization  in  a  for- 
eign state,  taking  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  a  foreign 
state,  and  the  performance  of  certain  acts  identi- 
fied with  citizenship  of  a  foreign  state.  During  the 
year,  6,779  persons  thus  lost  United  States  nation- 
ality. 

Petitions  for  naturalization  were  filed  by  68,265 
persons,  a  decrease  of  23  percent  from  the  1947 
fiscal  year  when  88,802^  petitions  were  filed.  Decla- 
rations of  intention  or  nrst  papers"  filed  increased 


IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION,  NATURALIZATION 


258 


IMMIGRATION,  EMIGRATION,  NATURALIZATION 


to  60,187.  There  were  37,771  declarations  filed  in 
the  fiscal  year  1947;  28,787  in  1946:  31,195  in 
1945;  and  42,368  in  1944. 

Alien  Enemies.  Alien  enemies  include  natives,  citi- 
zens, denizens,  and  subjects  of  countries  with  which 
the  United  States  was  at  war — Japan,  Germany, 
Italy,  Hungary,  Rumania,  and  Bulgaria, 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fiscal  year  1948  there 
were  203  Germans  and  384  Japanese  under  alien 
enemy  proceedings.  Two  Germans  were  received 
during  the  year,  bringing  the  total  to  589.  During 
the  year  seven  Germans  and  one  Japanese  departed 
voluntarily  under  removal  orders  issued  by  tie  At- 
torney General  pursuant  to  the  Presidential  Proc- 
lamation of  July  14,  1945,  23  Germans  and  17  Jap- 
anese were  released  outright,  one  German  died. 
Pursuant  to  an  order  by  the  United  States  Dis- 
trict Court  for  the  Northern  District  of  California 
issued  on  Sept.  8,  1947,  all  of  the  Japanese  who 
renounced  their  United  States  citizenship,  pursuant 
to  Section  401  (i)  of  the  Nationality  Act  of  1940, 
as  amended,  were  released  pending  final  disposi- 
tion of  the  court  action. 

At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  there  were  174 
Germans  and  27  Japanese  still  under  orders  of 
removal  issued  by  the  Attorney  General  of  which 
number  161  Germans  were  in  custody,  and  the 
balance  were  on  parole.  The  alien  enemy  family- 
internment  camp  at  Crystal  City,  Tex.,  which  was 
the  only  one  remaining  in  operation  during  the 
fiscal  year  was  closed  on  Feb.  27,  1948. 

New  L&gislution.  The  Act  of  July  1,  1947  (public 
law  146),  provided  for  membership  and  participa- 
tion by  the  United  States  in  the  International  Ref- 
ugee Organization  and  made  general  reference  to 
the  authority  of  the  IRQ  in  relation  to  action  affect- 
ing the  immigration  laws  of  the  United  States. 

The  Act  of  July  1,  1947  (public  law  155),  cor- 
rected Section  342(b)(8)  of  the  Nationality  Act 
of  1940,  changing  the  word  "maximum"  to  "mini- 
mum" as  the  word  appears  the  second  time  in  the 
subsection.  , 

The  Act  of  July  22,  1947  (public  law  213), 
amended  public  law  271 — 79th  Congress  by  mak- 
ing eligible  for  admission  into  the  United  States 
the  alien  spouses  of  American  citizen  members  of 
the  armed  forces  or  honorably  discharged  veterans 
regardless  of  race,  where  the  marriage  occurred 
before  30  days  after  the  enactment  of  the  Act. 

The  Act  of  July  23,  1947  (public  law  221), 
amended  the  Act  of  May  7,  1934,  granting  citizen- 
ship to  Indians  of  the  Metlakahtlan  Tribe  by  ex- 
tending the  benefits  thereof  to  those  Indians  who 
have  resided  continuously  in  the  Territory  of  Alas- 
ka as  well  as  in  the  Annette  Islands  since  Jan.  1, 
1900.  This  law  also  amends  Section  339  of  the  Na- 
tionality Act  of  1940  by  including  the  Metlakahtlan 
Indians  naturalized  by  Section  1  of  the  Act  of  May 
7,  1934,  among  those  who  may  apply  for  certifi- 
cates of  citizenship. 

The  Act  of  July  25,  1947  (public  law  239),  ter- 
minated certain  emergencies  and  war  powers  and 
rendered  inoperative  Section  401  (i)  of  the  Na- 
tionality Act  of  1940, 

The  Act  of  July  30,  1947  (public  law  274), 
amended  Section  12  of  the  Immigration  Act  of 
1917,  giving  the  Attorney  General  and  the  Com- 
missioner authority  to  prescribe  the  contents  of 
manifests. 

The  Act  of  Aug.  4,  1947  (public  law  357),  dealt 
with  the  right  of  aliens  to  enter  the  United  States 
for  United  Nations  activities. 

The  Act  of  Jan.  27,  1948  (public  law  402), 
known  as  the  "Cultural  Relations  Act,"  dealt  in 
part  with  the  interchange  on  a  reciprocal  basis 


between  the  United  States  and  other  countries  of 
students,  trainees,  teachers,  guest  instructors,  pro- 
fessors, and  leaders  in  fields  of  specialized  knowl- 
edge or  skill. 

The  Act  of  Mar.  24,  1948  (public  law  450),  ex- 
tended the  period  of  validity  of  public  law  471 — 
79th  Congress,  entitled  "An  Act  to  Facilitate  the 
Admission  to  the  United  States  of  Alien  Fiancees 
or  Fiances  of  Members  of  the  Armed  Forces  of 
the  United  States"  to  Dec.  31,  1948,  and  amended 
the  Act  of  June  29,  1946,  by  repealing  clause  (b) 
of  the  proviso  of  Section  1  thereof. 

The  Act  of  May  19,  1948  (public  law  538), 
amended  the  Immigration  Act  of  1924  to  provide 
that  husbands  of  United  States  citizens  are  en- 
titled to  nonquota  status  if  the  marriage  occurred 
prior  to  Jan.  1?  1948.  The  husbands  of  citizens  who 
marry  on  or  after  that  date  are  to  be  accorded 
first  preference  status  within  the  quota. 

The  Act  of  May  25,  1948  (public  law  552), 
amended  the  Act  of  Oct.  16,  1918,  to  provide  for 
the  exclusion  and  deportation  of  aliens  who,  the 
Attorney  General  knows  or  has  reason  to  believe, 
seek  to  enter  the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of 
engaging  in  activities  which  will  endanger  the 
public  safety  of  the  United  States. 

The  Act  of  June  1,  1948  (public  law  567), 
amended  the  Nationality  Act  of  1940  by  adding 
a  new  Section  324  (A),  providing  for  the  expedi- 
tious naturalization  of  noucitizens  who  served  hon- 
orably in  an  active  duty  status  in  the  military  or 
naval  forces  of  the  United  States  during  World 
War  I  or  during  a  period  beginning  Sept.  1,  1939, 
and  ending  Dec.  31,  1946. 

The  Act  of  June  3,  1948  (public  law  600),  pro- 
vided for  special  return  permits  for  treaty  mer- 
chants who  lawfully  entered  the  United  States  un- 
der Section  3(6)  between  July  1,  1924,  and  July 
5,  1932,  both  inclusive. 

The  Act  of  June  16,  1948  (public  law  647), 
provided  in  part  that,  subject  to  concurrence,  the 
Secretary  of  State,  the  Administrator  of  Civil  Aero- 
nautics, and  the  Chief  of  the  Weather  Bureau  of 
the  Department  of  Commerce,  within  their  respec- 
tive fields,  are  authorized  within  or  outside  the 
United  States  to  train  foreign  nationals  in  aeronau- 
tics and  related  subjects  essential  to  the  orderly 
and  safe  operation  of  civil  aircraft. 

The  Act  of  June  24,  1948  (public  law  759),  is 
tiie  Selective  Service  Act  of  1948  and  provided, 
among  other  things,  that  any  citizen  of  a  foreign 
country  who  is  deferred  or  exempt  from  training 
and  service  may  be  relieved  from  liability  for  such 
training  and  service  upon  his  application  therefor, 
but  is  thereafter  debarred  from  becoming  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States. 

The  Act  of  June  25,  1948  (public  law  774), 
known  as  the  "Displaced  Persons  Act  of  1948"  au- 
thorized the  admission  into  the  United  States  dur- 
ing the  next  two  years  of  205,000  displaced  persons 
of  Europe  and  the  adjustment  of  the  status  of  15,- 
000  such  individuals  who  entered  the  United  States 
prior  to  Apr.  1,  1948. 

The  Act  of  June  25,  1948  (public  law  776), 
amended  the  Organic  Act  of  Puerto  Rico  by  pro- 
viding that  Section  404(c)  of  the  Nationality  Act 
of  1940  shall  not  apply  to  persons  who  acquired 
United  States  citizenship  under  the  provisions  of 
Sections  5  and  5(a)  of  the  Organic  Act  of  Puerto 
Rico. 

The  Act  of  June  25,  1948  (public  law  783),  cor- 
rected Section  332 (a)  of  the  Nationality  Act  of 
1940  by  inserting  the  word  "seven"  in  place  of 
the  word  "ten"  which  had  been  erroneously  set 
forth  in  that  Section. 


INDIA 


259 


INDIA 


The  Act  of  July  1,  1948  (public  law  863),  fur- 
ther amended  Section  19  of  the  Immigration  Act 
of  1917  by  removing  the  racial  bar  to  the  suspen- 
sion of  deportation  and  enlarging  the  class  of  per- 
sons whose  deportation  may  be  suspended  to  in- 
clude aliens  having  at  least  seven  years*  residence 
in  the  United  States  and  who  were  residing  in  this 
country  on  the  effective  date  of  the  Act,  notwith- 
standing lack  of  family  ties.  The  amendment  also 
provided  that  instead  of  negative  action  permissi- 
ble in  Congress  under  the  prior  law,  the  Attorney 
General  shall  cancel  deportation  proceedings  only 
after  Congress  passes  a  resolution  stating  in  sub- 
stance that  it  favors  the  suspension  of  deportation 
and  that  if  Congress  does  not  pass  such  a  resolu- 
tion the  alien  shall  be  deported. 

The  Act  of  July  3,  1948  (public  law  893)  pro- 
vided for  the  recruitment  of  farm  labor  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere  for  temporary  agricultural 
employment  in  the  United  States. 

— WATSON  B.  MILLER 

INDIA,  Union  of.  A  self-governing  dominion  of  the 
British  Commonwealth  of  Nations.  The  Union,  as 
established  Aug.  15, 1947,  includes  the  former  Brit- 
ish Indian  provinces  of  Assam,  Bihar,  United  Prov- 
inces, Orissa,  Central  Provinces,  Madras,  Bombay, 
the  newly  created  provinces  of  West  Bengal  (in- 
cluding Calcutta)  and  East  Punjab,  the  Andaman 
and  Nicobar  Islands,  and  whatever  princely  states 
may  decide  to  join  (547  by  Dec.  1948,  forming 
20  new  provinces. )  Capital,  New  Delhi.  ( See  PAK- 
ISTAN. ) 

Area  and  Population.  The  Union  of  India  includes 
approximately  1,200,000  square  miles,  the  greater 
part  of  the  subcontinent  of  India's  1,581,410  square 
miles,  the  remainder  of  which  was  assigned  to  Pak- 
istan. The  population  is  approximately  300  million, 
of  whom  about  five-sixths  are  Hindus.  The  popu- 
lation before  partition  was  87  percent  rural.  City 
dwellers  were  largely  concentrated  in  1941  in  the 
chief  cities  (Calcutta,  2,108,891;  Bombay,  1,489,- 
883;  Madras,  777,481;  Hyderabad,  739,159)  all 
of  which  lie  within  the  new  Union,  and  in  other 
large  centers.  The  density  ( about  245  per  sq.  mi. ) 
was  one-third  that  of  England  and  Wales  (724)  or 
Belgium  (723)  and  less  than  that  of  Switzerland 
(265  per  sq.  mi.).  The  population  included  more 
than  45  groups  speaking  nearly  200  different  lan- 
guages. 

Education  and  Religion.  Elementary  education  is 
imperfectly  developed  and  illiteracy  is  high  (87.8 
percent  in  1941 ) .  In  British  India  in  1945-46  there 
were  168,000  recognized  primary  schools  with  an 
enrollment  of  about  12  million.  College  and  uni- 
versity enrollment  was  about  175,000. 

Classification  according  to  religious  communities 
in  1941  was  as  follows:  Hindus,  66  percent;  Mos- 
lems, 24  percent;  Siks,  1.5  percent;  Buddhists,  Par- 
sees  and  others,  8.5  percent.  The  majority  of  the 
Moslems  thus  listed  are  now  residents  of  the  new 
Dominion  of  Pakistan. 

Production.  The  greater  part  of  the  former  In- 
dia's mineral  resources,  including  particularly  large 
coal  and  iron  deposits,  as  well  as  90  percent  of  in- 
dustrial capacity,  lie  within  the  Union  of  India. 
The  latter  has  all  of  the  jute,  paper,  and  iron  and 
steel  works,  including  the  largest  steel  plant  in  the 
British  Commonwealth,  and  nearly  all  of  the  cotton 
mills  and  glassworks.  Although  it  is  not  so  prepon- 
derantly agricultural  as  Pakistan,  because  of  its 
size  th  e?  Union  of  India  retains  the  greater  part 
of  India's  agricultural  resources.  The  chief  crops 
are  rice,  wheat  and  cotton.  Tea,  coffee,  rubber  and 
jute  are  also  important,  although  India  has  only 


two-fifths  of  the  jute  acreage  of  the  former  India. 
The  area  planted  to  cotton  in  1947-48  was  approx- 
imately 7,129,000  acres.  The  tea  crop  in  1949  was 
estimated  at  590  million  Ib.  (including  Pakistan), 
as  compared  with  586.4  million  Ib.  in  1947.  A  size- 
able reserve  of  food  grains  in  general  was  accumu- 
lated in  1948. 

The  most  important  industry  is  cotton  manufac- 
turing. For  the  period  September,  1947-April, 
1948,  Indian  mills  consumed  2,225,753  bales  of 
Indian  cotton  and  437,659  bales  of  foreign  cotton, 
an  increase  in  each  case  over  the  corresponding 
period  the  year  before.  Production  in  1948  was  ex- 
pected to  total  4,200  million  yards,  as  compared 
with  3,800  million  in  1947.  Jute  mills,  rice  mills, 
tea  factories,  sugar  factories  and  iron  and  steel 
mills  employed  large  numbers  of  persons. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1946—47  undivided  India's  ex- 
ports were  valued  at  $959  million,  and  imports  at 
$865  million.  Exports  to  the  United  States  were  23 
percent  of  total  exports  and  imports  from  the  Unit- 
ed States  19  percent 

Transportation.  The  Union  of  India  has  a  railway 
mileage  of  25,970  and  a  highway  mileage  of  246,- 
605.  Nearly  all  of  the  railways  are  government 
owned.  Gross  traffic  receipts  for  1948-49  were  es- 
timated at  $570  million.  The  Minister  for  Railways 
and  Transport  reported  on  February  16  that  it 
would  be  three  years  before  the  railways  could 
accept  all  the  traffic  offered. 

At  partition  India  retained  the  important  ports 
of  Bombay,  Madras,  Calcutta  and  Cochin.  India's 
coastal  shipping  was  reported  as  about  300,000 

foss  tons  in  1948.  The  air  service  is  extensive 
12  routes  and  9,361,673  miles  flown  in  1947)  and 
e  June  23  air-transport  agreement  with  Pakistan 
was  expected  to  extend  air  routes. 

Finance.  The  first  annual  budget  for  the  year 
ending  Mar.  31,  1949,  showed  estimated  revenue 
at  $769  million  and  expenditure  at  $772  million. 
Undivided  India  emerged  from  World  War  II  as  a 
creditor  nation,  with  a  debt  of  $5,000  million  ow- 
ing from  Great  Britain.  An  agreement  between  the 
Union  of  India  and  Great  Britain,  signed  luly  1, 
1948,  provided  for  specified  releases  to  India  ( and 
to  Pakistan  by  an  agreement  signed  the  same 
week)  and  reduced  the  debt  owed  to  the  two  Do- 
minions to  about  $3,540  million. 

Government.  When  undivided  India's  Interim 
Government  was  succeeded  by  the  Government 
of  the  Dominion  of  India  on  Aug.  15?  1947,  the 
Constituent  Assembly  became  the  Parliament. 
Prime  Minister  and  Minister  of  External  Affairs 
and  Commonwealth  Relations,  Pandit  Jawaharlal 
Nehru;  Governor-General,  Chakravarti  Rajagopa- 
lachari,  who  succeeded  Lord  Mountbatten  June 
21,  1948.  Throughout  1948  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly had  a  draft  constitution  under  consideration. 

Events,  1948.  The  assassination  of  Mohandas  Ka- 
ramchand  Gandhi  on  January  30  was  a  shock  felt 
far  beyond  the  borders  of  India.  Gandhi  had  de- 
voted the  last  weeks  of  his  life  to  efforts  to  bring 
an  end  to  violence  in  India,  and  early  in  January 
he  met  communal  disturbances  in  Delhi  with  a 
five-day  fast  which  had  a  profound  effect  and  led 
to  solemn  promises  of  greater  consideration  for 
the  Moslem  minority. 

All  except  the  minimum  essential  business  activ- 
ity was  abandoned  for  some  days  after  Gandhi's 
death,  until  the  period  of  prayer  and  dedication 
to  his  teachings  culminated  in  the  ceremonies  held 
throughout  India  in  connection  with  the  immer- 
sion of  his  ashes  in  the  holy  rivers.  At  the  same 
time  sporadic  rioting  and  arson  took  place,  par- 
ticularly in  Bombay  and  other  western  centers, 


INDIA 


260 


INDIA 


against  the  right-wing  Hindu  Mahasabha  organi- 
zation, of  which  the  assassin,  Nathuram  Vinayak 
Godse,  was  a  member.  This  group  championed 
pure  Hinduism  and  insisted  that  Moslems  were  a 
minority  in  a  Hindu  state. 

Action  against  Extremist  Groups.  Although  imme- 
diately after  Gandhi's  death  Mahasabha  branch 
offices  were  attacked  and  the  houses  of  prominent 
Mahasabha  officials  were  burned,  the  Government 
did  not  take  action  against  the  organization  as  such- 
Mahasabha  was  nearly  50  years  old  and  one  of  its 
leaders,  Shayam  Prasad  Mukherjee,  was  Minister  of 
Industries  and  Supplies  in  the  Cabinet. 

On  February  4  the  Indian  Government  an- 
nounced the  outlawing  of  an  even  more  extreme 
organization,  Rashtriya  Swayam  Sewak  Sangh  (As- 
sociation of  Volunteers  to  Serve  the  Country) 
which  was  newer  and  had  recently  attracted  at- 
tention by  its  drilling  and  other  pseudo-Fascist 
methods.  It  was  reported  that  about  350  leaders  of 
the  organization  were  arrested.  In  December  it  was 
reported  that  the  general  secretary  of  the  organiza- 
tion was  one  of  the  30  or  so  members  of  the 
R.S.S.S.  arrested  in  Delhi,  after  there  had  been 
demonstrations  against  the  freedom«of-worship 
clauses  in  the  proposed  Indian  constitution. 

The  Communist  group  of  some  75,000  out  of 
India's  300  million  people  had  little  success  with 
an  effort  to  show  that  Gandhi's  death  was  traceable 
to  the  British  intelligence  service.  It  was  observed, 
in  the  period  of  great  grief  in  India,  that  to  the 
deeply  emotional  tributes  to  Gandhi  from  western 
leaders  of  state  there  failed  to  be  added  anything 
from  Moscow,  As  Communism  rose  in  Malaya  and 
other  eastern  areas  in  the  summer  Indian  provin- 
cial authorities  took  several  steps  to  suppress  Com- 
munist activities,  but  the  Nehru  Government  post- 
poned or  avoided  similar  action, 

Conquest  of  Hyderabad.  The  Dominion  and  the 
large  and  rich  state  of  Hyderabad,  with  a  predom- 
inantly Hindu  population  and  ruled  by  the  Moslem 
Nizam  (often  described  as  the  richest  man  in  the 
world),  were  at  odds  after  the  latter  part  of  1947. 
This  princely  state,  which  desired  to  retain  its  in- 
dependence, signed  late  in  1947  a  "standstill'* 
agreement  with  the  Government  of  India  guaran- 
teeing the  state's  independence  for  one  year.  Hin- 
dus within  Hyderabad  held  various  views;  some 
were  anti-Moslem  and  others  feared  Brahmin 
(highest  caste  Hindu)  domination  if  India  ob- 
tained control  of  the  state. 

After  discussions  with  tihe  Government  of  India 
failed  to  produce  a  peaceful  settlement,  the  Hyder- 
abad Government  on  August  24  formally  peti- 
tioned the  United  Nations  Security  Council  to  take 
up  its  quarrel  with  India,  charging  that  India  had 
conducted  a  campaign  of  "violent  intimidation"  in 
the  preceding  few  months,  had  threatened  Hydera- 
bad with  a  crippling  economic  blockade  if  it  did 
not  give  up  its  independence,  and  had  thus  en- 
dangered the  peace  of  Asia. 

Soon  Indian  troops  were  on  the  march  towards 
Hyderabad,  upon  which  (September  13)  the  lat- 
ter asked  urgently  for  an  immediate  Security  Coun- 
cil meeting  to  stop  Indian  action.  The  battle  was 
unequally  joined,  and  on  September  17,  four  and 
one-half  days  after  the  Indian  Army  crossed  the 
Hyderabad  borders  from  several  directions,  the 
Nizam  issued  a  "cease  fire"  order.  The  formal  sur- 
render of  Hyderabad  was  accepted  on  Septem- 
ber 18,  and  Prime  Minister  Nehru  announced  that 
the  state  would  be  under  Indian  military  govern- 
ment until  normality  was  restored. 

At^the  end  of  November  it  was  announced  that 
the  "standstill"  agreement  had  been  extended  for 


another  year,  until  the  Constituent  Assembly  should 
decide  the  future  of  Hyderabad.  Provision  was 
made  for  the  stationing  of  Indian  troops  in  the 
state.  The  matters  of  defense,  foreign  affairs  and 
communications  remained  under  the  control  of  the 
Government  of  India. 

fighting  in  Kashmir.  Little  progress  was  made  un- 
til late  1948  in  the  dispute  over  Kashmir,  amount- 
ing to  undeclared  war  between  the  Dominions  of 
India  and  Pakistan.  On  January  17  the  United  Na- 
tions Security  Council  called  on  India  and  Pakistan 
to  take  measures  immediately  to  end  the  fighting 
in  Kashmir  and  to  appeal  to  their  peoples  to  re- 
spect the  Council's  request  for  a  truce.  This  was 
in  response  to  India's  accusation  that  Pakistan  was 
helping  raiders  in  Kashmir  and  furnishing  bases, 
and  Pakistan's  accusation  that  India  was  guilty  of 
aggression,  of  plotting  the  destruction  of  the  state 
of  Pakistan  and  of  an  "organized  plan  to  extermi- 
nate the  Moslems," 

In  April  the  Security  Council  recommended  a 
truce  and  the  holding  of  a  plebiscite,  and  also  set 
up  a  commission  to  bring  delegations  from  India 
and  Pakistan  to  an  understanding.  Until  late  in 
the  year  no  success  had  been  achieved  and  the 
situation  in  Kashmir  had  grown  worse.  Charges 
succeeded  counter-charges.  On  December  2  the 
Indian  Government  through  its  Defense  Ministry 
replied  to  a  charge  made  a  few  days  before  by 
Pakistan,  arguing  that  India's  military  actions  in 
Kashmir  had  been  in  self-defense  while  Pakistan 
and  Azad  (Free)  Kashmir  had  launched  offen- 
sives, some  of  which  caused  Indian  withdrawals. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  India  was  said  to  have 
five  army  divisions  in  Kashmir  and  to  have  occu- 
pied some  1,500  square  miles  of  territory.  This 
operation  was  for  the  relief  of  Hindus  and  Sikh 
refugees  in  Poonch  city,  while  from  the  same  area 
Moslems  were  trekking  westward  in  cold  weather 
to  seek  shelter  in  Pakistan. 

Draff  Constitution.  As  published  on  February  25 
the  draft  constitution  prepared  by  the  Drafting 
Committee  of^the  Constituent  Assembly  declared 
India  to  be  a  "sovereign  democratic  Republic"  but 
in  a  footnote  it  was  explained  that  the  "question 
of  the  relationship  between  this  democratic  repub- 
lic and  the  British  Commonwealth  of  Nations  re- 
mains to  be  decided  subsequently."  The  implica- 
tion was  that  India  had  not  yet  fully  decided 
whether  to  continue  her  membership  in  the  Com- 
monwealth, and,  if  so,  in  what  form. 

The  draft  provided  for  a  central  law-making 
body  of  two  houses.  The  Indian  Union  would  be 
composed  of  three  classes  of  states,  including  the 
existing  Governor's  provinces,  princely  states  and 
various  territories  such  as  the  Andaman  and  Nico- 
bar  Islands.  According  to  the  draft,  "untouchabil- 
ity"  was  abolished  and  its  practice  in  any  form  for- 
bidden. Child  marriage  was  forbidden,  and  dis- 
crimination on  grounds  of  religion,  race,  caste  or 
sex  was  prohibited. 

The  draft  constitution  was  presented  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly  on  November  4,  Later,  on 
November  29  the  clause  pertaining  to  untouchables 
was  approved.  It  was  remarked  that  at  that  time 
the  Indian  Government  included  two  untouch- 
ables, the  Minister  for  Labor,  Shri  Jagivan  Ram, 
and  the  Minister  for  Law,  Dr.  B.  R.  Ambedkar.  Dr. 
Ambedkar,  who  opened  the  session  of  the  Constitu- 
ent Assembly  in  the  absence  of  Prime  Minister 
Nehru,  was  married  to  a  Brahmin,  a  member  of 
the  highest  of  the  recognized  Hindu  castes. 

Commonwealth  Relations.  Prime  Minister  Nehru 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Conference  of  Common- 
wealth Prime  Ministers  in  London  Oct.  11-22, 


INDIANA 


261 


INDIAN  AFFAIRS 


1948,  at  which  the  members  from  the  three  new 
dominions  of  India,  Pakistan,  and  Ceylon  were 
warmly  received,  and  there  was  some  indication 
that  the  give-and-take  of  the  sessions  influenced 
his  attitude  on  India's  relation  to  the  Common- 
wealth. At  a  press  conference  in  Delhi  on  Novem- 
ber 12,  shortly  after  his  return  from  London,  Nehru 
said  that  with  the  world  as  it  was  today,  no  country 
should  seek  to  break  existing  links  or  to  isolate  it- 
self. At  the  same  time  he  alluded  to  the  fact  that 
the  final  decision  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Constitu- 
ent Assembly. 

India  was  one  of  the  five  countries  of  the  British 
Commonwealth  to  sign  the  trade  agreement  with 
Japan  announced  on  November  8,  tinder  which 
arrangements  were  made  for  exchanges  worth 
$220  million.  India  sent  a  delegation  to  the  Com- 
monwealth parliamentary  conference  which  met 
in  London  late  in  October.  On  November  26  Prime 
Minister  Nehru  declared  in  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly that  India,  like  Britain,  would  not  consider 
Eire  a  foreign  country  or  its  nationals  as  foreign- 
ers when  Eire's  proposed  separation  from  Britain 
had  been  completed. 

Relations  wifh  the  United  States.  Sir  B.  Rama  Rail 
was  designated  Indian  Ambassador  to  the  United 
States  on  June  18,  to  succeed  Asaf  AH,  who  was 
to  become  Governor  of  Orissa  Province.  At  this 
time  a  slight  but  far  from  ominous  strain  existed 
in  the  relations  between  the  two  countries  because 
of  trade  difficulties.  American  Ambassador  Henry 
Grady  had  recently  made  representations  to  Prime 
Minister  Nehru  on  behalf  of  American  importers 
who  were  failing  to  get  jute  because  of  India's 
quota  system.  Indians,  on  tie  other  hand,  demand- 
ed more  favorable  treatment  from  the  United 
States  in  supplying  capital  goods  and  equipment. 

The  problems  created  by  India's  growing  infla- 
tion were  pressing.  There  was  a  lively  debate  on 
the  subject  in  Parliament  on  September  3,  in  which 
Prime  Minister  Nehru  promised  that  the  Govern- 
ment would  soon  take  the  country  into  its  confi- 
dence and  make  known  the  control  measures  de- 
cided upon.  — ALZABA  COMSTOCK 

INDIANA.  An  east  north  central  State.  Area:  36,- 
555  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  3,909,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  3,427,790.  Chief 
city:  Indianapolis  (capital),  386,972  inhabitants 
in  1940.  See  AGKICULTCJRE,  EDUCATION,  MINEKALS 
ANI>  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COL- 
LEGES, VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $197,652,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $177,215,000. 

Elections.  Dewey  held  the  13  electoral  votes 
which  he  won  in  1944,  but  by  only  a  small  fraction 
of  his  1944  popular  majority.  There  was  no  Sena- 
torial contest.  Democrats  won  7  House  seats  to  4 
for  Republicans,  a  Democratic  gain  of  5.  Demo- 
crats also  swept  all  statewide  races  for  State  office. 
In  the  race  for  governorship,  formerly  held  by  the 
Republicans,  Henry  F.  Schricker,  Democrat,  de- 
feated Hobart  Creighton.  Other  winners  were: 
Lieutenant  Governor — John  A.  Watkins;  Secretary 
of  State — Charles  F.  Fleming;  Attorney  General — 
J.  Emmett  McManamon;  Auditor — James  M. 
Propst;  Treasurer— F.  Shirley  Wilcox;  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction — Deane  E.  Walker. 
The  voters  authorized  a  veterans*  bonus. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Ralph  F.  Gates;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Richard  T.  James;  Secretary  of  State, 
Thomas  E.  Bath;  Attorney  General,  Cleon  H. 
Foust;  State  Treasurer,  Frank  T.  Millis;  State  Audi- 
tor, Alvan  V.  Burch. 


INDIAN  AFFAIRS,  Bureau  of.  The  Bureau  of  Indian 
Affairs  in  the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior  acts 
as  the  administrative  agency  in  carrying  out  the 
provisions  of  treaties  and  agreements  made  with 
the  Indian  tribes,  and  statutes  enacted  by  the  Con- 
gress. It  has  jurisdiction  over  approximately  57  mil- 
lion acres  of  Indian  trust  lands  which  are  scattered 
from  the  northwest  corner  of  the  State  of  Washing- 
ton to  the  Seminole  reservation  in  the  Florida  Ever- 
glades. These  knds  vary  in  size  from  individual 
units  of  a  few  acres  to  the  Navajo  reservation  in 
Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Utah,  which  is  larger 
than  the  State  of  West  Virginia. 

In  many  of  these  areas  this  bureau,  often  termed 
the  Indian  Service,  must  provide  almost  all  of  the 
services  which  non-Indian  citizens  receive  from  the 
Federal,  State,  and  local  governments.  Administra- 
tion functions  through  a  central  office  in  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  and  the  field  service,  consisting  of  £>4 
agencies,  10  non-reservation  boarding  schools,  and 
five  detached  sanatoriums.  Each  agency  is  headed 
by  a  superintendent,  with  a  staff  of  specialists  in 
education,  health,  welfare,  extension,  irrigation, 
forestry,  and  construction. 

As  of  Jan.  1,  1948,  Indians  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Bureau  of  Indian  Affairs  numbered  ap- 
proximately 400,000  in  the  continental  United 
States,  with  an  additional  35,000  natives — Indians, 
Eskimos,  and  Aleuts — in  Alaska.  They  belong  to 
some  200  different  tribes  and  speak  at  least  55  dis- 
tinct languages;  their  customs  and  ways  of  life  are 
varied.  In  general  they  are  a  rural  people,  depend- 
ing upon  livestock,  agriculture,  timber,  and  wage 
work  as  their  principal  sources  of  income. 

In  its  general  policy  the  Indian  Service  seeks  two 
objectives:  (1)  to  assist  the  Indian  people  in  at- 
taining economic  self-sufficiency  through  maximum 
use  of  their  resources  or,  where  resources  are  in- 
adequate, through  vocational  training  and  place- 
ment in  off-reservation  employment;  and  (2)  to 
encourage  Indians  to  move  in  the  direction  of  ulti- 
mate assimilation  in  American  society.  The  attain- 
ment of  these  objectives  is  sought  through  pro- 
grams of  education,  health  improvement,  land  man- 
agement, credit  financing,  .and  basic  resource  de- 
velopment, including  the  construction  of  roads  and 
irrigation  works,  soil  conservation  projects,  forestry 
practices,  and  related  activities. 

Indians  have  made  marked  progress  in  the  use 
of  land  and  other  resources  in  recent  years.  In  the 
years  since  1930  they  have  increased  the  acreage 
of  crop  lands  farmed  by  themselves  by  400,000 
acres.  This  land  formerly  was  leased  by  non-Indi- 
ans. They  have  also  taken  over  from  leasees  more 
than  7,000,000  acres  of  grazing  land.  Indian-owned 
livestock  has  increased  from  171,000  head  (1932) 
to  408,000  head  (1948),  and  total  agricultural  in- 
come increased  in  the  same  period  from  $1,850,000 
to  $49,000,000.  The  organization  of  professional 
agricultural  extension  work  on  Indian  reservations 
in  1931,  together  with  a  shift  in  educational  policy 
which  resulted  in  giving  increased  training  in  agri- 
culture and  stock  raising,  has  resulted  in  the  re- 
habilitation of  12,000  or  more  Indian  families. 

Resource  development  has  been  greatly  aided  by 
the  construction  of  some  250  irrigation  projects  on 
Indian  lands.  These  projects  vary  in  size  from  a 
few  acres  to  areas  exceeding  100,000  acres,  and 
represent  an  investment  of  $60  million.  The  total 
land  supplied  with  water  for  irrigation  use  amounts 
to  540,000  acres.  Surveys  and  investigations  are 
under  way  to  develop  plans  for  all  potentially  ir- 
rigable Indian  lands,  estimated  at  an  additional 
475,000  acres.  The  construction  of  these  projects 
will  add  greatly  to  the  productivity  of  Indian  lands 


INDOCHINA 


262 


INDONESIA 


and  assure  a  subsistence  base  for  at  least  10,000 
families. 

The  schools  operated  by  the  Indian  Service  are 
designed  to  serve  a  community.  The  courses  of- 
fered are  equivalent  or  are  superior  to  the  courses 
of  study  provided  in  the  States  in  which  the  In- 
dian schools  are  located,  but  in  addition  they  have 
been  adapted  to  the  needs  of  each  reservation  or 
each  area,  accordingly  as  the  area  is  devoted  to 
farming,  to  grazing  operations,  or  to  survival  on 
the  Arctic  coast.  The  schools  provide  the  main 
meal  of  the  day  for  many  day  school  students,  they 
furnish  medical  examinations,  they  offer  an  ar- 
rangement by  which  parents  may  obtain  clothing 
for  the  children  on  a  work-payment  basis,  they  sup- 
ply recreational  opportunities,  and  they  serve  as  a 
center  for  adult  community  life  with  shops  and 
home  economics  rooms  in  which  the  parents  may 
repair  furniture  and  farm  equipment,  make  cloth- 
ing, preserve  foods,  and  find  entertainment  and  lei- 
sure reading. 

More  Indian  children  are  in  public  schools  than 
in  Federal  Indian  schools,  the  numbers  being,  re- 
spectively, 32,000  and  27,000.  An  additional  group 
of  7,800  children  attend  private  schools,  mostly 
sectarian.  The  children  attending  Federal  Indian 
schools  are  predominantly  full-blood  and  come 
from  non-English  speaking  homes.  These  factors 
place  a  limitation  on  the  rate  at  which  additional 
Indian  children  can  be  placed  in  public  schools, 
since  ordinarily  the  public  schools  are  not  prepared 
to  cope  with  the  language  handicap. 

A  separate  Indian  medical  service  was  organized 
in  1924,  and  two  years  later  a  cooperative  arrange- 
ment was  entered  into  with  the  United  States  Pub- 
lic Health  Service  by  which  the  latter  agency  pro- 
vides the  medical  director  and  certain  field  physi- 
cians to  the  Indian  Service.  This  has  resulted  in  a 
greatly  improved  level  of  medical  care.  The  Indian 
Service  operates  74  hospitals  and  sanatoriums  in 
the  United  States  and  Alaska,  with  a  total  capacity 
of  4,000  beds.  An  important  program  of  BGG  vac- 
cinations was  initiated  during  the  year,  following 
a  ten-year  experimental  study  of  the  effectiveness 
of  the  vaccine  in  the  prevention  of  tuberculosis. 

Favorable  court  decisions  in  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico  opened  the  door  to  full  voting  privileges 
for  the  approximately  100,000  Indians  in  those  two 
States.  These  decisions  removed  the  last  legal  bar- 
riers interposed  between  Indians  and  their  fran- 
chise rights.  Although  all  Indians  born  within  the 
United  States  were  made  citizens  by  the  Act  of 
June  2,  1924,  as  recently  as  1940  seven  States 
barred  Indians  from  voting  either  by  law  or  by 
interpretations  of  law  resulting  in  disfranchisement. 
Five  of  these  States  had  allowed  their  restrictive 
provisions  to  go  unenforced,  and  with  the  formal 
court  actions  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  in  July 
and  August,  1948,  it  seems  unlikely  that  any  of  the 
States  in  which  discriminatory  laws  remain  on  the 
books  will  attempt  in  the  future  to  enforce  them 
against  their  Indian  citizens. 

William  A.  Brophy  retired  as  Commissioner  of 
Indian  Affairs  in  June,  1948,  having  served  since 
Mar.  15,  1945.  William  Zimmerman,  Jr.,  who  has 
been  Assistant  Commissioner  since  1933,  was 
named  Acting  Commissioner. 

— D'ARCY  McNicKLE 

INDOCHINA.  The  southeastern  peninsula  of  Asia, 
consisting  of  Burma,  French  Indochina,  Siam,  the 
Federation  of  Malaya,  and  Singapore, 

INDONESIA.  Official  name  of  the  former  Netherlands 
East  Indies  adopted  by  an  amendment  to  the 


Dutch  Constitution  effective  Sept.  20,  1948.  Capi- 
tal, Batavia,  on  the  island  of  Java. 

Area  and  Population.  Total  land  area,  733,000 
square  miles  with  an  estimated  1948  population  of 
75,000,000.  Prior  to  the  Dutch  attack  of  December, 
1948,  on  the  Republic  of  Indonesia,  it  comprised 
about  166,000  square  miles  (25  percent  of  Java 
and  80  percent  of  Sumatra)  with  25  million  to  30 
million  inhabitants.  Dutch-controlled  Federal  Ter- 
ritories and  other  non-Republican  areas,  about 
570,000  square  miles  with  approximately  50  mil- 
lion inhabitants.  Total  population  (1930  census): 
60,727,233.  Java  and  Madoera  had  48,416,000  in- 
habitants in  1930;  the  Outer  Provinces,  22,060,- 
000;  there  were  about  250,000  "Europeans,"  in- 
cluding 220,000  Netherlanders  and  Eurasians, 
1,200,000  Chinese,  and  115,000  other  alien  Asiat- 
ics. Over  92  percent  of  the  population  is  rural. 
Chief  cities  ( with  latest  available  populations ) : 
Batavia,  606,800;  Soerabaja  (Surabaya),  390,700; 
Semarang,  217,796;  Bandoeng,  166,815;  Soerakar- 
ta,  165,484;  Djokjakarta  (Jogjakarta),  136,649,  all 
in  Java.  Palembang  (Sumatra),  109,069. 

Education  and  Religion.  At  the  1930  census  93 
percent  of  the  population  was  illiterate;  in  1940, 
90  percent  (estimated).  Total  prewar  primary 
school  enrollment  for  all  Indonesia,  2,200,000.  In 
1948  there  were  in  Dutch-controlled  territories 
2,080,000  children  in  primary  schools  using  the 
Indonesian  language;  197,000  in  Dutch-language 
primary  schools;  50,000  in  Chinese  schools.  In  Re- 
publican territories  there  were  reported  to  be  16,- 
094  primary  schools,  52,800  teachers,  2,728,000 
pupils;  234  secondary  schools,  2,058  teachers,  46,- 
513  pupils.  About  20  percent  of  all  pupils  in  the 
Dutch  areas  attended  missionary  schools.  Higher 
education  was  given  at  the  Bandoeng  technical 
college,  Batavia  University,  the  Soerabaya  medical 
school,  and  newly  established  Republican  institu- 
tions at  Batavia,  Jogjakarta  (2),  Klatten  in  Central 
Java,  Soerakarta,  and  Malang. 

About  60  million  Indonesians  are  Moslems,  2.5 
million  Christians,  1  million  Hindus  (in  Bah"),  and 
the  rest  Buddhists,  Taoists  and  pagans. 

Production  and  Trade.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry/ with  mining,  manufacturing,  forestry,  and 
fishing  of  secondary  importance.  However  the 
copra  industry  supports  some  75  percent  of  the 
population  of  East  Indonesia.  Before  World  War 
II  Indonesia  produced  approximately  the  follow- 
ing percentages  of  the  world's  annual  yields:  qui- 
nine 90,  pepper  85,  kapok  70,  rubber  40,  copra  30, 
palm  oil  25,  fibers  20,  tea  20,  tin  15.  Other  prod- 
ucts are  petroleum,  bauxite,  manganese,  coal,  rice, 
coffee,  sugar,  gums,  insecticides,  cigar  wrappers, 
spices.  Java's  1948  rice  output  was  about  3,800,000 
metric  tons  (4,800,000  prewar).  Tin  production 
exceeded  the  prewar  level;  but  output  of  most 
other  products  was  much  below  the  prewar  rate 
due  to  the  continued  Dutch-Republican  deadlock. 
In  inflated  postwar  currency,  the  1948  industrial 
output  of  the  Dutch  areas  was  estimated  at  $472 
million  ($250  million  prewar). 

In  1939  exports  from  all  Indonesia  were  valued 
at  $420  million,  imports  $284  million.  Exports  from 
Dutch-controlled  areas,  at  inflated  prices,  were 
$130  million  in.  1947  ($58  million  in  1946):  im- 
ports, $269  million  in  1947  ($69  million  in  1946). 

Indonesian  exports  by  volume  as  of  September, 
1948,  averaged  only  25  percent  of  the  prewar  level, 
the  breakdown  of  the  major  export  items  being: 
tin,  87  percent  of  prewar;  rubber  57,  petroleum  48, 
copra  and  vegetable  oils  26,  kapok  23,  sugar  7,  tea 
6,  tapioca  5,  pepper  2. 

Government  For  the  prewar  Dutch  administra- 


INDONESIA 


263 


INDONESIA 


tion,  see  YEAR  BOOK,  Events  of  1947.  Following 
tlie  collapse  of  Japanese  rule  in  August,  1945,  an 
Allied  ( British )  Military  Administration  functioned 
until  November,  1946,  when  the  territories  under 
its  control  were  handed  back  to  Dutch  civil  rule. 
The  Dutch  Acting  Governor  General  administered 
these  territories  under  a  state  of  emergency  with 
the  assistance  of  a  cabinet  of  departmental  chiefs 
and  subject  to  the  directives  of  the  Netherlands 
Government. 

Nationalist  leaders  of  the  Indonesian  Republic 
proclaimed  all  of  Indonesia  independent  on  Aug. 
17,  1945.  In  the  Linggadjati  (Cheribon)  Agree- 
ment signed  Mar.  25,  1947,  the  Netherlands  recog- 
nized the  Republic  as  exercising  the  de  facto  au- 
thority over  Java,  Madoera  and  Sumatra,  However 
the  Dutch-Republican  hostilities  of  July-August, 
1947,  brought  all  of  Madoera,  some  three-fourths 
of  Java,  and  a  fifth  of  Sumatra  under  the  Dutch. 

Beginning  at  the  end  of  1946,  the  Dutch  spon- 
sored the  establishment  of  the  following  federal 
states  and  autonomous  areas  in  territories  under 
their  control: 

DUTCH-SPONSORED  INDONESIAN  STATES 


States 
West  Java  °  (Pasundan)  .  , 
East  Indonesia  &  .  .    . 

Area* 
(Sq.Mi.) 
.  .     14,970 
HO  000 

Pop. 
(1000's) 
13,000 
12000 

«*         Capital 
Bandoeng 
Macassar 

East  Java  ,  . 

9000 

8000 

Soerabaya 

Madoera 

2  000 

2000 

Bangkalan 

East  Sumatra 

35200 

2  000 

JXledan 

South.  Sumatra 

32  200 

2000 

Palembang 

Autonomous 
Areas 
Bandjar  c  

1,200 

Bandjarmasm 

West  Borneo 

58700 

1  100 

Pontlanak 

East  Borneo 

100000 

400 

Balikpapan 

Bangka-Billiton-Riouw 
•A,rcnip6la&o 

10621 

460 

Pangkal  Pinang 

Great  Dayak  e  

.  .     48,500 

200 

South  East  Borneo  c 

4000 

100 

0  Excluding  Bantam.  6  Comprising  all  the  islands  east  of 
Java,  Madoera,  and  Borneo  except  Netherlands  New  Guinea. 
c  According  to  Dutch  official  sources,  Bandjar,  South  East 
Borneo,  Great  Dayak,  and  Kota  Waringin  were  to  be  united 
in  a  federation,  to  be  called  South  Borneo,  d  Estimated. 

Events,  1948.  Hopes  for  a  settlement  of  the  stub- 
born dispute  between  the  Netherlands  and  the  In- 
donesian Republic  rose  in  January  with  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Renville  Agreements.  The  Three- 
Power  Good  Offices  Committee  of  the  UN  Security 
Council  induced  delegations  representing  both  gov- 
ernments on  January  17  to  sign  a  military  truce 
and  a  statement  setting  forth  the  principles  agreed 
upon  for  continuance  of  the  negotiations.  Six  addi- 
tional principles  were  added  to  the  original  eight 
on  January  19. 

The  most  important  points  called  for  (1)  con- 
tinued assistance  of  the  Good  Offices  Committee  in 
working  out  a  settlement  based  on  the  principles 
underlying  the  Linggadjati  Agreement;  ( 2 )  mutual 
guarantees  of  freedom  of  assembly,  speech,  and 
publication;  (3)  restoration  as  soon  as  practicable 
of  economic  activity,  trade,  transportation,  and 
communications  through  the  cooperation  of  both 
parties;  (4)  Dutch  sovereignty  to  continue  through- 
out the  Indies  until  the  Netherlands  transferred  it 
to  the  projected  United  States  of  Indonesia;  (5)  a 
plebiscite  to  be  held  within  six  months  to  one  year 
"to  determine  whether  the  populations  of  the  vari- 
ous territories  of  Java,  Madoera,  and  Sumatra  wish 
their  territory  to  form  part  of  the  Republic  of  In- 
donesia or  of  another  state  within  the  United  States 
of  Indonesia";  (6)  following  such  delineation  of 
the  states,  the  convening  of  a  constitutional  con- 
vention through  democratic  procedures  to  draft  a 
constitution  for  the  US  I. 

This  agreement  permitted  the  Dutch  to  hold  the 


territories  seized  from  the  Republic  during  the 
1947  hostilities  pending  the  plebiscites.  It  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  Republic  in  the  belief  that  the  pleb- 
iscites would  bring  these  and  other  Dutch-held 
areas  back  into  the  Republican  fold.  However  die 
negotiations  again  became  deadlocked  on  the  ques- 
tion of  where  the  plebiscites  should  be  held.  The 
Republic  wanted  to  confine  them  to  the  Dutch- 
held  territories  in  Java,  Madoera  and  Sumatra.  The 
Dutch  insisted  that  they  should  include  Republi- 
can-held territories. 

In  an  effort  to  break  the  deadlock,  the  American 
and  Australian  members  of  the  Good  Offices  Com- 
mittee on  June  10  proposed  that  the  plebiscites  be 
abandoned  in  favor  of  elections  throughout  Indo- 
nesia for  a  constituent  assembly.  This  assembly 
would  fix  the  state  boundaries,  draft  the  US  I  con- 
stitution, and  form  a  provisional  federal  govern- 
ment. The  proposal  was  accepted  by  the  Republic 
in  principle  hut  was  refected  by  the  Netherlands. 
On  July  23  the  Republic  broke  off  the  negotiations 
charging  "Dutch  inaction/' 

Dirfcfj  Prepare  New  Regime.  Despite  Republican 
protests,  the  Dutch  went  steadily  ahead  with  plans 
to  establish  the  USI  without  the  cooperation  of 
the  Republic  if  it  refused  to  enter  on  Dutch  terms. 
The  autonomous  states  of  West  Java,  East  Java, 
Madoera,  East  Sumatra,  and  South  Sumatra  were 
set  up  in  territories  taken  from  the  Republic  in 
1947,  On  March  9  Acting  Governor  General  Hu- 
bertus  J.  van  Mook  installed  a  Provisional  Federal 
Government  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  in 
which  representatives  of  eight  Dutch-sponsored 
states  shared  responsibility  with  Dutch  officials. 
The  Republic  was  invited  to  participate  but  re- 
fused on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  offered  fair 
representation. 

The  Provisional  Government  was  intended  to 
function  until  the  establishment  of  the  USI,  sched- 
uled for  January,  1949.  On  May  12  Van  Mook 
convened  a  conference  of  representatives  of  the 
non-Republican  states  and  minority  groups  at  Ban- 
doeng to  formulate  their  ideas  concerning  the  con- 
stitutional structure  for  the  USI  and  the  'Nether- 
lands-Indonesian Union. 

Impatient  at  the  delay  in  setting  up  an  all-Indo- 
nesian federal  administration,  caused  by  the 
Dutch-Republican  deadlock,  the  Premiers  of  the 
non-Republican  states  at  Bandoeng  proposed  the 
immediate  establishment  of  an  interim  Indonesian 
federal  regime  to  replace  Van  MooFs  provisional 
government  The  Republic  rejected  this  plan  also, 
but  the  Netherlands  Government  was  more  recep- 
tive. At  a  conference  in  The  Hague  with  repre- 
sentatives of  the  non-Republican  states  in  Septem- 
ber and  October,  the  Dutch  agreed  to  the  setting 
up  of  the  proposed  interim  federal  government, 
There  would  be  a  three-man  Indonesian  directorate 
elected  by  the  governments  or  parliaments  of  the 
member  states;  a  federal  council  with  one  member 
from  each  state;  and  a  federal  legislature  with  2 
to  10  representatives  from  each  state,  depending 
on  the  population. 

Bee/  Succeeds  Van  Mook.  Regarding  Acting  Gov- 
ernor General  Van  Mook  as  an  obstacle  to  this 
program,  the  Netherlands  Government  asked  for, 
and  in  mid-October  received,  his  resignation.  A 
number  of  Van  Mook's  chief  associates  in  the  Ba- 
tavia  Provisional  Government  also  resigned.  The 
Netherlands  Government  then  permitted  the  150- 
year-old  office  of  Governor  General  to  lapse.  It 
sent  former  Prime  Minister  Louis  J.  M.  Beel  to 
Batavia  as  its  High  Commissioner  with  orders  to 
speed  the  transfer  of  authority  to  the  Interim  Fed- 
eral Government 


INDONESIA 


264 


INSECT  P£STS  AND  PlAAflT  QUARANTINES 


New  Dvfch'Republican  Talks.  At  the  same  time  The 
Hague  made  a  final  effort  to  secure  the  participa- 
tion of  the  Indonesian  Republic  in  the  proposed 
Indonesian  administration.  After  talks  in  Jogja- 
karta, the  Republican  capital,  by  Foreign  Minister 
Dr.  D.  U.  Stikker,  a  large  delegation  representing 
the  Netherlands  Government  and  political  parties 
flew  to  Java  late  in  November  for  informal  discus- 
sions with  Prime  Minister  Mohammad  Hatta  of 
the  Republic,  Agreement  was  reached  on  most  is- 
sues. But  the  parties  failed  to  agree  on  the  powers 
of  High  Commissioner  Beel  and  on  the  question 
of  the  number  and  status  of  the  Republican  armed 
forces  under  the  interim  regime. 

After  the  Dutch  delegation's  return  to  The 
Hague,  the  Netherlands  Government  on  Decem- 
ber 11  announced  that  negotiations  for  a  settlement 
with  the  Republic  had  broken  down  irretrievably. 
It  stated  that  no  further  discussions  with  the  Re- 
public would  be  held  under  the  auspices  of  the 
UN  Good  Offices  Committee. 

A  Netherlands  decree  of  December  18  estab- 
lished the  interim  federal  government  for  Indone- 
sia, The  same  evening  the  Dutch  Government  an- 
nounced the  opening  of  military -operations  against 
the  Indonesian  Republic  with  the  aim  of  forcing 
it  to  enter  the  interim  government  on  Dutch  terms. 

Without  warning,  Dutch  airborne  troops  cap- 
tured Jogjakarta  December  19  and  took  prisoner 
the  leaders  of  the  Republic,  including  President 
Soekarno,  Prime  Minister  Hatta  and  former  Prime 
Minister  Sutan  Sjahrir,  By  midnight  of  Decem- 
ber 31  Dutch  troops  had  occupied  all  the  chief  cen- 
ters of  the  Republic  in  Java,  The  Netherlands  Gov- 
ernment then  belatedly  accepted  the  cease-fire 
ordered  by  the  United  Nations  Security  Council 
in  Paris  on  December  24.  [In  Sumatra,  where 
Dutch  troops  -had  not  yet  gained  all  their  military 
objectives,  military  operations  continued  into 
1949.] 

In  response  to  another  Security  Council  order 
for  the  immediate  release  of  the  captured  Republi- 
can leaders,  the  Netherlands  Government  agreed 
to  do  this  if  they  undertook  to  "refrain  from  activi- 
ties endangering  public  security." 

The  Republican  chiefs  refused  to  pledge  discon- 
tinuance of  political  activity  in  return  for  their  re- 
lease. Consequently  they  were  held  by  the  Dutch 
in  defiance  of  the  Security  Council  order. 

On  December  29  it  was  announced  that  Nether- 
lands Premier  Willem  Drees  would  go  to  the  In- 
dies at  once  in  an  effort  to  persuade  the  captured 
Republican  leaders  and  the  chiefs  of  the  Dutch- 
sponsored  states  to  cooperate  in  the  interim  federal 
government.  However  the  cabinets  of  the  two  most 
important  non-Republican  states — West  Java  and 
East  Indonesia — had  resigned  iix  protest  at  the 
Dutch  attack  on  the  Republic.  And  large  Republi- 
can forces  in  Java  and  Sumatra  were  beginning 
guerrilla  warfare  against  the  Dutch.  As  the  year 
ended,  prospects  for  an  early  solution  of  the  Dutch- 
Indonesian  conflict  appeared  dim. 

Events  in  the  Republic.  As  in  previous  years,  the 
struggle  for  power  between  the  parties  of  the  left 
and  right  enhanced  the  difficulties  of  the  Republi- 
can government  in  attempting  to  reach  a  settle- 
ment with  the  Netherlands.  The  Socialist  Prime 
Minister,  Amir  Sjarifuddin,  and  his  predominantly 
leftist  cabinet  resigned  January  23  under  bitter 
attacks  from  opposition  leaders  who  charged  them 
with  bowing  to  the  Dutch  in  signing  the  Renville 
truce  agreement 

Vice  President  Mohammad  Hatta  then  formed 
the  Republic's  first  predominantly  rightist  govern- 
ment. But  Hatta's  government  in  turn  was  attacked 


by  Sjarifuddin  and  his  People's  Democratic  Front 
for  trying  to  carry  put  the  Renville  Agreements. 
In  April  Sjarifuddin's  policy  and  the  increasingly 
pro-Soviet  orientation  of  his  People's  Democratic 
Front  provoked  a  split  in  the  Socialist  ranks.  For- 
mer Prime  Minister  Sutan  Sjahrir  and  a  minority 
faction  withdrew  and  formed  a  rival  Socialist  Par- 
ty favoring  neutrality  in  the  Soviet- Western  strug- 
gle. 

Pro-Soviet  sentiment  was  strengthened  by  Mos- 
cow's offer  of  May  12  to  exchange  consuls  with  the 
Republic.  Negotiations  for  the  formation  of  a  "na- 
tional front"  government  with  a  more  pro-Soviet 
and  anti-Dutch  line  were  under  way  when  a  sud- 
den reversal  of  Moscow's  policy  plunged  the  Re- 
public into  civil  war.  This  change  followed  the 
arrival  in  Java  from  Moscow  in  August  of  a  veteran 
Communist  revolutionary  leader  named  Muso,  who 
had  been  exiled  by  the  Dutch  authorities  in  1925. 

Muso  took  over  the  leadership  of  the  Indonesian 
Communist  Party,  which  overnight  absorbed  all 
of  the  leftist  groups  in  the  People's  Democratic 
Front.  He  called  on  Hatta  to  repudiate  the  Renville 
Agreements  and  align  the  Republic  with  the  Soviet 
Union  in  the  struggle  with  "American  imperial- 
ism." When  Hatta  refused,  Muso  launched  a  revolt 
in  mid-September  by  seizing  Madiun,  an  industrial 
center  of  East  Java,  and  establishing  a  "peopled 
republic**  with  himself  as  President  and  Sjarifuddm 
as  Prime  Minister. 

The  bulk  of  the  army  and  the  parties  of  the 
right  and  center  rallied  behind  the  Hatta  govern- 
ment. Madiun  was  recaptured.  The  Stalinist  lead- 
ers and  armed  units  fled  to  the  mountains  but  were 
hunted  down  and  dispersed  during  October  and 
November.  Muso  was  killed.  Sjarifuddin,  Alimin, 
and  most  of  the  other  key  Stalinist  leaders  were 
captured.  The  Communist  Party  was  outlawed.  The 
Hatta  government  announced  that  all  prospects  of 
close  relations  with  Soviet  Russia  had  been  ended 
by  the  revolt. 

With  political  power  in  the  Republic  now  large- 
ly monopolized  by  the  right  and  center  parties, 
Hatta  was  in  a  stronger  position.  But  property  de- 
struction during  the  revolt  and  the  continuance  of 
Dutch  restrictions  on  the  Republic's  internal  and 
foreign  trade  intensified  its  grave  economic  prob- 
lems. These  problems  were  inherited  by  the  Dutch 
when  they  occupied  the  Republic  by  armed  force 
in  December.  — RONALD  STUART  KAIN 

INLAND  WATERWAYS  CORPORATION.  A  Division  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Commerce,  in- 
corporated to  carry  out  sections  of  the  Transporta- 
tion Act  of  1920,  to  make  possible  the  coordination 
of  rail  and  water  transportation  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  organized  along  commercial  lines,  with 
its  own  executive  heads,  traffic,  purchasing,  operat- 
ing, and  accounting  departments.  Through  joint 
rates  with  the  railroads,  it  serves  the  people  in  42 
of  the  48  States.  The  Corporation  does  not  receive 
annual  appropriations  by  Congress.  It  operates 
barge  lines  on  several  important  water  routes.  Pres- 
ident: A.  C.  Irigersoll,  Jr. 

INSECT  PESTS  AND  PLANT  QUARANTINES.  Investiga- 
tions of  new  insecticides  and  new  or  improved 
methods  of  applying  them  continued  to  oe  an 
important  phase  of  entomological  research.  Large- 
scale  cooperative  programs  lor  the  control  of  in- 
sects and  plant  diseases  have  been  greatly  aided 
by  the  use  of  new  materials  and  methods.  The 
problem  of  protecting  our  agriculture  against  for- 
eign pests  has  continued  to  increase  with  the  rapid 
growth  of  world  commerce  since  the  war,  and  dis- 


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265 


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insectization  treatments  have  been  introduced 
where  feasible  to  aid  in  providing  better  safe- 
guards. Informational  activities  were  intensified 
during  the  winter  and  spring  when  the  Bureau 
participated  in  the  Department's  grain-conserva- 
tion program.  Emphasis  was  placed  on  the  presen- 
tation of  facts  that  would  encourage  and  aid  farm- 
ers and  others  in  conserving  food  and  feed  by  con- 
trolling insect  pests. 

Further  Developments  of  New  Insecticides.  Two 
phosphorus  compounds,  tetraethyl  pyrophosphate 
and  the  insecticide  known  as  parathion  (0,0-diethyl 
0-p-nitrophenyl  thiophosphate),  have  shown  con- 
siderable promise  for  many  uses.  Chlordane,  ben- 
zene hexachloride,  chlorinated  camphene,  and  tet- 
raethyl pyrophosphate  are  now  in  commercial  use 
and  are  recommended  for  certain  purposes.  In  lab- 
oratory and  small-scale  field  tests,  parathion  has 
shown  outstanding  effectiveness  against  a  wide 
range  of  insects,  but  it  cannot  be  recommended  for 
practical  use  until  more  is  known  about  its  toxico- 
logical  effects  on  persons  handling  it  and  possible 
hazards  from  residues  on  plants. 

Several  materials  have  been  found  which  when 
added  to  pyrethrum  and  rotenone  increase  their 
effectiveness  so  that  smaller  amounts  can  be  used 
in  insecticide  preparations.  Gas-propelled  aerosols 
have  been  improved,  both  in  formulations  and  in 
devices  for  applying  them.  Considerable  progress 
has  been  made  in  the  development  of  equipment 
for  applying  insecticides  by  airplane,  and  impor- 
tant modifications  were  made  to  improve  the  mist 
blowers  for  applying  concentrated  sprays.  Auto- 
matic equipment  for  applying  insecticidal  aerosols 
to  airplanes  to  free  them  of  hitchhiking  insects 
was  developed.  Such  devices  will  be  operated  by 
the  pilot  and  wiU  insure  the  application  of  the 
full  prescribed  dosage  and  its  distribution  to  all 
parts  of  the  plane. 

Pests  and  Disease  Carriers  Affecting  Man.  Tests 
showed  parathion  to  be  more  effective  than  DDT 
against  adult  yellow-fever  mosquitoes  and  ten 
times  as  toxic  to  larvae  of  the  common  malaria 
mosquito.  Chlordane  and  chlorinated  camphene 
gave  better  protection  than  DDT  against  wood 
ticks,  chiggers,  and  fleas.  Chlordane  has  also  given 
excellent  control  of  ants  in  houses,  and  has  con- 
tinued to  be  more  effective  than  DDT  against 
cockroaches.  This  insecticide  is  now  recommended 
for  use  against  cockroaches,  with  the  usual  pre- 
cautions for  handling  poisons. 

Experimental  work  in  the  control  of  disease- 
carrying  insects,  such  as  lice  and  yellow-fever  mos- 
quitoes, has  shown  that  it  is  possible  in  some  cases 
to  kill  these  pests  by  feeding  to  animals  certain 
chemicals  that  will  make  the  blood  of  the  animals 
deadly  to  the  blood-sucking  pests  that  prey  on 
them. 

Livestock  Pests.  Chlorinated  camphene  and  DDT 
sprays  were  found  to  be  equally  effective  against 
horn  flies,  ticks,  and  lice  on  cattle.  Chlordane  ap- 
pears to  be  effective  against  sheep  ticks.  Progress 
has  been  made  toward  perfecting  a  laboratory 
method  of  testing  chemotherapeutic  agents  for 
the  control  of  catue  grubs. 

lexicological  Studies.  Results  of  the  cooperative 
studies  to  determine  the  amount  of  insecticide 
secreted  in  the  milk  of  dairy  animals  show  that 
small  quantities  of  varying  amounts  of  DDT  and 
TDE  appear  in  the  milk  of  cows  treated  with  these 
insecticides.  The  material  extracted  from  the  milk 
of  a  cow  that  had  received  a  diet  containing  large 
amounts  of  DDT  was  equally  as  toxic  to  flies  and 
mosquito  larvae  as  a  sample  of  the  DDT  fed  to 
the  animal.  Studies  are  under  way  to  determine 


the  extent  to  which  the  newer  insecticides  are  de- 
posited in  the  fat,  meat,  and  organs  of  treated  ani- 
mals. Preliminary  investigations  indicate  that  some 
of  the  materials  may  be  stored  in  the  fatty  tissues. 

Fruit  Insects.  The  widespread  use  of  DDT  for 
codling-moth  control  has  reduced  populations  of 
this  pest;  consequently  fewer  applications  are  now 
required  to  give  satisfactory  control.  The  trend  to 
fewer  sprays  for  codling-moth  control  has  been 
partly  offset  by  the  need  for  additional  sprays  for 
mites,  woolly  apple  aphid,  and  red-banded  leaf 
roller.  Preliminary  tests  with  parathion  gave  ex- 
cellent results  in  the  control  of  many  fruit  insects, 
including  plum  curculio,  orchard  rnites,  pear 
psylla,  codling  moth,  red-banded  leaf  roller,  Cali- 
fornia red  scale,  and  black  pecan  aphid,  and  did 
not  injure  trees  or  fruit  to  which  it  had  been  ap- 
plied. Benzene  hexachloride  was  again  promising 
against  the  plum  curculio  on  peaches  and  against 
woolly  apple  aphid,  but  apples  sprayed  in  mid- 
August  were  off-flavor  when  harvested  in  October. 
In  addition  to  parathion,  several  other  new  ma- 
terials showed  promise  in  mite  control. 

Japanese  Beetle.  Chlordane  was  found  to  be  as 
effective  as  DDT  and  faster  in  controlling  Japanese 
beetle  grubs  in  turf.  It  not  only  killed  the  brood 
of  grubs  present  at  the  time  of  application  in  the 
spring  of  1947,  but  also  eliminated  most  of  the 
subsequent  brood  by  mid-September.  The  Federal 
Japanese  beetle  quarantine  was  revised,  effective 
Apr.  30,  1948,  to  omit  the  boundaries  of  the  heav- 
ily infested  area  and  to  provide  for  the  issuance  of 
administrative  instructions  to  designate  such 
boundaries  on  the  basis  of  seasonal  conditions.  Spe- 
cial efforts  were  made  in  1947  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  the  insect  by  airplanes  flying  from  the 
infested  area. 

European  Corn  Borer.  Losses  caused  by  this  insect 
in  1947  were  the  highest  on  record  in  the  United 
States — 50  million  bushels  of  field  corn,  valued  at 
about  $94  million,  and  $3  million  worth  of  sweet 
corn.  In  1948,  for  the  first  time,  DDT  was  recom- 
mended for  the  control  of  the  insect  on  field  corn. 
Of  special  interest  was  the  demonstration  in  lab- 
oratory and  field  tests  of  absorption  of  insecticides 
by  corn  following  soil  treatment  and  the  resulting 
kill  of  corn-borer  larvae.  Parathion  and  a  water 
soluble  extract  of  Ryatiia  speciosa  were  the  most 
promising  of  a  large  number  tested,  but  the  use  of 
insecticides  in  this  way  is  still  in  the  experimental 
stage.  To  supplement  parasites  of  the  borer  already 
established  in  this  country,  importations  were  made 
from  France  and  Italy  of  the  following  species: 
Apanteles  thompsoni  Lyle,  Campobex  alkae  BL  and 
S.,  and  Micro gaster  tibialis  Nees. 

Grasshoppers.  Sprays  and  dusts  containing  chlo- 
rinated camphene  or  chlordane  applied  to  tall,  suc- 
culent growth  in  alfalfa  fields,  along  roadsides, 
field  margins,  and  similar  areas  gave  satisfactory 
control  of  grasshoppers.  Sprays  were  applied  at  the 
rate  of  1%  Ib.  of  chlorinated  camphene  or  1  Ib.  of 
chlordane  per  acre.  For  dusts,  the  dosages  were 
2  Ib.  of  chlorinated  camphene  or  1^  Ib.  of  chlor- 
dane. On  range,  idle  lands,  or  other  locations  where 
vegetation  is  sparse,  the  standard  sodium  fluosili- 
cate  bait  continued  to  provide  satisfactory  control. 
The  1947  cooperative  control  operations  were  con- 
ducted in  23  central,  midwestern,  and  western 
states,  giving  protection  to  more  than  5,698,000 
acres  of  crops  and  pasture  valued  at  about  $50,- 
369,000. 

Mormon  Crickets.  The  acreage  infested  in  1947 
was  almost  twice  that  in  1946,  but  most  infesta- 
tions were  fairly  remote  from  crop  lands.  Approxi- 
mately 258,000  acres  were  baitea  in  the  combined 


INSECT  PESTS  AND  PLANT  QUARANTINES 


266 


INSECT  PESTS  AND  PLANT  QUARANTINES 


Federal-State  operations  to  protect  151,000  acres 
of  crop  lands  as  well  as  large  areas  of  pasture  and 
range.  The  insects  damaged  29,000  acres  of  crops 
and  347,000  acres  of  range  land, 

Sto red-Grain  Insects.  Entomologists  have  devel- 
oped a  simple'  and  practical  method  of  determining 
hidden  weevil  infestation  in  stored  grain.  By  soak- 
ing grain  samples  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  stain  con- 
taining acid  fuchsin  and  then  washing  them  in 
water,  little  cherry-red  dots  appear  where  weevils 
have  laid  eggs  in  the  kernels.  This  discovery  pro- 
vides an  inexpensive  and  practical  means  of  de- 
termining quickly  and  easily  the  percentage  of 
hidden  weevil  infestation  in  wheat,  corn,  or  grain 
sorghum. 

White-Fringed  Beetle.  There  was  some  extension 
of  infestation  by  this  insect,  now  known  to  occur 
on  approximately  215,000  acres  in  114  counties  in 
the  states  of  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina. 
State  and  Federal  quarantines  were  revised  to  in- 
clude the  newly-found  infested  areas.  Additional 
treatments,  which  include  incorporation  of  DDT 
into  soil  of  nurseries  supplemented  by  DDT  foliage 
sprays  during  the  summer,  were  authorized  as  a 
basis  for  certification  of  plants  and  other  carrier 
materials  for  movement  to  nonregulated  areas. 
Jeep-mounted  concentrated-spray  machines  and 
high-velocity  blowers  are  important  developments 
which  permit  DDT  treatment  of  land  more  rapid- 
ly and  effectively  at  a  lower  cost. 

Vegetable  and  Greenhouse  Insects.  DDT  was  the 
most  effective  insecticide  tested  for  the  control  of 
the  pea  aphid  and  the  pea  weevil  in  the  Pacific 
Northwest  Insecticidal  sprays  were  superior  to 
dusts  when  applied  by  aircraft  to  control  the  pea 
aphid,  but  dust  gave  better  results  when  applied 
by  ground  machines.  An  aerosol  containing  10  per- 
cent of  parathion,  with  methyl  chloride  as  the  pro- 
pellent gas,  gave  exceptional  control  of  a  number 
of  greenhouse  pests  without  injury  to  plants.  Aero- 
sols containing  tetraethyl  pyrophosphate  gave  out- 
standing results  against  the  two-spotted  spider 
mite  and  other  mites;  also  aphids  and  other  green- 
house pests.  For  example,  those  containing  10  per- 
cent of  hexaethyl  tetraphosphate  (tetraethyl  pyro- 
phosphate  content  20  percent)  were  very  effective 
against  spider  mites,  aphids,  the  greenhouse  white- 
fly,  and  the  Mexican  mealybug;  however,  plant 
injury  followed  their  use  on  a  number  of  varieties 
of  chrysanthemums,  roses,  and  tomatoes.  Appro- 
priate safeguards  have  been  outlined  and  these 
aerosols  are  now  in  commercial  use. 

Studies  on  piperonyl  compounds  added  to  low- 
rotenone-content  dust  indicate  that  an  increase  in 
toxicity  of  such  dusts  to  the  Mexican  bean  beetle 
results.  In  laboratory  and  field  tests  on  the  com- 
parative performance  of  the  three  soil  fumigants, 
ethylene  dibromide,  1,1-dichloro-l-nitroetihane, 
and  dichloropropane-dichloropropylene  (D-D) 
mixture,  for  wireworm  control  in  Washington,  it 
was  determined  that  soil  temperatures,  soil  sorp- 
tion,  and  diffusion  affected  the  degree  of  efficacy 
of  these  materials.  The  D-D  mixture  was  most  effi- 
cient at  all  temperatures  encountered  in  compact 
soil,  but  the  other  two  fumigants  were  more  effi- 
cient in  loose  soil.  Benzene  hexachloride  is  the  most 
efficient  and  cheapest  material  yet  tested  for  wire- 
worm  control,  but  its  use  in  the  soil  may  cause  off- 
flavor  of  root  crops.  This  effect  may  be  prolonged 
for  one  or  more  seasons. 

Golden  Nemntode.  The  control  program,  begun  in 
1941,  and  conducted  cooperatively  with  the  State 
of  New  York,  has  been  intensified.  A  detailed  sur- 
vey was  carried  on  at  Hicksville,  L  J.,  to  determine 


the  limits  of  the  area  infested  in  and  around  the 
original  center  of  infestation.  At  the  end  of  June, 
1948,'  the  Long  Island  infestations  comprised  6,154 
acres  of  potato  land  on  150  properties  in  Nassau 
and  Suffolk  Counties.  This  area  is  still  the  only 
known  center  of  infestation  in  the  "United  States. 
More  than  half  the  area  shown  by  the  survey  to 
be  infested  was  withdrawn  from  production  in 
1948.  No  potatoes  or  tomatoes,  which  are  the  only 
cultivated  hosts  of  the  nematode,  were  grown  on 
land  known  to  be  infested  at  planting  time. 

Cotton  Insects.  The  boll  weevil  caused  much  less 
damage  in  1947  than  in  1946  in  9  of  the  12  states 
where  it  occurs.  Only  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
and  South  Carolina  was  the  damage  greater  than 
in  the  previous  year.  Calcium  arsenate,  benzene 
hexachloride,  chlorinated  camphene,  and  chlor- 
dane  have  each  proved  to  be  effective  for  con- 
trolling the  boll  weevil  in  certain  areas.  Dusts  con- 
taining 20  percent  of  chlorinated  camphene  and 
at  least  40  percent  sulfur,  or  5  percent  of  DDT, 
3  percent  of  the  gamma  isomer  of  technical  ben- 
zene hexachloride  and  40  percent  of  sulfur  have 
controlled  the  boll  weevil,  bollworm,  cotton  aphid, 
cotton  leafworm,  cotton  fleahopper,  and  red  spider 
mites. 

During  the  year  pink  bollworrn  infestations  were 
generally  light,  largely  as  a  result  of  the  coopera- 
tive control  program.  The  Federal  pink  bollworm 
quarantine  was  amended  Aug*  22,  1947,  to  remove 
the  quarantine  from  Louisiana  and  to  place  addi- 
tional counties  of  Texas  under  quarantine.  The 
quarantine  was  again  amended  June  11,  1948,  to 
include  43  counties  in  Texas  and  8  counties  in 
southwestern  Oklahoma  found  infested  in  the  fall 
of  1947.  This  is  the  first  time  the  pink  bollworm 
has  been  found  in  Oklahoma.  DDT  used  as  a  10- 
percent  dust  has  proved  to  be  the  most  effective 
insecticide  that  has  been  found  for  control  of  this 
insect.  Cultural  practices  are  still  considered  to  be 
the  best  method  of  controlling  this  pest. 

Cooperative  work  with  Mexico  was  continued 
during  the  year.  Fixed-planting  and  stalk-destruc- 
tion dates  in  the  Matamoros  area  to  conform  to 
those  applicable  in  the  adjacent  lower  Rio  Grande 
Valley  of  Texas  were  again  enforced  by  the  Mex- 
ican authorities, 

Forest  Insects.  Surveys  conducted  in  the  fall  of 
1947  indicated  that  the  Douglas-fir  tussock  moth 
control  program  in  Idaho,  Washington,  and  Ore- 
gon had  been  so  successful  that  no  further  spraying 
should  be  necessary. 

Aerial  surveys  have  marked  a  step  forward  in  the 
field  of  forest-insect  detection.  An  aerial-reconnais- 
sance survey  of  7,750,000  timbered  acres  in  Ore- 
gon and  Washington  was  completed  in  1947. 
About  710,000  acres  of  spruce  budworm  infesta- 
tion, 70,000  acres  of  Douglas-fir  tussock  moth  in- 
festation, and  several  small  outbreaks  of  other 
species  were  mapped,  and  the  general  status  of  the 
western  pine  beetle  was  recorded.  All  this  was 
done  in?  about  30  hours  of  flying  time — less  than 
2  weeks*  work  for  obtaining  information  that  would 
have  taken  a  ground  crew  most  of  the  summer  to 
acquire.  The  cost  was  far  below  that  required  for 
earlier  ground  surveys. 

New  types  of  portable  power  sprayers  mounted 
on  jeeps  or  weapon  cjarriers  were  used  in  1948  for 
applying  orthodichlorobenzene  in  fuel  oil  (1:6) 
to  control  the  Black  Hills  beetle  and  the  mountain 
pine  beetle  in  South  Dakota,  Wyoming,  and  Idaho. 
These  new  types  proved  vastly  superior  to  hand 
sprayers  formerly  used. 

Work  was  continued  on  the  development  of 
aerial  spraying  for  control  of  forest  insects.  Prelimi<* 


INSECT  PESTS  AND  PLANT  QUARANTINES 


267 


INSURANCE 


nary  steps  were  taken  to  study  the  possibility  of 
improving  the  spray  pattern  by  varying  the  posi- 
tion of  outlets  in  the  air  stream  around  the  plane. 

Parasites  were  responsible  for  much  of  the  sharp 
reductions  in  spruce  budworm  populations  in  the 
Adirondack  area  of  New  York. 

Except  in  parts  of  southeastern  Massachusetts, 
gypsy-moth  populations  were  at  the  lowest  in  sev- 
eral years.  A  total  of  265,445  acres  in  New  Eng- 
land, New  York,  and  Pennsylvania  were  treated 
with  DDT  in  the  Federal-State  cooperative  gypsy- 
moth  control  program. 

Benzene  hexachloride  continued  to  give  promis- 
ing results  for  control  of  ambrosia  beetles  attack- 
ing logs  and  lumber. 

Mist  blowers  were  used  to  apply  DDT  to  a 
small  number  of  large  elms  to  control  bark  beetles. 
Approximately  1  gallon  was  required  for  satisfac- 
tory coverage  of  larger  trees. 

It  was  successfully  demonstrated  that  a  leaf- 
hopper,  Scaphoideus  luteolus  Van  Duzee,  trans- 
mits to  elm  trees  the  virus  causing  phloem  necro- 
sis. The  insect  has  been  found  throughout  the  re- 
gion where  phloem  necrosis  is  known  to  occur. 

Bee  Culture.  An  important  advance  in  bee  breed- 
ing was  the  discovery  that  subjecting  virgin  queens 
to  carbon  dioxide  gas  causes  them  to  lay  eggs. 
Queens  so  treated  lay  drone  eggs.  They  can  later 
be  mated  with  their  own  sons  to  produce  a  50- 
percent  inbred  Fa  generation.  With  this  treatment, 
together  with  artificial  insemination,  closer  in- 
breeding may  be  accomplished.  Sulfathiazole  fed 
in  sugar  sirup  continued  to  retard  the  development 
of  American  f oulbrood,  but  does  not  cure  it.  A  con- 
tainer of  plastic  cloth  has  been  devised  for  shipping 
package  bees  by  air. 

Foreign  Parasite  Introduction.  Shipments  of  two 
species  of  leaf-feeding  beetles,  Chrysolina  spp., 
totaling  500,000,  were  received  from  Australia  for 
colonization  in  northern  California,  Oregon,  and 
Washington  against  the  Klarnath  weed.  Many  colo- 
nies of  these  beetles  released  in  California  in 
1945-46  are  now  well  established  and  are  show- 
ing definite  promise  of  checking  this  weed  pest 

White  Pine  Blister  Rust.  In  1947,  2,4-dichloro- 
phenoxy acetic  acid  (2,4-D),  was  used  on  a  prac- 
tical basis  to  destroy  Ribes  roezli,  the  principal  al- 
ternate host  of  the  rust  in  the  Sugar  Pine  forests 
o£  California.  The  spray  is  fully  effective  only  while 
the  plants  are  in  an  actively  growing  stage.  Blister 
rust  was  reported  for  the  first  time  on  white  pine 
in  Tennessee  and  in  the  North  Central  States  there 
was  a  large  southward  extension  of  the  rust  on 
ribes.  During  1947  more  than  22  million  ribes 
bushes  were  destroyed  on  2  million  acres,  of  which 
nearly  half  represented  initial  eradication. 

Black  Stem  Rust.  Crop  losses  to  small  grains  from 
stem  rust  were  light  in  1947.  During  the  year  more 
than  13  million  barberry  bushes  were  destroyed 
on  3,598  properties,  covering  an  area  of  23,251 
square  miles  in  the  18  states  comprising  the  bar- 
berry eradication  area.  Tests  were  conducted  with 
some  of  the  new  chemicals  in  an  effort  to  find  a 
cheaper  herbicide  for  eradicating  native  barberry 
bushes  and  for  treatment  of  planted  bushes  with- 
out endangering  nearby  shrubbery  and  trees.  Pre- 
liminary observations  showed  some  species  of  bar- 
berry to  be  susceptible  to  severe  damage  by  for- 
mulations of  2,4-D.  Ammonium  sulfamate  in  solu- 
tion gave  satisfactory  kill  on  others.  However,  fur- 
ther work  is  needed  before  their  general  use  can 
be  recommended. 

Foreign  Plant  Quarantines.  Of  44,300  ships  in- 
spected during  the  year,  24  percent  were  found  to 
be  carrying  prohibited  agricultural  material.  More 


than  90  percent  of  the  arriving  ships  came  directly 
from  foreign  ports.  Of  57,756  airplanes  inspected 
at  47  ports  of  entry,  26  percent  were  found  to  be 
carrying  prohibited  plant  material.  Inspection  in 
Hawaii  of  all  aircraft  and  ships  upon  arrival  and  of 
all  planes  before  departing  for  the  mainland  was 
continued.  The  disinsectization  of  airplanes  was 
also  continued.  The  rapid  build-up  of  oriental 
fruit-fly  populations  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  has 
increased  the  importance  of  preflight  inspection 
and  disinsectization  of  all  planes  destined  for  con- 
tinental United  States.  Nearly  137,000  intercep- 
tions of  prohibited  or  restricted  plants  and  plant 
products  were  made  during  1948,  an  increase  of 
14  percent  over  1947,  The  demand  for  plant  quar- 
antine services  in  connection  with  the  inspection 
and  certification  of  plants  and  plant  products  for 
export  increased  markedly  in  1948. 

— P.  N.  ANNANT> 

INSURANCE.  The  year  1948  was  a  difficult  one  for 
most  insurance  companies,  since  many  of  the  prob- 
lems which  confronted  them  could  not  have  been 
foreseen  even  three  years  ago.  And  although  gen- 
erally, the  volume  of  production  was  higher  than 
in  1947,  the  year  ended  on  an  uneasy  note  due  to 
troublesome  rumblings,  as  mentioned  below  in  the 
report  on  Life  Insurance.  The  investment  problem 
remained  a  problem  throughout  the  year,  with 
little  hope  of  any  material  change  in  the  picture, 
particularly  in  view  of  the  year-end  weakness  of 
the  market. 

Casualty.  The  Number  One  trouble  spot  in  the 
casualty  field  was  in  Automobile  Insurance.  For, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  lowest  traffic  death  rate 
was  recorded  in  1948,  there  is  still  much  work  to 
be  done  to  lower  highway  fatalities  to  an  absolute 
minimum.  Recently,  Maj.  Gen.  Philip  B.  Fleming, 
Federal  Works  Agency  administrator,  said  that  in 
1948^  the  President's  "Highway  Safety  Confer- 
ence" set  a  goal  of  50  percent  reduction  in  the 
traffic  death  rate  from  12  to  6  per  100  million 
vehicle-miles. 

General  Fleming  listed  a  combination  of  factors 
responsible  for  high  traffic  death  rates.  He  said: 
"(a)  lax  enforcement  of  traffic  regulations;  (b)  in- 
adequate driver  license  laws;  (c)  insufficient  edu- 
cation on  the  principals  of  highway  safety;  (d)  an 
overly  large  mileage  of  obsolete  highways  not  de- 
signed for  the  traffic  which  they  are  now  carrying, 
and  (e)  lack  of  uniformity  in  traffic  regulations 
and  in  street  and  highway  warning  and  directional 
signs/*  This  program  should  aid  companies  in  re- 
ducing the  staggering  number  of  claims  paid  last 
year. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  automobile  volume  of 
stock  companies  will  show  an  increase  of  42  per- 
cent over  1947,  although  the  increase  last  year  was 
36.4  percent  over  1946,  this  causing  much  hat- 
waving  at  the  time.  During  the  year  just  closed, 
there  was  a  sharp  increase  in  the  cost  of  Plate  Glass 
protection,  and  some  further  tightening  of  some 
of  the  broad  clauses  formerly  in  our  burglary  poli- 
cies. This  was  due  to  the  claim  losses  in  these  two 
fields,  these  reflecting  postwar  crime  conditions 
and  the  continued  up-swing  in  robberies  and  bur- 
glaries. 

Most  companies  are  well  pleased  with  the  1948 
results,  and  those  who  are  students  of  trends,  have 
their  fingers  crossed  when  they  discuss  1949. 

Fire.  During  the  summer  of  1948,  Monsanto 
Chemical  Company  of  St.  Louis  received  the  sum 
of  $17,312,000  from  insurance  companies,  in  pay- 
ment of  losses  suffered  Apr.  16,  1947,  in  the  Texas 
City  disaster,  this  being  the  largest  single  insurance 


INSURANCE 


268 


INTER-AMERICAN  AfFAlRS 


payment  in  history.  When,  in  1947,  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  estimated  that  fire 
losses  in  the  United  States  had  totaled  $692,635,- 
000— it  was  felt  that  this  figure,  23%  percent  over 

1946,  would  be  a  peak  one.  Therefore,  it  is  good 
to  note  that  the  1948  total  will  show  an  over-all 
decline  of  approximately  10  percent.  These  encour- 
aging trends  downward  cannot  help  but  relieve 
the  ultra-conservative  attitude  of  fire  underwriters 
toward  the  acceptance  of  new  business. 

Inland  Marine,  Jewelry,  Fur  and  Personal  Prop- 
erty Floaters,  as  well  as  similar  policies,  are  written 
by  what  is  called  Inland  Marine  companies.  In 

1947,  these  companies  showed  an  18  percent  u> 
crease  over  the  1946  figures,  when  they  hit  a  pre- 
mium income  of  approximately  $172,000,000,  In 

1948,  the  increase  was  judged  to  be  about  10  per- 
cent, thus  bringing  these  companies  within  easy 
reach  of  the  enviable  $200  million  figure. 

With  business  reportedly  leveling  off  in  some 
lines,  and  with  the  acute  unrest  prevailing  in  for- 
eign affairs,  insurance  men  cannot  foresee  clearly 
the  trend  of  premium  production  for  1949,  Rate 
increases  will  help,  of  course,  and  since  the  insur- 
able  values  are  not  as  yet  declining,  and  particular- 
ly since  the  volume  of  merchandise  being  shipped 
over  the  nation's  railroad  tracks,  airfreight  lines 
and  trucks,  has  in  no  way  been  reduced,  Inland 
Marine  men  are  rather  optimistic  as  to  the  future. 

Ufa.  Effective  Jan.  1,  1948,  the  most  important 
change  in  many  a  year  was  made  by  167  U.S.  life 
insurance  companies  representing  96  percent  of  the 
total  life  insurance  owned,  when^these  companies 
adopted  the  new  Commissioners*  1941  Standard 
Ordinary  Mortality  Table.  At  the  same  time,  be- 
cause of  reduced  earnings  on  their  investments, 
the  life  companies  were  obliged  to  reduce  their 
interest  factor  from  3  percent  to  2%  percent  and 
in  some  cases  as  low  as  2%  percent  and  2  percent. 

This  reduction  meant  generally  higher  premium 
rates  particularly  on  retirement  income  and  en- 
dowment plans.  However,  due  to  increased  values, 
the  net  cost  of  many  of  these  policies  will  hereafter 
be  lower.  It  was  also  felt  more  appreciably  in  1948 
that  the  taking  into  the  life  insurance  ranks  of  for- 
mer  GFs  was  having  a  real  effect.  In  most  cases, 
the  men  are  taken  on  under  a  commission  and 
salary  arrangement,  and  the  salary  continues  while 
they  are  being  trained.  As  a  whole,  these  men  are 
working  out  satisfactorily  and  producing  results  of 
which  they  may  well  be  proud. 

In  view  of  the  increased  activity  of  companies  in 
the  multiple  housing  field,  there  was  written  into 
the  National  Housing  Act,  new  administrative  rules 
and  regulations,  which  will  give  this  type  invest- 
ment impetus,  and  which  accounts  for  the  renewed 
interest  of  powerful  life  insurance  companies  iu 
this  work. 

As  for  the  total  life  insurance  produced  in  1948, 
we  once  more  find  an  increase  or  about  5  percent. 
When  one  realizes  the  billions  of  dollars  of  life 
insurance  presently  in  force,  such  an  increase  is 
far  greater  than  the  insignificant  percentage  figure 
might  indicate.  This  speaks  volumes  for  the  con- 
fidence on  the  part  of  the  public  in  our  life  insur^ 
ance  companies,  and  warrants  the  repetition  here 
of  the  words  of  Mr.  Leroy  A.  Lincoln,  President  of 
the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company,  who 
said; 

"During  the  five-year  period  of  low  employment 
and  low  incomes  and  of  heavy  borrowing  by  pol- 
icyowners, life  insurance  companies  paid  to  them 
and  to  their  beneficiaries,  the  stupendous  sum  of 
$15,000  million.  The  significance  of  this  figure  is 
not  in  its  size.  The  unforgettable  lesson  which  is 


taught  is  that,  in  a  period  of  apprehension  en- 
gendered by  bankruptcies  in  almost  every  segment 
of  the  national  economy,  the  confidence  of  the  peo- 
ple in  the  institution  of  life  insurance  was  never 
shaken.  That  confidence  was  fully  justified  by  the 
magnificent  record  during  these  trying  years,  which 
record  will  bear  comparison  with  the  record  of 
any  line  of  business,  whether  under  the  aegis  of 
Government  or  otherwise/* 

But,  in  spite  of  these  heartening  words,  early 
in  December,  1948,  a  Congressman  made  a  re- 
newal of  the  suggestion  that  possibly  it  would  be  a 
food  idea  for  the  Government  to  take  over  the 
illions  of  dollars  in  assets  which  the  great  life  in- 
surance companies  of  America  possess.  It  is  difficult 
for  some  men  to  understand  why  such  vast  funds 
are  retained  by  companies,  when  the  money  could 
be  put  to  work  building  a  school  in  Chicken  Foot 
Corner  or  a  bridge  across  the  creek  in  Squeedunk. 
And  whereas  such  ideas  have  sprung  up  before 
and  died  a  natural  death,  it  simply  adds  another 
headache  to  the  heads  of  insurance  companies. 

In  this  connection,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
at  the  thirty-sixth  annual  meeting  of  the  United 
States  Chamber  of  Commerce  last  spring,  the  en- 
croachment of  the  Federal  Government  into  any 
phase  of  the  insurance  business  "which  is  now,  or 
can  be,  successfully  conducted  by  the  privately  op- 
erated insurance  companies"  was  vigorously  scored, 
Marine,  Members  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Marine  Underwriters  seem  perfectly  content  with 
the  results  for  1948,  and  the  reason  for  this  may 
be  best  shown  through  the  approximations  given 
in  the  accompanying  table. 


Premiums  Written 
$  32,000,000 
35,000,000 
35,000,000 
32,500,000 
90,000,000 
119,000,000 
150,000,000 

Year 
1021 
1925 
1930 
1935 
1940 
1945 
1948 

Losses  Paid 
$29,000,000 
28,000,000 
14,000,000 
20,000,000 
25,000,000 
48,000,000 
65,000,000 

The  figures  are  practically  self-explanatory  and 
give  an  excellent  picture  of  why  most  marine  men 
are  pleased  with  the  results  for  the  year, 

Suretyship.  Again  in  1948,  as  in  1947,  there  were 
several  startling  defalcations  which  received  great 
publicity  in  the  daily  press.  Most  prominent  of 
these  was  the  $657,000  defalcation  by  Court  Judge 
Pellecchia  of  Newark,  N.J.  As  the  result  of  this,  a 
bond  cancellation  bill  was  signed  by  Acting  Gover- 
nor Summerill  requiring  that  bonds  may  not  be 
cancelled  for  any  reason  unless  notice  of  intention 
to  cancel  is  filed  with  the  New  Jersey  Department 
of  Banking  and  Insurance  at  least  five  days  before 
the  effective  date  of  cancellation.  But,  the  over-all 
experience  in  the  fidelity  and  surety  field  continued 
to  pe  good  in  1948  and  there  was  a  decided  under- 
writing profit  for  the  year. 

It  was  a  boom  year  in  contract  bond  writings, 
due  to  highway  building  programs  and  the  con- 
struction of  a  great  number  of  new  plants,  schools, 
business  buildings,  tunnels,  bridges  and  private 
buildings.  In  some  types  of  bonds,  such  as  bankers 
and  brokers  bonds,  there  were  losses  because  of 
increased  claims  and  many  rate  reductions  in  the 
last  few  years,  Some  underwriters  feel  that  the 
present  rate  structure  on  this  type  of  business  will 
not  hold  up  much  longer.  But,  the  general  picture 
for  the  year  was  particularly  satisfactory. 

L. 


INTER-AMERICAN  AFFAIRS,  Institute  of  (HAA).  The  In- 
stitute of  I&ter-Amerlcan.  Affairs  is  administering 


INTER-AMERICAN  AFFAIRS 


269 


INTER-AMERICAN  AFFAIRS 


programs,  in  collaboration  with  the  governments  of 
the  other  American  republics,  in  public  health, 
sanitation,  education  and  agriculture.  During  1948 
the  Institute  conducted  25  such  cooperative  pro- 
grams, spread  over  16  Latin  American  republics. 

The  present  Institute  of  Inter-American  Affairs 
was  chartered  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
as  a  wholly-owned  Government  corporation  in  an 
Act  approved  on  Aug.  5,  1947 — Public  Law  369, 
Eightieth  Congress,  First  Session.  The  Institute  is 
the  successor  of  two  Government  corporations 
(known  as  The  Institute  of  Inter- American  Affairs 
and  the  Inter-American  Educational  Foundation, 
Inc. )  which  had  been  chartered  under  the  laws  of 
Delaware  under  authority  granted  by  Congress  to 
the  former  Coordinator  of  Inter-American  Affairs. 

The  statute  chartering  the  Institute  directs  the 
Institute  to  seek  to  strengthen  friendship  and  un- 
derstanding among  the  peoples  of  the  American 
republics  through  collaboration  with  the  govern- 
ments of  the  other  republics  on  programs  and  proj- 
ects in  public  health,  sanitation,  agriculture,  edu- 
cation and  related  fields.  The  Institute  is  governed 
by  a  Board  of  Directors  appointed  by,  and  respon- 
sible to,  the  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States. 

In  its  work  the  Institute  is  confined  to  coopera- 
tion with  the  other  American  republics  in  the  de- 
velopment of  their  basic  economies.  It  has  become 
quite  clear  that  the  strongest  need  of  the  Latin 
American  republics  is  for  assistance  and  guidance 
on  what  are,  perhaps,  the  three  most  fundamental 
problems  of  any  nation:  public  health,  education, 
and  food  supply.  It  is  to  these  objectives  that  the 
recent  work  of  the  Institute  has  been  confined. 

The  cooperative  programs  administered  by  the 
Institute  during  1948  were,  as  follows: 

Health    and    Sanitation    Division.    Since    1942    the 

Health  and  Sanitation  Division  of  The  Institute  of 
Inter-American  Affairs  has  carried  out  cooperative 
health  programs  on  a  bilateral  basis  with  18  Latin 
American  countries.  An  international  agreement 
called  the  Basic  Agreement,  negotiated  between 
an  Institute  representative  and  a  representative  of 
the  Latin  American  government,  states  the  finan- 
cial, material,  and  personnel  contributions  to  be 
made  by  each  country  participating  in  the  partic- 
ular agreement. 

Upon  the  basis  of  the  original  agreement,  the 
work  in  each  country  has  been  carried  out  through 
the  medium  of  the  "Cooperative  Health,  Service" 
which  is  an  agency  set  up  within  the  framework 
of  the  local  ministry  of  health  and  is  composed 
chiefly  of  national  personnel,  but  under  the  profes- 
sional guidance  of  a  "field  party"  of  United  States 
personnel,  including  one  or  more  doctors,  engi- 
neers, nurses,  entomologists,  etc.,  who  work  to  con- 
vey the  technical  'Icnow-how"  of  public  health 
work  to  the  Latin  Americans.  By  actually  partici- 
pating in  public  health  projects,  Latin  American 
technicians  acquire  a  practical  knowledge  of  pub- 
lic health  work. 

The  objective  of  the  cooperative  work  is  the 
general  improvement  of  pubnc  health  in  the  west- 
ern hemisphere,  with  emphasis  on  preventive  rather 
than  therapeutic  medicine-— i.e.  on  the  eradication 
of  disease  by  removing  the  causes  of  disease. 

Among  the  different  categories  of  activities  car- 
ried out  by  the  Cooperative  Health  Services  to 
achieve  this  end  are:  (1)  Environmental  Sanita- 
tion, which  includes  the  building  of  water  supply 
systems,  sewerage  disposal  systems,  slaughter- 
houses, laundries,  and  privies; 

(2)  the  establishment  of  health  facilities  such 
as  Health  Centers  which  provide  numerous  serv- 
ices including  assistance  and  instruction  in  mater- 


nal and  child  care — prenatal,  delivery,  postnatal, 
pre-school,  and  school  age  child  care;  instruction 
in  personal  hygiene  and  home  sanitation;  tubercu- 
losis and  venereal  disease  control;  immunizations; 
dental  hygiene;  and  laboratory  examinations;  over 
2  million  visits  have  been  made  to  these  Health 
Centers; 

(3)  the  control  of  specific  endemic  diseases  such 
as  yaws,  typhus  fever,  schistosomiasis,  pinta,  on- 
chocerciasis,  typhoid  fever,  hookworm,  and  ma- 
laria, this  control  encompassing  such  activities  as 
making  surveys,  conducting  research  and  experi- 
ments on  ways  of  eradicating  the  vectors  of  disease 
and  of  treating  infected  persons; 

(4)  health  education  of  the  lay  public  to  teach 
the  people  the  causes  of  disease  and  how  to  avoid 
infection,  through  the  media  of  pamphlets,  posters, 
lectures,  health  clubs,  radio  programs,  and,  most 
particularly,   a  series  of  animated   cartoons  find 
live-action  health  films;  the  latter  have  been  very 
effective  in  presenting  the  basic  facts  of  health 
and  sanitation  to  the  general  public; 

(5)  training  of  professional  and  technical  per- 
sonnel, locally  and  in  the  United  States,  to  carry 
on  the  public  health  work  when  United  States 
direction  is  withdrawn. 

Primarily,  the  projects  undertaken  by  the  Coop- 
erative Health  Services  were  demonstration  proj- 
ects, carried  out  in  strategic  areas,  to  instruct  the 
local  people  and  interest  them  in  carrying  on  an 
expanded  program.  By  1948  it  was  evident  that 
the  public  health  movements  in  the  respective 
Latin  American  countries  where  the  Health  and 
Sanitation  Division  had  field  parties  were  gaining 
momentum  as  more  and  more  communities  and 
community  leaders  saw  the  economic  and  personal 
advantages  of  a  sanitary  environment. 

The  one-sided  financial  contributions  (in  manj 
instances,  the  contribution  of  the  Latin  Americar 
country  is  8  or  10  times  that  of  the  United  States] 
give  strong  evidence  of  increasing  Latin  America: 
interest  in  public  health  as  do  the  ambitious  plan! 
for  expanded  nationwide  programs  which  the  re 
spective  national  governments  are  strongly  en 
dorsing. 

In  addition  to  the  long-range  achievements  o 
the  Health  and  Sanitation  program,  there  are  im 
mediate  benefits  to  the  people  from  this  publii 
health  program.  It  is  estimated  that  about  21 
million  people  have  been  materially  affected  by  th< 
environmental  sanitation  activities  of  the  Coopera- 
tive Health  Services. 

During  1948,  agreements  to  continue  the  coop- 
erative health  programs  were  consummated  with 
Bolivia,  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  El  Sal- 
vador, Guatemala,  Haiti,  Honduras,  Mexico,  Para- 
guay, Peru,  Uruguay,  and  Venezuela.  Programs 
with  Costa  Rica,  Dominican  Republic,  Nicaragua, 
and  Panama  had  been  completed  prior  to  1948. 

At  the  end  of  1948,  the  Cooperative  Health 
Services  had  undertaken  approximately  1,950  sep- 
arate public  health  activities,  with  more  than  1,350 
of  them  completed.  These  included  the  construc- 
tion of  about  80  health  centers,  70  hospitals,  23 
dispensaries,  70  water  supply  systems;  45  sewerage 
disposal  systems,  and  about  200  general  community 
sanitation  projects  such  as  privy  construction  in 
rural  areas;  extensive  use  of  DDT  for  malaria  con- 
trol; 135  permanent  malaria  control  projects  which 
involved  extensive  drainage  and  filling  of  mosquito 
breeding  areas;  assistance  to  nurse  training  pro- 
grams in  13  countries;  more  than  100  local  training 
courses  for  visiting  nurses,  midwives,  sanitarian?; 
health  education  teachers,  and  countrywide  healdi 
education  projects  in  almost  all  of  the  countries. 


INTER-AMERICAN  AFFAIRS 


270 


INTER-AMERICAN  AFFAIRS 


During  1948  about  130  United  States  personnel 
in  Latin  America  were  working  with  approximately 
300  Latin  American  doctors,  engineers,  nurses,  and 
other  technical  and  professional  personnel  and 
about  5600  unskilled  workmen. 

Education  Division.  The  work  of  the  Education 
Division  is  entirely  in  the  field  of  fundamental  edu- 
cation. It  includes  those  elements  of  education 
which  are  designed  to  bring  to  the  masses  of  the 
people  ( as  distinguished  from  the  few  who  progress 
to  the  university  and  post-graduate  levels)  the 
essential  instruction  and  skills  necessary  to  enable 
them  to  read  and  write,  to  understand  the  prob- 
lems of  their  communities  and  contribute  to  titieir 
solution,  to  improve  the  health  and  living  standards 
of  their  communities,  and  to  learn  the  fundamental 
skills  which  will  enable  them  to  add  to  their  earn- 
ing power  and  thus  contribute  also  to  the  economic 
strength  of  their  communities. 

The  form  which  the  work  takes  in  an  individual 
country  depends  upon  local  conditions,  needs,  and 
expressed  desires.  These  are  cooperative  programs, 
on  a  bilateral  basis,  and  it  is  an  essential  part  of 
the  Division's  philosophy  that  its  program  is  one 
of  helping  neighbors  to  help  themselves,  in  build- 
ing stronger  national  systems  of  education  based 
upon  local  mores  and  conditions,  rather  than  the 
introduction  of  an  alien  system. 

In  one  country,  the  expressed  need  may  be  for  a 
revamping  of  rural,  elementary  education;  in  an- 
other it  may  be  the  organization  or  reorganization 
of  vocational  training;  in  another,  the  strengthening 
of  vocational  agriculture;  in  another,  a  combination 
of  activities. 

The  work  is  carried  on  through  a  "Servicio,"  an 
important  device  for  carrying  out  cooperative  proj- 
ects. The  Servicio  is  a  part  of  the  Ministry  of  Edu- 
cation (or  of  Agriculture),  staffed  chiefly  by  em- 
ployees of  the  Ministry.  In  most  instances,  however, 
the  Special  Representative  of  the  Education  Divi- 
sion of  the  IIAA  is  named  by  the  Minister  as  Direc- 
tor of  the  Servicio,  so  that  in  his  relations  with  the 
Minister  he  acts  substantially  as  an  official  of  the 
Ministry. 

The  Education  Division  during  1948  had  coop- 
erative programs  with  immediate  and  long-range 
objectives  in  11  Latin  American  countries.  Alto- 
gether, it  had  sent  about  80  educational  specialists 
from  die  United  States  to  work  with  the  Ministers 
of  Education  in  the  other  republics  on  programs 
of  vocational,  health,  and  rural  education,  and 
teacher  training  and  secondary  education.  During 
its  entire  operations,  nearly  600,000  books,  pamph- 
lets, maps,  charts  and  other  teaching  materials 
have  been  made  available  to  field  parties  in  the 
other  American  republics.  Also,  200  trainees  and 
distinguished  educators  from  those  countries  have 
been  Thought  to  the  United  States  for  lectures, 
study,  and  other  educational  activities. 

Each  country  has  its  own  peculiar  education 
problems,  and  consequently  the  type  of  program 
developed  by  the  Division  has  varied  from  country 
to  country,  in  accordance  with  those  problems.  All, 
however,  provide  for:  (1)  The  sending  of  a  small 
group  of  United  States  educational  specialists  to 
work  with  the  Minister  of  Education  and  his  staff. 
(2)  The  development  of  teaching  materials.  (3) 
The  bringing  of  distinguished  educators,  super- 
visors and  teachers  to  the  United  States  to  lecture, 
study,  and  to  participate  in  national,  state  and  local 
educational  programs. 

F««d  Supply  division.  In  1948  the  Food  Supply 
Division  completed  six  and  one-half  years  of  opera- 
tion in  other  American  republics.  Established  in 
wartime  to  meet  emergency  food  problems,  the 


Division  now  combats  chronic  unfavorable  condi- 
tions in  the  other  Americas.  Need  for  agricultural 
assistance  of  this  kind  by  the  United  States  was 
recognized  in  July,  1945,  by  the  Third  Inter-Amer- 
ican Conference  on  Agriculture  at  Caracas,  Vene- 
zuela. 

Immediate  objectives  of  Food  Supply  program 
are  (1)  to  increase  production  of  food  crops  ur- 
gently needed  for  local  consumption;  ( 2 )  to  dem- 
onstrate tested  practices  and  standards  which  lead 
to  a  higher  level  of  living  and  increased  purchasing 
power  for  the  people. 

The  Food  Supply  program  has  been  carried  for- 
ward in  the  other  American  republics  under  the 
technical  supervision  of  field  parties  from  the  Unit- 
ed States.  The  technicians  in  these  field  parties 
have  usually  functioned  as  members  o£  a  Servicio, 
or  cooperative  service  staffed  by  representatives  of 
both  the  United  States  and  the  host  country.  Since 
1942  agreements  have  been  signed  with  Brazil, 
Costa  Rica,  El  Salvador,  Haiti,  Honduras,  Nicara- 
gua, Panama,  Paraguay,  Peru,  and  Venezuela. 
These  agreements  outline  die  type  of  work  to  be 
undertaken  in  the  respective  countries,  and  provide 
for  the  execution  of  specific  project  agreements 
describing  in  detail  the  work  to  be  done. 

Present  project  operations  are  classified  into  two 
categories,  as  follows:  (1)  Development  and  Utili- 
zation of  New  Areas:  reclamation  through  irrigation 
and  drainage;  opening  new  lands  through  improve- 
ment of  transportation  systems;  construction  of 
storage  facilities;  ground  water  development;  de- 
velopment of  fisheries;  (2)  Intensification  of  Exist- 
ing Agriculture:  introduction  of  modern  equipment 
and  materials  on  the  farm;  encouragement  of  im- 
proved farm  and  home  management,  including  in- 
troduction of  better  crops,  livestock,  and  insect  and 
disease  control  measures;  conservation  of  soil,  in- 
cluding reforestation;  introduction  of  credit  systems 
for  farm  operations;  training  of  nationals. 

During  1948  agricultural  programs  were  carried 
on  in  the  countries  of  Costa  Rica,  Haiti,  Paraguay, 
and  Peru. 

( a )  In  Costa  Rica  emphasis  was  placed  on  coun- 
trywide expansion   of  the   agricultural  extension 
service  and  the  incorporation  within  it  of  home 
demonstration  work. 

(b)  In  Haiti  the  development  work  in  the  Arti- 
bonite  Valley  continued,  laying  the  groundwork 
for  the  proposed  $4  million  Export-Import  Bank 
loan  for  rehabilitation  of  the  150,000  acre  area.  In 
the  Fonds  Parisien  valley  a  project  was  completed 
providing  for  the  irrigation  of  1,500  acres  of  farm 
land  in  a  once  important  agricultural  region.  Em- 
phasis is  now  turning  toward  development  of  an 
agricultural  extension  service,  which  will  follow  up 
the  construction  work  with  instruction  in  modem 
farming  methods. 

(c)  In  Paraguay,  1948  saw  a  considerable  ex- 
pansion of  the  Institute's  technical  staff  to  allow 
for  more  rapid  development  of  the  supervised 
credit  activity,  and  for  greater  emphasis  on  coloni- 
zation, rice  production,  and  training  of  Paraguayan 
technicians.  Operation  of  the  National  Institute  of 
Agronomy,  the  27,000-acre  livestock  ranch,  the 
model  dairy  and  pasteurization  plant,  and  technical 
supervision  of  the  credit  project  continued. 

(d)  In  Peru,  where  30  agricultural  extension 
offices  and  several  machinery  pools  span  the  coun- 
try, steady  progress  was  made  toward  integration 
of  those  basic  projects.  The  chief  problem,  the  lack 
of  technicians  and  agricultural  mechanics,  is  being 
overcome  by  increased  emphasis  on  training.  A 
beginning  was  made  in  a  project  for  overall  eco- 
nomic development  in  the  Carnand  Valley  in  co- 


INTER-AMERICAN  DEFENSE  BOARD 


271 


INTERNATIONAL  BANK  FOR  RECONSTRUCTION 


operation  with  the  Education  and  Health  and  Sani- 
tation Divisions  of  the  Institute. 

S.  MYER 


INTER-AMERSCAN  DEFENSE  BOARD.  An  organization 
composed  of  military  delegates  representing  the 
Armies,  Navies,  and  Air  Forces  and  appointed 
By  each  of  the  Governments  of  the  21  American 
Republics.  It  was  established  in  accordance  with 
Resolution  XXXIX  of  the  Meeting  of  Foreign  Min- 
isters at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  in  January,  1942, 
and  given  permanency  by  Resolution  XXXTV  of 
the  Ninth  International  Conference  of  American 
States  held  in  Bogota,  Colombia,  in  April,  1948. 
The  Board  is  an  autonomous  international  organi- 
zation within  the  framework  of  the  Organization 
of  American  States.  Its  mission  is  to  study  and  to 
recommend  to  the  Governments  of  the  American 
Republics  measures  necessary  for  closer  military 
collaboration  looking  toward  the  defense  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere.  Plenary  sessions  are  held 
twice  monthly  in  Washington,  D.C.  Chairman: 
Lt  Gen.  Willis  D.  Crittenberger;  Coordinator: 
Brig.  Gen.  L.  Mathewson;  Secretary  General:  Colo- 
nel Douglas  B.  Smith. 

INTERGOVERNMENTAL  MARITIME  CONSULTATIVE  OR- 
GANIZAT1ON,  Preparatory  Committee  for  the.  Estab- 
lished by  the  United  Nations  Maritime  Conference 
at  Geneva,  Feb.  19  to  Mar.  6,  1948,  held  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  the  first  permanent  intergovern- 
mental organization  in  the  field  of  maritime  trans- 
port The  conference  grew  out  of  a  report  by  the 
United  Nations  Temporary  Transport  and  Com- 
munications Commission,  issued  in  May,  1946, 
stating  that  there  was  no  permanent  intergovern- 
mental organization  in  the  shipping  field  although 
there  was  a  large  number  of  international  agree- 
ments concerned  with  shipping.  Acting  upon  the 
report,  the  UN  Economic  and  Social  Council  took 
steps  toward  the  32-nation  Maritime  Conference. 

The  conference  adopted  the  Convention  for  the 
Intergovernmental  Maritime  Consultative  Organi- 
zation (IMCO),  which  will  come  into  force  when 
ratified  by  21  nations,  of  which  seven  shall  each 
have  a  total  of  at  least  one  million  gross  tons  of 
shipping.  The  conference  also  prepared  a  draft 
agreement  under  which  the  IMCO  will  operate  as 
a  specialized  agency  of  the  United  Nations;  the 
agreement  subsequently  was  approved  by  the  UN 
General  Assembly  and  will  come  into  effect  when 
accepted  by  tiie  IMCO  Assembly.  Finally,  the  Con- 
ference established  a  12-nation  Preparatory  Com- 
mitttee  to  make  the  necessary  administrative  ar- 
rangements for  the  permanent  IMCO. 

The  permanent  organization  will  seek  to  pro- 
mote intergovernmental  cooperation  in  the  techni- 
cal problems  of  international  shipping;  to  encour- 
age general  adoption  of  the  highest  standards  for 
the  safety  and  efficiency  of  maritime  navigation; 
to  seek  the  removal  of  discriminatory  action  and 
unnecessary  restrictions  by  governments  affecting 
international  shipping;  and  to  consider  unfair  re- 
strictive practices  by  shipping  concerns.  The  IMCO 
will  work  toward  these  ends  through  an  Assembly 
of  all  members,  which  will  meet  at  least  every  two 
years;  a  Council  of  16  nations,  eight  of  which  will 
represent  the  providers  of  international  shipping 
and  eight  the  consumers;  a  Maritime  Safety  Com- 
mittee, which  will  consider  such  matters  as  the 
construction  and  equipment  of  vessels,  handling 
of  dangerous  cargoes,  maritime  safety  require- 
ments, etc.;  and  a  Secretariat  headed  by  a  Secre- 
tary-General. 

The  Preparatory  Committee,  which  held  its  first 


meeting  at  Geneva  Mar.  6,  1948,  and  a  second  ses- 
sion at  Lake  Success,  N.Y.,  Nov.  30  and  Dec.  1, 
1948,  has  confined  its  work  to  procedural  matters. 
At  its  second  session  the  Committee  approved  a 
proposed  budget  of  £20,000  per  annum  for  the 
first  2  years  of  the  permanent  organization,  the 
headquarters  of  which  will  be  in  London.  To  cover 
expenses  of  the  interim  period,  the  Preparatory 
Committee  requested  a  UN  loan  of  $50,000. 

The  Committee  also  adopted  a  provisional  agen- 
da and  draft  rules  of  procedure  for  the  first  IMCO 
Assembly,  took  other  action  to  fulfill  the  functions 
assigned  to  it,  and  agreed  to  meet  again  imme- 
diately before  the  first  IMCO  Assembly  or  at  an 
earlier  date  should  urgent  and  important  questions 
arise.  The  secretariat  for  the  Committee's  interim 
work  is  being  provided  by  the  UN  Division  of 
Transport  and  Communications. 

The  following  governments  are  members  of  the 
Preparatory  Committee:  Argentina,  Australia,  Bel- 
gium, Canada,  France,  Greece,  India,  Netherlands, 
Norway,  Sweden,  United  Kingdom,  U.S.  A. 

Chainnan,  J.  V.  Clyne,  Canada;  Executive  Sec- 
retary, Branko  Lukac,  Director,  UN  Division  of 
Transport  and  Communications. 

(This  article  was  prepared  by  the  Specialized 
Agencies  Section,  United  Nations  Department  of 
Public  Information.) 

INTERIOR,  U.S.  Department  of.  A  Department  of  the 
U.S.  Government,  created  in  1849  and  charged 
with  the  responsibility  for  advancing  the  domestic 
interests  of  the  people  of  the  United  States.  In 
1948  it  comprised  the  following  principal  branches: 

Office  of  the  Secretary 

Bureau  of  Land.  Management 

Bureau  o£  Indian  Affairs 

Geological  Survey 

Bureau  of  Reclamation 

Bureau  of  Mines 

National  Park  Service 

Fish  and  Wildlife  Service 

Bonneville  Power  Administration 

Southwestern  Power  Administration 

Puerto  Rico  Reconstruction  Administration 

Oil  and  Gas  Division 

"U.S.  Board  on  Geographic  Names 

Division  of  Territories  and  Island  Possessions 

Division  of  Power 

Office  of  Land  Utilization 

Office  of  the  Solicitor 

Division  of  Information 

Division  of  Budget  and  Administrative  Management 

Division  of  Administrative  Services 

Division  of  Personnel  Supervision  and  Management 

Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  1948:  Julius  A,  Krug; 
Under  Secretary,  Oscar  L.  Chapman. 

INTERNAL  REVENUE,  Bureau  of.  A  division  of  the  U.S. 
Department  of  the  Treasury,  created  in  1862.  It 
supervises  the  determination,  assessment,  and  col- 
lection of  all  internal  revenue  taxes  and  enforces 
internal  revenue  laws.  In  addition  it  is  charged 
with  the  administration  of  various  taxes  which 
have  a  regulatory,  rather  than  a  revenue  purpose, 
such  as  fufly  automatic  firearms  and  oleomargarine. 
Collections  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1948, 
included:  Corporation  and  individual  income  and 
excess  profits  taxes,  $31,172,190,533;  Social  Secu- 
rity and  Railroad  Retirement  taxes,  $2,381,342,353; 
Miscellaneous  taxes,  $8,311,009,409,  Major  divi- 
sions are  the  Income  Tax  Unit,  Alcohol  Tax  Unit, 
Accounts  and  Collections  Unit,  Miscellaneous  Tax 
Unit,  Employment  Tax  Unit,  Technical  Staff,  In- 
telligence Unit,  and  Excess  Profits  Tax  Council: 
Headquarters:  Washington  25,  D.C.  Commission- 
er: George  J.  Schoeneman. 

INTERNATIONA1  BANK  FOR  RECONSTRUCTION  AND 
DEVELOPMENT.  An  organization  conceived  at  the 


CIVIL 


272 


INTERNATIONAL  INFORMATION 


Bretton  Woods  Conference  in  July,  1944.  It  came 
into  official  existence  Dec.  27,  1945,  when  its  Arti- 
cles of  Agreement  received  ratification  by  the  nec- 
essary number  of  member  nations.  As  of  December, 
1948,  forty-five  nations  were  members  of  the  Bank. 
The  function  of  the  Bank  is  to  facilitate  the  in- 
ternational flow  of  capital  with  the  objective  of 
increasing  world  production.  Its  purposes,  in  sum- 
mary, are:  (1)  To  assist  in  the  reconstruction  of 
economies  disrupted  by  war,  their  reconversion  to 
peacetime  needs,  and  the  development  of  under- 
developed countries;  (2)  To  promote  private  in- 
vestment whenever  feasible  and  supplement  it 
where  necessary;  (3)  To  advance  the  longe-range 
growth  of  international  trade  and  improvement  in 
world  living  standards. 

The  subscribed  capital  stock  of  the  Bank,  in 
currencies  of  all  member  nations,  is  approximately 
$8,000  million,  but  only  20  percent  is  paid-in  cap- 
ital and  of  this  amount  only  about  $730  million  is 
in  the  form  of  U.S.  dollars  immediately  available 
for  lending;  80  percent  of  the  capital  stock  con- 
stitutes a  reserve  fund  subject  to  ^call  if  necessary 
to  meet  the  Bank's  own  obligations.  The  major 
part  of  the  Bank's  loanable  funds  will  come  from 
the  sale  of  its  bonds  to  private  investors. 

On  Nov.  IS,  1947,  an  agreement  between  the 
Bank  and  the  United  Nations  came  into  effect  de- 
fining the  Bank's  position  as  a  specialized  inter- 
national agency,  emphasizing  its  cooperative  role 
in  relation  to  tie  United  Nations  while  preserving 
its  independent  judgment  with  regard  to  all  loan 
operations.  See  FOBEIGN  EXCHANGE. 

On  Mar.  17,  1947,  John  J.  McCloy,  former  U.S. 
Assistant  Secretary  of  War,  took  office  as  the  new 
president  of  the  Bank;  and  Robert  L.  Garner, 
former  financial  vice-president  of  General  Foods 
Corporation,  became  its  vice-president  and  general 
manager.  The  Management  is  responsible  to  a 
board  of  14  Executive  Directors  chosen  by  the 
member  nations;  final  authority  is  vested  in  the 
Bank's  Board  of  Governors,  consisting  of  the  high- 
est financial  official  of  each  member  nation. 

As  of  Nov,  15,  1948,  the  Bank  had  approved 
loans  totaling  $525  million  to  the  following  bor- 
rowers: France,  The  Netherlands,  Denmark,  Lux- 
embourg, Chile,  and  four  leading  Dutch  shipping 
companies.  It  was  conducting  active  loan  discus- 
sions concerning  other  productive  projects  in  some 
20  member  countries,  For  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  1948,  the  Bank  reported  a  net  excess  of 
income  over  expenses  of  approximately  $4  million. 
Headquarters:  1818  H  St.  NW,  Washington  25, 
D,C.  The  Bank's  Marketing  Department  has  offices 
at  33  Liberty  St.,  New  York  5,  N.Y. 

INTERNATIONAL  CIVIL  AVIATION  ORGANIZATION 
(ICAO).  This  organization  came  into  being  on  Apr. 
4,  1947,  when  the  required  number  of  states 
(26)  had  ratified  the  Convention  on  International 
Civil  Aviation.  The  ICAO  replaced  the  Provi- 
sional International  Civil  Aviation  Organization 
(PICAO),  which  had  been  operating  since  June  6, 
1945.  Both  ICAO  and  PICAO  derive  their  powers 
from  agreements  drawn  up  by  the  Conference  on 
International  Civil  Aviation  held  at  Chicago,  No- 
vember-December, 1944.  Fifty- one  nations  were 
members  of  the  ICAO  on  Nov.  1, 1948. 

The  duties  and  objectives  of  ICAO  are  summed 
up  in  the  Preamble  to  the  Convention,  as  follows: 
to  insure  that  "international  civil  aviation  may  be 
developed  in  a  safe  and  orderly  manner  and  that 
international  air  transport  services  may  be  estab- 
lished on  the  basis  of  equality  of  opportunity  and 
operated  soundly  and  economically."  The  principal 


organs  of  the  ICAO  are  the  Assembly,  composed  of 
all  member  states,  which  meets  annually;  the  Coun- 
cil, comprised  of  21  member  nations  elected  by  the 
Assembly,  which  meets  continuously,  and  the  Sec- 
retariat, which  is  recruited  on  a  broaa  international 
basis.  There  are  five  special  bodies  which  are  sub- 
sidiary to  the  Council:  Air  Navigation  Committee, 
Air  Transport,  Legal,  Joint  Support  of  Air  Naviga- 
tion Services,  and  Finance  Committees. 

Under  the  terms  of  an  agreement  approved  by 
the  United  Nations  General  Assembly  on  Dec.  14, 

1946,  and  by  the  First  Assembly  of  the  Interna- 
tional  Civil  Aviation   Organization   on   May   13, 

1947,  ICAO  is  a  Specialized  Agency  related  to  the 
United  Nations. 

Principal  Officials:  President  of  the  Council,  Ed- 
ward Warner;  Secretary  General,  Albert  Roper9 
Deputy  Secretary  General,  A.  R.  McComb;  Assist- 
ant to  President,  M.  H.  Higgins;  External  Rela- 
tions Officer,  E.  R.  Marlin;  Public  Information  Of- 
ficer, R»  A.  Draper.  Address:  Dominion  Square 
Building,  Montreal,  Canada. 

Outstanding  Events  of  1948.  During  1948  the 
ICAO  Council  approved  the  first  six  of  a  series 
of  International  Standards  and  Recommended  Prac- 
tices to  guide  the  conduct  of  international  civil  air 
transport.  The  Standards  were  on  the  licensing 
of  aviation  personnel,  on  aeronautical  maps  and 
charts,  rules  of  the  air,  dimensional  practices, 
meteorological  codes,  and  operation  of  scheduled 
international  aircraft.  Implementation  of  these 
standards  will  be  an  important  step  toward  the 
achievement  of  world-wide  unification  of  practices 
and  procedures  in  international  civil  aviation,  one 
of  the  principal  objectives  of  ICAO. 

Another  major  event  during  1948  was  the  con- 
clusion of  an  agreement  between  the  Government 
of  Iceland  and  ICAO  for  the  international  financing 
of  air  navigation  facilities  in  Iceland  needed  for 
the  safe  and  efficient  operation  of  air  transport 
,across  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  ICAO  Second  Assembly  was  held  in  Geneva 
in  June  and  Regional  Air  Navigation  Meetings 
were  held  in  May  (for  the  European-Mediterra- 
nean region  and  the  North  Atlantic  region,  in 
Paris)  an  July  (for  the  North  Pacific  region,  in 
Seattle)  and  in  November  (for  the  South-East 
Asia  region,  in  New  Delhi). 

Headquarters:  North  American  Office,  Dominion 
Square  Building,  Montreal,  P.Q.,  Canada.  Euro- 
pean and  African  Office:  60  bis  Avenue  dlena, 
Paris  16e,  France.  Middle  East  Office:  10  Sharia 
Lotfallah,  Apt,  7,  Zamalek,  Cairo,  Egypt.  Far  East 
and  Pacific  Office:  522  Little  Collins  Street,  Mel- 
bourne, Australia.  South  American  Office:  Apartado 
680,  Lima,  Peru. 

INTERNATIONAL  FINANCE,  Office  of.  An  Office  of  the 
United  States  Treasury  Department,  established 
July  15,  1947,  by  Treasury  Department  Order  86, 
of  July  10,  1947,  which  abolished  the  Division  of 
Monetary  Research  in  the  Office  of  the  Secretary 
and  transferred  all  its  functions,  duties,  and  per- 
sonnel, as  well  as  those  of  the  Foreign  Funds  Con- 
trol, to  the  new  Office.  The  Office  of  International 
Finance,  through  its  Director,  is  responsible  for 
advising  and  assisting  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury in  the  formulation  and  execution  of  policies 
and  programs  relating  to  the  international  financial 
and  monetary  field.  Acting  Director:  George  H. 
Willis. 

INTERNATIONAL  INFORMATION  cmd  EDUCATIONAL 
EXCHANGE  (OH  and  OEX).  The  agencies  within  the 
U.S.  Department  of  State  whose  function  is  "to 


INTERNATIONAL  INFORMATION 


273 


INTERNATIONAL  LABOR  ORGANIZATION 


promote  a  better  understanding  of  the  United 
States  in  other  countries."  Oil  carries  out  infor- 
mation activities  for  this  purpose  by  means  of 
short-wave  radio,  press,  and  motion  pictures.  OEX 
performs  the  educational  and  cultural  functions 
through  overseas  libraries  of  the  United  States 
Government,  exchange-of-persons  programs  with 
other  countries,  projects  involving  scientific  and 
cultural  cooperation  with  other  governments,  and 
related  activities. 

These  programs  received  legislative  authoriza- 
tion on  Jan.  27,  1948,  with  passage  of  the  Smith- 
Mundt  Act  by  the  80th  Congress.  This  Act  and  its 
subsequent  appropriation  made  possible  an  ex- 
pansion of  existing  facilities  and  permitted  the  re- 
sumption of  several  functions  suspended  during  the 
previous  year  of  1947  as  a  result  of  inadequate  ap- 
propriations. 

U.S.  Government  radio  broadcasts  were  carried 
on  24  program  hours  a  day  to  Europe,  the  Far  East 
and  Latin  America  over  36  short-wave  transmitters 
to  an  audience  estimated  at  80  million.  Some  800 
16-millimeter  projectors  and  40  mobile  units  were 
operated  abroad  to  insure  maximum  distribution 
of  motion  pictures,  which  are  seen  by  an  estimated 
900  million  persons  a  month.  Most  of  the  films  are 
made  by  private  organizations  and  adapted  to  over- 
seas use  by  Oil,  which  also  prepares  short  film 
subjects,  documentaries,  and  newsreels.  Daily  news 
and  feature  material  for  overseas  publication  was 
supplemented  during  1948  by  several  additional 
regional  services  as  well  as  an  expanded  flow  of 
photographic  material.  The  Russian-language  Ame- 
rika,  published  by  this  agency,  continued  to  prove 
popular  in  the  Soviet  Union,  where  50,000  copies 
were  sold  each  month. 

Cultural  activities,  including  the  maintenance  of 
libraries  and  exchange  of  persons  with  other  na- 
tions, were  similarly  expanded.  Sixty-two  libraries 
had  been  established  abroad  as  of  December,  1948, 
with  21  additional  libraries  being  proposed  by 
June,  1949.  In  Latin  America  28  cultural  centers 
received  asistance,  as  did  270  American-sponsored 
schools  providing  American-type  elementary  and 
secondary  education.  The  exchange  of  students, 
scholars  and  technicians  has  been  continued  in 
Latin  America,  and  has  been  authorized  for  other 
parts  of  the  world  by  the  Smith-Mundt  Act  and 
Fulbright  Act  of  the  79th  Congress.  In  conjunction 
with  foreign  governments  and  25  technical  bureaus 
within  ten  agencies  of  the  U.S.  Government,  co- 
operative exchange  projects  have  been  carrried  on 
with  other  countries  in  scientific  and  technical 
fields  such  as  agricultural  development,  public 
health,  geological  and  mineral  investigations,  and 
labor  and  safety  standards. 

The  Government  continued  during  1948  to  seek 
the  widest  participation  of  private  agencies  in  in- 
ternational information  and  education.  More  than 
500  American  organizations  now  engage  in  some 
form  of  international  education  activity. 

George  V.  Allen,  a  career  diplomat,  was  appoint- 
ed to  direct  these  activities  as  Assistant  Secretary 
of  State  for  Public  Affairs.  Lloyd  Lehrbas  is  Direc- 
tor of  the  Office  of  International  Information;  Wil- 
liam C.  Johnstone,  Jr.  is  Director  of  the  Office  of 
Educational  Exchange.  Division  chiefs  include 
Charles  W.  Thayer,  International  Broadcasting  Di- 
vision; Herbert  T.  Edwards,  International  Motion 
Pictures  Division;  Jack  C.  McDermott,  Interna- 
tional Press  and  Publications  Division;  Francis  J. 
Colligan,  Acting  Chief,  Division  of  Exchange  of 
Persons;  and  L.  S.  Morris,  Acting  Chief,  Division 
of  Libraries  and  Institutes.  Haldore  Hanson  directs 
the  program  of  scientific  and  technical  cooperation. 


INTERNATIONAL  LABOR  ORGANIZATION  (ILO).  An  as- 
sociation of  60  nations  financed  by  governments 
and  democratically  controlled  by  government,  la- 
bor, and  management  representatives.  The  ILO's 
constitution  was  a  part  of  the  treaties  of  peace  after 
the  first  World  War.  Established  in  1919,  it  func- 
tioned in  the  interwar  period  as  an  autonomous  as- 
sociate of  the  League  of  Nations.  The  ILO  is  now 
a  specialized  agency  of  the  United  Nations  under 
an  agreement  approved  by  the  International  Labor 
Conference  in  September,  1946,  and  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  United  Nations  in  December, 
1946.  The  purposes  of  the  Organization  are  set 
forth  in  its  constitution,  the  preamble  of  which 
states  that  "lasting  peace  can  be  established  only 
if  it  is  based  on  social  justice." 

In  order  to  achieve  the  objectives  outlined  in 
its  constitution  and  in  the  declaration,  the  ILO 
seeks  by  international  action  to  improve  labor 
conditions,  raise  labor  standards  and  promote  eco- 
nomic and  social  stability.  It  brings  together  repre- 
sentatives of  labor,  management,  and  governments 
to  formulate  minimum  labor  standards.  These 
standards  are  embodied  in  special  treaties  which 
are  called  International  Labor  Conventions  and  in 
Recommendations.  The  conventions,  which  re- 
quire a  two-thirds  majority  for  adoption  by  the 
conference,  are  submitted  to  member  countries  for 
ratification.  They  cover  a  wide  range  of  subjects 
including:  hours  of  work,  minimum  age  for  em- 
ployment, workmen's  compensation,  working  condi- 
tions of  women  and  young  workers,  social  insurance, 
social  standards  in  non-metropolitan  territories,  va- 
cations with  pay,  industrial  safety,  statistics,  mari- 
time employment,  and  migration.  As  of  December, 
1948,  a  total  of  90  conventions  and  83  recom- 
mendations have  been  adopted.  More  than  1,000 
individual  ratifications  have  been  registered  on  the 
conventions  by  member  governments.  Under  the 
obligations  imposed  by  the  ILO's  constitution, 
member  governments  are  required  to  bring  con- 
ventions adopted  by  the  conference  to  the  atten- 
tion of  their  national  legislatures.  If  ratified,  the 
government  assumes  an  obligation  to  bring  its 
legislation  into  line  with  the  provisions  of  the  con- 
vention and  to  report  annually  to  the  ILO  on  the 
measures  taken.  Recommendations  adopted  by  the 
conference  are  submitted  to  the  national  legisla- 
tures for  information  and  guidance. 

The  International  Labor  Conference  at  which 
these  conventions  are  adopted  meets  annually. 
Among  the  duties  of  the  delegates  is  the  election 
at  three-year  intervals  of  the  governing  body,  which 
is  made  up  of  16  government,  8  management,  and 
8  labor  representatives.  The  governing  body  selects 
items  for  the  agenda  of  the  conference,  appoints  the 
director-general,  supervises  the  work  of  the  ILO 
and  of  its  various  committees  and  commissions. 
Chairman  of  the  Governing  Body:  Shamaldharee 
LaU,  Secretary  of  the  Ministry  or  Labor  in  India. 
Employer  Vice  Chairman:  Sir  John  Forbes  Watson 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  Worker  Vice  Chairman: 
Leon  Jouhoux  of  France. 

The  third  part  of  the  Organization's  machinery  is 
the  International  Labor  Office,  It  acts  as  the  per- 
manent secretariat  of  the  Organization,  prepares 
reports  for  the  conference,  issues  publications,  and 
lends  technical  assistance  to  member  governments, 
Director  General:  David  A.  Morse.  Headquarters 
of  the  International  Labor  Office:  Geneva,  Switz- 
erland. 

The  1948  International  Labor  Conference  held 
in  San  Francisco  in  June  adopted  four  conventions 
covering  freedom  of  association,  employment  serv- 
ice organizations,  and  two  revisions  of  conventions 


INTERNATIONAL  MONETARY  FUND 


274 


INTERNATIONAL  REFUGEE  ORGANIZATION 


passed  by  earlier  sessions  of  the  conference  on 
night  work  of  women  and  young  persons.  The 
Conference  also  approved  a  formal  Recommenda- 
tion designed  to  supplement  provisions  of  the  con- 
vention on  employment  services.  It  agreed  that  at 
next  year's  conference  consideration  should  be 
given  to  international  minimum  standards  govern- 
ing (1)  vocational  guidance,  (2)  labor  clauses 
in  public  contracts,  (3)  the  full  and  prompt  pay- 
ment of  workers'  wages,  and  (4)  the  application 
of  the  principles  of  the  right  to  organize. 

During  1948  other  important  ILO  meetings,  be- 
side the  Conference  and  regular  meetings  of  the 
Governing  Body  included:  Industrial  Committees 
on  Chemicals,  Petroleum  Production  and  Refining, 
and  Textiles;  the  Joint  Maritime  Commission;  the 
Permanent  Migration  Committee;  the  Preparatory 
Technical  Conference  on  Safety  in  Factories;  and 
the  Preparatory  Conference  on  Labor  Inspection  in 
Asian  Countries  at  Kandy,  Ceylon. 

INTERNATIONAL  MONETARY  FUND.  The  International 
Monetary  Fund  was  established  in  accordance  with 
Articles  of  Agreement  adopted  by  representatives 
of  44  governments  at  the  United  Nations  Mone- 
tary and  Financial  Conference,  Bretton  Woods, 
N.H.  in  July,  1944.  The  Articles  of  Agreement  came 
into  force  on  Dec.  27,  1945,  and  at  the  time  of  the 
first  meeting  of  the  Executive  Directors  on  May  6, 
1946,  38  signatory  countries  had  become  members. 
Subsequently,  3  more  original  signatories  of  the 
Bretton  Woods  Agreement  also  became  members, 
and  6  others,  making  a  total  membership  today  of 
47. 

The  main  purposes  of  the  Fund,  as  set  out  in 
the  Articles  of  Agreement,  are:  (1)  to  promote 
international  monetary  cooperation  through  a  per- 
manent institution  which  provides  machinery  for 
consultation  and  collaboration  on  international 
monetary  problems,  and,  more  specifically,  (2)  to 
promote  exchange  stability  and  avoid  competitive 
exchange  depreciation,  (3)  to  assist  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  multilateral  system  of  payments  in 
respect  to  current  transactions,  which  means  the 
eventual  elimination  of  restrictions  on  the  making 
of  payments  and  transfers  for  current  international 
transactions  and  the  avoidance  of  discriminatory 
currency  arrangements  or  multiple  currency  prac- 
tices, and  ( 4 )  to  permit  members,  under  appropri- 
ate conditions,  to  use  the  resources  of  the  Fund 
with  a  view  to  shortening  the,  duration  and  les- 
sening the  degree  of  any  disequilibrium  which  may 
from  time  to  time  arise  in  their  balances  of  pay- 
ments. 

The  Fund  obtains  its  resources  from  the  pay- 
ment by  members  of  quotas,  the  size  of  which  was 
agreed  for  original  members  at  Bretton  Woods. 
Each  member  pays  in  gold  either  25  percent  of 
its  quota  or  10  percent  of  the  member's  net  official 
holdings  of  gold  and  U.S.  dollars,  whichever  is 
the  smaller,  and  the  remainder  of  its  quota  in  its 
own  currency.  The  aggregate  of  members*  quotas 
as  of  Nov.  30,  1948,  was  equivalent  to  $8,034  mil- 
lion. Total  subscriptions  paid  as  of  that  date 
amounted  to  the  equivalent  of  $6,852,6  million,  of 
which  $1,398  million,  was  held  by"  the  Fund  in 
gold.  The  rights  of  members,  after  payment  of  their 
subscriptions,  to  obtain  foreign  exchange  from  the 
Fund  are  also  determined  by  reference  to  their 
quotas. 

Members  are  under  an  obligation,  once  tbe  for- 
eign exchange  values  of  their  currencies  have  been 
agreed  with  the  Fund,  to  make  no  change  in  their 
exchange  rates  without  consultation  with  the  Fund. 
The  Fund,  however,  is  not  entitled  to  object  if  the 


proposed  change  does  not  exceed  10  percent  of  the 
original  par  value.  Agreed  par  values  were  an- 
nounced on  Dec.  18,  1946,  for  32  members,  to 
which  7  others  have  subsequently  been  added. 
Total  exchange  transactions  of  the  Fund  reported 
through  Nov.  30,  1947,  were  the  equivalent  of 
$648.9  million. 

Of  the  14  Executive  Directors  of  the  Fund,  5 
represent  the  members  with  the  largest  quotas: 
United  States,  United  Kingdom,  China,  France, 
and  India.  The  voting  power  of  the  Executive  Di- 
rectors is  approximately  proportional  to  the  quotas 
of  the  member  or  members  whom  they  represent 
The  United  States  Executive  Director  is  therefore 
entitled  to  cast  30.13  percent  of  the  total  votes  of 
the  Executive  Directors,  based  on  a  United  States 
quota  of  $2,750  million. 

Canaille  Gutt,  former  Minister  of  Finance  of 
Belgium,  is  Managing  Director  of  the  Fund,  and 
Chairman  of  the  Executive  Directors.  Other  officers 
include  M.  H.  Parsons,  Director  of  Operations; 
E.  M.  Bernstein,  Director  of  Research,  Andre  Van 
Campenhout,  Chief  Counsel;  C.  M.  Powell,  Comp- 
troller and  Frank  Coe,  Secretary.  Andrew  N.  Ov- 
erby,  United  States  Executive  Director,  has  been 
named  Deputy  Managing  Director  and  will  assume 
that  post  at  a  date  not  yet  fixed. 

While  working  relations  with  the  United  Nations 
are  close,  the  Fund,  as  an  organization,  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  United  Nations.  An  agreement, 
setting  forth  tbe  basis  of  the  working  relationships 
with  the  United  Nations  has  been  approved  by  the 
Board  of  Governors  of  the  Fund  and  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  United  Nations.  Headquar- 
ters: 1818  H  St.,  N.W.  Washington  6,  D.C. 

INTERNATIONAL  REFUGEE  ORGANIZATION  (IRO).  The 

International  Refugee  Organization  is  a  non-per- 
manent specialized  agency  of  the  United  Nations. 
It  came  into  being  on  Aug.  20,  1948,  when  the 
constitutional  requirements  for  its  official  existence 
were  fulfilled.  Hatification  of  the  Constitution  by 
fifteen  member  nations  of  the  United  Nations, 
whose  contributions  totaled  at  least  75  percent  of 
its  first  year's  operational  budget  ( as  opposed  to  its 
purely  administrative  budget)  had  been  required. 

Before  IRO  came  into  official  existence,  its  func- 
tions were  carried  on  by  a  Preparatory  Commission 
(PCIRO)  which  assumed  on  Tuly  1,  1947,  tbe 
functions  previously  exercised  by  its  predecessor 
organizations — the  United  Nations  Relief  and  Re- 
habilitation Administration  and  the  Intergovern- 
mental Committee  on  Refugees. 

Summary  of  Operations.  Under  the  terms  of  its 
Constitution  IRO  is  responsible  for  the  care  of 
approximately  1,600,000  refugees;  approximately 
550,000  of  these  are  prewar  refugees  who,  although 
they  have  not  acquired  new  nationality,  are  more 
or  less  integrated  in  their  present  countries  of  resi- 
dence. The  remainder  are  victims  of  the  Second 
World  War,  the  vast  majority  of  whom  are  in  Ger- 
many and  Austria. 

In  carrying  out  its  responsibilities  to  these  refu- 
gees, IRO  provides  food,  shelter,  and  other  care 
for  those  wno  are  unable  to  maintain  themselves. 
On  Sept.  30,  1948,  there  were  699,815  persons  re- 
ceiving some  form  of  assistance  from  IRO,  either 
in  one  of  the  more  than  600  installations  main- 
tained in  Germany,  Austria,  Italy,  the  Middle  East, 
the  Far  East,  or  outside  of  these  installations. 

In  addition  to  providing  minimum  subsistence 
necessities  to  those  persons  requiring  such  assist- 
ance, IRO  is  responsible  for  encouraging  the  re- 
patriation of  all  those  who  wish  to  return  to  their 
countries  of  origin.  During  the  period  July  1, 1947, 


INTERNATIONAL  TELECOMMUNICATION  UNION 


275 


INTERNATIONAL  TRADE  ORGANIZATION 


to  Oct.  31, 1948,  a  total  of  58,093  persons  returned 
to  their  homelands  with  the  assistance  of  IRO. 

For  refugees  having  valid  reasons  against  re- 
patriation, IRO  makes  arrangements  for  their  re- 
settlement in  new  countries.  As  of  Oct  31,  1948, 
a  total  of  276,650  persons  had  been  resettled  in 
more  than  70  countries  on  five  continents.  In  order 
to  carry  out  its  resettlement  program,  IRO  main- 
tains a  fleet  of  ships  operated  on  a  charter  basis  to 
transport  refugees  to  such  overseas  destinations  as 
Canada,  Australia,  various  South  American  coun- 
tries, and  the  United  States. 

IRO  also  provides  legal  protection  and  assistance 
to  refugees  and  displaced  persons  to  whom  the 
protection  of  their  countries  of  former  nationality 
or  residence  is  not  available* 

Members.  The  following  governments  have  signed 
the  IRO  Constitution  and  are  full  members:  A.US- 
tralia,  Belgium,  Canada,  China,  Denmark,  Domini- 
can Republic,  France,  Guatemala,  Iceland,  Luxem- 
bourg, Netherlands,  New  Zealand,  Norway,  United 
Kingdom,  United  States,  Venezuela.  The  following 
governments  have  signed  the  IRO  Constitution  but 
have  not  completed  ratification  (their  representa- 
tives are  present  at  IRO  meetings  as  observers): 
Argentina,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Honduras,  Liberia,  Pan- 
ama, Peru,  Philippines. 

Officers.  Chairman  of  the  Executive  Committee, 
Jean  Desy  (Canada).  The  Director  General  of  IRO 
is  William  Hallam  Tuck  (U.S.A.);  Deputy  Direc- 
tor General,  Sir  Arthur  Rucker  (U.K.);  Assistant 
Director  Generals,  Myer  Cohen  (U.S.A.),  Pierre 
Jacobsen  (France),  Dr.  Petrus  N.  M.  Koolen 
(Netherlands).  Headquarters:  Palais  des  Nations, 
Geneva,  Switzerland. 

INTERNATIONAL  TELECOMMUNICATION   UNION    (ITU). 

Created  in  1934  by  a  merger  of  the  International 
Telegraph  Union,  established  in  Paris  in  1865,  and 
the  International  Radiotelegraph  Union,  formed  in 
Berlin  in  1906.  It  was  at  first  governed  by  the  Ma- 
drid Convention,  signed  in  1932,  but  on  Jan.  1, 
1949,  the  Madrid  Convention  will  be  replaced  by 
that  of  Atlantic  City,  N.J.,  signed  on  Oct.  2,  1947, 

The  purpose  of  the  Union  is  to  insure  effective 
telecommunication,  and  the  texts  of  regulations 
pertaining  to  the  telegraph,  the  telephone,  and  the 
radio  have  been  annexed  to  the  Convention  of  the 
Union.  Telegraph  conferences  have  been  convened 
by  the  Union  in:  Paris  (1865),  Vienna  (1868), 
Rome  (1872),  St.  Petersburg  (1875),  London 
(1879),  Berlin  (1885),  Paris  (1890),  Budapest 
(1896),  London  (1903),  Lisbon  (1908),  Paris 
(1925),  Brussels  (1928),  Madrid  (1932),  and 
Cairo  (1938).  Radiotelegraph  conferences  have 
been  held  in:  Berlin  (1906),  London  (1912), 
Washington  (1927),  Madrid  (1932),  Cairo 
(1938),  and  Atlantic  City  (1947). 

Relationship  to  the  United  Nations.  Under  an  agree- 
ment reached  in  1947  between  the  UN  and  the 
International  Telecornmunication  Union,  the  UN 
(in  consideration  of  Article  57  of  its  Charter)  recog- 
nizes ITU  as  a  specialized  agency  responsible  for 
certain  actions.  The  agreement  provides  for  recip- 
rocal representation  in  the  meetings  of  both  organi- 
zations, and  determines  means  for  the  exchange  of 
information  and  documents,  the  assistance  that  the 
Union  agrees  to  give  to  the  UN,  and  the  relations 
of  the  Union  with  the  International  Court  of  Jus- 
tice. 

Annex  1  to  the  Atlantic  City  Convention  lists  78 
countries  or  groups  of  territories  as  full  members 
of  the  Union,  upon  signature  and  ratification  of,  or 
accession  to,  the  Convention,  Upon  the  fulfilment  . 
of  certain  conditions,  four  other  countries  or  groups 


of  territories  may  become  members.  The  Conven- 
tion provides  for  extension  of  this  list  under  certain 
conditions,  and  for  associate  members. 

For  1949,  Chairman  of  the  Administrative  Coun- 
cil, Professor  Paul  Kouzmitch  Alcoulchine  (U.S.S.R.); 
Secretary  General,  Dr.  Franz  v.  Ernst  (Switzer- 
land); Assistant  Secretaries  General,  Leon  Mulatier 
(France)  and  Comm.  Gerald  C.  Gross  (U.S.A.); 
Chairman  of  International  Frequency  Registration 
Board  (LF.R.B)  and  of  Provisional  Frequency 
Board  (P.F.B.),  Sidney  H.  Witt  (Australia);  Di- 
rector of  International  Telephone  Consultative 
Committee  (C.C.I.F.),  Georges  Valensi  (France); 
Director  and  Vice  Directors  of  International  Radio 
Consultative  Committee  (C.C.I.R.),  Bait,  van  der 
Pol  (Netherlands)  and  L.  W.  Hayes  (United  King- 
dom). Headquarters:  Palais  Wilson,  Geneva,  Switz- 
erland. 

Outstanding  events  in  1948:  Administrative 
Council  of  the  Union  ( Geneva,  January  20-Febru- 
ary  11  and  September  l-October  3);  VI  Meeting 
of  the  International  Telegraph  Consultative  Com- 
mittee (C.C.I.T.)  (Brussels,  May  11-27);  V  Meet- 
ing of  the  C.C.LR.  (Stockholm,  July  12-31);  Euro- 
pean Broadcasting  Conference  ( Copenhagen,  June 
25-September  15);  Maritime  Regional  Radio  Con- 
ference (Copenhagen,  June  25-Septernber  17); 
International  High  Frequency  Broadcasting  Con- 
ference (Mexico  City,  October  22-);  International 
Administrative  Aeronautical  Radio  Conference 
(Geneva,  May  15-September  25);  Provisional  Fre- 
quency Board  (January  15-). 

The  following  meetings  are  scheduled  for  1949: 
Administrative  Council  (Geneva,  August  15);  Ex- 
traordinary Meeting  of  C.C.IT,  for  election  of  the 
Director,  May  or  June;  XV  Meeting  of  the  C.C.I.F. 
(Paris,  June  7);  International  Administrative  Tele- 
graph and  Telephone  Conference  (Paris,  May  17); 
Region  1  Administrative  Radio  Conference  (Ge- 
neva, May  18);  Region  2  Administrative  Radio 
Conference  (February  15);  Region  3  Administra- 
tive Radio  Conference  ( Geneva,  May  18 ) ;  Special 
Administrative  Radio  Conference  for  the  approval 
of  the  new  frequency  list  (Geneva,  October  17); 
International  Administrative  Aeronautical  Radio 
Conference  (Geneva,  July  31);  Special  Adminis- 
trative Conference  for  the  North-East  Atlantic 
(Loran  Conference;  Geneva,  January  17). 

INTERNATIONAL  TRADE  ORGANIZATION  (1TO).  This 
organization  will  come  into  being  when  the  Ha- 
vana Charter  for  an  International  Trade  Organi- 
zation has  been  accepted  (by  Sept.  30,  1949)  by 
20  governments.  At  the  end  of  1948,  the  Charter 
had  been  accepted  by  Australia,  on  condition  that 
it  is  accepted  by  the  United  States  and  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  Charter  will,  it  is  expected,  be  con- 
sidered by  many  countries  including  the  United 
States  during  the  first  half  of  1949.  The  Havana 
Charter  was  completed  on  Mar.  24,  1948,  when 
after  four  months  of  intensive  labor,  it  was  signed 
by  54  countries.  The  Charter,  with  its  106  articles 
covering  every  aspect  of  international  trade  rela- 
tions, will  be  administered  by  ITO.  Meanwhile, 
the  ITO  Interim  Commission,  established  at  Ge- 
neva, is  preparing  for  the  first  ITO  Conference. 
The  Commission  held  its  first  meeting  at  Havana 
and  elected  an  18-member  Executive  Committee 
to  which  it  delegated  its  powers.  The  ICITO  will 
go  out  of  existence  when  ITO  is  created. 

The  ITO  will  be  a  specialized  agency  of  the 
United  Nations,  having  close  relations  in  particular 
with  the  International  Monetary  Fund  and  the 
Food  and  Agricultural  Orgam^tion.  A  permanent 
site  will  be  selected  at  its  first  Conference. 


INTERSTATE  COMMERCE  COMMISSION 


276 


IRAN 


The  Havana  Charter  is  directed  not  only  towards 
the  reduction  of  trade  barriers  and  the  prevention 
or  settlement  of  trade  disputes;  it  also  aims  towards 
promoting  economic  development,  especially  in 
economically  backward  countries.  It  codifies  for 
the  first  time  a  very  wide  range  of  customs  and 
other  commercial  practices;  it  makes  the  first  at- 
tack on  international  cartels  which  restrict  trade; 
and  it  provides  controls  over  the  use  of  intergov- 
ernmental commodity  agreements, 

Officers:  Chairman  of  ICITO,  Max  Suetens  (Bel- 
gium); Chairman  of  Executive  Committee,  L. 
Dana  Wilgress  (Canada);  Executive  Secretary, 
Eric  Wyndham  White.  Outstanding  event  of  1948 
was  the  completion  of  the  Havana  Charter.  Of 
parallel  importance  was  the  completion — at  the  end 
of  1947 — of  tariff  negotiations,  covering  two- thirds 
of  the  world's  imports  and  exports,  by  23  coun- 
tries. These  were  incorporated  in  a  multilateral 
trade  treaty  known  as  the  General  Agreement  on 
Tariffs  and  Trade.  By  June  30,  1948,  22  of  the  23 
countries  had  brought  the  General  Agreement  into 
effect  within  the  limits  of  the  existing  legislation 
of  each. 

Apart  from  the  concluding  stages  of  the  Havana 
Conference,  the  Interim  Commission  of  ITO  has 
met  once  at  Havana,  and  the  Executive  Committee 
has  met  twice,  at  Havana  and  Geneva  respectively. 
The  contracting  parties  to  the  General  Agreement 
have  also  met  twice,  at  Havana  and  Geneva  respec- 
tively. A  further  series  of  tariff  negotiations,  spon- 
sored by  the  contracting  parties,  will  open  at 
Annecy,  France,  in  April  1949. 

INTERSTATE  COMMERCE  COMMISSION  (ICC).  An  inde- 
pendent establishment  of  the  U.S.  Government  em- 
powered to  regulate,  in  the  public  interest,  com- 
mon carriers  engaged  in  transportation  in  interstate 
commerce.  ( For  details,  see  YEAR  BOOK  for  1940. ) 
Part  IV  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act,  approved 
May  16,  1942,  conferred  upon  the  Commission 
jurisdiction  over  freight  forwarders.  Chairman: 
Charles  D.  Mahaffie. 

IOWA.  A  west  north  central  State.  Area:  56,280  sq. 
mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  2,625,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  2,538,268.  Chief  city: 
Des  Moines  (capital),  159,819  inhabitants  in 
1940.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS 
AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COL- 
LEGES, VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $153,343,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $132,651,000. 

Elections.  The  10  electoral  votes,  which  went  for 
Dewey  in  1944,  were  Truman's  in  1948.  Truman 
received  a  majority  of  about  20,000  over  Dewey 
and  Wallace.  In  the  Senatorial  race,  Democrat 
Guy  M.  Gillette  defeated  incumbent  George  A. 
Wilson,  but  all  8  Congressional  seats  remained  Re- 
publican. Control  of  the  State  government  re- 
mained Republican,  with  the  election  of  William  S. 
Beardsley  as  Governor,  and  the  following  officers: 
Lieutenant  Governor — Kenneth  A.  Evans;  Secre- 
tary of  State — Melvin  D.  Synhorst;  Attorney  Gen- 
eral— Robert  L.  Larson;  Treasurer — J.  M.  Grimes; 
Auditor — Chet  B.  Akers;  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction — Jessie  M.  Parker.  The  voters  also  ap- 
proved an  $85  million  bond  issue  for  veterans* 
bonuses. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Robert  D.  Blue;  Lieut. 
Governor,  K.  A.  Evans;  Secretary  of  State,  Rollo 
H.  Bergeson;  Attorney  General,  Robert  L.  Larson; 
State  Treasurer,  J.  M.  Grimes;  State  Auditor,  C.  B. 
Akers;  State  Comptroller,  R.  E.  Johnson. 


IRAN  (Persia).  An  empire  in  southwestern  Asia,  be- 
tween the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  north  and  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  on  the  south.  Area:  628,000  square  miles. 

Population.  No  complete  census  has  ever  been 
taken;  estimates  of  the  total  population  vary  from 
15  to  18  million.  Of  these  some  13  million  are 
classed  as  rural  and  include  from  3  to  5  million 
nomads.  Chief  cities  (with  population  estimated); 
Teheran  (Tehran)  682,532,  Tabriz  213,542,  Isfa- 
han 204,598,  Meshed  176,471,  Shiraz  192,023, 
Resht  121,625,  Abadan  110,000,  and  Hamadan 
103,874. 

Education.  The  educational  system  of  the  country 
was  drastically  reformed  during  the  modernizing 
era  of  Riza  Pahlavi.  In  1938  there  were  8,381 
schools,  a  figure  which  during  recent  years  has 
undoubtedly  grown  considerably.  A  university  has 
been  set  up  at  Teheran.  In  general,  foreign  schools 
have  been  absorbed  into  the  national  educational 
system  or  have  been  abandoned.  Most  Persians  are 
Moslems  of  the  Shia  sect,  except  for  some  850,000 
Sunnis.  There  are  small  communities  of  Parsees, 
Jews,  Armenians,  Nestorians,  Bahaists,  and  others, 

Production.  By  and  large  Iran  is  a  barren  country 
abounding  in  vast  deserts  and  steppes  where  only 
a  sparse  nomadic  population  can  obtain  sustenance. 
Yet  much  of  its  soil  is  fertile  and  only  awaits  irri- 
gation. Despite  these  conditions  Iran  produces  a 
wide  variety  of  grains,  fruits,  and  livestock.  Esti- 
mated yields  of  the  principal  agricultural  products 
(1947-48)  were  (in  metric  tons) :  wheat  1,945,163, 
barley  775,893,  milled  rice  65,000,  ginned  cotton 
17,500,  dates  110,000,  raisins  20,000,  sugar  51,861, 
tobacco  17,500,  and  tea  6,597.  The  number  of  live- 
stock is  estimated  as:  13  million  sheep,  6.8  million 
goats,  and  2.5  million  cattle.  Horses,  donkeys,  and 
camels  also  are  raised. 

Iran  long  has  been  a  principal  producer  of  the 
poppy  from  which  opium  is  derived.  Industrializa- 
tion has  already  begun  in  a  small  way  with  the  pro- 
duction of  such  goods  as  textiles,  carpets,  glass,  and 
sugar. 

Many  of  the  mineral  deposits  have  been  only 
partly  explored  and  are  largely  undeveloped.  Oil 
is  by  far  the  most  valuable  mineral  product  now 
exploited  in  the  country.  In  southwestern  Iran  the 
Anglo-Iranian  Oil  Company  has  a  large  concession 
on  which  oil  is  produced,  piped  to  refineries  at 
Abadan  on  the  Shatt-el-Arab  and  exported  in  large 
quantities.  In  1947  the  petroleum  output  of  the 
Anglo-Iranian  Oil  Company  was  20,520,000  tons; 
in  1948  (11  months)  20,774,000  tons. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  for  the  year  1947  totaled 
5,800  million  rials;  exports  (including  oil)  12,630 
million  rials.  The  principal  imports  are  manufac- 
tured goods,  silverware,  and  art  objects.  With  the 
exception  of  sugar  and  tea,  which  must  be  import- 
ed, the  country  is  self-suf&cient  in  food.  Chief  ex- 
ports are  oil,  carpets,  gum  tragacanth,  cereals,  rice, 
fruits,  nuts,  fibers,  skins,  and  wool. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  (1947-48):  revenue 
7,799,068,000  rials;  expenditure  7,762,443,000 
rials  (since  1946  the  official  rate  has  been  32.50 
rials  equal  US$;  free  rate  as  of  November,  1948, 
56.07  rials  equal  US$).  On  Jan.  1,  1948,  the  total 
internal  debt  amounted  to  4,359  million  rials. 

Transportation.  The  empire  has  1,424  miles  of 
railroads,  of  which  the  major  railway  line,  the 
Trans-Iranian  Railway,  runs  from  Bandar  Shahpur 
on  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Bandar  Shah  on  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Total  length  of  roads  is  about  15,000  miles,  of 
which  about  1,000  miles  are  asphalted.  Four  inter- 
national and  two  national  airlines  provide  regular 
service  between  Teheran  and  other  points  in  the 
Middle  East  and  Europe. 


IRAN 


277 


IRAN 


The  main  ports  on  the  Persian  Gulf  are  Korram- 
shahr,  Abadan,  and  Bandar  Shahpur.  Chief  Caspian 
ports  are  Bandar  Pahlavi,  Bandar  Shah,  and  No- 
shahr.  Government-operated  telegraph  lines  con- 
nect the  large  cities  of  Iran.  There  is  international 
cable  and  wireless  service  and  a  modern  broad- 
casting station, 

Defense.  An  American  police  mission  has  been 
reorganizing  the  country's  police  forces.  The  army, 
navy,  and  air  forces  have  also  been  undergoing  re- 
organization. The  country's  territorial  integrity, 
sovereignty,  and  political  independence  were  guar- 
anteed by  a  treaty  of  alliance  signed  at  Teheran  by 
Great  Britain,  the  U.S.S.R.,  and  Iran  on  Jan.  29, 
1942. 

Government.  The  reigning  Shah  is  Muhammad 
Riza  Pahlavi,  who  succeeded  his  father,  Riza  Khan 
Pahlavi,  in  September,  1941,  when  the  latter  was 
forced  to  abdicate  by  concerted  Anglo-Soviet  ac- 
tion. The  constitution  provides  for  a  National  As- 
sembly, or  Majlis,  to  be  composed  of  two  houses: 
the  representatives  of  both  to  be  elected  by  the 
people,  except  half  of  the  Senate  who  were  to  be 
appointed  by  the  Shah;  the  second  body,  however, 
has  never  been  constituted.  The  Council  of  Min- 
isters, responsible  to  the  Majlis,  in  addition  to  the 
Prime  Minister,  is  composed  of  the  ministers  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  War,  Finance,  Interior,  Justice, 
Education,  Agriculture,  Health,  National  Economy, 
Communications,  Posts,  Telephone  and  Telegraph, 
and  Labor. 

The  country  is  divided  into  ten  major  provinces, 
each  called  an  tistan;  these  in  turn  are  divided  into 
sub-units,  or  shahristan*  These  are  administered 
by  governors-general  and  governors,  respectively, 
each  of  whom  is  responsible  to  the  central  govern- 
ment and  administers  his  province  through  heads  of 
departments  appointed  by  the  different  ministries 
listed  above.  The  result  is  a  closely  integrated  cen- 
tral government. 

Events,  1948.  Internal  Political  Developments.  During 
the  year  Iran  had  three  different  cabinets,  with 
only  four  duplications  of  personnel  in  the  three 
rosters — a  rather  small  percentage  as  cabinet  shuf- 
fles in  the  country  generally  go.  The  first  govern- 
ment, which  came  into  power  in  December,  1947, 
was  headed  by  Ibrahim  Haldmi  who  had  preceded 
Ahmad  Qavam  a  little  less  than  two  years  before 
and  had  initiated  Iran's  appeal  to  the  Security 
Council  against  Soviet  Russia  s  policies  in  Azerbai- 
jan. 

This  government  did  not  receive  a  vote  of  confi- 
dence from  the  Majlis  until  February  26,  and  then 
only  by  55  votes  out  of  a  total  of  103,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  one  of  its  first  important  official  acts  had 
been  the  abolition,  on  January  13,  of  the  martial 
law  which  had  been  continuously  in  effect  since 
August  1941.  Martial  law  was  reimposed  by  the 
government  in  the  Caspian  towns  of  Chalus,  Shahi, 
and  Shahsavar  when  local  disturbances  brought  the 
arrest  of  300  persons  reported  to  be  members  of 
the  Tudeh  Party — the  pro-Soviet  leftist  group 
which  had  been  forced  underground  after  the  elec- 
tions of  the  year  before.  This  action  elicited  from 
65  newspaper  editors  and  journalists  a  resolution 
calling  upon  the  Majlis  to  defend  civil  liberties. 
Haldmi  won  a  vote  of  confidence  on  this  issue,  but 
by  June  8  was  forced  to  resign  by  other  pressures. 

The  formation  of  a  new  government,  led  by  Ab- 
dul Husayn  Hazhir,  believed  by  most  to  be  pro- 
British,  precipitated  violent  public  protests  on 
June  17,  when  several  persons  were  injured  in  a 
clash  with  the  Teheran  police  in  Parliament  Square. 
Although  this  government  was  finally  confirmed, 
the  opposition,  soon  effected  its  fall,  in  early  No- 


vember. The  present  government  took  office  No- 
vember 8;  its  Prime  Minister  is  Muhammad  Mara- 
ghel  Saced,  who  had  in  the  fall  of  1944  led  the  re- 
sistance to  Soviet  demands  for  an  oil  concession 
and  was  forced  out  of  office  by  the  Russians. 

During  the  year  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the 
Majlis,  and  referred  to  the  proper  committee  for 
study,  providing  for  the  implementation  of  the  con- 
stitution by  the  formation  of  a  second  legislative 
body,  to  be  called  the  Senate,  It  is  to  be  composed 
of  60  members,  half  to  be  nominated  by  the  Sbah 
and  half  to  be  elected  by  the  people.  This  was  in- 
dicative of  efforts  being  made  to  bring  more  sta- 
bility and  responsibility  into  the  politically  frag- 
mented legislative  branch  of  the  Government. 

In'  July  Shah  Muliammad  Riza,  an  ardent  sports- 
man, arrived  in  London  for  a  non-political  visit  to 
attend  the  Olympic  Games.  He  was  entertained  at 
Buckingham  Palace  and  later  traveled  in  France 
and  Switzerland,  in  which  latter  place  he  had  se- 
cured his  education  as  a  youth,  m  November  the 
Egyptian  court  at  Cairo  announced  the  divorce  of 
the  Shah  and  Queen  Fawzia,  King  Farouk's  sister. 
They  were  married  in  1939.  Following  their  es- 
trangement, she  left  Iran  for  Egypt  in  May,  1945, 
and  never  returned. 

T/ie  Seven-Year  Plan.  Without  doubt  the  most  im- 
portant development  of  the  year  was  the  projected 
long-term  plan  which  called  for  the  expenditure  of 
$620  million  over  the  next  7  years.  To  this  end  the 
government  on  October  19  engaged  Overseas  Con- 
sultants, a  concern  made  up  of  11  American  en- 
gineering construction  companies,  to  make  recom- 
mendations for  the  completion  and  implementation 
of  this  plan.  The  money  is  to  be  secured  from  the 
increasing  oil  royalties  paid  by  the  Anglo-Iranian 
Oil  Company  and  by  loans  from  the  National  Bank 
of  Iran  and  the  International  Bank  of  Reconstruc- 
tion and  Development. 

At  present  it  is  expected  that  almost  one-third 
will  be  spent  on  the  basic  industry  of  agriculture; 
about  one-fourth  on  public  utilities,  health  and 
sanitation,  and  technical  education;  approximately 
one-seventh  each  on  industry  and  mines,  and  on 
the  improvement  of  roads,  railways,  ports,  and  air- 
fields; with  the  remainder  to  be  spent  for  other 
public  works  and  the  establishment  of  an  Iranian 
oil  company. 

Relations  with  the  Powers.  Events  in  Iran  are  in- 
evitably bound  up  with  the  relations  of  the  Great 
Powers  to  each  other  and  to  Iran.  The  year  began 
with  considerable  tension  between  Iran  and  Soviet 
Russia,  a  legacy  from  the  previous  year.  On  Janu- 
ary 31,  Russia  presented  the  Iranian  government 
with  a  note  charging  Iran  with  permitting  the 
United  States  to  establish  strategic  bases  in  Iran 
and,  therefore,  with  violation  of  the  Soviet-Iranian 
pact  of  1921.  The  Iranian  reply  to  these  Soviet 
charges  of  February  4  denied  each  of  the  Soviet 
points  and  in  turn  accused  the  Soviet  Union  itself 
of  violating  the  1921  agreement.  Meanwhile  a 
spokesman  for  the  U.S.  Department  of  State  de- 
nied titie  Soviet  charges  as  far  as  the  United  States 
was  concerned.  The  following  March  24  the  Soviet 
Union  presented  a  second  note  of  protest  against 
alleged  United  States  military  activity  in  Iran,  de- 
scribing the  previous  Iranian  denials  as  "uncon- 
vincing." This  note  also  was  rejected  by  the  Iranian 
government. 

It  was  shortly  after  these  exchanges  that  the 
Iranian  government  requested  all  the  three  major 
powers  to  cease  the  publication  "of  any  sort  of 
press  pamphlet  whether  magazine,  newspaper,  or 
telegraphic  news/'  A  fortnight  later,  on  April  15, 
the  Majlis  voted  to  place  at  the  head  of  its  agenda 


IRAQ 


278 


IRAQ 


a  bill  asserting  Iranian  sovereignty  over  Bahrein 
Island,  which  has  for  upwards  of  a  century  been 
imder  British  protection  and  where  American  oil 
interests  are  heavily  involved. 

Doubtless  connected  with  this  same  Soviet  pro- 
test and  the  desire  of  Iran  to  follow  more  strictly  a 
*'poKcy  of  balance"  was  the  decision  to  reduce  the 
executive  powers  of  Brig.  Gen.  Norman  Schwarz- 
kopf, commanding  the  Iranian  Gendarmerie.  On 
June  20,  Col,  James  R.  Pierce  replaced  Gen. 
Schwarzkopf  as  chief  of  the  gendarmerie  mission 
under  a  new  contract.  In  September  Maj.  Gen.  Ver- 
non  Evans  replaced  Maj.  Gen.  Robert  W.  Grow  as 
chief  of  the  United  States  Military  Mission,  a  mis- 
sion of  purely  advisory  character  for  the  Iranian 
Quartermaster. 

United  States-Iranian  relations  continued  cordial 
throughout  this  tension.  Ambassador  George  Allen 
returned  to  the  United  States  on  February  17  to 
become  Assistant  Secretary  of  State  and  his  suc- 
cessor, John  C.  Wiley,  presented  his  credentials  to 
the  Shah  the  following  April  6. 

The  Soviet  protests  referred  to  above  were  cer- 
tainly connected  with  the  United  States-Iranian 
negotiations  during  the  early  part  of  the  year  which 
resulted  in  the  United  States  furnishing  Iran  $10 
million  worth  of  "non-aggressive  weapons"  from 
war  surplus,  including  guns,  light  tanks,  and  fighter 
planes,  to  be  repaid  over  a  12-year  period  with  in- 
terest at  2%  percent,  together  with  not  more  than 
$16  million — made  possible  by  special  legislation 
— to  cover  repair  and  shipping  costs  of  the  surplus 
material,  wliich,  of  course,  was  actually  worth  sev- 
eral times  the  agreed  price.  Provision  of  these  sup- 
plies on  these  terms  makes  it  possible  for  Iran  to 
devote  more  of  its  current  resources  to  economic 
development,  in  which,  as  indicated,  private  Amer- 
ican corporations  have  a  large  part. 

— T.  CUYLER  YOUNG 

IRAQ  (Mesopotamia)*  An  Arab  constitutional  mon- 
archy covering  the  lower  and  middle  parts  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  river  basins  in  Asia. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  116,000  square  miles, 
over  23,000  of  them  cultivated  (almost  half  of 
them  fallow)  and  an  additional  39,000  square 
miles  cultivable.  Iraq's  potential  agricultural  re- 
sources could  support  many  more  than  the  present 
5  million,  as  the  country  did  in  the  ninth  century. 
Chief  cities:  Baghdad  (capital),  about  500,000 
pop.;  Mosul,  about  160,000;  Basra  (port)  about 
86,000.  Eighty  percent  of  the  population  is  Arab 
with  an  important  Kurdish  minority  of  12  percent 
on  the  northern  and  eastern  frontiers,  zealously 
guarding  its  cultural  identity.  Ninety-four  percent 
are  Moslems  (including  the  Kurds),  almost  equally 
divided  between  Sunnis  and  Shias;  the  rest  are 
Christians  and  Jews. 

Education.  Primary  education  is  free  and  compul- 
sory. In  1946-47,  in  addition  to  the  13  foreign 
schools  with  over  1,700  pupils,  there  were  about 
1,050  primary  schools  with  almost  150,000  pupils, 
about  140  secondary  schools  with  over  20,000  pu- 
pils, 15  technical  schools  (agriculture,  commerce, 
nursing,  teachers*  training,  etc.)  with  over  2,000 
pupils,  and  8  colleges  (including  engineering, 
medicine,  pharmacy  and  law)  with  almost  4,000 
students.  Among  the  many  students  abroad  in 
1948-49  were  250  studying  in  the  United  States  at 
government  expense. 

Communications.  Iraqi  State  Railways  operate  over 
1,500  miles  of  important  roads.,  1,000  or  more  of 
them  good,  including  Baghdad  routes  to  Damascus 
and  toward  Palestine.  American,  British,  French, 
Dutch,  Swedish,  and  Middle  Eastern  airlines  in- 


cluding Iraqi  Airways  service  Iraq  airports.  The 
government  runs  a  Baghdad  broadcasting  station 
and  operates  telephone  and  telegraph  facilities. 

Production.  Today  Iraq  has  75  percent  of  the 
world's  date  palms  and  produces  80  percent  of  the 
dates  shipped  in  the  international  market.  Wheat, 
barley,  giant  millet,  and  rice  are  important  crops. 
Livestock  is  one  of  the  principal  industries,  and 
includes  sheep,  goats,  cattle,  horses,  and  buffaloes. 
Tobacco  growing  is  increasing.  Agricultural  pro- 
duction could  be  substantially  increased  by  more 
intensive  use  of  the  cultivated  land  and  more  ex- 
tensive irrigation  and  drainage  works.  Cigarette- 
manufacturing  has  increased,  but  other  manufac- 
turing industries  are  still  embryonic  despite  gov- 
ernment efforts.  Most  important  is  the  petroleum 
industry,  controlled  by  three  large  concessionaires. 

The  principal  oilfield,  at  Kirkuk,  controlled  by 
the  Iraq  Petroleum  Company  representing  Ameri- 
can, British,  and  French  interests,  connects  with 
the  Mediterranean  by  pipe-lines  to  Beirut  and 
Haifa.  In  1947,  oil  production  totaled  4,700,000 
metric  tons,  but  a  steady  1948  production  decrease 
resulted  from  the  government  embargo  on  oil  flow- 
ing to  Haifa.  In  October  the  government,  receiving 
several  million  pounds  annually  in  revenues,  re- 
opened conversations  with  the  Iraq  Petroleum 
Company  on  amending  its  concession  agreement. 

Foreign  Trade.  Chief  exports  are  oil,  dates,  live- 
stock, grain,  raw  cotton  and  wool,  and  hides  and 
skins.  Manifold  imports  include  iron  and  steel  prod- 
ucts, automobiles  and  other  machinery,  cement, 
chemicals,  clothing,  paper,  coffee,  sugar,  and  tea. 
In  1947,  exports  amounted  to  25  million  Iraqi 
dinars,  primarily  to  the  United  Kingdom,  India, 
Iran,  the  United  States,  Syria,  Turkey,  and  Italy, 
and  1947  imports  amounted  to  40  million  dinars, 
of  wliich  about  8  percent  came  from  the  United 
States.  In  the  first  four  months  of  1948,  exports  de- 
clined and  imports  increased.  The  export  decline, 
due  to  the  embargo  on  oil  flowing  to  Haifa  and 
to  the  crop  failure,  forced  the  reimposition  of  im- 
port controls,  particularly  on  luxury  goods,  and  an 
increase  in  import  duties. 

Finance.  The  regular  1948-1949  state  budget 
provided  for  expenditure  of  25  million  dinars  and 
revenue  of  23.5  million  dinars,  a  rise  over  the  pre- 
vious year  because  of  defense  and  agriculture  ap- 
propriations. The  expected  deficit,  largely  due  to 
the  loss  of  royalties  because  of  the  Haifa  oil  em- 
bargo, was  to  be  made  up  by  higher  taxes.  Cur- 
rency in  circulation  in  November  totalled  34.5  mil- 
lion dinars.  The  year  1948  was  the  third  to  reveal 
a  contraction  in  notes  in  circulation,  a  fall  in  bank 
deposits,  and  a  decline  in  trading  activity.  The 
cost  of  living  was  600  in  November  (1937  =  100), 
compared  with  a  peak  of  763  in  April.  At  year's 
end  the  foreign  exchange  situation  had  improved 
over  that  of  1947;  10  percent  of  Iraq's  investments 
abroad  had  been  liquidated  during  the  year.  The 
1948  exchange  rate  remained  at  $4.030  to  the 
Iraqi  dinar. 

Government.  King  Faisal  II,  grandson  of  King 
Faisal  I  (brother  of  Trans  Jordan  s  King  Abdullah) 
who  took  the  throne  in  1921,  is  represented  during 
his  minority  by  the  Regent,  Emir  Abdul  Illah.  The 
1925  constitution  provides  for  a  Parliament  con- 
sisting of  a  Senate  appointed  by  the  King  for 
8-year  terms  and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  elected 
by  secret  ballot  every  4  years,  one  deputy  to  every 
20,000  males  over  21,  totalling  138  in  1947.  The 
Senate's  size  is  limited  to  one-fourth  that  of  the 
Chamber.  The  King  appoints  the  Prime  Minister 
and  both  select  a  Cabinet  of  7  or  more  ministers. 

Events.  Relations  with  Great  Britain.  In  January  the 


IRELAND 


279 


IRELAND 


signing  of  the  Anglo-Iraqi  Treaty  of  Portsmouth, 
replacing  the  1930  treaty:  1 )  gave  Britain  the  right 
to  send  troops  into  Iraq  in  case  of  war  or  its  immi- 
nence; 2)  took  away  her  right  to  occupy  two  Iraq 
airfields;  and  3)  provided  for  continued  British 
training  and  equipping  of  the  Iraq  Army.  On  Jan- 
uary 21,  after  6,000  students  staged  a  six-hour 
riot  protesting  the  Treaty,  the  Regent  announced 
the  Treaty  could  not  be  ratified  because  it  did  not 
"realize  Iraq's  national  aims/' 

On  January  27  the  Cabinet  of  Prime  Minister 
Salih  Jabir  (who  had  signed  the  Treaty)  resigned, 
after  another  day  of  rioting  occasioned  by  his  an- 
nouncement he  would  fight  for  the  Treaty's  ratifica- 
tion. Mohammed  al-Sadr,  former  President  of  the 
Iraqi  Senate,  became  Prime  Minister  with  a  new 
Cabinet,  members  of  which  were  shifted  less  than 
two  months  later.  On  March  23  the  British  Foreign 
Office  announced  the  British  advisory  military  mis- 
sion would  be  withdrawn  at  Iraq's  request.  In  June 
another  cabinet  was  formed  with  Muzahim  al- 
Pachachi  as  Prime  Minister.  The  June  15  general 
election  resulted  in  a  Chamber  over  half  of  whose 
members  were  new  and  young. 

Economic  Development.  Development  plans  include 
erecting  an  oil  refinery  and  mechanizing  agriculture 
by  buying  and  operating  a  large  number  of  tractors 
and  combines  under  rental  to  the  farmers  by  the 
government.  Most  important  irrigation  scheme  is 
that  of  the  Bekhme  Dam  to  regulate  the  Tigris 
flow,  irrigate,  and  generate  electricity.  Thirty-three 
million  dinars  are  to  be  allocated  for  development 
over  several  years,  starting  with  an  appropriation 
from  the  1948-49  budget. 

Palestine  Problem.  The  first  demonstration  against 
partition,  in  December,  1947,  was  marked  by  an 
attack  on  the  United  States  Information  Service  for 
which  the  government  apologized.  In  addition  to 
the  declaration  of  martial  law  necessitated  by  the 
Palestine  war,  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  made  Zi- 
onist activity  a  crime  punishable  by  death  or  life 
imprisonment.  Meanwhile  the  Chief  Rabbi,  as 
spokesman  for  Jews  long  resident  in  Iraq,  said 
Iraqi  Jews  would  fight  with  the  Arabs  against  Zion- 
ism. Iraq  joined  the  other  Arab  countries  in  active 
fighting  in  Palestine  and  contributed  substantially 
to  the  relief  of  Arab  refugees. 

— DOROTHEA  SEELYE  FRANCK 

IRELAND,  Northern.  A  part  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
consisting  of  the  6  counties  and  2  parliamentary 
boroughs  in  northern  Ireland  (Ulster).  Capital, 
Belfast. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  is  5,499  square 
miles.  The  estimated  population  in  1945  was 
1,324,000,  of  whom  about  one-third  lived  in  Bel- 
fast, the  only  large  city. 

Education  and  Religion.  Educational  facilities  in- 
clude about  1,660  public  elementary  schools  with 
approximately  187,000  pupils;  76  secondary 
schools,  69  technical  schools  and  60  others,  with 
about  50,000  students,  and  the  Queen's  University 
at  Belfast,  with  2,839"  students  in  1946-47.  The 
latest  available  figures  show  religious  affiliation  as 
follows:  33  percent  Roman  Catholic,  31  percent 
Presbyterian,  27  percent  Episcopalian,  and  the  re- 
maining 9  percent  in  smaller  denominations  or  un- 
classifiea. 

Production.  Agriculture,  linen  and  shipbuilding 
are  the  three  basic  industries.  Potatoes  grown  in 
1947  were  1  million  tons  and  oats  265,000  tons, 
both  less  than  in  1946.  Poultry  21,029,111;  pigs 
333,583;  and  cattle  931,470  in  1947;  continued  to 
increase. 

The  linen  industry  is  the  most  important  dollar- 


earning  enterprise  in  Northern  Ireland.  A  reduc- 
tion of  flax  acreage  to  17,450  has  increased  depend- 
ence upon  foreign  supplies.  The  Belfast  shipping 
yards,  the  largest  in  the  world,  launched  11  mer- 
chant vessels  with  a  gross  tonnage  of  121,625  in 
1947.  On  Apr.  1,  1948,  21  vessels  totaling  201,700 
gross  tons  were  under  construction. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  in  1947  were  £.153  mil- 
lion; imports  £157.5  million,  yielding  a  small 
trade  deficit.  Direct  trade  with  the  United  States 
showed  an  export  surplus  of  £815,000  in  1947. 
Nine-tenths  of  Ulster  exports  go  to  Great  Britain 
and  four-fifths  of  imports  come  from  Britain.  Food 
products,  textiles,  and  ships  are  important  exports; 
manufactured  goods,  raw  materials,  and  coal  are 
the  chief  imports.  External  trade  was  £232  per 
capita  in  1947. 

Transportation.  Railway  standard  gauge  mileage 
is  644  and  inland  waterway  mileage  157.  In  1946 
the  Northern  Ireland  Road  Transport  Board  op- 
erated 680  omnibuses  and  1,137  freight  vehicles. 

Finance.  The  budget  statement  of  May,  1948, 
showed  a  surplus  of  £612,000.  Estimated  revenue 
and  expenditure  for  1948-49  are  close  to  £59 
million.  Contribution  to  United  Kingdom  or  im- 
perial services  was  set  at  £21.5  million.  Net  sav- 
ings in  the  financial  year  1947-48  were  almost  £  6 
per  head,  as  compared  with  just  over  £4  for 
Great  Britain. 

Government.  Although  Northern  Ireland  is  an  in- 
tegrahpart  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  is  repre- 
sented by  13  members  in  the  British  House  of 
Commons,  the  country  exercises  a  degree  of  local 
autonomy  through  a  Parliament  of  its  own  and  a 
Cabinet  responsible  thereto.  The  Parliament  con- 
sists of  a  Senate  of  2  ex-officio,  and  24  elected 
members  and  a  House  of  Commons  of  52  members, 
all  elected.  In  1948,  as  a  result  of  the  election  of 
1945,  the  Unionist  Party  was  in  power.  Governor: 
Vice  Admiral  the  Earl  of  Granville.  Prime  Minis- 
ter, Sir  Basil  S.  Brooke. 

Events,  1948.  Throughout  the  year  Northern  Ire- 
land felt  the  repercussions  of  Eire's  proposed  re- 
peal of  the  External  Relations  Act  and  severance 
of  all  connection  with  Britain.  The  Prime  Minister, 
Sir  Basil  Brooke,  took  cognizance  of  the  prelimi- 
nary feelers  as  early  as  April  13,  when  he  disclosed 
that  his  Government  was  considering  sending  some 
one  to  the  United  States  to  correct  the  "travesty 
of  present-day  conditions  in  Northern  Ireland" 
being  given  in  the  United  States,  presumably  by 
de  Valera  in  his  March  visit 

At  this  stage  Eire's  desire,  as  publicly  expressed, 
was  merely  for  the  annexation  of  Ulster — or,  in 
the  more  diplomatic  language  ordinarily  used  in 
the  argument,  the  "end  of  partition."  By  July 
Eire's  plans  for  a  separate  republic  were  maturing, 
and  again  Sir  Basil  Brooke  issued  a  statement  in 
reply  to  recent  speeches  by  members  of  the  Eiie 
Government.  "Do  they  think  our  constitutional 
status  is  up  for  auction?"  the  Prime  Minister  asked, 
adding  that  "Ulster  is  not  for  sale," 

The  vigor  of  the  interchange  across  the  border 
increased  in  the  late  summer.  On  September  9 
the  Grand  Orange  Lodge  of  Ireland  passed  a  reso- 
lution which  included  an  "emphatic  protest  against 
die  audacious  and  preposterous  claim  of  Mr.  Cos- 
tello  to  have  any  control  in  any  capacity  over  the 
affairs  of  Northern  Ireland.** 

Prime  Ministers  Brooke  and  Attlee  met  at  Cheq- 
uers on  November  20  at  the  request  of  Attlee, 
to  discuss  Eire's  forthcoming  departure  from  the 
Commonwealth.  Reporting  on  the  talk  to  the 
Northern  Ireland  Parliament  on  November  25, 
Prime  Minister  Brooke  said  that  Attlee  had  given 


IRON  AND  STFEL 


280 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


the  fullest  assurances  that  the  creation  of  a  repub- 
lic in  southern  Ireland  would  have  no  effect  what- 
ever on  the  constitutional  position  of  Northern  Ire- 
land as  an  integral  part  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
Although  the  British  Government  was  to  give  Eire 
citizens  full  civil  rights,  control  of  Eire  citizens 
in  Northern  Ireland  would  be  continued  through 
the  Northern  Ireland  Safeguarding  of  Employment 
Act, 

Northern  Ireland  made  the  necessary  adjust- 
ments to  secure  reciprocity  when  the  British  na- 
tional insurance  and  health  services  came  into  op- 
eration on  July  5.  The  respective  ministers  of  Na- 
tional Insurance  arranged  that  the  two  schemes 
should  operate  as  a  single  system  and  contributions 
paid  in  one  country  would  entitle  the  contributor 
to  benefit  in  the  other  country,  British  ministers 
who  visited  Northern  Ireland  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  year  included  Prime  Minister  Attlee;  Lord 
Jowitt,  the  Lord  Chancellor;  Harold  Wilson,  Presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Trade;  George  Isaacs,  Minis- 
ter of  Labor  and  National  Service;  and  Lord  Pacfc- 
enham,  Minister  for  Civil  Aviation.  Nearly  all  of 
the  officials  were  concerned  in  part  with  economic 
affairs  during  their  visits. — ALZADA  COMSTOCK 

IRON  AND  STEEL.  United  States  production  of  iron 
and  steel  in  1948  was  at  record-breaking  peace- 
time levels,  but  the  demand  for  steel  products  by 
domestic  industry  was  far  greater  than  could  be 
supplied  by  wartime  and  postwar  expanded  steel 
plants  and  available  raw  materials.  Production  was 
restricted  by  a  year-long  cycle  of  repairs  to  furnaces 
and  other  equipment  that  had  been  deferred  too 
long  in  order  to  meet  heavy  wartime  and  post- 
war demands  for  steel.  The  coal  mine  strike  in  the 
spring  caused  the  loss  of  an  estimated  1,500,000 
ingot  tons. 

Domestic  production  of  steel  ingots  and  castings 
totaled  88,509,083  net  tons,  less  by  hardly  more 
than  a  million  tons  than  peak  wartime  production 
in  1944  (1947  ingot  production:  84,894,071  tons). 
Steelmaking  furnaces  were  operated  at  an  average 
rate  of  93.9  percent  of  capacity,  which  was  placed 
at  94,233,460  net  tons  on  Jan.  1,  1948.  An  addi- 
tional 1,800,000  tons  of  capacity  was  added  during 
the  year.  Barring  the  possibility  of  major  strikes  oc- 
curring next  year  and  assuming  a  continuation  of 
heavy  steel  demand,  industry  leaders  forecast  an 
all-time-high  production  rate  in  1949  of  about  92 
million  tons. 

Domestic  production  of  pig  iron  in  1948  was  60 
million  net  tons,  a  peacetime  record  (1947  pig 
iron  production:  58,507,169  tons). 

Shipments  of  steel  products  to  consumers,  in- 
cluding alloy  and  stainless  steels,  reached  66  mil- 
lion net  tons.  (1947  shipments:  63,057,150  tons). 
The  principal  steel  products  shipped  were:  hot- 
rolled  sheets,  11.8  percent  of  the  total;  plates,  10.6 
percent;  cold-rolled  sheets,  10.4  percent;  hot- 
rolled  carbon  steel  bars,  9.4  percent;  structural 
shapes,  6.5  percent  The  diversion  of  tonnage  from 
the  less  profitable  products  to  those  bringing  a 
higher  net  return  is  a  significant  postwar  trend.  The 
heaviest  steel  plant  expenditures  in  the  postwar 
period  have  been  for  additional  finishing  facilities 
to  permit  mills  to  sell  a  larger  proportion  of  finished 
steel  products  to  customers.  In  sheet  steel,  for  ex- 
ample, cold-rolled  capacity  has  been  heavily  ex- 
panded at  the  expense  of  hot-rolled  tonnage. 

For  many  years  the  steel  industry  has  sold  its 
products  on  the  multiple  basing  point  pricing 
system.  This  method  of  pricing  permits  competi- 
tion among  steel  producers,  some  of  whom  may  be 
reaching  into  distant  market  areas.  The  origin  of 


this  pricing  system  lies  in  the  need  of  every  steel 
producer  to  operate  its  plant  facilities  above  the 
break-even  rate  of  plant  capacity  in  order  to  make 
a  profit.  By  being  willing  to  absorb  freight  charges 
to  a  distant  market  area  additional  tonnages  of 
steel  can  be  sold,  at  the  expense  of  the  sales  volume 
of  mills  in  that  area, 

The  multiple  basing  point  system  is  one  in  which 
a  base  price  (aside  from  extra  charges  for  gage, 
size,  quantity,  alloy,  finish,  etc.)  is  established  by 
every  major  producer  for  each  steel  product  at  its 
producing  point.  Competitors  may  elect  to  com- 
pete within  the  normal  market  area  of  such  mills  by 
absorbing  the  freight  costs  from  their  nearest  pro- 
ducing points  to  the  remote  basing  point.  Under 
this  system  of  pricing  it  is  also  possible  for  steel 
producers  in  some  areas  to  charge  customers  so- 
called  phantom  freight  on  certain  steel  products 
and  yet  remain  competitive.  This  term  describes 
freight  charges  billed  the  customer  that  have  not 
actually  been  incurred  by  the  producer. 

A  Supreme  Court  decision  at  the  end  of  April 
outlawed  the  use  of  the  multiple  basing  point  pric- 
ing system  by  the  cement  industry.  The  Federal 
Trade  Commission  indicated  that  it  was  prepared 
to  press  similar  actions  against  the  steel  industry 
and  others  using  this  system  of  pricing.  Within 
three  months  practically  all  steel  producers  had 
changed  to  an  f.o.b.  mill  pricing  system. 

Steel  consumers  were  thrown  into  a  state  of 
confusion  as  to  their  costs,  which  became  more  de- 
pendent on  the  locations  of  their  plants  and  those 
of  their  steel  suppliers.  Many  gave  serious  con- 
sideration to  the  advantages  of  moving  fabricating 
plants  to  centers  of  heavy  steel  production,  such  as 
Pittsburgh,  to  reduce  freight  costs.  Considerable 
pressure  was  brought  to  bear  on  Congress  by  con- 
sumers to  legalize  the  multiple  basing  point  sys- 
tem, and  a  Senate  subcommittee  on  trade  practices 
conducted  extended  hearings.  The  sentiment  of 
steel  consumers  at  the  hearings  and  in  a  survey 
conducted  by  The  Iron  Age  was  overwhelmingly 
in  favor  of  the  restoration  of  basing  point  pricing. 

Prices  of  steel  products  were  advanced  during 
the  year  as  the  result  of  higher  wages  and  other 
costs.  The  Iron  Age  weighted  composite  price  for 
finished  steel  advanced  from  3.19541  cents  per  Ib. 
at  the  end  of  1947  to  3.75628  cents  per  Ib.  at  the 
end  of  1948.  This  index  does  not,  however,  reflect 
increases  made  in  extra  charges.  The  Iron  Age 
composite  price  of  pig  iron  increased  during  the 
year  to  $46.82  per  gross  ton,  from  a  price  of 
$38.39.  Prices  of  Lake  Superior  iron  ores  were  ad- 
vanced 65  cents  a  gross  ton  on  April  1.  The  Iron 
Age  composite  price  for  heavy  melting  scrap 
reached  a  peak  of  $43.16  a  gross  ton  in  July.  Scrap 
prices  weakened  toward  the  end  of  the  year  and 
the  composite  closed  at  $43.00,  a  net  increase  of 
$3.00  during  the  year. 

Demand  for  steel  products  was  overwhelmingly 
beyond  the  record  steel  production  rates.  Gray 
market  steel  sales  flourished  at  prices  more  than 
$200  a  ton  above  the  mill  price  level.  Such  trans- 
actions, fed  by  imported  steel  products  and  dis- 
posals of  unbalanced  inventories,  represented  a 
very  small  proportion  of  total  steel  shipments.  Con- 
version deals  were  common,  particularly  for  the 
automobile  industry.  The  steel  consumer  would 
have  ingots  produced  for  him,  usually  at  a  steel 
castings  plant,  to  be  converted  into  semi-finished 
form  at  a  second  plant.  The  final  conversion  into 
finished  steel  products  was  generally  done  at  a 
third  plant.  Freight  costs  and  conversion  charges 
built  up  the  cost  of  conversion  steel  to  close  to 
that  of  gray  market  steel.  There  was  also  a  wave 


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281 


/SUM 


of  purchases  of  non-integrated  steel  plants  by  large 
steel  consumers  or  groups  of  consumers  in  order  to 
assure  their  source  of  supply. 

Steel  producers  attempted  to  assure  equitable 
distribution  of  their  available  tonnages  to  their 
customers.  But  such  tonnages  were  cut  down  by  a 
voluntary  allocations  program  that  earmarked 
specified  tonnages  of  many  steel  products  for  ap- 
proved consuming  industries.  The  program  was 
worked  out  jointly  by  the  members  of  the  steel  in- 
dustry in  cooperation  with  the  Office  of  Industry 
Cooperation  of  the  Department  of  Commerce. 
Programs  in  effect  at  the  end  of  the  year  required 
476,422  tons  of  steel  a  month.  Nearly  200,000  tons 
of  plates  per  month  are  required,  as  well  as  heavy 
tonnages  of  structural  shapes,  hot-rolled  bars, 
sheets  and  strip.  Freight  car  construction  and 
maintenance  require  249,682  tons  a  month;  the 
Armed  Forces,  102,505  tons;  tanker  vessel  con- 
struction, 40,380  tons;  barges,  25,000  tons;  tank 
and  oil  field  machinery,  16,530  tons;  Atomic  En- 
ergy Commission,  16,414  tons;  merchant  vessels, 
15,415  tons. 

The  many  technical  developments  in  the  steel 
industry  in  1948  were  directed  toward  increased 
production  rates,  reduced  operating  costs,  the  im- 
provement of  quality,  and  new  processing  tech- 
niques. The  possibility  of  future  decentralization 
of  the  steel  industry  is  promised  by  the  first  com- 
mercial use  of  the  continuous  casting  of  steel  bil- 
lets. This  development  is  based  on  a  technique  by 
which  the  heat  is  cast  directly  into  relatively  small 
semi-finished  sections,  by-passing  the  ingot  stage 
and  making  unnecessary  the  heavy  expenditures 
for  soaking  pits,  blooming  mill,  and  ingot  handling 
equipment. 

The  use  of  oxygen  in  steelmaking  has  grown 
rapidly  in  the  last  three  years,  but  for  some  pur- 
poses it  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage.  It  has 
been  used  in  conjunction  with  openhearth  fur- 
naces, electric  furnaces,  bessemer  and  sideblown 
converters,  the  foundry  cupola,  and  most  recently 
in  the  blast  furnace. 

The  cold  extrusion  of  steel  has  been  developed 
for  low  and  medium  carbon  grades  and  some  low 
alloy  grades.  Significant  cost  reductions  are  possible 
with  this  technique  as  compared  with  conventional 
forging  or  machining  methods. 

In  1948,  domestic  steel  producers  were  seriously 
concerned  with,  the  prospect  of  exhaustion  of  the 
high  grade  iron  ore  reserves  of  the  Lake  Superior 
region.  Experts  generally  agree  that  the  bulk  of  the 
open  pit  reserves  of  the  Mesabi  and  other  ranges 
will  be  used  up  by  1960.  Construction  of  beneficia- 
tion  plants  has  been  started  to  handle  the  tremen- 
dous tonnages  of  the  low  grade  taconite  ores  of  the 
Lake  Superior  region.  Producers  are  also  studying 
the  costs  of  opening  up  the  large  reserves  of  high 
grade  ores  in  other  parts  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. Bethlehem  Steel  Company  will  start  ship- 
ping ore  from  Venezuela  in  1949.  The  high  grade 
ores  of  the  Labrador-Quebec  area  are  being  de- 
veloped jointly  by  Hollinger  Consolidated  Gold 
Mines,  Ltd.  and  the  M.  A.  Hanna  Co.  The  Labra- 
dor-Quebec area  and  the  rich  reserves  of  Brazil  in 
the  Minas  Geraes  district  require  construction  of 
railways  through  inaccessible  country.  The  de- 
velopment of  the  St.  Lawrence  Seaway  is  con- 
sidered essential  by  the  industry  to  bring  ore  car- 
riers close  to  the  heart  of  the  steelmaking  centers. 
Iron  ore  costs  will  be  increased  considerably  by  the 
wide  use  of  foreign  ores  and  the  need  for  benefici- 
ating  low  grade  domestic  ores. 

World  steel  ingot  production  reached  a  peace- 
time record  in  1948  estimated  at  168,812,000  net 


tons  (1947:  149,506,000  tons).  World  pig  iron 
production  is  estimated  at  120,650,000  net  tons 
(1947:  106,288,000  tons).  Practically  all  steel 
producing  nations  are  working  toward  higher  steel 
capacities.  If  presently  contemplated  programs  are 
carried  through,  it  is  estimated  that  the  steel  ingot 
capacity  of  the  world  should  be  200  million  tons 
by  1952. 

In  the  United  Kingdom,  nationalization  of  the 
steel  industry  in  1949  seems  assured.  Handicapped 
by  shortages  of  coal  and  scrap,  Britain  produced 
approximately  16,500,000  net  tons  of  ingots 
(1947:  14,246,000  net  tons),  larger  production 
than  any  previous  year.  Present  objectives  call  for 
production  of  18  million  tons  by  1950.  Expanded 
United  Kingdom  capacity  is  designed  to  serve  the 
export  steel  market. 

Steel  production  of  the  U.S.S.R.  increased  ap- 
preciably in  1948  due  to  restoration  of  steel  plants 
destroyed  by  the  war,  construction  of  new  facili- 
ties, better  handling  of  raw  materials,  and  higher 
labor  productivity.  Russian  steel  ingot  production 
is  estimated  at  22,220,000  net  tons  (1947:  17,050,- 
000  net  tons),  higher  production  than  any  previous 
year. 

German  steel  production  has  been  reduced  to  a 
shadow  of  its  potential.  The  British  zone  which  in- 
cludes the  Ruhr  contains  75  percent  of  total  ca- 
pacity; the  French  zone  which  includes  the  Saar 
contains  12  percent;  the  Russian  zone,  10  percent; 
and  the  U.S.  zone,  3  percent.  Russia  has  dismantled 
and  shipped  home  practically  all  capacity  in  its 
zone.  The  United  Kingdom  plans  to  dismantle 
more  than  9  million  tons  capacity,  leaving  a  ca- 
pacity in  its  zone  of  10.3  million  tons.  The  United 
States  opposes  further  dismantling  of  German  in- 
dustrial capacity  in  the  zones  controlled  by  Britain 
and  France,  as  well  as  its  own.  German  production 
in  1948  was  approximately  7,350,000  net  tons, 
about  6  million  tons  from  the  British  zone,  1.2  mil- 
lion tons  from  the  French  zone,  and  300,000  tons 
from  the  U.S.  zone.  German  steel  production  from 
these  three  zones  in  1947  was  4,739,000  net  tons. 

French  steel  production  has  been  handicapped 
by  shortages  of  raw  materials,  strikes,  unstable  cur- 
rency, and  a  poorly  defined  expansion  and  mod- 
ernization program.  Nevertheless  steel  production 
in  France  increased  to  approximately  7,368,000  net 
tons  (1947:  6,338,000  net  tons ). 

— JOHN  ANTHONY 

ISLAM.  Islamdom  embraces  those  areas  of  the  earth 
where  Islam  is  the  religious  and  social  way  of  life 
of  the  majority,  or  a  large  minority,  of  the  inhabit- 
ants. During  1948  these  Islamic  peoples  experi- 
enced turmoil,  upheaval,  repression,  and  some  suc- 
cesses in  international  relationships. 

In  Morocco  agitators  demanded  independence 
from  France,  which  promised  reforms,  and  from 
Spain,  which  responded  with  suppression.  Algeri- 
ans received  greater  legislative  representation.  In 
Tunisia  discord  continued.  France  still  hoped  to 
assimilate  Northern  Africa  to  make  a  France  Major, 
but  found  the  forcing  process  unsuccessful. 

The  future  of  Libya,  ruled  formerly  by  Italy,  at 
the  end  of  1948  still  awaited  decision  by  the  Unit- 
ed Nations. 

Egypt  is  not  Islarndom's  greatest  nation  in  size, 

Eower  or  population.  Nevertheless  Egypt  accepted 
jadership  in  the  seven-nation  Arab  League  to  pro- 
mote common  interests. 

The  other  League  nations  are  Syria,  Iraq,  Trans- 
jordan,  Saudi  Arabia,  Yemen,  and  Lebanon,  the 
only  one  with  a  non-Muslim  majority.  A  political 
change  occurred  when  the  Imam  Yahya,  Yemen's 


ISRAEL 


282 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE 


king  and  religious  leader  for  43  years,  was  assassi- 
nated on  February  17  with  three  of  his  sons*  An- 
other son,  Sayf  al  Islam  Ahmad,  now  rules  the  only 
Muslim  state  where  one  person  exercises  religious 
and  temporal  power. 

Since  1923  Turkey  has  been  a  laic,  or  secular  re- 
public. Its  Turkish  citizens  remained  Muslim.  Only 
in  Istanbul  are  Armenians  and  Greeks  numerous. 
The  separation  of  government  and  religion  is  offi- 
cial, but  the  state  maintains  control  of  all  religious 
activities.  Turkey  still  belongs  to  Islamdom,  just 
as  France  is  within  Christendom. 

Turkey  and  Iran  experienced  political  pressure 
from  Russia.  They  and  Afghanistan  are  receiving 
economic  and  other  aid  from  the  United  States. 

Pakistan  is  an  outstanding  Islamic  success.  Its 
amazing  birth  in  1947  as  one  nation  in  two  sections 
1,000  miles  apart  was  accompanied  by  calamitous 
uprooting,  expulsion,  and  influx  of  Sikhs,  Hindus 
and  Muslims,  threatening  ruin  to  the  infant  state. 

In  die  Netherlands  East  Indies  the  Muslim  na- 
tionalist movement  was  too  limited  in  number  and 
area  for  lasting  success.  Most  Indonesians  placed 
more  hope  in  Holland  than  in  an  independent  re- 
public. See  ARAB  LEAGUE  AFFAIRS;  INDIA,  UNION 
OF;  ISRAEL;  PAKISTAN;  PALESTINE. 

— EDWIN  E.  CALVERLEY 

ISRAEL.  The  Zionist  state  of  Israel  (see  ARAB 
LEAGUE  AFFAIRS,  PALESTINE)  was  proclaimed  in 
Palestine  immediately  following  the  end  of  the 
British  mandate,  6  months  after  the  United  Nations 
partition  decision  and  31  years  after  Great  Britain's 
Balfour  Declaration  favoring  a  "national  home  for 
the  Jewish  people  ...  it  being  clearly  understood 
that  nothing  shall  be  done  which  may  prejudice 
the  civil  and  religious  rights  of  existing  non- Jewish 
communities  in  Palestine,  or  the  rights  and  politi- 
cal status  enjoyed  by  Jews  in  any  other  country." 
The  Zionists  held  that  since  any  UN  General  As- 
sembly vote  was  binding,  the  Israeli  state  was  prop- 
erly authorized. 

A  13-man  Provisional  Council  was  set  up  with 
David  Ben  Gurion  as  Prime  Minister  and  Defense 
Minister  and  Moshe  Shertok  as  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs.  Charm  Weizmann  was  elected  the  Coun- 
cil's President.  Hagana  became  the  national  army 
and  the  first  thousand  of  a  series  of  immigrants 
were  admitted  on  Israeli  visas.  The  new  state  was 
immediately  recognized  by  the  United  States  and 
shortly  thereafter  by  the  Soviet  Union,  UN  mem- 
bership was  applied  for  and  Major  Aubrey  Eban 
was  appointed  Israeli  representative  to  the  UN. 
By  November  Bulgaria  was  the  eighteenth  country 
to  recognize  Israel. 

While  furious  battles  raged  and  involved  UN 
negotiations  proceeded,  the  Council  organized  the 
new  state.  The  Finance  Minister  stated  that  Israel's 
revenue  as  of  June  21  was  more  than  £900,000 
and  that  £3,500,000  of  the  £5,000,000  national 
loan  was  subscribed.  A  new  currency  was  issued 
substituting  the  Israeli  pound  for  the  Palestinian 
pound  (equivalent  to  sterling).  In  September  an 
income  tax  bill  was  adopted,  a  Supreme  Court  es- 
tablished, and  the  port  of  Haifa  handed  to  Israel 
by  the  British. 

The  government  ruled  in  October  that  its  pro- 
posed citizenship  and  election  laws  would  apply 
to  all  permanently  domiciled  in  any  Palestine  terri- 
tory under  Israeli  Army  control  Tariff  rates  of  15 
to  45  percent  on  manufactured  goods  were  levied, 
but  none  on  capital  goods,  the  demand  for  indus- 
trial equipment  being  unlimited.  In  the  face  of  the 
spiraling  cost  of  living  (with  1939  as  100  it  had 
risen  from  274  in  October,  1947,  to  358  in  Septem- 


ber, 1948)  the  Economic  Director  announced  that 
rationing  might  be  extended  from  food  and  gas  to 
other  supplies. 

The  new  constitution,  released  on  December  11, 
established  a  sovereign,  independent,  democratic 
republic  with  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  elected  by 
universal  suffrage  for  4-year  terms.  The  Chamber 
elected  the  President  for  a  5-year  term  and  he  ap- 
pointed the  Executive  Council  consisting  of  the 
Prime  Minister,  leaders  of  Department  of  State, 
and  the  Ministers.  Toward  the  year's  end  the  many 
political  parties  were  narrowed  to  about  12  in 
preparation  for  the  first  general  election  in  Janu- 
ary, 1949. 

In  December  Israel's  application  for  UN  mem- 
bership was  considered,  with  American  and  Rus- 
sian support  assured.  U.S.  Security  Council  Repre- 
sentative Philip  Jessup  asserted  that  Israel  met  the 
four  qualifications  of  a  state:  1)  There  must  be  a 
people;  2 )  there  must  be  a  territory;  3 )  there  must 
be  a  government;  and  4 )  there  must  be  a  capacity 
to  enter  into  relations  with  other  states. 

Throughout  the  year  Israel  faced  an  internal  se- 
curity problem  vis-a-vis  extremist  groups  unwilling 
to  compromise.  On  May  15,  both  the  Irgun  Zvai 
Leumi  and  the  Stern  Gang  declared  their  alle- 
giance and  theoretically  became  part  of  the  na- 
tional army.  However,  ^ die  first  incident  exploded 
over  Irgun  Zvai  Leumi's  attempt  to  land  men  and 
ammunition  in  violation  of  the  UN  truce  to  which 
the  Israeli  government  had  agreed.  Angered  by 
government  arrests,  Irgun  leader  Menahin  Beigin 
ordered  his  men  not  to  take  the  Israeli  oath  of  al- 
legiance. Nevertheless,  the  Council  received  a 
24—7  vote  of  confidence  on  the  government's  deci- 
sive action. 

Then  came  the  assassination  of  UN  Mediator 
Count  Bernadotte  by  unknown  terrorists.  The  gov- 
ernment ordered  a  full  search,  arresting  200  sus- 
pects, and  the  Council  voted  unanimously  for  more 
severe  penalties  for  membership  in  outlawed  or- 
ganizations. In  reply  to  a  government  ultimatum 
Irgun  Zvai  Leumi  officially  disbanded,  the  Stern 
Gang  announced  its  dissolution  as  a  separate  unit, 
and  its  newspaper  was  closed.  Yet  in  October  cop- 
ies of  a  Stern  Gang  paper  appeared  assuming  re- 
sponsibility for  Bernadotte's  death  and  threatening 
4  all  other  foreigners"  who  impeded  Israelis.  In 
December  the  trial  of  the  Ganges  leader  was 
started.  — DOROTHEA  SEELYE  FRANCK 

ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  The  Italian  literary  season  of 
1948  fell  into  a  more  normal,  if  limited,  productiv- 
ity, due  partly  to  the  continued  lack  of  printing 
facilities,  and  to  the  scarcity  of  paper  and  mate- 
rials. Beset  by  these  difficulties,  Italian  publishers 
smarted  under  their  helplessness  to  bring  the 
Italian  press  back  to  the  seniorial  and  esthetic 
place  it  formerly  occupied  on  the  international  ho- 
rizon. 

Financial  difficulties  continued  to  make  inroads 
on  the  quality  of  format,  illustration,  and  type- 
setting, etc.  And,  to  some  extent,  these  difficulties, 
greatly  limited  the  quantity  of  books  by  new  au- 
thors. This  curtailment  of  production  was  perhaps 
for  the  best,  since  in  retrospect,  the  previous  season 
( 1947 )  was  not  one  desirable  of  continuation;  with 
its  tendencies  toward  decadence,  amorality,  and 
repulsive  realism. 

Hence,  if  the  1948  season  was  not  punctuated 
with  great  creations,  it  was  marked  by  contrast, 
with  an  obvious  groping  for  more  normal  and  spir- 
itual attitudes  toward  life  in  an  Italy  still  beset  by 
so  much  misery  and  abject  poverty.  Literature  re- 
flected perforce,  here  and  there,  a  benign  resigna- 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE 


283 


ITALIAN  LITERATURE 


tion  during  a  trying  and  indecisive  moment  in  the 
destiny  of  the  Italian  people.  Once  again,  literary 
creation  occupied  a  minor  premise  on  the  Italian 
horizon,  yielding  a  place  of  major  importance  to 
history  and  politics.  Let  it  be  recalled  that  the 
victory  o£  the  Christian  Democrats  over  the  Social 
Communists  and  the  jostling  about  of  national 
politics  and  aspirations  relegated  all  other  cultural 
activities  into  a  remote  and  humble  background. 

Drama.  The  Italian  theater  lagged  far  behind  the 
other  arts  this  past  season.  It  was  hindered  by 
seemingly  unsurmountable  obstacles  and  difficul- 
ties, and  of  course,  by  the  perennial  problem  of 
costs  of  production  and  the  poverty  of  the  stock 
companies.  More  than  in  any  other  art,  the  post- 
war years  in  the  theater  have  been  significant  for 
psychological  shifting  and  readjustments. 

Small  wonder  then,  that  there  should  be  such 
paucity  of  native  creations  and  native  productions. 
Under  such  conditions  chances  for  successfully  pro- 
ducing any  plays  in  Italy  were  so  slim  that  direc- 
tors rather  took  to  producing  well-known  foreign 
plays,  than  to  gamble  with  the  limited  funds  on 
hand.  Thus  if  there  was  a  preponderance  of  for- 
eign plays,  Italy  did  not  show  any  particular  pref- 
erence for  French  plays  as  against  English  plays 
or  American  plavs.  As  much  enthusiasm  was  shown 
for  Sartre  as  for  Saroyan  or  other  well-known 
names  on  the  international  horizon.  However,  if 
this  can  be  of  any  consolation  to  our  Italian  dram- 
atists, one  can  point  out  that  there  has  always 
existed  a  theater  crisis  in  Italy  and  for  that  matter 
all  over  the  world. 

Even  during  the  heyday  that  witnessed  so  many 
extraordinary  plays  by  Pirandello  and  D'Annunzio 
the  familiar  cry  was  "crisis"  in  the  theater.  One 
must  bear  in  mind  that  Italy  was  left  a  defeated 
nation,  bereft  of  resources  and  a  will  of  its  own. 
Hence,  when  we  speak  of  psychological  readjust- 
ment, we  must  understand  that  it  is  synonymous 
with  gathering  strength,  fortitude,  perseverance 
for  some  sort  of  renaissance  in  which  the  Italian 
theater  will,  as  in  the  other  arts,  emerge  fruitful, 
original,  and  vital.  Pirandello  made  certain  philo- 
sophic innovations  in  the  theater.  The  futuristic 
movement  started  in  Italy  as  did  the  "Mask  and 
the  Face"  movement,  and  once  again,  with  so 
splendid  a  heritage,  young  dramatists  need  not 
despair  but  should  point  doggedly  toward  their 
work  and  the  future. 

Periodical  Literature.  Noteworthy  was  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  magazine  literature  among  which 
Martedl  (Tuesday),  a  new  weekly  was  launched, 
by  Bompiani,  Milan  editor.  The  weekly  carries 
instalments  of  great  books  of  the  world;  bringing 
reading  within  the  possibility  of  everyone,^  at  a 
nominal  cost.  The  very  reliable  and  efficient  "ICS" 
(Italia  Che  Scrive)  launched  some  31  years  ago 
by  the  enterprising  editor,  Forrniggini,  continued 
its  regular  issues  with  sharp  critical  evaluations  of 
almost  everything  published  in  Italy.  La  Rasse- 
gna  d'ltalia  (Gentile,  Milan)  of  which  the  notable 
critic,  Frencesco  Flora  is  managing  editor,  went 
into  its  third  year  of  publication.  It  is  a  scholarly 
and  serious  literary  review  with  facsimilies  of  un- 
published letters  and  source  material.  It  carries 
splendid  reproductions  of  contemporary  artists, 
and  in  general  treats  of  the  varied  arts  and  culture. 

It  is  also  of  interest  to  note  the  continuation  of 
Italy's  Life,  a  bi-monthly,  published  in  Milan.  This 
magazine  is  printed  in  English  with  occasional 
Italian  articles  and  notes.  As  a  feature,  it  presents 
beautiful  reproduction  of  art  masterpieces  and  un- 
usual photographic  plates  of  the  Italian  panorama. 
One  noted  less  typographical  errors  in  recent  is- 


sues, but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  quality  of  Eng- 
lish used  will  improve  as  well.  Aldo  Garzanti,  the 
energetic  publisher  of  Milan,  launched  La  Piccola 
Illustrazione  Italiana  in  a  small  format,  fashioned 
after  the  famous  Illustrazione  Italiana.  Garzantfs 
new  venture  appears  monthly.  In  miniature,  it  pre- 
sents all  the  features  of  the  older  and  larger  review 
from  which  it  takes  its  name. 

Fiction.  The  literary  prize  "lues  Fila,"  was  award- 
ed to  Marino  Moretti  for  his  II  Fiocco  Verde 
(Mondadori,  Milan).  The  novel  depicts  the  life  of 
an  ecclesiastic  and  his  household,  composed  chiefly 
of  women.  Narrated  with  restraint  and  reflective- 
ness, the  novel  is  in  contrast  with  some  of  the  real- 
istic prose  which  permeated  Italian  writing  of  a 
year  ago. 

Giuseppe  Berto  whose  The  Sky  Is  Red  was  trans- 
lated by  ^  New  Directions  in  America,  received  the 
"Firenze"  prize  for  his  new  novel,  Le  opere  di  Dio 
( Macchia,  Rome ) .  It  depicts  the  misery  of  a  peas- 
ant family  of  five  caught  between  the  struggle  of 
two  armies.  Again,  Berto  showed  unusual  talent  in 
style  and  narrative,  and  the  tragic  end  that  befalls 
the  family  is  poignantly  and  masterfully  handled. 

Carlo  Caccioli  contributed  another  novel  of  se- 
rious and  spiritual  values,  La  piccola  valle  di  Dio 
(Vallecchi,  Florence).  A  simple  and  beautiful  nar- 
ration of  life  in  this  world  of  ours,  it  offers  a  for- 
mula for  sokce  and  ultimate  salvation.  Enzo 
Amodio,  a  newcomer  in  the  field  of  literature  wrote 
L'Abisso  (Casella,  Naples).  It  tells  of  the  adven- 
tures of  a  young  man,  of  war,  and  of  impending 
ruin.  The  novel  olid  not  create  a  stir. 

Guido  Seborga's  L'Uomo  di  campowsso  (Mon- 
dadori, Milan)  is  written  in  a  direct  and  incisive 
style.  Here  again  the  story  evolves  about  a  man 
in  rebellion  against  his  surroundings.  The  veteran 
writer,  Aldo  Palazzeschi,  contributed  something  of 
a  counterpart  to  his  famous  novel,  Le  Sorelle  Ma- 
terassi  (The  Sisters  Materassi),  in  1  fratelli  Cuccoli 
(Vallecchi,  Florence).  A  regional  novel  was  con- 
tributed by  Lucifero  Falcone,  in  Tonna  (Palombi, 
Rome).  Tonna,  a  calabrese  mother  clings  to  the 
only  indestructible  reason  for  being  alive;  the  con- 
stant reality  that  a  mother  does  bear  children,  and 
that  this  relationship  of  mother  and  children  has  an 
"eternal  quality  and  strength." 

Riccaroto  Bacchelli,  a  writer  of  long  standing, 
also  contributed  a  novel  on  the  spiritual  plane,  Lo 
sguardo  di  Gesh  (Garzanti,  Milan).  It  draws  its 
inspiration  from  the  Biblical  episodes  dealing  with 
Christ's  miracles  on  those  possessed  of  the  devil. 
Two  novels  on  different  motifs  were  contributed  by 
Alfredo  Orecchio  and  Vittorio  G.  Rossi.  Orecchio's 
Gli  sposi  sensibili  (Reanda,  Rome)  constituted  the 
first  volume  of  a  trilogy.  It  deals  with  the  atmos- 
phere around  the  petite-  bourge&ise  with  its  attend- 
ant "misery,"  "morbidity,"  and  "lack  of  ethics." 
Rossi's  Preludio  alia  notte  (Bompiani,  Milan) 
makes  fare  of  the  story  and  adventure  formula: 
two  young  people  meet  on  a  steamer  and  in  three 
short  days  are  deeply  in  love.  While  speaking  of 
adventure  novels,  one  might  mention  Ugo  Betti's 
La  Piera  Alta  (Garzanti,  Milan),  an  addition  to  the 
numerous  books  on  mountain  climbing,  with  the 
usual  dosage  of  danger  and  excitement.  The  book 
was  criticized  as  being  overly  stylistic.  Libero 
Bigiaretti  gained  the  "Fragi  Prize"  for  his  novel, 
Un  discorso  d'amore  ( Garzanti,  Milan ) .  The  novel 
is  written  in  the  form  of  a  long  letter  to  a  former 
"love,"  and  shows  some  influence  of  the  "existen- 
tialism" theme. 

In  the  short  story  field,  the  venerable  name  of 
Vincenzo  Cardarelli  reappeared  in  his  volume  of 
"reminiscences,"  couched  in  poetic  vein.  Villa  Ta- 


KALIAN  SOMAULAND 


284 


ITAVf 


rantola  (Edizione  della  Meridiana,  Rome).  The 
book  was  awarded  the  "Strega  Prize."  Nine  short 
stories  in  *lDold"  and  "violent"  moods  made  up 
Maria  Luisa  Astoldfs  La  torre  del  diavolo  (De 
Fonseca,  Rome) ,  Another  collection  of  short  stories, 
dipping  frequently  into  the  Neopolitan  vernacular, 
and  with  zest  and  color,  was  Domenico  Rea's  Spac- 
canapoli  (Mondadori,  Milan).  This  young  author 
writes  with  effortless  simplicity  and  creates  effort- 
less drama  at  every  turn  of  the  page;  he  will  no 
doubt  be  heard  from  in  the  future.  Ugo  Betti  had 
a  busy  season;  in  addition  to  his  novel,  discussed 
above,  he  found  time  to  assemble  19  short  stories, 
Una  strana  serata  (Garzanti,  Milan);  in  a  lively 
idiom  and  with  vivid  characterizations. 

Poetry  and  Varia.  The  poetry  prize  "S.  Babila" 
was  awarded  to  Giuseppe  Ungaretti  for  his  11  Do- 
lore  (Mondadori,  Milan)  which  constitutes  the 
fourth  volume  in  his  series  "Vita  di  un  uorno." 
Vincenzo  Cardarelli's  Poesie  appeared  in  the  col- 
lection "Poeti  dello  Specchio"  (Mondadori,  Milan). 
G.  Cimino's  volume  of  poems,  Le  cose  (Gastoldi, 
Milan),  is  divided  into  three  groups:  "poems  on 
times  gone  by/'  "poems  on  modern  times,"  and 
"philosophic  poems/*  Umberto  Fraccacreta  con- 
tributed poems  with  echoes  of  Pascoli  and  D'An- 
nnnzio}  Ultimi  canti  (Laterza,  Bari). 

One  of  the  best  books  of  poetry,  singled  out  in 
the  past  season,  was  P.  David  Turoldfs  la  non  ho 
mani  (Bompiani,  Milan).  The  poems  suggest  a 
mystic  and  sincere  exultation.  Essays  on  poetry 
were  contributed  by  Vincenzo  Cardarelli,  Solitario 
in  Arcadia  (Mondadori,  Milan).  These  were  obser- 
vations on  style,  on  color,  and  on  the  author  him- 
self, as  man  and  poet.  Giovanni  Scalvini  published 
his  critical  studies:  Foscolo,  Manzoni,  Goethe 
(Einaudi,  Turin).  Luigi  Pirandello's  plays  contin- 
ued to  be  reprinted  by  the  "Collezione  Omnibus" 
and  "Biblioteca  Moderna,"  both  editions  put  out 
by  the  famous  house  of  Mondadori  of  Milan.  Lio- 
nello  Venturi,  the  internationally  famous  art  critic, 
prepared  a  handsome  volume  on  contemporary 
painting,  Pittura  Contemporanea  (Hoepli,  Milan). 
In  conclusion,  thanks  are  due  to  the  monthly,  JCS, 
for  material  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  the 
foregoing  bibliographical  notes. 

— O.  A.  BONTEMPO 

ITALIAN  SOMAUIAND  (Somalia).  A  territory  along  the 
east  coast  of  Africa  from  the  Gulf  of  Aden  to 
Kenya.  Formerly  an  Italian  colony,  it  was  conquered 
by  Allied  military  forces  and  has  been  under  British 
military  administration  since  February,  1941.  Area: 
194,000  square  miles.  Population:  1,021,572.  The 
majority  of  the  people  are  Somalis  of  the  Sunni  sect 
of  Islam.  Capital:  Mogadishu,  55,000  inhabitants. 
Agriculture  and  cattle-raising  are  the  chief  occupa- 
tions of  the  people, 

ITALY.  A  republic  of  southern  Europe,  Area:  116,- 
235  square  miles.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  of  Feb. 
10,  1947,  Italy  ceded  several  small  border  areas  to 
France,  larger  areas  to  Yugoslavia,  and  Rhodes  and 
other  Dodecanese  Islands  to  Greece.  The  region 
of  Trieste  became  a  "Free  Territory."  Sovereignty 
over  the  African  colonies  was  renounced.  Popula- 
tion (estimated  in  mid-1947):  45,943,000. 

Religion  and  Education.  Catholic  religious  teaching 
is  given  in  elementary  and  intermediate  schools: 
In  1931,  99.6  percent  of  Italians  were  Catholics. 
According  to  die  treaty  of  Feb.  11,  1929,  between 
the  Holy  See  and  Italy,  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Ro- 
man Religion  is  the  only  religion  of  the  State.  Edu- 
cation is  free  and  compulsory  from  the  ages  of  6 
to  14,  In  1945-46,  there  were  45,851  elementary 


schools  (public  and  private)  with  5,226,249  pu- 
pils. There  were  1,138  non-technical  government 
secondary  schools  with  382,539  pupils.  There  were 
27  universities  and  higher  institutes. 

Production  and  industry.  Food  production  in 
1946-47  was  86  percent  of  the  1934-38  average. 
Industrial  production  in  1947  was  65  percent  of 
the  1938  level.  By  the  autumn  of  1948,  it  had  not 
increased  appreciably  and  had  declined  in  some 
lines.  Official  estimates  indicated  that  the  Marshall 
Plan  goal  of  a  self-supporting  Italian  economy  by 
1952  would  require  an  increase  of  industrial  pro- 
duction to  140  percent  of  the  1938  level.  This  ob- 
jective appeared  unattainable  without  increased 
and  protracted  American  subsidies.  Livestock  in 
1947  was  estimated  at  7,245,000  cattle,  3,100,000 
pigs,  9,735,000  sheep  and  goats,  560,000  horses, 
500,000  donkeys,  240,000  mules.  The  1947  pro- 
duction, in  thousands  of  metric  tons:  coal,  1,356; 
lignite,  441.6;  iron  ore,  225.6;  pig  iron  and  ferro- 
alloys, 384;  steel  ingots  and  castings,  1,704;  lead, 
17.52;  zinc,  24.12.  Wine  production  for  1946-47 
was  estimated  at  31,857,680  hectolitres. 

Foreign  Trade.  During  1948  a  customs  union  with 
France  was  projected,  with  import  duties  to  be 
abolished  by  Jan.  1,  1950.  Owing  to  the  progres- 
sive depreciation  of  the  value  of  the  lire,  along 
with  frequent  fluctuations,  figures  for  imports  and 
exports  are  relatively  meaningless.  It  was  esti- 
mated, however,  by  the  UN  Economic  Commis- 
sion for  Europe  that  Italian  exports  for  the  year 
July,  1946,  to  June,  1947,  had  a  value  in  dollars 
of  1938  purchasing  power  of  $334  million,  while 
imports,  similarly  estimated  for  the  same  period, 
totaled  $650  million.  From  available  data  it  does 
not  appear  that  these  quantities  and  proportions 
were  significantly  changed  during  1948. 

Finance.  Up  to  June  30,  1948,  total  American 
grants  and  loans  to  Italy  since  liberation  amounted 
to  $2,035  million.  The  public  debt  by  Nov.  30, 
1947,  was  1,369,872  million  lire,  including  a  con- 
solidated debt  of  52,947  million  lire  and  a  floating 
debt  of  881,235  million  lire.  In  December,  1947, 
there  were  788.1  million  lire  in  circulation.  The  in- 
dex number  of  the  cost  of  living  in  August,  1948, 
was  for  all  items  4,792;  for  food,  6,004  ( 1938  = 
100).  Price  levels  in  the  spring  of  1948  were  about 
15  percent  lower  than  in  October,  1947,  thanks  to 
the  checking  of  the  inflationary  spiral  through 
credit  restrictions  and  anti-inflationary  fiscal  pol- 
icies. 

Communications.  In  June,  1947,  there  were  23,222 
kilometers  of  railways,  including  15,764  kilometers 
of  state  railways,  of  which  4,692  had  been  electri- 
fied. The  monthly  average  of  freight  tons  carried 
on  the  railroads  was  2.94  million  in  1947  or  81  per- 
cent of  the  prewar  level  Passenger  travel  was  esti- 
mated at  194  percent  of  the  prewar  level.  The 
telephone  service  in  1947  had  642,555  subscribers. 

Government.  Italy  is  a  parliamentary  republic 
with  a  President,  a  Premier,  a  Cabinet,  and  a  bi- 
cameral legislature.  See  Events  below  for  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  new  Constitution  and  of  political 
developments  during  1948. 

Events,  1948.  The  Italian  Republic,  like  many  an- 
other great  and  ancient  state,  became  a  football  in 
the  game  of  power  played  by  the  giants  of  East 
and  West.  Each  contestant  offered  bribes  and 
threats  to  win  Italian  favor.  But  this  practice,  far 
from  enabling  the  Government  at  Rome  to  play  an 
independent  role  of  honor  and  dignity  in  world  af- 
fairs, merely  gave  to  Italian  politics  many  of  the 
characteristics  of  a  puppet  show,  with  the  strings 
in  the  hands  of  Washington  and  Moscow.  Amer- 
ica's victory,  promoted  by  EGA  funds  and  regis- 


ITALY 


285 


ITALY 


tered  in  the  election  of  April  18,  was  impressive 
but  not  definitive.  One  Italian  out  of  three  contin- 
ued to  adhere  to  Marxism  of  the  Muscovite  brand. 
This  perverse  addiction  to  subversion  was  largely 
attributable  to  mass  misery,  due  in  turn  to  defeat, 
devastation,  inflation,  chronic  unemployment, 
painfully  slow  economic  recovery,  and  the  contin- 
ued ascendency  of  the  industrial,  aristocratic,  and 
ecclesiastical  elite  over  an  insecure  middle  class 
and  an  impoverished  proletariat  and  peasantry. 
American  aid  alleviated  the  worst  symptoms  of 
economic  and  social  malaise.  But  those  who  dis- 
pensed it  could  not  or  would  not  antagonize  their 
conservative  Italian  sympathizers  who,  with  few 
exceptions,  supported  feudal  agriculture  in  the 
south,  industrial  exploitation  in  the  north,  and  po- 
litical clericalism  throughout  the  land.  The  Soviet- 
oriented  agitators  of  social  revolution  therefore 
continued  to  find  customers  for  their  wares — to  an 
extent  which  continued  to  Jeopardize  political  sta- 
bility and  economic  rehabilitation. 

New  Constitution.  On  New  Year's  Day  of  1948, 
the  1848  Statute  of  Piedmont-Sardinia — which  had 
hitherto  served  as  the  basic  law  of  the  Kingdom, 
despite  the  distortions  of  Fascism  and  the  confu- 
sions of  liberation — was  officially  superseded  by 
the  document  hammered  out  in  the  Assembly  dur- 
ing 1946-47  in  the  course  of  300  sittings,  marked 
by  1,090  speeches  and  1,644  amendments,  of 
which  289  were  approved.  The  new  charter  con- 
sisted of  139  articles,  plus  17  "temporary"  articles, 
including  one  denying  civil  rights  to  200,000  Fas- 
cists. In  its  final  form,  notable  for  several  major 
concessions  by  the  Communists  to  Christian  Dem- 
ocratic clericalism,  it  commanded  the  approval  of 
all  major  parties.  On  Dec.  22,  1947,  the  Deputies 
endorsed  the  text  by  a  vote  of  453  to  62,  with  only 
a  few  Qualunquists,  Monarchists,  and  ultra-Nation- 
alists in  opposition. 

Ex-King  Victor  Emmanuel  III  died  in  Alexan- 
dria on  Dec.  28,  1947,  aged  78.  His  son,  Humbert, 
remained  in  exile,  although  willing,  as  he  put  it, 
to  return  to^the  throne  if  summoned  to  do  so  by 
"the  people."  No  such  popular  desire  was  mani- 
fested during  1948,  nor  did  Humbert  and  his  Mon- 
archist supporters  find  the  times  opportune  for  any 
organized  efforts  looking  toward  a  royalist  restora- 
tion. 

The  new  Constitution  reflected  the  many  com- 
promises which  entered  into  its  drafting.  Commu- 
nists abandoned  a  Soviet-style  version  of  the  bill  of 
rights.  Christian  Democrats  retreated  from  their 
original  concepts  of  regionalism  and  corporativ- 
ism. Marriage  is  not  declared  "indissoluble"  (as  in 
the  initial  draft),  but  children  born  out  of  wedlock 
are  denied  a  legal  status  equal  to  those  of  legiti- 
mate offspring.  Catholicism  remains  a  State-sup- 
ported religion  with  the  reaffibrmation  of  the 
Lateran  Pact  of  1929.  Workers  have  no  right  to 
participate  in  plant  management,  but  only  a  right 
to  collaborate,  subject  to  interests  of  production. 
Their  right  to  strike  is  not  absolute,  but  is  subject 
to  statutory  limitations.  The  great  latifundia  are 
not  abolished,  but  are  to  be  "reformed." 

The  polity  sought  to  be  established  by  the  Con- 
stitution may  be  described  as  a  unitary,  parlia- 
mentary republic,  based  more  on  French  and 
British  practices  than  on  American  or  Soviet  mod- 
els. The  19  "regions"  of  the  realm  are  granted 
certain  local  powers,  but  not  on  such  terms  as  to 
give  the  system  a  federal  character.  A  Constitu- 
tional Court  of  15  judges,  chosen  for  12-year  terms, 
one-third  each  by  the  higher  courts,  parliament, 
and  the  President,  may,  as  in  the  United  States, 
pass  on  the  constitutionality  of  legislation  (Art. 


135  and  Act  of  Jan.  31,  1948).  Parliament  consists 
of  two  equal  houses:  a  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
elected  for  a  five-year  term  by  universal  and  di- 
rect suffrage,  with  a  system  of  proportional  repre- 
sentation, on  the  part  of  all  citizens  over  21,  in 
single  member  constituencies  (Art.  56);  and  a 
Senate,  also  popularly  elected  but  only  by  citizens 
over  25,  for  a  six-year  term,  with  each  "region" 
given  six  Senators,  and  by  means  of  a  complex 
system  of  single  member  constituencies  for  candi- 
dates winning  65  percent  of  the  votes,  combined 
with  a  regional  pooling  of  ballots  for  others  on  the 
principle  of  proportional  representation. 

The  President  is  elected  for  a  seven-year  term 
by  secret  ballot  by  a  two-thirds  majority  (or  by 
a  simple  majority  after  the  third  ballot)  of  the 
Assembly,  consisting  of  the  two  chambers  meeting 
jointly.  He  may  propose  legislation  to  parliament 
and  may  veto  laws  within  thirty  days,  although 
the  Chambers  may  override  his  veto  by  a  simple 
majority.  He  may  dissolve  either  or  both  houses, 
but  not  during  the  last  six  months  of  his  term  (Art. 
88).  The  parliamentary  principle  of  executive  re- 
sponsibility to  the  legislature  is  preserved  in  Art. 
89,  under  which  all  Presidential  acts  must  be  coun- 
tersigned by  the  Ministers.  The  Premier  ("Presi- 
dent of  the  Council  of  Ministers" )  is  named  by  the 
President,  but  his  Cabinet  must  be  approved  by  a 
majority  of  both  Chambers — with  lack  of  confi- 
dence by  either  house  requiring  resignation.  The 
possible  difficulties  to  which  these  arrangements 
may  lead  are  not  likely  to  arise  during  the  next 
five  years,  because  of  the  present  composition  of 
parliament  (see  below). 

Right  vs.  Left.  General  agreement  on  the  provi- 
sions of  the  Constitution  had  no  counterpart  with 
respect  to  the  immediate  issues  of  the  day.  The 
schism  between  the  Right  parties,  led  by  Premier 
Alcide  de  Gasperfs  Christian  Democrats,  and  the 
Left  opposition,  consisting  of  Palmiro  Togliattfs 
Communists  and  Pietro  Nennf  s  Left  Socialists,  was 
widened  by  the  reorganization  of  the  Cabinet  on 
Dec.  15,  1947,  to  include  the  Republicans  and 
Right  Socialists  (see  YEAR  BOOK,  Events  of  1947, 
p.  255). 

Leftist  resentment  over  the  trend  of  events  was 
enhanced  by  the  failure  or  suppression  of  sundry 
strikes  and  demonstrations  at  the  turn  of  the  year 
and  by  President  Truman's  declaration  ( December 
13)  on  the  occasion  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  last 
U.S.  troops,  that  in  case  the  ''freedom  and  inde- 
pendence of  Italy  ...  are  threatened  directly  or 
indirectly,  the  U.S.  .  *  .  will  be  obliged  to  con- 
sider what  measures  would  be  appropriate  for  the 
maintenance  of  peace  and  security."  On  December 

18,  in  a  disorderly  session  of  the  Chamber,  Tog- 
liatti  condemned  the  Republican  leader,  Pacciardi, 
for  serving  a  Government  "that  takes  its  orders 
from  the  U.S."  He  likewise  denounced  the  Mar- 
shall Plan  and  accused  Ambassador  James  Clement 
Dunn  of  "organizing  industrialists  against  workers** 
and  seeking  to  found  an  anti-Communist  front.  De 
Gasperi  and  Foreign  Minister  Carlo  Sforza  were 
upheld  by  the  Deputies,  303  to  118,  on  December 

19.  On  January  3,  1948,  they  signed  with  Dunn 
the  Marshall  Plan  interim  aid  agreement,  with  a 
general  American-Italian  treaty  of  friendship,  com- 
merce, and  navigation  signed  on  February  1. 

These  developments  set  the  pattern  of  Italy's 
domestic  and  foreign  politics  for  the  balance  of 
the  year.  Early  in  February,  Washington  and  Rome 
rejected  Soviet  protests  over  the  presence  of  U.S. 
warships  in  Italian  ports  and  American  use  of  the 
Mellaha  air  field  in  Libya.  A  Cabinet  decree  of 
February  5,  aimed  at  Communist  partisans,  out- 


ITALY 


ITALY 


lawed  all  private  organizations  of  a  military  char- 
acter. In  opening  his  political  campaign  in  mid- 
February  for  the  national  elections  scheduled  for 
April  18,  De  Gasperi  warned  that  a  Communist 
victory  would  mean  the  end  of  American  aid.  Pope 
Pius  joined  the  fray  on  February  22  by  publicly 
describing  the  issue  as  "Catholicism  vs.  Communist 
atheism/'  "Catholic  Action"  and  the  Roman  hier- 
archy were  mobilized  against  the  "People's  Demo- 
cratic Front/'  consisting  of  the  Communists  and 
Left  Socialists.  On  March  5,  in  the  first  of  a  series 
of  speeches,  Ambassador  Dunn  besought  Italians 
to  ignore  "those  propagandists  of  totalitarianism 
who  are  seeking  to  turn  you  against  us  and  us 
against  you." 

The  ensuing  campaign  was  marked  by  Soviet 
support  of  the  Left  bloc  and  by  vigorous  efforts  on 
the  part  of  the  Vatican,  Italian  industrialists  and 
aristocrats,  the  U.S.  Embassy,  the  State  Depart- 
ment, and  various  Italian-American  groups  to  warn 
the  electorate  against  the  Red  Menace.  On  April  3, 
Washington,  London,  and  Paris  called  on  the  UN 
Security  Council  to  reconsider  the  application  of 
Italy  and  Transjordan  for  membership,  both  having 
been  vetoed  by  the  U.S.S.R.  On  April  10,  Gromyko 
vetoed  the  Italian  application  once  more,  mean- 
while denouncing  the  U.S.A.  for  meddling  in  Ital- 
ian affairs  and  using  Italy  as  a  "pawn."  At  the 
same  time  Washington  proposed  that  the  peace 
treaty  be  revised  to  restore  Trieste  to  Italy.  Tog- 
liatti's  supporters  championed  disarmament,  neu- 
trality, and  opposition  to  "American  imperialism/* 
Despite  the  great  tension  built  up  in  Italy  and  else- 
where by  these  maneuvers  of  the  Super-Powers, 
the  campaign  proceeded  with  a  minimum  of  dis- 
orders. 

The  Election  of  April  75.  The  springtime  balloting 
in  the  first  election  under  the  new  Constitution 
did  not  record  any  overwhelming  popular  repudi- 
ation of  the  Left  opposition.  The  Communists  and 
Nenni  Socialists  nonetheless  suffered  a  sharp  de- 
feat by  virtue  of  a  heavy  outpouring  of  hitherto 
indifferent  voters  to  give  De  Gasp  erf  s  Christian 
Democrats  a  large  popular  plurality  and  a  parlia- 
mentary majority.  The  results  in  Chamber  and  Sen- 
ate were  substantially  identical.  The  Christian 
Democrats  won  48  percent  of  the  popular  votes 
(about  9,250,000),  53.5  percent  of  the  Chamber 
seats,  and  54  percent  of  the  Senate  seats.  Right 
Socialists  gained  7  percent  of  tine  popular  votes, 
the  "National  Bloc"  6.6  percent,  and  seven  minor 
parties,  together,  5.4  percent.  The  "Popular  Front" 
won  5,900,000  votes  or  30.5  percent  of  the  total. 
For  the  first  time  in  recent  Italian  politics,  one 
party  had  a  legislative  majority.  But  Left  strength 
was  still  impressive — the  more  so  in  view  of  in- 
tensive and  expensive  efforts  to  insure  a  Right  vic- 
tory. Of  the  574  seats  in  the  Chamber,  the  Commu- 
nists won  142,  the  Nenni  Socialists  36,  and  other 
Leftists  4.  The  distribution  of  seats  in  the  Center 
and  on  the  Right  was  as  follows:  Christian  Social- 
ists 1,  Peasant  Party  1,  South  Tyrol  Party  3,  Re- 
publicans 9,  Monarchists  18,  National  Bloc  18, 
Saragat  Socialists  33,  and  Christian  Democrats  307. 

The  new  parliament  met  on  May  8.  Giovanni 
Gronchi  was  elected  President  of  the  Chamber, 
and  Ivanoe  Bonomi  President  of  the  Senate.  In 
the  balloting  to  choose  a  successor  to  President 
Enrico  de  Nicola,  Carlo  Sforza,  bitterly  denounced 
by  the  Left  as  "pro-American/'  withdrew  after  the 
Saragat  Socialists  decided  to  oppose  him.  On  May 
11,  on  the  fourth  ballot,  74-year-old  Senator  Luigi 
Einaudi,  Christian  Democratic  Vice-Premier  and 
Minister  of  the  Budget,  was  named  President  of 
the  Republic  by  518  votes  against  320  for  Vittorio 


Orlando.  In  August  parliament  voted  to  the  Presi- 
dent an  annual  salary  of  $21,000,  an  expense  ac- 
count of  $300,000,  a  1,000  room  palace,  and  a  10,- 
000  acre  hunting  estate.  The  new  Cabinet,  an- 
nounced May  23,  was  constituted  as  follows: 
Premier  and  Interim  Minister  of  Colonies — Dr.  de 

Gasperi,  Christian  Democrat. 
Vice  Premiers — Giuseppe  Saragat,  Right- Wing  So- 
cialist; Attilio  Piccioni,  Christian  Democrat,  and 

Giovanni  Porzio,  Independent. 
Minister  Without  Portfolio  and  Vice  President  of 

the   Interministerial   Reconstruction   Committee 

and  of  the  Marshall  Plan  Committee — Roberto 

Tremelloni,  Right- Wing  Socialist. 
Minister  Without   Portfolio   and  member   of  the 

Marshall  Plan  Committee — Alberto  Giovannini, 

Liberal. 

Foreign  Affairs — Count  Carlo  Sforza,  Republican. 
Interior — Mario  Scelba,  Christian  Democrat. 
Justice — Giuseppe  Grassi,  Liberal. 
Finance — Ezio  Vanoni,  Christian  Democrat. 
Treasury     and     Interim     Minister     of     Budget — 

Giuseppe  Pella,  Christian  Democrat. 
Defense — Randolfo  Pacciardi,  Republican. 
Public     Instruction — Guido     Gonella,     Christian 

Democrat. 

Public  Works — Umberto  Tupini,  Christian  Demo- 
crat. 

Agriculture — Antonio  Signi,  Christian  Democrat. 
Transport — Guido  Corbellini,  Christian  Democrat. 
Posts  and  Telecommunications — Angelo  RafTaele 

Jervolini,  Christian  Democrat. 
Industry  and  Commerce — Ivan  Matteo  Lombardo, 

Right- Wing  Socialist. 
Labor    and    Social    Security — Amintore    Fanfani, 

Christian  Democrat. 

Foreign  Trade — Cesare  Melzagora,  Independent. 
Merchant  Navy — Giuseppe  Saragat. 

The  tide  of  neo-Fascism,  which  appeared  to  be 
rising  during  1947,  receded  somewhat  in  1948  with 
the  absorption  of  many  of  its  adherents  into  the 
Christian  Democratic  camp.  But  at  the  opening 
in  mid-October  of  the  trial  of  Marshal  Rodplfo 
Graziani  on  charges  of  treason  and  collaboration- 
ism,  he  was  hailed  as  a  hero  by  pro-Fascist  rioters 
in  Rome. 

The  Shooting  of  Togliatti.  Continued  mass  unem- 
ployment, fluctuating  around  2,500,000  through- 
out the  year,  along  with  depressed  business  activ- 
ity and  bitter  want  for  millions  of  peasants  and 
workers,  furnished  grist  for  the  mill  of  the  "Popu- 
lar Front"  parties.  Communists  and  Left  Socialists 
continued  to  challenge  the  Cabinet  in  parliament, 
to  denounce  America  and  the  Marshall  Plan,  to 
sing  the  praises  of  Moscow,  and  to  provoke  spo- 
radic strikes  in  various  industries.  In  late  June,  as 
the  Chambers  approved  new  legislation  against  il- 
legal possession  of  weapons,  Togliatti  attended  the 
international  Communist  Conference  in  Warsaw. 

On  July  14,  as  parliament  voted  approval  of  a 
new  Marshall  Plan  aid  pact,  Togliatti  was  ap- 

S reached  outside  the  Chamber  by  a  young  man, 
omenico  Pallante,  who  fired  four  shots  at  the 
Communist  leader.  The  would-be  assassin  con- 
fessed to  having  long  planned  to  kill  Togliatti,  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  intolerable  "that  an  Italian 
should  participate  in  meetings  of  the  Cominform/* 
His  victim  was  gravely  wounded,  but  recovered 
after  some  weeks  of  hospitalization.  The  attempted 
murder  precipitated  widespread  demonstrations 
and  disorders  throughout  the  country,  including  a 
brief  general  strike  called  by  the  Communist- 
controlled  Confederation  of  Labor.  As  police  bat- 
tled rioters,  rumors  spread  of  an  impending  Com- 
munist coup  and  of  the  probable  outlawry  of  the 


TfAVf 


287 


JAMAICA 


Communist  party.  Neither  materialized.  In  re- 
sponse to  Soviet  criticism  of  lack  of  vigilance,  the 
Communists  undertook  to  purge  their  members, 
totaling  2,200,000,  of  "opportunists"  and  to 
strengthen  their  ranks  for  new  struggles. 

Despite  the  secession  from  the  Confederation  of 
Labor  of  certain  anti-Communist  elements  and  oc- 
casional doubts  among  the  Left  Socialists  regard- 
ing the  wisdom  of  their  course,  Togh'atti's  Moscow- 
oriented  followers  were  not  appreciably  weakened 
by  the  close  of  the  year.  Secretary  of  State  Mar- 
shall's brief  visit  to  Rome  on  October  18,  on  his 
way  back  to  Paris  from  Athens,  coincided  with  new 
Leftist  denunciations  of  the  U.S.A.  and  with  a 
spreading  rash  of  strikes  in  the  public  services. 

The  Question  of  the  Colonies.  Italian  hopes,  voiced 
with  variations  by  spokesmen  of  all  parties,  for  the 
restoration  of  the  former  African  colonies  to  the 
new  Republic,  were  frustrated  by  political  and  stra- 
tegic calculations  in  other  capitals  and  by  the  im- 
peratives of  the  "cold  war."  The  deputies  of  the 
Big  Four  Foreign  Ministers,  meeting  in  London  to 
dispose  of  the  problem,  reached  a  deadlock  in 
June.  France  and  the  U.S.S.R.  favored  an  Italian 
trusteeship  over  all  the  colonies.  Britain  sought  to 
retain  control  of  Cyrenaica.  The  U.S.A.  had  no 
clear  policy.  On  August  17  New  York's  Gov.  Thom- 
as E.  Dewey  told  a  group  of  Italian-American  lead- 
ers in  Albany  that  he  favored  an  Italian  trusteeship 
for  all  the  colonies.  He  was  rebuked  by  President 
Truman  for  "playing  politics"  with  the  bipartisan 
foreign  policy. 

In  the  absence  of  an  accord  among  the  Big  Four, 
the  colonial  issue  was  scheduled  under  the  treaty 
to  go  to  the  UN  General  Assembly  on  Septem- 
ber 15.  Early  in  September  Moscow  proposed  a 
meeting  of  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  in  a 
final  effort;  to  achieve  agreement.  Marshall  and 
Bevin  declined  to  attend,  but  sent  agents  to  confer 
in  Paris  with  Vishinsky  and  M.  Schuman.  At  this 
point  the  State  Department  openly  endorsed  the 
British  position — i.e.,  that  Italian  Somaliland 
should  become  an  Italian  trusteeship,  that  the  dis- 

Eosition  of  Tripolitania  and  Eritrea  should  be  de- 
srred  for  a  year,  and  that  Cyrenaica  (site  of  the 
Tobruk  naval  base  and  of  the  Mellaha  air  base) 
should  become  a  British  trust  territory.  Vishinsky 
then  proposed,  as  Byrnes  had  originally  done  in 
1945,  that  all  the  colonies  be  placed  under  the  UN 
Trusteeship  Council,  with  Soviet  and  Italian  par- 
ticipation. When  Bevin  and  Marshall  rejected  any 
such  arrangement,  the  issue  went  to  the  UN, 
where,  however,  the  General  Assembly  voted  on 
Dec.  8  to  postpone  the  whole  question  until  its  next 
session  on  Apr.  1,  1949. 

The  Rome  Cabinet  welcomed  the  delay  on  the 
assumption  that  time  was  working  in  Italy's  favor. 
But  almost  all  Italians  were  chagrined  and  embit- 
tered at  the  course  of  Anglo-American  policy. 

Western  European  Union?  In  Italy,  as  in  Germany 
and  Japan,  many  ardent  nationalists  sought  to 
capitalize  on  the  American^Soviet  schism  and  to 
take  advantage  of  the  assumed  willingness  of  the 
U.S.A.  to  subsidize,  rehabilitate,  and  perhaps  even 
rearm  its  erstwhile  foes  in  the  name  of  defense 
against  Communism.  Possible  adherence  to  the 
Brussels  Pact,  membership  in  an  enlarged  Western 
European  Federation,  and  adherence  to  the  Atlan- 
tic defense  treaty  projected  for  1949  were  all 
bruited  about  in  Rome.  In  the  case  of  Italy,  how- 
ever, no  such  program  could  be  carried  to  com- 
pletion without  a  revision  of  the  disarmament 
clauses  of  the  peace  treaty.  Washington  was  not 
yet  prepared  to  propose  such  a  step,  despite  the 
cordial  reception  accorded  early  in  December  to 


Gen.  Efisio  Marras,  Chief  of  the  Italian  General 
Staff,  who  came  to  plead  for  modern  weapons  for 
the  Italian  armed  forces. 

Sforza  charged  on  December  3  that  Moscow  was 
permitting  Hungary,  Bulgaria,  and  Rumania  to  arm 
beyond  treaty  limits.  He  implied  that  Italy  should 
be  permitted  to  do  likewise.  But  these  issues  re- 
mained to  be  resolved  in  1949. 

Meanwhile  the  Italian  regime,  like  its  counter- 
part in  France,  was  regarded  by  many  as  too-  de- 
pendent politically  on  conservative  or  reactionary 
vested  interests  to  undertake  those  bold  steps  of 
agrarian,  industrial,  and  fiscal  reform  without 
which  popular  dissatisfaction  would  continue  to 
nourish  the  forces  of  the  extreme  Left  Even  the 
mildest  of  measures  to  improve  the  status  of  tenant 
farmers  vis-a-vis  landlords  evoked  opposition  with- 
in the  Cabinet.  On  November  16  Giovanni  Gron- 
chi,  'leftwing"  Christian  Democrat,  publicly  de- 
clared that  his  own  party,  and  the  Cabinet  based 
upon  it,  were  under  severe  pressure  from  reaction- 
ary capitalists  and  landowners.  He  added  that  he 
opposed  the  Brussels  Pact  as  a  British  security  de- 
vice and  likewise  opposed  the  transformation  of  the 
Marshall  Plan  into  an  alliance  "that  would  look 
like  the  outpost  of  an  American  advance  into  the 
Continent  of  Europe." 

Such  small  rifts  in  the  political  solidarity  of 
Right  and  Center  neither  evoked  nor  foreshadowed 
any  Cabinet  crisis.  But  they  epitomized,  on  the 
Italian  scene,  a  few  of  the  many  difficulties  con- 
fronting the  architects  of  the^  global  program  of 
anti-Communist  "containment/' 

See  AUBANTA,  ETHIOPIA,  GREECE,  FRANCE, 
U.S.S.R.,  UNITED  NATIONS,  UNITED  STATES,  and 
YUGOSLAVIA. 

See  also  Carlo  Sforza,  Contemporary  Italy  (But- 
ton, N.Y.,  1944);  Carlo  Sforza,  "Italy,  the  Marshall 
Plan  and  the  'Third  Force,' "  Foreign  Affairs,  April, 
1948;  Mario  Einaudi,  "The  Constitution  of  the 
Italian  Republic,"  The  American  Political  Science 
Review,  August,  1948;  Lawrence  Matthews,  "Ital- 
ian Colonies:  Politics  and  Realities,"  American 
Perspective,  October,  1948;  Colston  E.  Warne, 
"Italy:  Pauper  or  Convalescent?"  Current  History, 
November,  1948.  — FREDERICK  L.  SCHUMAN 

JAMAICA.  A  British  island  colony  in  the  West  In- 
dies. Total  area:  4,673  square  miles,  of  which  the 
dependencies  (Cayman  Islands,  Turks  and  Caicos 
Islands,  and  the  Morant  and  Pedro  Cays)  cover 
269  square  miles.  Population  (1947  est):  1,314,- 
004  in  Jamaica,  13,500  in  the  dependencies.  Chief 
cities  (1943  census):  Kingston  109,056,  Spanish 
Town  12,007,  Montego  Bay  11,547.  In  1943-44 
there  were  670  public  elementary  schools  and  185,- 
700  students  enrolled. 

Production  and  Trade.  Agriculture  is  the  predomi- 
nant industry,  with  sugar  and  bananas  the  chief 
crops.  Other  important  products  are  rum,  cigars, 
citrus  fruits,  coconuts,  ginger,  coffee,  cocoa,  and 
logwood  extracts.  The  annual  yield  of  bananas 
averages  7  million  stems  (1947  export,  5,571,560 
stems);  sugar  (1948),  192,853  long  tons.  Live- 
stock is  raised  solely  for  the  domestic  market  and 
includes  some  200,000  cattle,  300,000  goats,  and 
250,000  pigs.  The  tourist  trade  is  an  important 
source  of  revenue  and  amounted  to  $6  million  in 
1947.  Foreign  trade  (1947):  imports  £18,900,000; 
exports  £8,800,000.  Principal  imports  are  food- 
stuffs, textiles,  petroleum  products,  machinery,  fer- 
tilizers, and  cement;  principal  exports  sugar,  rurn, 
citrus  fruit,  bananas,  cigars,  coffee,  and  ginger. 

Government*  For  1946-47  revenue  was  estimated 
at  £8,363,242  and  expenditure  at  £8,315,484. 


JAW  MAYEN 


288 


JAPAN 


According  to  the  constitution  of  Nov.  20,  1944,  the 
governor  is  assisted  by  a  Privy  Council,  an  Execu- 
tive Council  of  10  members,  a  Legislative  Council 
(upper  house)  of  15  members,  and  a  House  of 
Representatives  of  32  members  elected  under  uni- 
versal suffrage.  Governor:  Sir  John  Huggins. 

JAN  MAYEN.  An  island  between  Greenland  and 
northern  Norway,  220  miles  north-northeast  of  Ice- 
land. Area,  144  square  miles.  It  is  mountainous,  Mt. 
Beerenberg  in  the  north  being  8,350  feet  high.  A 
meteorological  station  was  established  on  the  island 
by  Norwegians  in  1921.  The  island  was  formally 
annexed  by  Norway  on  Feb.  27,  1930. 

JAPAN.  The  present  Japanese  state  is  territorially 
identical  with  the  "Restoration'*  Japan  of  1867. 
Consisting  of  the  four  main  islands  ( Honshu.  Kyu- 
shu, Shikoku  and  Hokkaido),  and  a  number  of 
small  adjacent  islands,  it  has  an  area  of  somewhat 
over  147,000  square  miles.  The  mountainous  char- 
acter of  the  islands  makes  much  of  Japan  unsuitable 
for  cultivation.  Nevertheless,  this  small  land  area 
is  expected  to  sustain  a  population  which,  by  July, 
1948,  was  estimated  to  total  about  80  million  peo- 
ple, as  against  the  estimated  30  million  of  a  century 
earlier.  The  population  increase  from  October, 
1945,  to  July,  1948,  was  7.8  million.  Until  the  end 
of  1946,  repatriation  of  overseas  Japanese  was  the 
major  source  of  increase.  Thereafter,  as  migration 
fell  off  to  less  than  22,000  per  month,  the  increase 
of  births  over  deaths  was  responsible.  "Throughout 
the  period  from  Oct.  1,  1945,  to  the  end  of  May, 
1948,  the  number  of  births  each  calendar  month 
exceeded  those  for  the  corresponding  month.  In 
June,  1948,  however,  a  change  occurred;  births 
were  fewer  in  number  than  in  June,  1947."  This  in- 
crease in  population  has  aggravated  the  economic 
problem,  serious  in  any  event. 

The  occupation,  instituted  in  1945,  continued 
throughout  1948  fundamentally  unchanged  in  or- 
ganization. Its  Allied  character,  on  the  military 
side,  was  lessened  with  the  reduction,  during  1948, 
of  British  and  Commonwealth  forces  virtually  to  a 
token  level.  Nevertheless  Gen.  Douglas  MacArthur 
continued  to  be  described  as  the  Supreme  Com- 
mander for  the  Allied  Powers  ( SCAP ) ,  concurrent- 
ly with  his  position  as  Commander-in- Chief  of  the 
American  occupation  forces.  The  11-nation  Far 
Eastern  Commission  (FEC)  continued  to  issue  di- 
rectives to  SCAP  or  to  review  his  interim  directives, 
both  of  which  were  to  be  implemented  through 
the  Japanese  government.  Contact  with  the  Jap- 
anese Cabinet  was  either  direct  or  through  the 
Central  Liaison  Office  established  by  the  pre-sur- 
render  Japanese  government  on  Aug.  25,  1945. 
Guidance  rather  than  formal  direction  of  the  Jap- 
anese government  continued  to  be  attempted  by 
SCAP  during  1948,  although  the  movement  was 
steadily  toward  a  firmer  control  of  Japanese  policy 
by  direction  rather  than  by  informal  methods. 

Religion  and  Education.  The  organized  religions  of 
Japan  are  Shinto,  Buddhism,  and  Christianity. 
Shinto  takes  two  forms:  State,  or  Shrine  Shinto, 
and  Sect  Shinto.  State  Shinto  had  been  used  to  re- 
enforce  the  view  of  the  Emperor  as  descended 
from  the  Gods,  and  thus  politically  to  develop  in- 
tense devotion  to  the  Imperial  House  and  the 
state.  Occupation  policy  of  separating  Church  and 
State  was  designed  to  "prevent  misuse  of  religion 
for  political  ends/'  The  freedom  of  worship  conse- 
quently proclaimed  was  safeguarded  by  provisions 
of  the  new  constitution. 

Withdrawal  of  state  financial  support  from  Shin- 
to forced  reliance  on  individual  contributions  for 


the  upkeep  of  Shrines  and  maintenance  of  the 
priesthood.  Inadequate  voluntary  support  of  the 
more  than  86,000  Shrine  Shinto  establishments 
gave  rise  to  reports,  early  in  1948,  of  attempts  by 
some  of  the  priests  to  find  support  by  methods  of 
extortion.  Sect  Shinto,  with  around  11  million  ad- 
herents and  some  19,000  establishments,  was  in  a 
somewhat  stronger  financial  position,  although  find- 
ing itself  adversely  affected  by  the  inflation. 

There  were  some  indications  of  growth  of  Chris- 
tianity during  the  period  of  the  Occupation,  as 
might  be  anticipated.  Thus  the  number  of 
Y.M.C.A.'s  increased  from  the  war  total  of  14  to 
89  by  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  1948,  with 
many  more  projected.  Interest  was  also  indicated 
in  the  reception  of  Cardinal  Spellman  by  Emperor 
Hirohito  in  June,  1948,  when  the  Emperor  was  re- 
ported to  have  expressed  admiration  for  missionary 
work. 

In  education  the  emphases  of  1947  were  con- 
tinued. A  Board  of  Education  law,  designed  to 
further  decentralization  through  the  institution  of 
popularly  elected  local  boards  of  education,  was 
promulgated  by  Cabinet  order  of  August  19,  Be- 
tween that  date  and  the  elections  scheduled  for 
October  5,  administrative  details  were  worked  out 
by  the  Ministry  of  Education  and  prefectural  com- 
mittees, and  an  attempt  was  made  to  popularize 
the  proposed  decentralization  of  educational  ad- 
ministration. 

Three  additional  steps,  of  at  least  indirect  sig- 
nificance in  relation  to  the  educational  program  of 
the  Occupation,  were  taken  in  1948.  On  June  14  it 
was  reported  that  94  American  and  British  books 
had  been  bought  for  publication  in  Japan  by  Jap- 
anese firms.  This  was  the  first  step  in  enabling  the 
Japanese  to  refamiliarize  themselves  with  the  litera- 
ture of  the  West,  restoring  the  intellectual  contact 
which  had  been  cut  off.  In  July  the  press  pre-pub- 
Hcation  censorship  which  had  been  operative  since 
the  occupation  was  discontinued.  The  press,  after 
July  15,  1948,  was  put  on  its  own  responsibility  in 
operating  the  code  of  1945.  And  in  October  it  was 
announced  that  UNESCO  proposed  to  extend  its 
work  to  Japan,  with  the  approval  of  SCAP. 

Industrial  Production.  The  production  ceiling  set 
by  the  FEC  in  January,  1947  (1930-1934  average), 
had  not  nearly  been  attained  by  the  end  of  1948. 
As  of  July,  over-all  industrial  production  had 
reached  only  55  percent  of  that  level,  and  in  Sep- 
tember 58,4  percent.  The  greatest  recovery  in  pro- 
duction was  shown  in  mining,  especially  coal. 
While  manufacturing  had  reached  48.6  percent  of 
the  agreed  ceiling  level  (taken  as  the  index  base 
of  100),  textiles  had  declined  to  only  23.3  percent, 
while  metals  had  reached  62.7  percent,  machinery 
71.7  percent,  and  chemicals  79.9  percent  This, 
compared  with  the  40.9  percent  of  the  level  reached 
in  1947  and  that  of  32.5  percent  in  1946,  shows  a 
slow  but  steady  upward  trend  in  production.  This 
wag  a  result  of  a  more  limited  operation  of  some  of 
the  factors  noted  for  1947  as  tending  to  restrict  in- 
dustrial recovery.  One  of  these  had  been  SCAP's 
policy  of  de-concentration  of  industry  and  of  ex- 
tending the  purge  to  include  managers  of  many  of 
Japan's  large  companies. 

The  year  1948  saw  a  shift  in  emphasis  in  Occu- 
pation policy  from  reform  and  reorganization  to 
that  of  promoting  economic  recovery.  It  was  evi- 
denced in  the  actual  discontinuance  of  the  policy 
of  breaking  up  big  concerns  into  their  component 
production  units,  although  SCAP  declared  on  Sep- 
tember 11  that  there  had  been  no  change  in  policy. 
Thus  SCAP  instructed  the  government,  on  No- 
vember 9,  that  1,100  companies  which  had  been 


ELECTION  EVE  IN  ITALY.  On  Apr.  \7 ,  1948,  the  eve  of  Italy's  elections  under  the  new  Constitution,  Premier  de  Gasperi 
and  Communist  leader  Togliatti  address  tremendous  crowds  at  a  last-minute  rally  at  Milan.  The  next  day  the  Communists 
and  Nenni  Socialists  suffered  a  sharp  defeat  by  virtue  of  a  heavy  outpouring  of  de  Gasperi's  Christian  Democrats. 

Photos   from   European. 


FRIENDSHIP   FOOD.    Italy   receives   the    first   shipment   of    Friendship    Food 
from  the  United  States.  The  ship  on  which  the  food  arrived  is  shown  above. 


DEFEATED    IN    VITAL    ELECTIONS.    The    Italian    Communists,    headed    by 
Togliatti   (left),  were   defeated    in   the   electipns   held    on   April    18,    1949, 


./ 

J** 

Wide  World  Photo 

ition  of  Mohandas  Karamchand  Gandhi  on  Jan.  30,  1948,  was  a  shock  that  was  felt  far 

\    ,  .     u       ^  ,,.   ,    ,.          *•     0/e)  A  souven'r  h"nter  scoops  ashes  from  the  funeral  pyre  as  Gandhi's  body  is  cre- 
mated m  New  Delhi,  India,  on  January  31.  All  except  minimum  essential  business  activity  was  abandoned  for  some  days. 


Photo  from  European 

REFUGEES   FROM   GREECE.    Greek   refugee    children    (above)  who  arrived   in   Budapest,    Hungary,  during   the  year 
1948,  to  Wek  safety  and  peace  from  their  war-bottered  homeland.  The  thw  children  are  orphan,  of  Z  wqr' 


THE    SNAKE   PIT,    a    20th    Century-Fox    picture,    gives    Olivia    de    Havilland    a    chance    to    display    her   fine    acting 
ability.    The    original    novel     by    Mary    Jane    Ward    is    a    case    history    from    a    hospital    for    the    mentally    ill. 


THE  NAKED  CITY,  produced  by  Mark  Hellinger  and  featuring  Barry 
Fitzgerald,    Dorothy    Hart,    and    the    New    York    Police    Department. 


OPHELIA  AND  PRINCE  HAMLET  watch  PAISAN,  produced  and  directed  in  Italy  by  Roberto  RosselUni,  was 
the  players,  in  this  scene  from  the  Lau-  one  of  the  most  successful  foreign  pictures  shown  in  the  United 
rence  Olivier  film  production  of  Ham/ef.  States  in  1948.  It  treats  of  the  closing  days  of  war  in  Italy. 


A.  BABY-SITTING  is  the  theme  of  the  20th  Century-Fox  picture 
Sitting  Pretty— a  vehicle  for  Clifton  Webb's  subtle  talents,  In  the 
photograph  Mr,  Webb  and  his  opponent  are  sizing  up  each  other. 


PAULETTE  GODDARD,  obviously  terrified,  is  beset  by  grim 
Paramount  extras  in  that  studio's  thrilling,  vast,  breathtaking  spectacle 
entitled  l/n  conquered,  directed  by  Cecil  B.  DeMille.  It  is  in  Technicolor. 


-«  OLD  MASTER  and  pretty  pupil,  Fred  Astaire  and  Judy 
Garland,  do  some  tricky  stepping  in  this  scene  from 
Metro-Gold wyn-Mayer's  colorful  picture,  Easter  Parade. 


T  J  REMEMBER.  MAMA  is  taken  from  Mama'*  BanJc  Ac- 
count a  stage  play  by  John  van  Druten.  Shown  are  Irene 
Dunne,  June  Hedin,  Philip  Dorn,  and  Barbara  Bel  Geddes. 


JAPAN 


289 


JAPAN 


placed  on  a  restricted  list  because  10  percent  or 
more  of  their  stock  had  been  held  by  Zaibatsu 
holding  companies  no  longer  needed  to  ask  for 
permission  to  engage  in  business  operations  involv- 
ing capital  and  plant  transfers.  Previously,  in  May, 
Occupation  authorities  approved  action  by  the 
Holding  Company  Liquidation  Commission  remov- 
ing 194  big  companies  from  the  list  of  those  re- 
quired to  make  structural  changes  in  their  organiza- 
tion. Fifty  of  these  were  freed  entirely,  while  the 
others  might  possibly  be  required  subsequently  to 
sell  their  subsidaries  engaged  in  production  unre- 
lated to  their  main  lines.  On  December  9  the  Unit- 
ed States  officially  withdrew  its  support  of  the 
much  discussed  FEC  230,  on  which  the  de-con- 
centration program  had  been  based. 

The  Far  Eastern  Commission,  on  October  21, 
directed  that  Japanese  business  men  should  be  per- 
mitted, under  SCAP  directive,  to  go  abroad  to  ar- 
range for  sale  of  their  products.  Further  encourage- 
ment was  given  to  private  initiative,  as  well  as  to 
industrial  recovery,  with  the  establishment  of  a  $60 
million  loan  fund  (authorized  in  1947)  to  be  used 
for  the  purchase  of  raw  cotton  wherever  it  could 'be 
secured.  Pressure  was  put  on  the  government  to 
pass  a  tax  revision  measure  removing  discrimina- 
tions against  the  foreign  private  investor,  and  to 
enact  an  investment  code  designed  to  attract  for- 
eign capital  to  Japan.  Action  directed  toward  in- 
crease in  the  level  of  price-controlled  commodities 
to  add  an  incentive  to  produce  through  greater 
prospects  of  profits,  and  toward  wage  controls,  was 
initiated. 

On  October  8,  price  decontrol  itself  was  started, 
Occupation  authorities  acting  to  free  137  categories 
of  industrial  and  consumer  goods.  Strikes  which 
might  adversely  affect  production  were  frowned 
on.  These  and  other  actions  were  in  line  with  the 
American  aim,  stated  by  Army  Secretary  Royall  on 
January  5,  of  <ebuilding  in  Japan  a  self-sufficient 
democracy,  strong  enough  and  stable  enough  to 
support  itself  and  at  the  same  time  to  serve  as  a 
deterrent  against  any  other  totalitarian  war  threats 
which  might  arise  hereafter  in  the  Far  East." 

Agriculture.  With  a  big  rice  crop  (314  million 
bushels),  and  good  crops  of  sweetpotatoes,  wheat, 
and  barley,  the  food  situation  was  improved  in 
1948  over  1947.  Better  collections  of  higher  quotas, 
as  a  result  partly  of  greater  centralization  in  the 
allocation  of  quotas,  made  for  a  more  effective  ra- 
tioning system.  Collections  were  also  facilitated 
because  more  goods  were  available  for  exchange 
and  because  of  assistance  in  collection  by  American 
military  government  teams.  Nevertheless,  it  re- 
mained necessary  to  import  about  25  percent  of 
the  total  food  consumption.  With  this,  it  was  pos- 
sible to  increase  rations  to  a  caloric  intake  of  1,348 
from  1,243.  The  ration  continued  to  have  to  be 
supplemented  by  open,  or  black,  market  purchases. 
About  60  percent  of  the  income  of  urban  families 
had  to  be  spent  for  food. 

A  continuation  of  the  black  market  in  food  (part- 
ly the  result  in  certain  centers  of  a  falling  behind 
in  the  issuance  of  rations)  was  indicated  in  a  re- 
port of  September  22  that  plans  were  being  made 
to  prohibit  the  transportation  of  food  in  passenger 
vehicles.  This  was  probably  due  as  much,  however, 
to  farmer  as  to  urban  needs.  The  farmer  was  sup- 
posed to  sell  to  the  government  at  a  low  official 
price,  established  at  the  time  of  harvest.  His  pur- 
chases had  to  be  made  at  a  price  level  increased 
two  or  three  times  a  year.  He  was  officially  allowed 
to  retain  for  sale  at  the  open  market  price  only  9 
percent  of  his  crop  in  1948  beyond  his  family 
needs.  Thus,  with  an  increasingly  heavy  tax  burden 


(32  billion  yen  in  1948,  although  total  payments 
for  his  last  year's  rice  crop  aggregated  only  55  bil- 
lion yen)  and  increases  in  the  prices  of  all  of  his 
purchases,  there  was  a  pressure  on  the  farmer  to 
reduce  his  sales  to  the  government  if  possible  and 
to  realize  black  market  prices  for  his  produce.  In 
general,  the  economic  situation  tended  to  move 
the  farmer  back  to  his  prewar  status  in  relation  to 
other  classes,  in  spite  of  good  crops. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  land  redistribution  pro- 
gram moved  forward  during  1948.  By  the  end  of 
July  land  sales  under  the  reform  program  totaled 
1,320,113  cho.  By  the  end  of  the  year  it  was  esti- 
mated that  83  percent  of  the  total  bought  for  re- 
distribution (1,800,000  cho,  or  4,410,000  acres) 
had  been  sold. 

Foreign  Trade.  Both  imports  and  exports  showed 
a  slight  increase  over  1947,  although  the  principal 
deterrents  to  trade  remained.  These  are  low  pro- 
duction, lack  of  foreign  purchasing  power,  and  in- 
stability of  the  currency.  The  dollar  value  of  ex- 
ports was  around  250  million,  as  compared  with 
174.2  million  for  1947.  Imports  totaled  approx- 
imately $625  million  for  1948,  as  against  $523,~ 
300,000  in  1947.  The  value  of  textiles  exported 
declined,  largely  because  of  the  difficulty  of  financ- 
ing raw  cotton  imports,  but  this  decline  was  com- 
pensated by  increased  exports  of  processed  foods, 
industrial  materials,  and  other  manufactured  prod- 
ucts. The  heaviest  imports  were  of  industrial  raw 
materials,  with  food  coming  a  close  second.  Among 
industrial  raw  materials,  raw  cotton  and  petroleum 
showed  the  greatest  import  increase. 

American  appropriations  and  government  cred- 
its, together  with  use  of  the  $60  million  revolving 
loan  fund,  helped  to  finance  dollar  purchases.  An 
agreement  reported  in  January  was  designed  to 
make  possible  raw  cotton  purchases,  not  to  exceed 
28  percent  of  the  total,  in  India.  A  trade  agree- 
ment with  Pakistan,  reported  on  June  6,  provided 
for  the  payment  for  20,000  bales  of  cotton  with 
exports  of  cotton  yarn  and  cloth.  A  similar  semi- 
barter  arrangement  was  made  with  the  Netherlands 
Indies  for  the  sale  of  $36  million  worth  of  textiles, 
with  payment  to  be  made  half  in  dollars  and  half 
in  bauxite  for  Japan's  aluminum  industry. 

On  November  8  an  agreement  was  announced 
with  British  Commonwealth  nations  for  exchanges, 
during  the  next  year,  to  a  total  of  £50  million. 
Under  it,  Japan  is  to  export  goods  to  the  value  of 
£27,500,000,  skteen  million  of  which  is  to.  be  in 
textiles,  with  the  balance  in  machinery,  raw  silk, 
rolling  stock,  chemicals,  etc.  In  exchange,  the 
Commonwealth  countries  are  to  supply  Japan  with 
raw  wool,  raw  cotton,  iron  ore,  salt,  cereals,  pe- 
troleum, rubber,  tin,  etc.,  to  the  value  of  £23  mil- 
lion, There  also  has  been  direct  barter,  through  in- 
dividual trading,  with  Far  Eastern  countries,  Hong 
Kong  serving  as  a  clearing  house.  This  has  been 
possible  because  of  a  modification  of  SCAFs  pol- 
icy of  demanding  dollar  payment  for  Japanese 
goods  even  from  *  soft  currency"  countries.  In  1948 
Japan  had  approximately  an  8-1  favorable  balance 
in  trade  with  other  Far  Eastern  countries;  her 
United  States  deficit,  however  was  in  excess  of 
25-1.  "About  20  percent  of  import  contracts  and 
50  percent  of  export  contracts  have  been  executed 
through  private  trade  channels." 

Finance.  The  budget  as  enacted  in  July  reached 
the  new  peak  of  414,000  million  yen.  As  previous- 
ly, the  largest  single  item  budgeted  was  that  of  oc- 
cupation costs  (98,000  million  yen).  The  second 
largest  item  was  50,000  million  yen,  to  be  used  as 
a  subsidy  to  producers  to  permit  them  to  sell  at 
prices  below  production  costs  under  government 


JAPAN 


290 


JAPAN 


controls.  These  subsidies  were  allocated  by  the  Re- 
construction Bank  which,  by  June,  1948,  already 
had  outstanding  loans  totalling  59,500  million  yen, 
of  which  33,500  million  yen  represented  deficit  in- 
dustrial financing.  Approximately  8  percent  of  the 
total  budget  ( 30,000  million  yen )  was  set  aside  to 
meet  local  government  needs.  The  total  was  in- 
creased in  supplementary  budget  proposals  made 
to  the  Diet  in  November. 

To  meet  the  proposed  expenditures,  a  new  trans- 
actions tax  was  introduced,  charges  on  all  govern- 
ment-owned utilities  were  increased,  and  100,000 
millions  of  new  currency  was  to  be  issued, 

Government.  Under  the  constitution  of  1947  Ja- 
pan has  the  cabinet  or  parliamentary  form  of  gov- 
ernment. The  Emperor  has  a  symbolic  position  as 
head  of  the  state.  Control  is  vested  in  a  two-cham- 
ber legislature  (the  House  of  Councillors  and  the 
House  of  Representatives),  the  members  of  which 
are  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The  Representa- 
tives have  4-year  terms,  and  the  Councilors  6,  with 
half  the  membership  elected  every  3  years.  The 
House  of  Representatives  may  be  dissolved  by  the 
Emperor  on  advice  of  the  Cabinet.  The  executive 
powers  are  exercised  by  the  Cabinet,  headed  by 
the  Prime  Minister.  It  is  responsible  to  the  legisla- 
ture, and  must  resign  in  the  event  of  a  vote  of  no- 
confidence  or  dissolve  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. Consequently  it  must  command  a  majority 
in  the  lower  House.  Unless  a  single  party  has  a 
majority,  Cabinets  are  constructed  on  a  coalition 
basis,  after  the  legislature  designates  the  Premier. 

The  Prime  Minister  at  the  end  of  1948  was  Shi- 
guru  Yoshida,  leader  of  the  conservative  Demo- 
cratic-Liberal Party.  His  Cabinet  contained  only  3 
non-Liberal  Party  members.  Dissolution  at  the  end 
of  1948  required  new  elections  in  January,  1949, 
wMch  changed  the  party  groupings  in  the  Diet. 

Events.  Developments  o£  1948  represented  in  part 
the  carrying  forward  of  activities  initiated  by  SCAP 
in  previous  years  and  in  part  a  response  to  the 
American  determination,  announced  to  the  FEC  on 
January  21,  to  revive  the  Japanese  economy  and 
put  it  on  a  "peaceful  self-supporting  basis."  The 
former  required  a  continuation  of  reform  activity, 
such  as  the  land  redistribution  program  already  re- 
ferred to.  The  latter  was  responsible  for  aspects  of 
economic  activity  which  have  been  described,  such 
as  the  trade  pacts. 

One  important  series  of  events  brought  to  a  final 
conclusion  in  1948  was  the  War  Guilt  trials  initi- 
ated at  the  beginning  of  the  Occupation.  Presenta- 
tion of  the  defense  occupied  much  of  1948.  The 
verdict  of  guilty  was  handed  down  on  November  12 
by  the  International  Tribunal  for  General  Tojo  and 
24  others,  with  the  death  penalty  imposed  on  him 
and  six  of  the  24.  The  sentences  were  reviewed  by 
General  MacArthur,  as  the  Supreme  Allied  Com- 
mander, and  upheld  on  November  24.  Appeal  for 
stay  of  execution  and  a  review  of  the  case  was 
made  to  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  by  Hi- 
rota  and  Doihara  on  November  29.  The  Supreme 
Court  agreed  to  hear  the  appeal  on  December  7. 
Its  findings,  however,  upheld  the  authority  of  the 
International  Tribunal  and  the  sentences  were  duly 
executed  before  the  end  of  the  year.  In  connection 
with  the  verdicts,  speculation  centered  on  their 
possible  effect  on  Hirohito,  some  arguing  that  he 
might  abdicate  in  the  near  future. 

The  principal  political  events  of  the  year  related 
to  Cabinet  changes  and  party  alignments.  Splits  in 
both  the  Democratic  and  Social  Democratic  Par- 
ties, especially  over  questions  of  postal  and  railway 
rates,  reported  in  January,  and  Social  Democratic 
Party  left-wing  influence  on  policy,  as  revealed  in 


the  party  convention,  so  weakened  the  coalition 
that  the  early  fall  of  the  Katayama  government  was 
predictable.  It  resigned  in  February,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  a  Cabinet  headed  by  Hitoshi  Ashida, 
leader  of  the  Democratic  Party,  in  spite  of  the 
strength  of  Yoshida's  Liberal  Party  which,  reor- 
ganized as  the  Democratic  Liberal  Party,  had 
drawn  members  away  from  the  other  two. 

The  Ashida  government  lasted  until  October 
when  it  was  overthrown  on  the  charge  of  corrup- 
tion. Ashida  himself  was  implicated  and,  after 
some  hesitancy,  his  arrest  was  announced  on  No- 
vember 30.  His  government  was  replaced  on  Oc- 
tober 19,  after  a  period  of  inter-party  negotiating, 
by  a  Liberal  Party  Cabinet  headed  by  former 
Premier  Yoshida.  At  the  time  of  his  installation  a 
Diet  committee  had  been  set  up  to  investigate  the 
affairs  of  his  first  government,  to  ascertain  the 
sources  and  disposition  of  contributions  made  to 
the  Liberal  Party  war  chest. 

Corruption  in  Japanese  politics  is  not  a  postwar 
development.  The  principal  prewar  source  of  party 
funds  had  been  the  Zaibatsu  and  other  big  busi- 
ness enterprises  which  had  been  tied  through  the 
parties  into  mutually  beneficial  relations  with  the 
governing  bureaucracy.  This  source  of  funds  had 
been  largely  dried  up  as  a  result  of  the  anti-Zai- 
batsu  and  de-concentration  policies  of  the  Occupa- 
tion. Those  who  could  benefit  immediately  from 
a  close  relationship  to  government  were  contract- 
ing enterprises  of  various  sorts.  Consequently  they 
had  begun  to  lavishly  finance  the  governing  parties. 
It  was  the  use  of  the  funds  thus  secured,  together 
with  the  policies  followed  in  repayment,  which 
were  brought  to  the  surface  with  the  charges  of 
corruption  in  1948. 

Other  causes  of  dissatisfaction  with  existing  gov- 
ernments during  1948  were  both  political  and  eco- 
nomic. There  was  a  recurrent  demand  for  reduc- 
tion of  a  swollen  administrative  personnel.  Thus 
on  May  29  it  was  reported  that  business  interests 
and  the  opposition  parties  were  demanding  such  a 
reduction.  The  bureaucracy  had  virtually  doubled 
since  1945,  to  a  total  of  2.8  million.  In  place  of  re- 
duction, by  October  the  total  had  risen  to  over  3 
million.  It  was  argued  by  the  government  that  no 
decrease  could  be  made  while  the  complex  of  con- 
trols of  the  national  economy  was  continued.  But 
the  justifications  advanced  did  not  remove  dissatis- 
faction with  the  failure  of  the  government  to  take 
action. 

Another  recurrent  political  question  was  raised 
with  attempts  to  satisfy  SCAP  demands  for  polit- 
ical decentralization.  Financial  dependence  on  the 
central  government  was  one  reason  why  local  of- 
ficials now  elected  continued  to  look  to  Tokyo  for 
direction.  To  lessen  this  dependence  a  provincial 
tax  reform  bill  was  introduced  into  the  Diet  on 
June  6.  It  provided  for  new  provincial  taxes,  in- 
creased rates,  and  slightly  increased  subsidies  from 
the  national  treasury. 

Economic  events,  other  than  those  already  listed, 
were  mainly  in  the  field  of  labor  relations.  After 
the  relative  freedom  from  strikes  of  1947  they  were 
resumed  in  1948,  first  of  all  by  organizations  of 

§ublic  employees,  with  the  four-day  series  of  one- 
ay  railway  strikes  beginning  May  18.  These  led 
the  government  (July  31),  at  the  request  of  SCAP, 
to  prohibit  strikes  on  the  part  of  public  employees 
and  to  deny  to  them  the  right  to  bargain  collective- 
ly through  their  unions  on  questions  of  wages, 
hours,  etc.  Their  status  thereafter  was  to  be  regu- 
lated on  the  basis  of  law.  On  August  10  plans  for 
the  replacement  of  most  government-employee 
trade  unions  by  voluntary  associations  without  le- 


JARVIS  ISLAND 


291 


JOINT  CHIEfS  OF  STAFF 


gal  status  as  unions  were  announced.  Labor  dissat- 
isfaction with  the  new  policy  (of  SCAP  as  well  as 
the  government)  led  to  demonstrations  and  also  to 
strikes,  especially  by  railway  and  electrical  work- 
ers, in  various  parts  of  the  country.  These  strikes 
were  broken  by  the  government,  where  necessary 
enforcing  compulsory  arbitration.  The  policy  was 
also  denounced  by  the  Soviet  Union,  which  was,  in 
turn,  denounced  by  MacArthur  for  its  failure  to  ob- 
serve its  obligations  with  respect  to  the  repatria- 
tion of  Japanese  prisoners  of  war. 

The  shift  in  emphasis  from  reform  to  economic 
reconstruction  made  SCAP  increasingly  intolerant 
of  anything  which  might  adversely  affect  produc- 
tion and  economic  recovery.  General  MacArthur  in 
his  New  Year  message  had  said:  "The  pattern  has 
been  etched,  the  path  has  been  laid.  The  develop- 
ment lies  largely  in  your  own  hands."  This  seemed 
to  indicate  that  the  policy  of  advice  and  guidance 
would  continue  to  be  followed  by  SCAP.  The  con- 
tinued slowness  with  which  the  Japanese  govern- 
ment responded  to  advice,  however,  brought  SCAP 
more  and  more  toward  direction.  This  slowness  is 
to  be  explained  partly  in  terms  of  uncertainty 
which  the  guidance  system  produced  as  to  the  real 
desires  of  SCAP,  and  partly  in  terms  of  the  desire 
of  the  government  not  to  assume  responsibility  for 
unpopular  actions.  But  the  consequence  was  that 
on  December  17  the  United  States  directed  the 
Japanese  government  to  "enter  upon  a  stringent 
economic  stabilization  program  aimed  at  curbing 
inflation  ?and  speeding  the  country  toward  self -suf- 
ficiency." The  indications  were  that  unless  the  Jap- 
anese government  moved  with  rapidity  and  vigor, 
the  Occupation  authorities  would  replace  it. 

Concurrently  with  this  American  initiative  the 
Yoshida  government  called  for  new  elections  on 
Jan.  23,  1949.  These  elections  are  apparently  to  be 
supervised  by  American  military  government  teams 
to  determine  the  honesty  with  which  the  campaign 
and  election  is  conducted  and  also  to  observe  com- 
munist election  tactics. — HAROLD  M.  VINACKE 

JARVIS  ISLAND.  An  island  in  the  mid-Pacific  (0° 
23'  S.  and  159°  54'  W.),  belonging  to  the  United 
States.  It  lies  in  the  path  of  the  main  steamship 
lanes  and  airways  from  Honolulu  to  New  Zealand 
and  Australia. 

JOHNSTON  ISLAND.  An  island  in  the  central  Pacific 
(16°  44'  32"  N.  and  169°  30'  59"  W.),  717  miles 
southwest  from  Honolulu.  It  has  a  lagoon  forma- 
tion, the  reef  being  about  eight  miles  long.  On  the 
reef  are  two  islands,  the  larger  one,  Johnston  Is- 
land, being  about  one-half  mile  long.  The  small 
one,  Sand  Island,  is  a  mere  sand  bank  about  500 
yards  in  diameter.  On  July  27,  1859,  the  island  was 
formally  annexed  to  Hawaii  by  proclamation  o£ 
Kamehameha  IV.  By  Executive  Order  dated  Dec. 
29,  1934,  together  with  Kingman  Reef  and  Sand 
and  Wake  Islands,  it  was  placed  under  the  control 
and  jurisdiction  of  the  U.S.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,, 
subject  to  the  use  of  the  island  by  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  as  a  bird  reservation.  The 
island  is  considered  part  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
and  is  important  as  a  defense  outpost 

JOINT  BRAZIL-UNITED  STATES  DEFENSE  COMMISSION. 

A  Commission  composed  of  military  delegates 
(Army,  Navy,  and  Air  Forces)  of  the  two  coun- 
tries, established  in  August,  1942.  Meetings  are 
held  in  Washington  for  the  purpose  of  making  staff 
plans  for  the  mutual  defense  of  the  Western  Hem- 
isphere. U.S.  Chairman:  Rear  Adm.  Osborne  B. 
Hardison. 


JOINT  CHIEFS  OF  STAFF,  U.S.  The  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff 
was  established  within  the  national  Military  Es- 
tablishment by  the  National  Security  Act  of  1947, 
with  duties  as  follows: 

1.  Strategic  planning  for  and  direction  of  mil- 
itary forces. 

2.  Joint  logistic  plans  and  assignment  of  logis- 
tic responsibility  to  services  thereunder. 

3.  Establish  necessary  unified  commands  in 
strategic  areas. 

4.  Formulate  joint  taming  policies. 

5.  Formulate   coordinating  education  policy 
for  services. 

6.  Review  major  military  material  and  per- 
sonnel requirements  under  strategic  and  logistic 
plans. 

7.  Provide  United   States  representation  on 
Military  Staff  Committee  of  United  Nations. 
Joint  Staff,  U.S.  The  Joint  Staff,  established  under 

the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  by  the  National  Security 
Act  of  1947,  operates  under  a  Director  appointed 
by  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  and  performs  such  du- 
ties as  may  be  directed  by  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff. 

National  War  College.  The  National  War  College, 
organized  by  authority  of  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff, 
has  the  mission  of  preparing  selected  ground,  air, 
and  naval  officers,  and  officers  of  the  State  Depart- 
ment, for  }oint  staff  and  command  duties  on  the 
highest  level  in  behalf  of  the  national  security. 

The  College  devotes  some  four  months  of  the 
academic  year  to  a  close  and  systematic  examina- 
tion of  international  relations  and  world  affairs,  the 
international  consequences  of  the  atomic  bomb, 
United  States  commitments  and  responsibilities 
abroad,  and  the  formulation  of  United  States  for- 
eign policy  and  its  implementation  through  meth- 
ods short  of  war.  Instruction  in  this  part  of  the 
course  is  conducted  by  a  small  group  of  distin- 
guished resident  civilian  instructors  and  an  out- 
standing group  of  visiting  lecturers.  The  last  six 
months  of  the  school  year  are  devoted  to  the  study 
of  grand  strategy,  the  strategic  areas  of  the  world, 
and  the  scientific  and  technological  advances  which 
have  complicated  the  task  of  maintaining  the  na- 
tional security. 

Certain  parts  of  the  course  are  held  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Industrial  College  of  the  Armed 
forces,  located  immediately  adjacent  to  The  Na- 
tional War  College  at  Fort  Lesley  J.  McNair. 

Industrial  College  of  the  Armed  Forces.  The  Indus- 
trial College  of  the  Armed  Forces  is  one  of  the  two 
colleges  on  the  highest  plane  of  the  educational 
system  of  the  Armed  Forces.  It  prepares  officers  of 
the  Army,  Navy,  and  Air  Force,  and  selected  civil- 
ians, for  important  command,  staff,  and  planning 
assignments  in  the  National  Military  Establishment 
and  other  Government  agencies.  Other  important 
objectives  of  the  College  are:  the  conduct  of  study 
in  all  economic  factors  of  national  strategy  and  the 
interrelation  of  these  economic  factors  to  the  politi- 
cal, military,  and  psychological  factors;  the  con- 
duct of  study  in  all  aspects  of  joint  logistic  plan- 
ning and  the  interrelation  of  this  planning  to  joint 
strategic  planning  and  to  the  economy  of  the  Na- 
tion; the  promotion  of  understanding  and  study  of 
all  agencies  and  of  economic  and  joint  logistic  fac- 
tors which  are  important  to  the  Nation  -and  to  the 
Armed  Forces;  the  evaluation  of  the  economic  war 
potential  of  foreign  nations  and  the  conduct  of 
study  and  research  in  those  fields;  and  the  fostering 
of  close  relations  between  the  Armed  Forces  and 
civilian  engineering,  scientific,  and  educational 
groups  in  the  study  of  the  social,  political,  and 
economic  impacts  or  war. 

The  regular  course  extends  over  a  period  of  ten 


JOINT  MEXICAN-UNITED  STATES  DEFENSE 


292 


KANSAS 


months  and  is  conducted  by  using  graduate  school 
methods.  It  is  designed  to  qualify  its  students  to 
hold  positions  of  the  highest  responsibility  in  the 
offices  of  the  various  Secretaries  of  the  Army,  the 
Navy,  and  the  Air  Force;  Office  of  the  Joint  Staff; 
Office,  Chief  of  Staff,  United  States  Army;  Office, 
Chief  of  Naval  Operations;  Office,  Chief  of  Staff, 
United  States  Air  Force;  the  Munitions  Board  and 
other  joint  Army,  Navy,  and  Air  Force  planning 
and  logistic  activities;  offices  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
various  Technical  Services,  Materiel  Commands, 
and  Bureaus;  and  directorates  in  the  Army,  Navy 
and  Air  Force. 

Armed  Forces  Staff  College.  The  mission  of  the 
Armed  Forces  Staff  College,  located  in  Norfolk, 
Va.,  is  to  train  selected  officers  of  the  Army,  Navy, 
and  Air  Force  in  joint  staff  techniques  and  proce- 
dures; the  organization,  composition,  and  functions 
of  theaters  and  major  task  forces,  and  the  strate- 
gical, tactical,  and  logistical  responsibilities  of  such 
commanders;  and  the  preparation  for  amphibious 
and  airborne  operations  involving  the  employment 
of  joint  forces.  Graduate  officers  are  assigned  du- 
ties on  joint  operations  to  include  joint  overseas 
expeditions  and  theater  operations. 

— JOHN  H,  IVES 

JOINT  MEXICAN-UNITED  STATES  DEFENSE  COMMIS- 
SION. A  Commission  established  Feb.  2,  1942,  by 
Executive  Order,  to  study  problems  relating  to  the 
common  defense  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico, 
to  propose  to  the  respective  governments  the  coop- 
erative measures  which,  in  its  opinion,  should  be 
adopted,  U.S.  Steering  Member:  Maj.  Gen.  Rob- 
ert L.  Walsh,  USAF. 

JUDAISM.  Although  Zionism  today  is  not  exclusively 
a  religious  movement,  the  emergence  of  the  state 
of  Israel  immediately  enlarged  Jewish  religious  in- 
terest and  adherence.  In  all  Jewish  communities 
outside  of  Israel,  as  well  as  in  that  land  itself,  there 
were  noteworthy  evidences  of  renewed  devotion, 
to  Jewish  education,  the  Hebrew  language,  the 
synagogue,  and  traditional  observance. 

Though  there  has  been  some  protest  against 
"clericalism"  and  adherence  to  Old  Testament  law, 
even  irreligious  members  of  the  Israeli  government 
now  support  Sabbath  and  dietary  observance  in 
civilian  and  military  life.  The  compulsion  is  only 
moral,  but  it  remains  powerful,  The  displaced  per- 
sons now  streaming  into  Israel  are  largely  of  the 
religious  class;  during  their  years  of  hardship  they 
were  sustained  by  religious  organizations  and  sup- 
plied with  books  and  religious  articles  by  the  Joint 
Distribution  Committee.  Thus  they  have  been  able 
to  carry  their  predilections  into  the  land;  and 
though  only  thirteen  percent  voted  the  religious 
ticket  in  Israeli  elections,  as  many  as  ninety  per- 
cent have  been  shown  to  be  faithful  to  tradition. 
American  orthodox  groups  have  been  agitating  for 
the  creation  of  a  new  supreme  religious  court  in 
Israel,  and  have  opposed  any  further  secularization 
of  life  in  the  Holy  Land. 

The  United  States  has  witnessed  increase  of  tra- 
ditionalism even  among  liberal  Reform  groups.  The 
Central  Conference  of  American  Rabbis  now  di- 
rectly opposes  intermarriage,  by  rabbis,  and  urges 
all  year  round  services  in  the  temples.  During  the 
year  past  the  two  Reform  seminaries — the  Hebrew 
Union  College  and  the  Jewish  Institute  of  Religion 
—were  merged  under  the  presidency  of  Dr.  Nelson 
Glueck.  The  Conservative  wing  of  American  Jewry, 
centered  in  the  Jewish  Theological  Seminary,  is 
helping  spread  the  synagogue-center  idea,  and  is 
sending  rabbis  to  European  communities.  The  chief 


orthodox  institution  of  higher  education,  Yeshiva 
University,  is  projecting  a  non-sectarian  medical 
school.  Brandeis  University,  in  Massachusetts,  is 
now  functioning  under  Jewish  auspices,  with  Dr. 
Abram  Sacher  as  president. 

Remaining  European  communities  are  still  re- 
pairing the  war's  religious  devastation.  Great  Brit- 
ain, under  its  new  chief  rabbi,  Dr.  Israel  Brodie,  is 
producing  many  new  publications  with  that  end  in 
view.  American  philanthropy  is  the  chief  aid  of 
continental  countries.  The  religious-secular  full-day 
school,  rapidly  expanding  in  the  United  States,  has 
been  extended  to  Australia,  Belgium,  and  other 
countries. 

However,  not  alone  Christian  dignitaries,  but 
rabbis  and  others  have  fallen  where  totalitarianism 
has  taken  over.  Efforts?  notably  in  Poland,  to  obtain 
governmental  consent  to  fuller  religious  observ- 
ance, are  proving  vain.  Some  Balkan  countries  are 
rendering  it  difficult  for  Jews  to  migrate  to  Israel, 
in  accord  with  previous  Communist  opposition  to 
Zionism. 

The  world's  ten  million,  professing  Jews  are  eve- 
rywhere seeking  spiritual  growth  and  regenera- 
tion. The  ancient  and  medieval  literature  of  Juda- 
ism, largely  destroyed,  is  being  reproduced  in  the 
United  States;  and  there  are  numerous  new  studies 
and  texts  for  religious  education. 

— ABRAHAM  BURSTEIN 

JUSTICE,  U.S.  Department  of.  A  Department  of  the 
U.S.  Government  which  in  1948  had  the  following 
divisions  and  offices. 

Office  of  the  Attorney  General 

Office  of  the  Solicitor  General 

The  Assistant  to  the  Attorney  General 

The  Criminal  Division 

The  Antitrust  Division 

The  Tax  Division 

The  Lands  Division 

The  Claims  Division 

The  Customs  Division 

The  Assistant  Solicitor  General 

The  Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation 

The  Federal  Bureau  o£  Prisons 

Board  of  Parole 

Board  of  Immigration  Appeals 

Pardon  Attorney 

The  Immigration  and  Naturalization  Service 

The  Office  of  Alien  Property 

Administrative  Assist,  to  Attorney  General 

Attorney  General:  Tom  C  Clark.  Solicitor  Gen- 
eral; Philip  B.  Perlman. 

KANSAS.  A  west  north  central  State.  Area:  82,158 
sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  1,968,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  1,801,028.  Chief  cities: 
Topeka  (capital),  67,833  inhabitants  in  1940; 
Wichita,  121,458.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION, 
MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $112,312,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $101,129,000. 

Elections,  As  in  1944,  Dewey  won  the  8  electoral 
votes,  but  with  a  much  reduced  popular  majority. 
Republican  Andrew  F.  Schoeppel  succeeded  to  the 
seat  held  by  Senator  Capper  who  did  not  run  for 
reelection,  and  all  6  House  seats  remained  Repub- 
lican. Republican  Governor  Frank  Carlson  wa$  re-- 
elected, and  the  following  Republicans  were  suc- 
cessful; Lieutenant  Governor — Frank  L.  Haga- 
man;  Attorney  General — Edward  F.  Arn;  Auditor 
— George  Robb;  Treasurer — Richard  T.  Fadely; 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction — Adel  F. 


KARAFUTQ 


293 


KOREA 


Throekmorton;  Insurance  Commissioner — Frank 
Sullivan.  Democrat  Larry  Ryan  was  elected  Secre- 
tary of  State.  The  voters  also  voted  to  repeal  prohi- 
bition and  to  increase  the  pay  of  legislators. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Frank  Carlson;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Frank  L.  Hagaman;  Secretary  of  State, 
Frank  J.  Ryan;  Attorney  General,  Edward  F.  Arn; 
State  Treasurer,  Richard  T.  Fadely;  State  Auditor, 
George  Robb. 

KARAFUTO.  The  Japanese  name  for  that  part  ( south 
of  50°  N- )  of  Sakhalin  island,  formerly  under  Japa- 
nese control  It  was  occupied  and  taken  over  by  the 
U.S.S.R.  following  the  defeat  of  Japan  by  the  Allies 
in  1945. 

KELLOGG  FOUNDATION,  W.  K.  A  Foundation  estab- 
lished by  W.  K.  Kellogg  in  1930  to  promote  the 
health,  education,  and  welfare  of  mankind,  but 
principally  of  children  and  youth,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, without  regard  to  sex,  race,  creed,  or  na- 
tionality. Operates  by  making  grants  to  established 
organizations  for  the  conduct  of  new  and  experi- 
mental programs  in  the  fields  of  dentistry,  educa- 
tion, hospitals,  medicine,  nursing,  and  public 
health. 

Expenditures  for  the  year  ended  Aug.  31,  1948, 
were  $2,099,484.  Total  capital  assets  on  that  date 
were  $47,531,830,  Membership:  Nine  members  of 
the  Board  of  Trustees.  President  and  General  Di- 
rector, Emory  W.  Morris.  Headquarters:  Battle 
Creek,  Mich. 

KENTUCKY.  An  east  south  central  State.  Area:  40,- 
598  sq,  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  2,819,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  2,845,627.  Chief 
cities:  Frankfort  (capital),  11,492  inhabitants  in 
1940;  Louisville,  319,077.  See  AGRICULTUBE,  EDU- 
CATION, MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNI- 
VERSITIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $119,689,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $103,908,000. 

Legislation.  The  regular  biennial  session  of  the 
Kentucky  General  Assembly,  which  convened  Jan- 
uary 6,  adjourned  March  19  and  authorized  record- 
breaking  biennial  general  fund  expenditures  of 
$120,500,000.  Tax  increases  included  a  3  percent 
tax  on  pari-mutuel  betting;  license  fees  on  coin- 
operated  devices;  increased  whiskey  fees;  and  in- 
creases raising  gasoline  and  Diesel  oil  levies  from 
5  to  7  cents  a  gallon,  primarily  for  rural  road  im- 
provement. 

For  educational  costs,  $71,395,000  was  author- 
ized. The  State's  educational  system  is  to  be  studied 
by  a  new  permanent  Legislative  Research  Commis- 
sion. 

Other  new  State  agencies  include  the  Depart- 
ment of  State  Police;  a  Department  of  Economic 
Security  to  administer  unemployment  compensa- 
tion, employment  service,  public  assistance,  and 
child  welfare  programs;  Department  of  Aeronau- 
tics; a  Building  Commission;  and  an  Agricultural 
and  Industrial  Development  Board.  The?  legislature 
increased  unemployment  and  workmen's  compen- 
sation benefits;  tightened  child  labor  laws;  amend- 
ed insurance  regulatory  laws;  removed  legal  bar- 
riers to  training  white  and  Negro  nurses  and  doc- 
tors in  the  same  hospitals;  adopted  the  interstate 
parole  and  probation  compact;  raised  the  pay  of 
State  employees;  and  authorized  cities  to  levy  new 
nonproperty  taxes, 

Elections.  Truman  won  the  11  electoral  votes, 
gaining  a  larger  majority  over  Dewey,  Thurmond, 
and  Wallace  than  Roosevelt  had  in  1944.  In  the 


Senatorial  race  Democrat  Virgil  Chapman  defeat- 
ed Republican  incumbent  John  Sherman  Cooper; 
Democrats  gained  2  new  House  seats  for  a  total  of 
7  against  2  for  the  Republicans.  There  were  no 
Statewide  contests  for  State  office. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Earle  C.  Clements; 
Lieut  Governor,  Lawrence  Wetherby;  Secretary  of 
State,  George  G.  Hatcher;  Attorney  General,  A.  E. 
Funk;  State  Treasurer,  Edward  F.  Seiller;  State 
Auditor,  Harry  N.  Jones. 

KENYA.  A  British  colony  and  protectorate  in  East 
Africa.  Area:  224,960  square  miles.  Population 
(1947  estimate):  4,187,355,  of  whom  23,284  were 
Europeans.  Capital:  Nairobi  (100,000  inhabitants 
in  1947). 

Production  and  Trade.  Agriculture,  stock  raising, 
forestry,  and  mining  are  the  principal  occupations. 
Estimated  crop  production  in  1946  (in  tons): 
maize  112,530,  wheat  76,458,  sisal  2t,038,  potatoes 
23,118,  wattle  extract  11,946,  coffee  6,952,  tea 
5,481,  and  pyrethrum  6,860.  Livestock  (1946): 
4,529,000  cattle,  3,200,000  sheep  and  goats,  5,600 
horses,  181,000  camels,  and  37,000  pigs.  Butter 
production  (1946)  totaled  6,336,000  Ib. 

Gold  is  the  principal  mineral  mined — the  1946 
output  (29,892  fine  oz.  troy)  being  valued  at 
£257,942.  Other  minerals  produced,  including  salt, 
lime,  asbestos,  diatomite,  graphite,  and  soda  (but 
excluding  gold),  were  valued  at  £.636,850  in  1946. 

Foreign  trade,  Kenya  and  Uganda  combined, 
1947:  imports  (general)  were  valued  at  £31,200,- 
000;  exports  (general)  including  reexports,  £31,- 
920,000. 

Government.  Budget  estimates  (1948):  revenue 
£7,237,222;  expenditure  £6,841,712.  The  colony 
and  the  protectorate  are  administered  as  a  unit.  A 
governor  heads  the  administration  and  is  aided  by 
an  Executive  Council  of  10  members  and  a  Legis- 
lative Council  consisting  of  11  elected  European 
members,  5  elected  Indian  members,  1  elected 
Arab  member,  2  nominated  members,  and  11  ex- 
officio  and  9  nominated  official  members.  By  the 
Kenya  Annexation  Order  in  Council,  1920,  the  ter- 
ritories of  the  mainland  dominions  of  the  Sultan  o£ 
Zanzibar,  remain  -a  protectorate.  Governor  and 
Commander-in-Chief:  Sir  Phillip  Mitchell.  (See 
EAST  AFKIGA.  HIGH  COMMISSION.  ) 

KINGMAN  REEF.  A  small  reef,  150  feet  long  by  120 
feet  wide,  in  the  Pacific  (6°  24'  37"  N.  and  162° 
22'  W.).  By  U.S.  Executive  Order  dated  Dec.  29, 
1934,  Klngman  Reef  was  placed  under  the  ad- 
ministrative control  and  jurisdiction  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  U.S.  Navy.  It  is  the  only  possible  sea- 
plane base  between-  Honolulu  1,067  miles  north 
and  Pago  Pago  1,797  miles  to  the  southwest,  on 
the  air  route  to  Auckland,  New  Zealand.  Kingman 
Reef  was  made  a  U.S.  National  Defense  Area  by 
Executive  Order  of  President  Roosevelt,  dated  Feb. 
14, 1941,  and  foreign  planes  and  surface  craft  were 
prohibited, 

KOREA.  A  peninsular  country  located  on  the  Asiatic 
continent,  between  the  Yellow  Sea  and  the  Japan 
Sea.  Formerly  a  kingdom  tributary  to  China,  an- 
nexed by  Japan  on  Aug.  22,  1910.  Korea  was  oc- 
cupied under  terms  of  the  Potsdam  Agreement  in 
September,  1945,  by  U.S.S.R.  forces  in  the  north 
and  by  United  States  forces  in  the  south,  separated 
by  the  38th  parallel  of  latitude. 

Area  and  Population.  Total  area:  85,246  square 
miles.  Estimated  total  population  ( 1947 ) :  29,300,- 
000.  South  Korean  Republic:  37,055  square  miles; 
population  20,300,000.  North  Korean  Republic: 


KOREA 


294 


KOREA 


48,191  square  miles;  population  9,000,000.  Chief 
cities:  Seoul  (capital  of  the  southern  republic) 
1,141,766  inhabitants  (1946);  Pusan  249,734 
( 1940);  Pyongyang  (capital  of  the  northern  repub- 
lic) 205,965  (1940);  Inchon:  171,161  (1940).  A 
total  of  410,912  refugees  from  North  Korea  entered 
South  Korea  between  January  in  1946  and  June  of 
1948.  Migration  from  south  to  north  was  reported 
to  be  negligible. 

Education  and  Language.  During  Korea's  35  years 
as  a  Japanese  colony,  Japanese  educational  meth- 
ods were  dominant,  and  use  of  the  Korean  lan- 
guage was  officially  discouraged*  Since  1945,  Ko- 
rean has  again  become  the  official  language,  and 
literacy  has  risen  from  60  percent  to  75  percent. 

South  Korea  (July,  1947)  had  3,312  elementary 
schools  with  2,109,002  students;  395  secondary 
schools  with  161,927  students;  25  colleges  and 
universities  with  13,827  students.  North  Korea 
(January,  1947)  had  2,482  elementary  schools 
with  70,000  students;  27  colleges  and  universities 
with  12,330  students. 

The  year  1948  in  South  Korea  saw  the  establish- 
ment of  school  districts  and  boards  of  education 
and  the  .substitution  of  household  levies  for  the 
land  tax  as  the  chief  means  of  supporting  the  school 
system. 

Religion.  Chief  religions  are  Animism,  Confucian- 
ism, Buddhism,  and  Christianity.  In  1948  the  esti- 
mated Christian  population  was  670,000;  some  500 
American  missionaries  were  stationed  in  lie  south. 

Production  and  Trade.  Division  of  the  country  into 
two  political  units  remained  the  chief  economic 
problem  in  1948. 

North.  Korea  is  the  more  highly  industrialized 
portion.  Its  production  plans  for  1948  included 
9,000,000  tons  of  pig  iron,  39,300  tons  of  crude 
steel;  332,000  tons  of  chemical  fertilizer;  158,000 
tons  of  salt;  1,770,550  acres  of  rice  land.  Figures 
on  North  Korea's  actual  output  are  not  available. 

la  South  Korea  shortages  of  skilled  labor,  ma- 
chinery, and  raw  material  continued  to  impede 
production.  Suspension  of  power  transmission  in 
May,  1948,  deprived  South  Korea  of  80  percent  of 
its  electrical  power,  reversing  the  slow  upward 
trend  in  industrial  output.  In  March,  1948,  the 
National  Land  Administration  superseded  the  New 
Korea  Company,  established  in  1946  to  administer 
holdings  of  the  Oriental  Development  Company 
and  other  Japanese  concerns  in  Korea.  The  Admin- 
istration immediately  began  the  sale  of  land  to  ten- 
ants. The  holdings  involved  comprised  one-tenth 
of  the  planted  area  in  South  Korea  ( 687,246  acres ), 
operated  by  587,974  tenant  families  who  repre- 
sented 43.5  percent  of  the  farm  families  in  South 
Korea.  Purchasers  received  clear  title  to  their  land. 

From  1910  to  1945  Japan  dominated  Korea's 
foreign  trade.  After  the  surrender,  the  U.S.  Military 
Government  regulated  trade  in  the  southern  sector; 
the  Soviet-sponsored  People's  Committee  that  in 
the  northern  sector.  In  mid-1948  the  constitutional 
regimes  in  both  sectors  assumed  these  powers.  Im- 
ports into  South  Korea  (Jan.-Sept  of  1948)  totaled 
2,779,953,450  won  in  value;  exports  2,825,668,309 
won.  Chief  imports  were  rubber,  yarn,  coal,  ma- 
chinery, textiles,  chemicals,  and  foodstuffs.  The 
important  exports  were  seafoods,  minerals,  raw 
silk,  and  tungsten.  Trade  was  mainly  with  Hong 
Kong,  China,  Japan,  and  the  United  States. 

In  1940  Korea  had  2,919  miles  of  government 
railways  and  1,234  miles  of  private  railways.  On 
May  1,  1946,  South  Korea  had  1,679  miles  of 
railways. 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  in  the  south,  the  won 
(formerly  the  Japanese  yen),  continued  to  depreci- 


ate in  1948.  The  exchange  rate  (December,  1948) : 
450  won  to  U.S.$.  Won  in  circulation  rose  from 
4,000  million  in  1946  to  40,000  million  in  1948. 
South  Korea's  budget  for  the  fiscal  year  1948-49 
called  for  expenditure  of  21,318,446,463  won;  an- 
ticipated revenue  totaled  22,000  million  won. 

Government  and  Politics.  Korea  has  13  provinces, 
each  under  a  local  prefect  From  1910  to  1945  the 
country  was  ruled  by  a  Governor  General  appointed 
by  the  Emperor  of  Japan;  and  the  administrators 
were  primarily  Japanese. 

SoufJi  Korea,  1948.  From  September  1945  to  Au- 
gust 1948  South  Korea  was  governed  by  the  United 
States  Army  Military  Government  in  Korea  (USA- 
MGIK)  operating  through  a  Korean  administra- 
tion called  the  South  Korean  Interim  Government 
(SKIG). 

The  Allied  Powers  at  Moscow,  in  December, 
1945,  promised  complete  independence  to  Korea 
after  a  5-year  period  of  Allied  trusteeship.  This 
elicited  protests  from  all  Korean  political  parties 
except  the  Communists.  When  the  Soviet- American 
Joint  Commission  in  1946  and  1947  sought  to  erect 
an  interim  government,  the  Russians  insisted  that 
only  Koreans  who  had  endorsed  the  Moscow  Agree- 
ment should  be  enfranchised;  the  Americans  de- 
clared that  such  disfranchisement  would  be  un- 
democratic. On  Nov.  14,  1947,  at  the  proposal  of 
the  United  States,  and  with  the  Soviet  bloc  abstain- 
ing, the  UN  General  Assembly  voted  to  constitute 
a  Temporary  Commission  on  Korea  (UNTCOK) 
in  order  to  hold  elections  to  a  constituent  assembly 
which  would  form  a  united  Korean  government. 
After  unsuccessful  efforts  to  reach  an  accord  with 
North  Korea,  the  UN  Interim  Committee  decided 
on  Feb.  27,  1948,  to  hold  elections  in  South  Korea 
alone. 

The  UN  decision  crystallized  the  cleavage  among 
South  Korean  political  factions,  with  the  rightist 
Syngman  Rhee  favoring  the  UN  action,  the  mod- 
erate Kimm  Kiusic  and  the  rightist  Kim  Koo  hold- 
ing out  for  bizonal  elections,  and  the  Communists 
demanding  immediate  evacuation  of  United  States 
and  Soviet  troops.  In  the  Korean  Interim  Legis- 
lative Assembly  the  issue  led  to  the  resignation  of 
Speaker  Kimm  Kiusic,  Kim  Koo,  and  30  other 
legislators.  This  brought  the  work  of  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly  to  a  standstill. 

On  May  10,  90.6  percent  o£  the  7,729,909  regis- 
tered voters  (almost  80  percent  of  those  eligible) 
cast  their  ballots  in  the  UN-supervised  elections 
to  the  National  Assembly.  With  the  Communists 
and  certain  moderate  and  rightist  groups  abstain- 
ing, candidates  supporting  the  conservative  Dr. 
Rhee  won  a  substantial  plurality  of  the  Assembly. 

The  new  Constitution  adopted  in  June,  1948, 
called  for  a  unicameral  legislature  (which  chooses 
the  president),  and  state  control  of  foreign  trade, 
transportation,  and  mineral  resources.  In  July  the 
National  Assembly  elected  Dr.  Rhee  first  President 
of  the  South  Korean  Republic  with  Lee  Si  Yung 
as  Vice  President.  In  August  the  new  republic  was 
inaugurated;  USAMGIK  was  abolished;  the  U.S. 
Army  Civil  Affairs  Section  assumed  its  functions; 
Lt.  Gen.  John  Hodge,  Commander  of  U.S.  Forces 
in  Korea  since  V-J  Day,  was  reassigned  and  suc- 
ceeded by  Maj.  Gen,  J.  B.  Coulter.  (On  Jan.  14, 
1949  Brig.  Gen.  William  L.  Roberts  took  over  this 
post. ) 

Cabinet  of  the  South  Korean  Republic  (autumn, 
1948):  Prime  Minister — Lee  Bum  Suk;  Foreign 
Affairs — Ko  Chang  Li;  Commerce  and  Industry — 
Miss  Yim  Young  Sin;  Education — An  Ho  Sang; 
Communications — Yoori  Suk  Koo;  Interior — Yun 
Chi  Young;  Social  Welfare — Lee  Yun;  Transport — 


KOREA 


295 


KOREAN  LITERATURE,  ARTS  AND  C/UfTS 


Min  Hi  Sik;  Agriculture  and  Forestry — Cho  Bong 
Am;  Justice — Lee  Inn. 

In  August  the  United  States  agreed  to  continue 
to  train  and  equip  Korean  constabulary  and  coast- 
guard units  and  to  command  these  forces  as  well 
as  the  national  police  until  the  withdrawal  of  Amer- 
ican forces.  Plans  provided  for  an  army  of  100,000  • 
men  and  a  navy  of  10,000  men. 

A  number  of  anti-government  uprisings  occurred 
in  late  1948,  the  most  serious  breaking  out  in  the 
southeastern  port  of  Yosu.  For  a  brief  period  mar- 
tial law  was  declared. 

In  December  the  U.S.  Economic  Cooperation 
Administration  announced  a  three-year,  $300  mil- 
lion aid  program  for  South  Korea.  On  Dec.  12, 
1948,  the  UN  General  Assembly  at  Paris  recognized 
the  Seoul  government  as  the  only  legitimate  gov- 
ernment in  Korea.  On  Jan.  1,  1949,  the  United 
States  extended  full  recognition  to  the  new  repub- 
lic of  Korea.  Australia,  China,  and  the  Philippines 
followed  suit.  Chang  Myun,  chief  of  the  South 
Korean  delegation  to  the  UN,  was  made  Minister 
to  the  United  States.  Special  envoys  were  sent  to 
London  and  Manila.  The  United  States  named 
John  J.  Muccio  its  first  Ambassador  to  the  Seoul 
regime. 

North  Korea,  7948.  North  Korea  is  administered 
by  the  Democratic  People's  Republic  of  Korea, 
proclaimed  in  September,  1948.  The  regime  suc- 
ceeded the  North  Korean  People's  Committee, 
established  in  1945  under  the  sponsorship  of  the 
U.S.S.R. 

During  April  19-28  the  first  North-South  Korean 
Unity  Conference  met  in  Pyongyang.  It  was  at- 
tended by  545  delegates  representing  56  parties, 
including  non-Communist  southerners  like  Kirnm 
Kiusic  and  Kim  Koo.  The  Conference  demanded 
the  immediate  withdrawal  of  U.S.S.R.  and  United 
States  troops  and  the  abandonment  of  separate 
elections.  On  May  1  a  new  constitution  was  adopted 
calling  for  a  popularly  elected  assembly  which 
chooses  a  ruling  15-man  presidium.  Kim  H  Sung 
was  named  premier  of  a  cabinet  which  included 
8  South  Koreans.  The  U.S.S.R.,  Mongolia,  and 
Poland  recognized  the  Pyongyang  government, 
which-  claimed  sovereignty  over  the  entire  penin- 
sula. 

In  May  the  Government  suspended  the  power 
supply  to  South  Korea,  asserting  that  an  agreement 
to  supply  certain  materials  had  been  violated. 
USAMGIK  refused  to  negotiate  since  such  an  act 
would  imply  recognition  of  the  new  Government. 
In  September,  the  U.S.S.R.  announced  that  her 
troops  would  be  withdrawn  from  Korea  by  Decem- 
ber, 1948.  The  United  States  refused  to  do  likewise, 
arguing  that  troop  withdrawal  was  merely  part  of 
the  general  problem  under  UN  consideration. 

Koreans  Abroad,  1948.  In  April,  the  closing  of 
Korean  schools  in  Kobe  and  Osaka  by  Japanese 
authorities  provoked  an  uprising  of  Koreans  there. 
United  States  forces  proclaimed  a  limited  emer- 
gency— the  first  since  the  beginning  of  the  occu- 
pation— and  aided  in  quelling  the  disturbance.  In 
July  and  August  56  Koreans  competed  in  the  Lon- 
don Olympic  Games.  More  than  100  Koreans  went 
to  the  United  States  for  advanced  study  or  on-the- 
job-training.  The  greater  part  of  a  $25  million  loan 
from  the  U.S.  Foreign  Liquidation  Commission 
was  earmarked  to  assist  Korean  students  at  home 
and  abroad. 

Bibliography.  U.S.  Dept  of  State,  Korea  1945  to 
1948,  Washington,  April,  1948;  Dept  of  the  Army, 
Report  on  the  Economic  Position  and  Prospects  of 
Japan  and  Korea  and  the  Measures  Required  to 
Improve  Them,  Washington,  Apr.  26,  1948;  USA- 


MGIK, South  Korean  Interim  Government  Activi- 
ties, 28-33;  UN  General  Assembly,  First  Part  of 
the  Report  of  the  United  Nations  Temporary  Com- 
mission on  Korea,  vols.  1-3,  Lake  Success,  1948. 
G.  M.  McCune,  "The  Korean  Situation,"  and 
Paul  Dull,  "South  Korean  Constitution/'  Far  East- 
ern Survey,  vol.  xvii,  no.  17.  Two  American  period- 
icals concerned  with  Korea  are  the  bimonthly  The 
Voice  of  Korea,  Korean  Affairs  Institute,  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  and  the  semiannual  Korean  Review, 
Korean-American  Cultural  Association,  Seattle, 
Wash.  —CAUL  F.  BARTZ,  JR. 

KOREAN  LITERATURE,  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS.  The  most 
conspicuous  change  in  the  field  of  literature  and 
art  during  1948  was  in  the  direction  of  Westerni- 
zation, particularly  in  the  so-called  fine  arts.  Two 
events  determined  the  trend:  the  visit,  lasting 
eight  months,  of  the  members  of  the  UN  Commis- 
sion, and  the  election  and  inauguration  of  Korean 
governments  in  both  zones.  Literature  and  art  de- 
veloped as  accessory  tools  of  various  political  fac- 
tions. Libraries  and  museums  grew  ^dusry  and 
school  teachers  grew  more  wary  as  "dangerous 
thinking''  became  once  more  the  concern  of  the 
police.  Rejecting  cultural  importations  from  China 
and  Japan,  the  new  Korean  revived  native  folklore 
and  folksong,  refreshed  his  spirit  with  glorious 
episodes  from  his  own  history  and  expressed  him- 
self in  modern  media. 

A  new  technique  was  developed  by  many  writers, 
that  of  composing  radio-script  for  which  Korean 
talent  had  a  natural  bent.  The  publication  and 
distribution  of  textbooks  continued  at  an  acceler- 
ated pace,  the  end  of  the  year  bringing  the  total  to 
the  15  million  mark.  Progress  was  also  made  in  the 
perfection  of  the  vernacular  style,  the  standardiza- 
tion of  spelling  and  the  elimination  of  Japanese 
and  to  a  certain  extent,  of  Chinese,  loan-words. 

Literature.  Journalistic  literature  still  leads  the  field 
in  both  volume  and  influence.  Neutral  newspapers 
were:  Seoul  Shinmum,  Chayoo  Shinrnum,  Sin  Min 
Ilbo,  Choson  Ilbo,  etc.  On  the  extreme  right  was 
the  Pyungwha  Ilbo,  and  on  the  left,  the  Choson 
Choong  Ang  Ilbo;  and  ranging  between  were  some 
fifty  papers  all  exercising  the  right  to  instant  and 
critical  editorial  comment  on  the  many  important 
political  occurrences  of  the  spring  and  summer. 

The  forms  employed  by  Korean  writers  were 
still  the  forms  most  useful  to  the  writer  with  a 
message:  editorials,  essays,  historical  plays  and 
novels,  biographies  and  histories,  and  radio-script. 
The  Cultural  History  of  the  Korean  People  by  Sohn 
Chintai,  a  leading  historian,  was  an  important 
publication.  Other  well-known  authors  were:  Sul 
Chungsic,  editorialist  and  poet,  Lee  Insoo,  poet, 
Li  Taejun,  novelist,  Li  Kwangsu,  novelist,  Han 
Sulya,  novelist,  and  Choi  Kiyun,  poet. 

One  daily  paper  and  one  monthly  paper  was 
published  during  the  year  by  women  for  women 
dealing  with  domestic  problems  and  informing  the 
feminine  public  about  fashions.  (The  schoolgirl 
is  "not  privileged  to  wear  fancy  bows,  permanent 
waves  or  make-up  of  any  kind." ) 

Language/ Publication  of  the  first  volume  (of  six) 
of  the  New  Korean  Dictionary  by  the  Eulyu  Pub- 
lishing Company  was  an  important  step  forward  in 
Korean  lexicography,  incorporating  as  it  did  new 
spellings,  correct  usage,  phonetic  standards. 

Dramatic  Art  and  Music.  Twenty  dramatic  clubs 
presented  plays  in  Seoul,  a  week  apiece,  in  a  con- 
test conducted  by  the  Department  of  Education.  A 
patriotic  play  For  the  Fatherland  was  prepared  for 
the  election  campaign  and  was  performed  in  the 
provinces  by  teams  "to  help  Koreans  understand 


KURE  ISLAND 


296 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


election  principles  and  procedures/*  The  first  an- 
nual music  festival  featuring  both  western  and 
Oriental  music  was  held  in  Seoul  in  May;  the  first 
shortwave  broadcast  of  symphonic  music  was  made 
by  the  Seoul  Philharmonic  Orchestra  also  in  May; 
and  the  first  film  of  the  Seoul  Symphony  Orchestra 
was  made. 

Old  Korean  music  and  a  play  Spring  Fragrance 
were  produced  on  various  occasions  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  the  members  of  the  UN  Commission. 
It  should  be  noted  here  that  the  customary  prerog- 
atives of  the  dancing  and  singing  girl  were  abridged 
during  the  year  when  members  of  the  Commission 
were  entertained  officially  by  Korean  leaders  who 
were  assisted  for  the  first  time  by  their  wives  in- 
stead of  dancing  girls.  Puppet-shows  were  used  in 
the  provinces  to  teach  conservation  of  forests,  flood 
and  erosion  control,  in  57  performances  of  a  simple 
nature.  Mobile  education  units  of  various  types 
were  organized  to  teach  modern  techniques.  The 
Self-Sounding  Drum,  a  play  based  on  an  ancient 
tale,  was  produced  in  Seoul  in  the  summer  of  1948 
to  celebrate  the  inauguration  of  the  Republic  of 
Korea. 

Radio.  KBS  was  reorganized  in  conformity  with 
BBC  rules  and  so  was  able  to  give  full  coverage 
to  Korea's  performance  at  the  Olympics.  HLKA 
(Seoul  Station)  developed  a  staff  of  writers  and 
technical  assistants  trained  in  Occidental  standards 
and  techniques,  who  by  the  year's  end  were  qual- 
ified to  assume  full  responsibility  for  most  major 
programs.  KBC  added  to  its  library  of  western 
transcriptions  and  also  recorded  a  number  of  Ko- 
rean folk  songs  to  export. 

Arts  and  Crafts.  Art  exhibits  were  held  in  Seoul 
featuring  student  work  from  the  National  Univer- 
sity, the  work  of  Chungon  Nyon,  a  woman  painter 
of  merit,  the  work  of  Kim  Kichong,  depicting  Ko- 
rean customs,  and  the  work  of  Kim  Doowhan,  of 
life  in  his  native  Yesan  and  in  Seoul  and  Tokyo. 
Songdo  sponsored  an  industrial  and  artcraft  expo- 
sition featuring  textiles,  ceramics,  and  straw-weav- 
ing. The  curio  trade  prospered  with  the  usual  com- 
modities— lacquer,  brass,  silver,  and  basket-ware. 
— EVELYN  B.  McCuNE 

KURE  (Ocean)  ISLAND.  An  atoll  in  the  Pacific 
28°  25'  M,  and  178°  30'  W.  It  is  about  15  miles  in 
circumference,  oval  in  shape,  enclosing  a  lagoon, 
the  entrance  of  which  is  about  one  mile  wide. 
Green  Island,  in  the  southeasterly  part  of  the  la- 
goon, is  about  20  ft.  high.  Westward  of  Green  Is- 
land are  two  small  sand  islets.  President  Roosevelt, 
on  Feb.  20,  1936,  signed  Executive  Order  No. 
7299,  which  provided  that  Kure  (Ocean)  Island, 
together  with  the  surrounding  reef,  "be  reserved, 
set  aside,  and  placed  under  the  control  and  juris- 
diction of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  for  Naval  pur- 
poses/* 

KURILE  ISLANDS  (Chishima).  A  chain  of  47  islands 
reaching  from  the  Japanese  island  of  Hokkaido  to 
the  tip  of  the  Kamchatka  peninsula  in  the  eastern 
Asiatic  U.S.S.R.  The  most  important  islands  are 
Kunashiri,  Etorofu,  Uruppu,  Shimushiru,  and  Para- 
mushiro.  Total  area:  3,944  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion; 5,000,  exclusive  of  a  large  number  of  hunters 
and  fishermen  who  enter  the  islands  from  the  south 
during  the  summer.  The  islands  were  occupied  by 
the  U.S.S.R.  after  the  surrender  of  Japan  in  1945. 

KUWAIT  (Koweit).  An  Arab  state  south  of  Iran,  at 
the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Area:  1,930  square 
miles.  Population  (est.):  100,000,  exclusive  of 
some  Bedouins.  Capital:  Kuwait.  The  principal  ex- 


ports consist  of  pearls,  wool,  dhows,  and  horses. 
Oil  was  discovered  during  1938.  The  country  is  in 
treaty  relations  with  Great  Britain.  Ruler:  Sheik 
Sir  Ahmed  al  Jabir-al-Subah. 

The  Kuwait  Oil  Company,  owned  by  the  Anglo- 
Iranian  Oil  Company  (British)  and  the  Gulf  Oil 
Corporation  (American),  continued  its  two-year 
program  aimed  at  expanding  the  current  output  of 
49,000  barrels  of  oil  a  day  to  over  150,000  barrels 
a  day.  New  equipment  was  imported  from  the 
United  States  and  plans  were  under  way  for  the 
construction  of  a  refinery.  See  SAUDI  ARABIA, 

KWANTUNG.  The  territory  occupying  the  southern 
part  of  the  Liaotung  peninsula  in  Manchuria,  leased 
from  China  by  Japan,  1905-45.  It  was  returned  to 
China  in  accordance  with  the  conditions  of  the 
Sino-Russian  agreement  of  Aug.  14,  1945.  Area: 
including  adjacent  islands,  1,338  square  miles.  Pop- 
ulation (1940):  1,367,334.  Chief  towns:  Dairen 
(Dalny),  515,743  inhabitants;  Port  Arthur  (Ryo- 
jun),  145,286;  Pulantien;  Kinchow. 

LABOR,  U.S.  Department  of.  A  Department  of  the  U.S. 
Government  which  in  1948  consisted  of  the  follow- 
ing principal  bureaus  and  divisions: 

Bureau  of  Apprenticeship 

Bureau  of  Labor  Standards 

Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 

Bureau  of  Veterans*  Reemployment  Rights 

U.S.  Employment  Service,  including  Veterans* 
Employment  Service  (to  Federal  Security 
Agency,  July  1,  1948) 

Wage  and  Hour  and  Public  Contracts  Divisions 

Women's  Bureau 

Secretary  of  Labor:  Maurice  J.  Tobin  (apptd. 
Aug.  13,  1948 )  to  succeed  Lewis  B.  Schwellenbach 
(died  June  10,  1948).  See  articles  on  CONSUMER'S 
COOPERATIVES:  LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS. 

LABOR  CONDITIONS.  Peacetime  employment  reached 
an  all-time  high  in  the  United  States  during  1948. 
Wage  rates  and  hourly  earnings  likewise  reached 
the  highest  levels  in  history.  It  was  also  a  year  of 
increased  industrial  peace  in  the  United  States,  as 
strikes  and  man-hours  lost  through  work  stoppages 
continued  to  decline.  In  Canada,  a  similar  decrease 
in  strikes  and  increases  in  wages  and  earnings  took 
place.  Great  Britain,  too,  saw  increases  in  wages 
and  earnings,  although  strikes  increased  somewhat 
during  the  early  part  of  the  year. 

Employment  and  Unemployment.  A  record  high  in 
peacetime  employment  in  the  United  States  was 
reached  in  July  of  1948.  In  that  month,  the  total 
number  of  persons  employed  reached  61,615,000, 
an  increase  of  over  2  million  over  August,  1947. 
In  September,  1948,  the  total  civilian  labor  force 
was  62,212,000.  Of  this  number,  51,590,000  were 
employed  in  non-agricultural  establishments,  while 
8,723,000  were  employed  in  agricultural  pursuits. 
Unemployment  declined  to  1,899,000,  slightly  less 
than  that  reflected  in  September,  1947. 

Employment  declined  in  shipbuilding  and  in 
the  communications  equipment  industry.  Employ- 
ment in  the  aircraft  industry*  however,  increased  as 
that  industry  began  to  expand.  The  employment 
of  women  in  industry  was  marked  by  an  increase  of 
approximately  700,000  in  September  of  1948,  as 
compared  with  September  of  1947. 

In  Canada,  the  civilian  labor  force  in  August  of 
1948  declined  somewhat,  from  5,081,000  in  Au- 
gust, 1947,  to  5,030,000  in  August,  1948.  The 
number  of  employed  persons  likewise  showed  a 
slight  decline  from  5,008,000  in  August  of  1947 
to  4,948,000  in  August  of  1948.  Unemployment  in- 


LABOR.  CONDITIONS 


297 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


creased  from  73,000  in  August  of  1947  to  82,000 
in  August  of  1948. 

In  Great  Britain,  the  total  working  population  in 
August,  1948,  declined  to  20,297,000,  as  compared 
with  20,430,000  at  the  end  of  1947.  Unemploy- 
ment declined  slightly,  with  295,000  registered  as 

ESTIMATES  OF  THE  CIVILIAN  LABOR  FORCE,  TJ.S 
(Millions  of  Persons  14  Years  and  Older) 


Labor  Market  Status 
Total  Labor  Force  a 

Oct. 

1945 

53  1 

OcL 

1946 

593 

Oct. 
1947 
60  9 

OcL 
1948 
61  8 

Employed  °  , 

.     51.6 

574 

592 

60  1 

Non-  agricultural  In- 
dustries   

,     42.8 

48  8 

506 

51  5 

Male  

.     27.0 

33.9 

354 

360 

Female    ...        .    , 

.     15.7 

149 

152 

155 

Agriculture.   .    .... 

88 

8.52 

86 

86 

Male 

6.6 

667 

69 

67 

Female   

2.2 

1  85 

1  7 

1  9 

Unemployed 

1  55 

1  95 

1  7 

1  6 

Male 

093 

1  54 

1  2 

1  8 

Female 

062 

041 

0  5 

055 

a  Excludes  institutional  population  and  armed  forces. 
Source:  U.S.  Dept.  of  Commerce,  Bureau  of  the  Census. 

unemployed  in  August  of  1948,  as  compared  with 
300,000  at  the  end  of  1947.  In  Japan,  the  industrial 
labor  force  in  June  of  1948  totaled  17,890,000,  of 
which  5,090,000  were  women. 

Women  Workers.  The  number  of  women  in  the 
civilian  labor  force  increased  by  nearly  900,000  be- 
tween September,  1947,  and  September,  1948, 
while  the  number  employed  increased  by  approxi- 
mately 700,000.  Women's  average  weekly  earnings, 
as  reported  by  the  National  Industrial  Conference 
Board  for  25  selected  manufacturing  industries, 
were  $42.13  for  July,  1948,  as  compared  with 
$38.38  for  July,  1947.  Average  hourly  earnings  for 
July,  1948,  were  $1.11,  and  average  weekly  hours 
worked  were  37,8. 

In  Japan,  women  workers  represented  approxi- 
mately 28  percent  of  the  industrial  labor  force. 
They  were  enjoying,  under  the  labor  standards 
law,  special  legal  protection,  including  equal  pay 
for  equal  work,  maternity  leave,  and  limitations  on 
overtime,  night  work,  and  hazardous  occupations. 
A  Women's  and  Minor's  Bureau  has  been  set  up 
in  the  Labor  Ministry, 

Child  Labor.  The  employment  of  children  and 
young  persons  14  through  17  years  of  age  re- 
mained at  about  the  same  level  as  in  1947.  About 
the  same  number  of  young  people  were  employed 
in  April,  1948,  as  in  April,  1947,  2,040,000  for 
1948,  as  contrasted  with  1,970,000  for  1947.  By 
October,  1948,  almost  1  in  5  of  boys  and  girls  14 
and  15  years  old  were  employed,  and  more  than 
1  in  3  of  those  16  and  17  years  old. 

Findings  of  inspections  for  compliance  with  the 
child  labor  provisions  of  the  Federal  Fair  Labor 
Standards  Act  for  the  fiscal  year  1948  (that  is,  end- 
ing June  30,  1948),  show  some  reduction  from 
1947  in  the  number  of  establishments  found  in 
violation  and  the  number  of  minors  illegally  em- 
ployed. One  in  every  20  establishments  covered  by 
the  law  were  found  to  have  violated  the  child  labor 
provisions  of  the  law  (1,384  out  of  28,998).  In 
such  plants,  1  out  of  every  6  employed  minors  un- 
der 18  was  found  to  be  illegally  employed,  or  a 
total  of  4,628  out  of  26,678.  Extremely  high  per- 
centages of  violation  were  found  in  sawmills,  plan- 
ing mills  and  plywood  mills,  as  well  as  in  fruit 
and  vegetable  packing  sheds. 

Kentucky  and  Virginia  established  a  basic  mini- 
mum age  at  16  for  general  employment,  estab- 
lished a  maximum  40-hour  work  week  for  boys  and 
girls  up  to  18  years  of  age,  and  increased  restric- 
tions upon  work  outside  school  hours  and  night 
work  for  minors. 


Wages  and  Working  Hours.  A  new  all-time  peak 
in  factory  earnings  in  the  United  States  was 
reached  in  July,  1948,  when  gross  average  hourly 
earnings  reached  $1.33,  and  weekly  earnings 
amounted  to  $53.08.  This  compares  with  an  aver- 
age hourly  rate  of  $1.23  for  July,  1947,  and  average 
weekly  earnings  of  $48.98  in  the  same  month. 
These  ^  increases  reflected  the  so-called  "third 
round"  of  postwar  wage  increases.  As  in  1947, 
there  was  no  uniformity  in  wage  developments, 
In  some  industries,  increases  in  wage  rates  of  about 
13  cents  per  hour  were  characteristic.  This  was 
true  of  the  steel  and  automobile  industries, 

In  other  industries,  the  amounts  of  increases 
varied.  In  the  bituminous  coal  industry,  the  1948 
agreement  provided  for  a  wage  increase  of  $1.00 

Eer  day,  and  an  increase  in  payments  into  the  wel- 
ire  and  retirement  fund  from  10  cents  to  20  cents 
per  ton  of  coal  mined.  Operating  employees  in  the 
railroad  transportation  industry  received  wage  in- 
creases of  10  cents  per  hour.  In  the  meat  packing 
industry,  the  basic  average  settlement  was  9  cents 
per  hour. 

Average  weekly  hours  worked  in  the  United 
States  were  39.9  in  July,  1948,  substantially  identi- 
cal with  that  found  in  July,  1947. 

Widespread  attention  was  directed  to  the  wage 
settlement  between  the  General  Motors  Corpora- 
tion and  the  United  Auto  Workers  (CIO),  on  May 
25,  1948,  providing  for  an  immediate  wage  in- 
crease of  11  cents  per  hour,  affecting  some  225,000 
auto  workers.  The  wage  clause  provided  for  an 
immediate  cost  of  living  adjustment  of  8  cents  per 
hour,  and  an  annual  improvement  factor,  or  stand- 
ard of  living  adjustment,  of  3  cents  per  hour.  It 
was  further  agreed  that  quarterly  adjustments, 
downward  or  upward,  in  wages  should  be  made, 
based  upon  the  movement  of  the  Consumers*  Price 
Index. 

Under  this  arrangement,  for  each  increase  of 
1.14  points  of  the  index,  wages  would  be  adjusted 
by  1  cent  an  hour,  No  limit  was  placed  upon  the 
upward  wage  adjustments  which  may  be  author- 
ized owing  to  subsequent  increases  in  the  cost  of 
living.  A  limit,  or  "floor,"  was  imposed  as  regards 
wage  reductions,  however,  at  5  cents  an  hour. 

In  Canada,  weekly  earnings  in  manufacturing  in 
July,  1948,  reached  $38.81,  as  compared  with 
$36.45  for  July,  1947.  Average  hourly  earnings 
rose  almost  11  cents  per  hour  to  91.4  cents,  as 

AVERAGE   HOURS   AND   EARNINGS   OF   FACTORY 

WORKERS  IN  THE  U.S.  BY  SELECTED  MONTHS 

1941-1948 


Month  and  Year 

Weekly 
Hours 
.  .  .     39.0 

Earnings 
S  .68 

Weekly 
Earnings 
$26.64 

January,  1942  

,  .  ,     41.7 

.80 

33.40 

January,  1943  

.  .  .     44.2 

.92 

40.62 

October  1943  

.  .  .     44.4 

.96 

42.76 

January  1944  ,    „,,,,.,. 

1.00 

45.29 

October  1944  

.  .  .     45.6 

1.03 

46.98 

January,  1945  ..,...,...., 

.  .  .     45.4 

1.05 

47.52 

October  1945  .  .    

.  .  .     41.6 

.98 

41.02 

January  1946      

1.00 

41.27 

October  1946       .  .  , 

.  ,  .     40.4 

1.13 

45,68 

January  1947       

.  .  .     40.6 

1.16 

47.10 

October  1947 

.  .  .     40.5 

1.26 

50.98 

January  1948       

.  .  ,     40.5 

1.29 

52.14 

October  1948       , 

.  .  .     39.9 

1.37 

54.50 

Source:  U.S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics. 

compared  with  80,8  cents  in  July,  1947.  Average 
hours  of  work  remained  at  approximately  42  per 
week,  as  in  July  of  1947. 

In  Great  Britain,  wage  rates  for  all  workers  by 
August,  1948,  had  increased  6  percent  over  June, 
1947.  Average  weekly  hours  worked  showed  little 
change,  45.3  in  April,  1948  (45.2  in  Oct.,  1947). 


IABOR  CONDITIONS 


298 


IABOR  CONDITIONS 


The  year  saw  the  introduction  of  a  new  wage 
policy  by  the  British  government.  In  February  of 
1948,  the  Government  issued  a  "White  Paper," 
which  stated,  among  other  things,  that  in  the  fu- 
ture wage  increases  would  not  be  taken  into  ac- 
count in  allowing  increases  in  prices,  except  by 
special  agreement,  in  advance,  with  the  Board  of 
Trade.  It  was  also  stated  that  no  further  general 
increases  in  the  level  of  personal  incomes  would 
be  granted  wiAout  at  least  a  corresponding  in-' 
crease  in  the  volume  of  production. 

Strikes.  Interruptions  to  industrial  peace  in  the 
United  States  continued  to  decline  in  1948.  For  the 
first  ten  months  of  1948,  approximately  2,950  stop- 
pages, involving  1.8  million  workers  and  a  loss  of 
about  30.2  million  man-days  took  place.  This  com- 
pares with  3,396  stoppages  involving  2,080,000 
workers  and  a  loss  of  approximately  33.1  million 
man-days  for  the  same  period  in  1947. 

Perhaps  the  most  serious  strikes  during  1948 
were  those  involving  West  and  East  Coast  mari- 
time workers.  Approximately  28,000  West  Coast 
dock  workers  and  seagoing  personnel  went  on 
strike  on  September  2,  upon  termination  of  an  80- 
day  anti-strike  injunction  issued  under  the  Labor 
Management  Relations  Act  of  1947.  The  issues  in 
dispute  involved  wages  and  the  union  hiring  hall. 
The  unions  involved  in  the  strike  were  the  Interna- 
tional Longshoremen's  Union,  Marine  Cooks  and 
Stewards  (CIO),  Marine  Engineers*  Beneficial  As- 
sociation (CIO),  Marine  Firemen,  Oilers,  Water 
Tenders  and  Wipers,  and  a  radio  officers'  union. 

The  strike  was  finally  settled  in  November,  after 
85  days,  upon  the  basis  of  a  3-year  contract  grant- 
ing an  increase  in  hourly  wage  rates  of  15  cents 
per  hour,  a  welfare  fund,  increased  vacations,  and 
other  fringe  benefits.  It  was  agreed  to  continue  the 
hiring  hall  in  effect  pending  a  court  decision  as  to 
its  validity. 

The  East  Coast  strike  began  in  November,  in- 
volved 45,000  (AFL)  dock  workers,  and  was  set- 
tled after  18  days,  with  the  grant  of  13  cents  per 
hour  wage  increase,  a  welfare  fund,  increased  va- 
cations, and  other  benefits. 

On  March  16,  100,000  packing  workers,  mem- 
bers of  United  Packing  House  Workers  of  America 
(CIO),  went  on  strike  to  enforce  demands  for  a 
29  cent  wage  increase,  despite  the  prior  appoint- 
ment of  a  presidential  board  of  inquiry.  About  half 
of  the  approximately  100  plants  affected  by  the 
stoppage  were  operated  by  the  large  meat  packers, 
Swift,  Armour,  Wilson,  Cudahy,  and  Morrell. 
There  were  scattered  incidents  involving  violence 
between  pickets  and  non-strikers.  The  board  of 
inquiry  reported  that  an  employer  offer  of  a  9  cent 
hourly  wage  increase  was  "substantial"  On 
May  21,  the  union  accepted  a  9  cent  hourly  wage 
increase,  and  the  strike  was  called  off  in  3  com- 
panies, Subsequent  settlements  were  reached  with 
other  packers. 

On  March  15,  a  strike  began  in  the  bituminous 
coal  industry  over  the  failure  of  the  trustees  of  the 
welfare  fund  to  reach  an  agreement  upon  pension 
payments.  A  presidential  board  of  inquiry  was  ap- 
pointed to  investigate  the  dispute.  On  April  3,  the 
Attorney  General  obtained  a  temporary  restraining 
order  instructing  the  union  to  order  the  soft-coal 
miners  back  to  work,  and  directing  both  parties  to 
resume  collective  bargaining  in  an  effort  to  settle 
the  pension  dispute. 

Subsequently,  fines  of  $1.4  million  were  assessed 
against  the  United  Mine  Workers  of  America  and 
$20,000  against  its  president,  for  failure  to  comply 
with  this  order  of  the  court.  By  April  26,  most  of 
the  miners  returned  to  work,  pursuant  to  instruc- 


tions from  the  union  president.  The  pension  dis- 
pute was  subsequently  settled  by  an  agreement  by 
a  majority  of  the  board  of  trustees  to  grant  pen- 
sions of  $100  per  month  to  qualified  members  of 
the  union  after  20  years  of  service  in  the  mines, 
and  after  such  members  had  reached  the  age  of 
62. 

A  stoppage  involving  nearly  15,000  workers  at 
the  Boeing  Airplane  Company  plant  in  Seattle  was 
begun  on  April  22,  involving  members  of  the  In- 
ternational Association  of  Machinists.  The  strike 
was  ended  on  September  10.  In  November,  the 
National  Labor  Relations  Board  issued  an  order 
requiring  the  company  to  bargain  with  the  union. 

In  Canada,  strikes  likewise  showed  a  substantial 
decline  over  1947.  During  the  8-month  period  from 
January  through  August,  1948,  there  were  104 
strikes  and  lock-outs,  involving  29,383  workers, 
with  a  loss  of  657,950  working  days,  as  compared 
with  157  strikes  for  the  same  period  in  1947,  in- 
volving 66,798  workers  and  a  loss  of  1,581,319 
working  days. 

In  Great  Britain,  on  the  other  hand,  while  the 
number  of  workers  involved  in  strikes  declined, 
there  was  an  increase  in  the  number  of  strikes  and 
the  amount  of  time  lost  due  to  such  strikes.  For 
the  first  8  months  of  1948,  there  were  1,277  strikes, 
involving  354,300  workers,  with  a  loss  of  1,728,- 
000  man-days.  This  compares  with  1,174  strikes, 
involving  428,400  workers,  with  a  loss  of  1,610,000 
man-days  for  the  same  period  in  1947. 

In  France,  the  series  of  politically  inspired 
strikes  which  began  in  the  latter  part  of  1947  con- 
tinued into  1948.  The  most  serious  of  these  in- 
volved a  work  stoppage  in  the  coal  mines  by  the 
Communist-led  General  Confederation  of  Labor  on 
October  2,  and  was  called  off,  after  eight  weeks, 
on  November  27. 

STRIKES  IN  U.S.,  CANADA,  AND  GREAT  BRITAIN 
1941-1948 


Country 

Workers 

Man-Days 

and  Year 

Strikes 

Involved 

Idle 

United  States* 

1948*  

..  3,300 

1,950,000 

34,000,000 

1947  

..  3,700 

2,170,000 

34,600,000 

1946  

..  4,985 

4,600,000 

116,000,000 

1945  

..  4,600 

3,325,000 

35,000,000 

1944  

.  .  4,956 

2,115,600 

8,721,000 

1943  

.  .  3,752 

1,980,000 

13,500,000 

1942  

..  2,968 

840,000 

4,180,000 

1941  

.  .  4,288 

2,360,000 

23,050,000 

Canada  b 

1948*  

.  .      144 

39,439 

879,466** 

1947  

.  .      219 

77,995 

2,422,332 

1946  

.  .      228 

139,474 

4,500,000 

1945  

.  .      182 

90,509 

1,478,311 

1944  

,  .      189 

77,700 

502,000 

1943  

.  .      402 

218,400 

1,040,000 

1942  

.  .      354 

114,000 

450,000 

1941  

.  .      231 

87,000 

434,000 

Great  Britain* 

" 

1948*  

.  .  1,658 

411,400 

1,912,000* 

1947  

.  .  1,721 

622,600 

2,433,000 

1946  

.  .  2,191 

525,000 

2,160,000 

1945  

.  .  2,282 

530,000 

2,830,000 

1944  

.  .  2,185 

850,000 

3,700,000 

1943  

.  .   1,785 

557,000 

1,810,000 

1942  

.  .   1,303 

457,000 

1,530,000 

1941  

.     1,251 

360,000 

1,080,000 

*  Preliminary,  subject  to  revision.  *  U.S.  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics.  *  Canadian  Labor  Gazette.  « British  Ministry  of 
Labor  Gazette.  d  Through  November  of  1948. 

Labor  Movements.  In  the  United  States,  the  AFL 
and  the  CIO  held  national  conventions  in  Novem- 
ber of  1948. 

The  67th  Convention  of  the  AFL  was  held  at 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  November  15-22.  Resolutions 
were  adopted  recommending  repeal  of  the  Taft- 
Harrley  Law  and  the  restoration  of  the  Wagner 
Act;  supporting  federal  aid  to  education;  the  Mar- 
shall Plan;  a  military  alliance  against  the  Soviet 


iABOR  CONDITIONS 


299 


LABOR  CONDITIONS 


Union;  recognizing  labor's  responsibility  for  the 
economic  health,  safety,  and  welfare  of  the  nation; 
and  recommending  an  increase  in  the  minimum 
wage  to  $1  per  hour. 

The  CIO  held  its  10th  Convention  at  Portland, 
Ore.,  from  November  22-28.  The  Convention 
adopted  a  resolution  favoring  further  wage  in- 
creases, which  was  generally  interpreted  as  signi- 
fying an  attempt  to  initiate  a  "fourth  round"  of 
upward  wage  adjustments.  The  Convention  also 
adopted  resolutions  recommending  the  repeal  of 
the  Taft-Hartley  Law  and  the  substitution  of  the 
Wagner  Act;  an  extension  of  civil  rights;  the  insti- 
tution of  an  anti-inflation  program,  including  a 
roll-back  of  prices;  the  imposition  of  price  controls 
on  commodities  which  basically  affect  the  price  of 
living;  rationing  and  control  of  consumer  credit; 
and  adopted  a  resolution  condemning  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  Soviet  Union. 

The  31st  International  Labor  Conference  was 
held  in  San  Francisco,  June  17-July  10,  1948.  The 
Conference  adopted  a  convention  guaranteeing  the 
right  of  workers  and  employers  to  establish  and 
join  organizations  of  their  own  choice  without  in- 
terference. The  subject  of  freedom  of  association 
guaranteed  by  that  convention  had  been  consid- 
ered by  the  ILO  as  the  result  of  a  resolution  by  tiie 
Economic  and  Social  Council  of  the  United  Na- 
tions. The  Conference  also  adopted  a  convention 
establishing  standards  for  national  employment 
services,  and  conventions  dealing  with  night  work 
of  women  and  young  persons. 

The  80th  annual  Trades  Union  Congress  was 
held  at  Margate,  England,  on  Sept  6,  1948,  and 
for  the  four  following  days.  The  approximate  mem- 
bership represented  was  7,791,000.  This  repre- 
sents an  increase  of  approximately  251,000  over 
1947.  Resolutions  were  passed  declaring  the  de- 
termination of  the  Congress  to  expose  and  defeat 
those  elements  in  the  trade  union  movement  whose 
activities  would  result  in  undermining  progressive 
social,  economic,  and  industrial  advance,  presum- 
ably the  Communists. 

In  Japan,  under  the  influence  of  the  liberal  labor 
legislation  enacted  by  the  Japanese  Diet,  the  or- 
ganization of  workers  increased  the  total  number 
of  organized  employees  to  6,636,710,  or  approxi- 
mately 37  percent  of  the  industrial  labor  force. 

The  Chinese  Federation  of  Labor  was  estab- 
lished at  the  National  Labor  Conference  at  Nan- 
king, Apr.  18-22,  1948.  There  were  173  delegates 
present  from  20  provincial  general  unions,  10  mu- 
nicipal general  unions,  and  6  national  federations 
of  industrial  unions,  representing,  in  all,  5,493,705 
members.  Resolutions  were  adopted  condemning 
the  Trade  Union  Act  of  1947  as  repressive;  recom- 
mending extension  of  the  principle  of  fixing  wages 
relative  to  the  cost  of  living;  the  improvement  of 
workers*  education  and  the  establishment  of  a  La- 
bor College. 

In  Latin  America,  two  rival  labor  confederations 
held  meetings  in  1948.  The  Latin  American  Con- 
federation of  Labor,  founded  in  1938,  held  its  third 
meeting,  in  Mexico  City.  In  attendance  were  dele- 
gates from  28  labor  organizations  in  13  Latin 
American  countries  and  Puerto  Rico.  The  member- 
ship eligibility  status  of  several  Mexican  labor  or- 
ganizations was  considered.  Resolutions  passed  at 
the  Congress  condemned  the  trade  charter  con- 
cluded at  Havana  and  the  Marshall  Plan,  and  rec- 
ommended industrialization  of  Latin  America. 

The  Inter-American  Confederation  of  Workers 
was  organized  at  Lima,  Peru,  in  January,  1948. 
There  were  present  143  delegates  from  13  Latin 
American  countries.  The  conference  call  issued  by 


the  Chilean  Confederation  of  Labor  asserted  that 
the  Latin  American  Confederation  of  Labor  is  un- 
der the  domination  of  a  president  serving  the  po- 
litical objectives  of  the  Communist  Party.  The 
new  organization  will  coordinate  the  efforts  of 
workers  to  seek  better  working  conditions  through 
ILO  conventions,  and  will  strive  for  the  incorpora- 
tion in  the  constitution  of  the  American  nations  of 
clauses  dealing  with  freedom  of  association,  the 
right  to  strike,  maximum  hours,  and  collective 
agreements. 

Labor  Legislation.  There  was  relatively  little  new 
labor  legislation  enacted  in  1948.  In  the  United 
States,  a  new  draft  law  designed  to  meet  the  man- 
power requirements  of  the  armed  forces  was  en- 
acted. The  law  makes  men  19  to  25  years  of  age 
liable  for  military  service  for  a  period  of  21  months, 
and  permits  the  enrollment  for  one  year  of  161,000 
18-year  olds.  Exemptions  are  provided  on  grounds 
of  previous  military  service,  membership  in  reserve 
units,  dependency,  and  occupation. 

The  Canadian  Parliament  enacted  the  Industrial 
Relations  and  Disputes  Investigations  Act,  effec- 
tive as  of  Sept.  1,  1948.  This  act  repeals  the  Indus- 
trial Disputes  Investigation  Act  which  was  first 
passed  in  1907,  and  replaces  the  wartime  Labour 
Relations  Regulations  (P.C.  1003). 

The  general  framework  of  the  I.D.I.  Act  is  re- 
tained, including  the  prohibition  of  a  strike  or  lock- 
out until  conciliation  has  been  tried,  and,  where 
conciliation  fails,  until  the  causes  of  the  dispute 
have  been  investigated  and  a  report  made  to  the 
Minister  of  Labour.  It  incorporates,  also,  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  wartime  regulations  requiring  an  em- 
ployer to  bargain  with  the  representative  of  a  ma- 
jority of  its  employees  when  organized  in  a  trade 
union.  Administrative  machinery  is  provided  to 
implement  the  provisions  of  the  law. 

Court  Decisions.  Few  important  labor  cases 
reached  the  United,  States  Supreme  Court  in  1948. 
Considerable  interest  was  aroused,  however,  by 
the  decision  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
in  Bay  Ridge  Operating  Co.  v.  Aaron  et  al,  wherein 
the  Court  held  that  premium  payments  to  long- 
shoremen at  1^  times  the  regular  daytime  rate  for 
night,  week-end,  holiday,  and  meal-period  work 
constituted  part  of  the  regular  rate  of  pay,  and 
hence  could  not  be  included  in  overtime  compen- 
sation due  under  the  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act. 

The  contracts  which  the  longshoremen  had 
signed  with  their  employers  contained  a  provision 
that  employees  are  to  be  paid  time  and  one-half 
for  work  done  before  8:00  a.m.  and  after  5:00 
p.m.,  and  on  Saturday  afternoons,  Sundays,  and 
holidays.  The  longshoremen  claimed  that  this  pre- 
mium pay  for  work  outside  the  regular  contract 
hours  should  be  treated  as  part  of  the  straight-time 
rate  for  the  purpose  of  computing  overtime  pay 
after  40  hours  of  work  in  a  week.  Their  contention 
was  upheld  by  the  Court. 

In  U.S.  t).  Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations, 
the  Supreme  Court  had  occasion  to  consider  the 
limitations  contained  in  Section  304  of  the  Taft- 
Hardey  Act  upon  political  contributions  or  ex- 
penditures by  labor  organizations.  The  CIO  and 
its  president  were  indicted  on  the  ground  that  the 
CIO,  in  its  weekly  union  publication,  the  C.I.O. 
News,  had  urged  its  members  to  vote  for  a  par- 
ticular candidate  for  Congress.  The  Court  held  that 
the  law  forbidding  expenditure  of  union  funds  in 
connection  with  federal  elections  was  not  intended 
to  apply  to  political  articles  in  regular  union  peri- 
odicals, and  dismissed  the  indictment. 

In  National  Maritime  Commission  t>.  Herzog, 
the  Supreme  Court  upheld  as  constitutional  Sec- 


LABOR  STANDARDS 


300 


LATIN  AMERICAN  ART 


tlon  9  (£)  of  the  Ta£t-Hartley  Law,  which  requires 
labor  unions  to  file  financial  and  organizational 
data  with  the  Secretary  of  Labor. 

— BERNARD  CUSHMAN 

LABOR  STANDARDS,  Bureau  of  A  Bureau  of  the  U.S. 
Department  of  Labor,  organized  in  1934,  author- 
ized to  develop  desirable  labor  standards,  promote 
sound  labor  legislation,  develop  industrial  safety 
programs,  promote  Federal-State  cooperation,  and 
participate  in  international  labor  programs;  pro- 
motes public  support  for  the  employment  of  other- 
wise qualified  but  physically  handicapped  work- 
ers, and  performs  the  functions  of  the  Secretary  of 
Labor  under  the  Labor  Management  Relations  Act, 
1947,  pertaining  to  the  filing  of  organizational  and 
financial  data  by  labor  organizations.  Director: 
William  L.  Connolly. 

LABOR  STATISTICS,  Bureau  of.  A  Bureau  of  the  U.S. 
Department  of  Labor,  established  in  1884,  charged 
with  the  duty  of  acquiring  and  diffusing  informa- 
tion on  subjects  connected  with  labor.  Information 
is  issued  in  special  bulletins  and  in  the  Monthly 
Labor  Review.  Commissioner:  Ewan  Clague. 

LABRADOR.  A  dependency  of  Newfoundland,  oc- 
cupying the  most  easterly  portion  of  North  Amer- 
ica. Area:  110,000  square  miles.  Population  (1946 
est):  5,000.  Capital:  Battle  Harbour.  Fishing  is 
the  principal  industry.  Large  deposits  of  high- 
grade  iron  ore  exist  near  the  headwaters  of  the 
Grand  River. 

LACROSSE.  The  United  States  Intercollegiate  La- 
crosse Association  played  its  biggest  schedule  in 
history  in  1948,  after  adding  three  members  in 
Colgate,  the  University  of  Virginia,  and  Kenyan 
College.  The  Wingate  Memorial  trophy,  symbolic 
of  the  championship,  was  retained  by  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  and  the  titieholders'  captain, 
Brooke  TunstaU,  won  the  Jack  Turnbull  memorial 
plaque  as  the  year's  outstanding  player. 

A  feature  of  the  season  was  the  North-South  Ail- 
Star  game  at  Baltimore  in  June,  the  North  winning 
by  11-6.  The  United  States  open  champion  was 
Mount  Washington,  although  the  same  team  was 
the  victim  of  the  year's  biggest  upset  when  it  lost 
to  Army,  5-2. 

Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute's  team  toured 
England,  the  highlight  of  the  trip  coming  on  Au- 
gust 5  at  Wembley  when  the  United  States  ath- 
letes battled  to  a  5-5  tie  with  an  All-England  ten 
in  a  demonstration  game  in  the  Olympic  Stadium. 
•  Honors  in  the  women's  national  tournament 
were  won  by  Philadelphia. — THOMAS  V,  HANEY 

LAND  MANAGEMENT,  Bureau  of.  An  office  established 
in  the  United  States  Department  of  the  Interior  on 
July  16,  1946,  through  the  consolidation  of  the 
General  Land  Office  and  the  Grazing  Service,  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  President's 
Reorganization  Plan  III  of  1946. 

The  major  objective  of  the  Bureau  is  the  render- 
ing of  faster  and  better  service  in  the  handling  of 
problems  involving  the  land  and  resources  on  ap- 
proximately 778  million  acres  of  Federal  public 
domain  in  the  United  States  and  Alaska,  through 
the  maintenance  of  administrative  regions  with 
headquarters  in  Albuquerque,  N<  Mex.;  Billings, 
Mont,;  Portland,  Ore.;  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah;  San 
Francisco,  Calif.;  and  Anchorage^  Alaska. 

The  scope  of  the  Bureau's  responsibilities  in- 
cludes the  survey,  management,  and  disposal  of 
the  public  lands  and  the  resources  therein;  the  ad- 


ministration of  grazing  on  153,000,000  acres  of 
Federal  range  in  ten  western  States;  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  only  official  cadastral  engineering 
service;  the  adjuolication  of  all  claims  to  public 
lands;  the  issuance  of  land  patents;  and  the  main- 
tenance of  17  land  offices  in  the  western  part  of 
the  United  States  and  Alaska.  Director:  Marion 
Clawson. 

LAND  UTILIZATION,  Office  of.  The  Office  of  Land 
Utilization  is  charged,  under  Administrative  Order 
1466,  dated  Apr.  15,  1940,  with  the  responsibility 
of  coordinating  and  integrating  the  land  use  and 
land  management  activities  of  the  several  bureaus 
and  agencies  of  the  Department;  the  establishment 
and  development  of  sound  forestry  practices;  the 
general  administration  of  the  soil  and  moisture 
conservation  work;  the  maintenance  of  cooperative 
relations  with  Federal,  State,  and  private  agencies 
concerned  with  the  protection,  conservation,  and 
prudent  use  of  the  lands  and  natural  resources  of 
the  United  States  and  Alaska.  The  Office  of  Land 
Utilization  acts  in  a  staff  capacity  for  the  Water 
Resources  Subcommittee,  which  committee  is 
charged  with  coordinating  the  water-development 
programs  of  the  Department. 

The  Office  is  divided  into  four  branches:  the 
Branch  of  Forest  Management;  the  Branch  of  Soil 
and  Moisture  Conservation  and  Range  Manage- 
ment; the  Branch  of  Lands;  and  the  Branch  of 
Budget  and  Finance.  It  is  directed  by  Lee  Muck, 
Assistant  to  the  Secretary. 

The  Office  of  Land  Utilization,  since  its  creation 
in  1940,  has  proceeded  on  the  theory  that  the  ap- 
plication of  the  fundamental  principles  of  coordi- 
nation and  cooperation  in  the  field  of  natural  re- 
newable resource  management  can  be  effected 
without  overlapping  or  duplication  and  without 
interfering  with  the  administrative  authorities  of 
the  Bureaus  operating  in  the  various  functional 
fields.  It  has  earnestly  sought  to  promote  a  unifi- 
cation of  action  directed  towards  a  common  goal 
through  cooperative  efforts,  the  dissemination  of 
information,  and  the  rendering  of  efficient  advisory 
service.  The  procedures  established  in  this  con- 
nection were  fully  crystallized  during  the  year 
1948,  and  the  cooperative  principles  applied  were 
productive  of  highly  effective  results  in  the  field 
of  natural  resource  conservation. 

LATIN  AMERICAN  ART.  The  large  Pan  American  Ex- 
hibition held  in  Caracas,  Venezuela,  in  February, 
1948,  during  the  celebration  of  the  inauguration 
of  R6mulo  Gallegos  as  that  nation's  new  president, 
was  a  fitting  opening  of  the  year's  activities  in 
Latin  American  art.  The  Pan  American  Union  in 
Washington,  D.C.,  organized  the  show  with  the 
cooperation  of  New  York's  Museum  of  Modern  Art, 
from  whose  permanent  Latin  American  collection 
many  of  the  works  on  display  were  borrowed. 
Among  the  nations  represented  by  works  of  their 
foremost  artists  were  Brazil  with  Candido  Porti- 
nari;  Uruguay  with  Pedro  Figari  and  Joaquin 
Torres-Garcia;  Argentina  with  Aquiles  Badi,  Erni- 
lio  Pettoruti,  and  Raquel  Forner;  Chile  with  Israel 
Roa  and  Roberto  Matta;  Ecuador  with  Eduardo 
Kingman;  Colombia  with  Luis  Alberto  Acuna  and 
Gonzalo  Ariza;  and  the  United  States  with  Barrel 
Austin,  Stuart  Davis,  Robert  Motherwell,  and  Ar- 
thur Osver, 

Other  artists  and  countries  represented  were 
Carlos  Merida  of  Guatemala-  Rodrigo  Penalba  of 
Nicaragua;  Jaime  Colson  of  the  Dominican  Repub- 
lic; Cundo  Bermudez,  Mario  Carreno,  Amelia 
Pelaez,  Felipe  Orlando^  and  Martinez-Pedro  of 


LATIN  AMERICAN  ART 


301 


JUT/AT  AMERICAN  ART 


Cuba;  Gabriel  Alix,  Philome  Obin,  and  Louverture 
Poisson  of  Haiti;  while  Mexico  was  represented  by 
Jose*  Clemente  Orozco,  Diego  Rivera,  Rufino  Ta- 
mayo,  and,  among  her  younger  artists,  Raul  An- 
guiano  and  Chavez  Morado.  Venezuelan  painters 
whose  works  were  included  were  Armando  Reve- 
r6n,  Hector  Poleo,  and  Alejandro  Otero.  At  the 
same  time  that  the  above-mentioned  exhibition 
was  being  held  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  arts  in  Ca- 
racas, a  Venezuelan  exhibit  entitled  "Three  Cen- 
turies of  Venezuelan  Painting"  was  being  shown 
in  another  wing  of  the  same  building. 

By  taking  such  steps  as  sending  her  young  artists 
abroad  to  study,  and  promoting  exhibits  of  their 
work  at  home,  Venezuela  has  in  recent  years  not 
only  become  very  active  but  also  achieved  a  new 
significance  in  the  field  of  art.  One  of  the  most 
important  and  fruitful  measures  taken  by  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Venezuela  in  encouraging  the  nation's 
artists  was  the  organization  of  the  Taller  Libre  de 
Pintura;  a  center  where  young  artists  might  work 
unhindered  and  develop  their  talents  in  freedom 
from  strict  academic  guidance.  In  September,  just 
three  months  after  the  center  was  founded,  some 
of  the  work  produced  by  its  members  was  exhib- 
ited, giving  public  recognition  to  the  artists  Mario 
Abreu,  Luis  Guevara,  Rafael  Rivero,  Mateo  Ma- 
naure,  and  others  representing  the  most  progres- 
sive trends  in  art. 

Of  special  significance  in  art  circles  in  Argentina, 
one  of  the  most  active  nations  in  the  field  of  Latin 
American  art,  was  the  Thirty-Eighth  National  Sa- 
lon of  Fine  Arts,  which  awarded  its  first  prize  to 
the  well-known  painter  J.  C.  Castagnino,  and  its 
second  to  Luis  Borraro.  Examples  of  the  work  of 
Castagnino,  as  well  as  that  of  Hector  Basaldua, 
Norah  Borges,  Raquel  Forner,  Raul  Soldi,  and  De- 
metrio  Urruchua,  appeared  in  an  exhibit,  of  "Wa- 
tercolors  and  Drawings  by  Argentine  Artists/'  cir- 
culated throughout  the  United  States  by  the  Pan 
American  Union.  This  show  was  on  display  in  the 
Pan  American  Union  in  June.  Also  during  1948, 
the  Museo  Provincial  "Rosa  Galisteo  de  Rodriguez" 
in  Santa  Fe,  one  of  the  most  prominent  art  mu- 
seums in  the  interior  of  Argentina,  held  its  Twenty- 
fifth  Annual  Salon  and  awarded  the  first  prize  for 
painting  to  Eugenio  Daneri;  for  sculpture  to  Nico- 
las de  San  Luis. 

The  Eleventh  Salon  of  Plastic  Arts  in  Uruguay 
gave  its  first  three  prizes  to  Eduardo  Amezaga, 
Carmelo  Arzadum,  and  Edgardo  Ribeiro,  all  of 
whom  are  significant  figures  in  Uruguayan  art. 
Artists  of  both  Uruguay  and  Argentina  were  repre- 
sented in  the  exhibition  "100  Years  of  Art  of  the 
Rio  Plata"  which  was  held  early  in  the  year  at 
the  Municipal  Museum  of  Buenos  Aires. 

In  Panama,  the  work  of  a  young  revolutionary 
group,  among  whom  are  Victor  Garibaldi,  Jorge 
Castillo,  Rafael  Perez  Molina,  and  Gloria  Cohen  de 
Perez,  has  this  year  brought  that  country  into 
prominence  in  the  field  of  modern  art  for  the  first 
time.  The  same  group,  which  works  under  the 
tutelage  of  Ricardo  J.  Bermudez,  Professor  of  Ar- 
chitecture at  the  University  of  Panama,  held  an 
exhibit  in  May  at  the  university.  Nonobjective  in 
nature,  the  show  resulted  in  much  controversial 
discussion  in  the  capital. 

The  Casa  de  la  Cultura  Ecuatoriana  in  Quito, 
Ecuador,  organized  an  exhibit  which  was  held  in 
November  in  the  National  School  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Mexico  City.  The  show  featured  prominent  Ecua* 
dorean  artists  including  Oswaldo  Guayasamin,  Ed- 
uardo Kingman,  Di6genes  Paredes,  Leonardo  Te- 
jada,  and  others. 

The  Haitian  Art  Center  opened  in  New  York  in 


October  with  an  exhibit  of  a  new  group  of  primi- 
tive paintings  brought  from  Haiti.  The  show  was 
presented  the  following  month  at  American  Uni- 
versity in  Washington,  D.C,  The  new  Center, 
which  will  publicize  Haitian  primitive  painting, 
is  a  branch  of  the  institution  of  the  same  name  in 
Port-au-Prince. 

Candido  Portinari,  one  of  Brazil's  foremost  ar- 
tists, completed  his  mural  entitled  The  First  Mass 
for  a  new  building  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  designed  by 
Oscar  Neimeyer,  who  recently  served  as  consultant 
on  the  plans  for  the  United  Nations  building  in 
New  York.  Lithuanian-born  Lasar  Segall,  who  is 
a  Brazilian  citizen  and  one  of  his  adopted  coun- 
try's most  famous  modern  painters,  held  his  first 
one-man  show  in  the  United  States  this  year,  at 
which  time  were  shown  the  most  outstanding  works 
he  has  completed  in  the  last  twenty  years.  Segall 
presented  his  paintings  in  the  Associated  American 
Artists  Galleries  in  New  York  and  in  the  Pan 
American  Union  before  going  to  Europe  where 
he  expects  to  hold  several  exhibitions  in  1949. 

The  most  controversial  issue  to  arise  in  Latin 
American  art  circles  in  1948  was  that  produced  by 
the  Diego  Rivera  mural  in  Mexico  City's  new  Ho- 
tel del  Prado.  Completed  at  the  end  of  1947,  this 
painting  with  its  sentence  "God  does  not  exist," 
has  been  the  cause  of  violent  discussion,  and  the 
Archbishop  of  Mexico  refused  to  give  the  hotel 
his  official  blessing.  The  controversy  spread 
throughout  this  hemisphere  and  culminated  in  a 
ruling  by  the  Department  of  National  Property  of 
the  Republic  of  Mexico  to  the  effect  that  the  paint- 
ing in  question  could  be  neither  altered  nor  re- 
moved since  all  Mexican  murals,  whether  in  official 
or  private  buildings,  are  the  property  of  the  State. 

Jos6  Clemente  Orozco,  master  of  modern  Mexi- 
can art,  undertook  for  the  first  time  a  work  of  ab- 
stract form  when  he  did  a  mural  in  cement  in  the 
open-air  amphitheater  of  the  Normal  School  in 
Mexico  City.  For  this  mural,  which  he  completed 
by  the  middle  of  the  year,  he  used  ethyl-silicate 
as  a  plastic  substance,  adding  glass  fragments  to 
catch  the  reflection  of  natural  light,  Earlier  in  the 
year  Orozco  executed  a  mural  for  the  National 
Museum  of  Chapultepec,  in  honor  of  Benito  Ju4- 
rez,  Mexican  hero  and  statesman. 

The  work  of  another  outstanding  artist  of  Mexi- 
co, Rufino  Tamayo,  appeared  this  year  in  an  ex- 
hibition in  the  Palace  of  Fine  Arts  in  Mexico  City. 
For  a  long  time  Tamayo  has  been  held  in  a  posi- 
tion of  prominence  in  the  United  States,  but  the 
aforementioned  exhibition  was  the  first  official  rec- 
ognition Mexico  has  given  the  importance  of  his 
work  in  that  nation's  art  of  today. 

In  November  of  1948  an  exhibit  entitled  "Three 
Contemporary  Mexican  Painters"  was  presented  in 
the  Dallas  Museum  of  Art.  This  exhibit  was  or- 
ganized by  the  Gallery  Mont-Orendain  of  Mexico 
and  featured  the  work  of  Diego  Rivera,  Rufino 
Tamayo,  and  David  Alfaro  Siqueiros. 

Newly  formed  in  Havana  is  the  APEC.(Agru- 
pacion  de  Pintores  y  Escultores  Cubanos)  whose 
members  include  some  of  the  most  outstanding  fig- 
ures in  the  plastic  arts  of  Cuba:  Wifredo  Lam, 
Amelia  Peldez,  Mario  Carreno,  Fidelio  Ponce,  Car- 
los Enriquez,  Cundo  Bermudez,  Mariano,  Felipe 
Orlando,  Rene  Portocarrero,  and  Roberto  Diago 
among  the  painters;  Alfredo  Lozano,  Roberto  Es- 
topinan,  and  Marta  Arjona  among  the  sculptors. 
The  new  organization  plans  to  get  official  and  pub- 
lic recognition  of  the  work  done  by  its  members, 
who  for  a  long  time  have  enjoyed  prestige  abroad 
but  who  have  not  yet  received  any  support  ftottl 
their  own  government. 


LATIN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


302 


LATIN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Latin  American  activities  in  the  field  of  art  in 
1948  terminated  in  December  with  the  showing  in 
the  Pan  American  Union  of  a  large  exhibition  en- 
titled "Some  Religious  Paintings  of  Latin  Amer- 
ica/* With  the  loan  of  six  magnificent  paintings  of 
the  Cuzco  School  in  Peru,  of  the  17th  Century 
(belonging  to  the  Brooklyn  Museum),  of  two  ex- 
cellent examples  of  the  Mexican  School  of  the  18th 
century  (lent  by  the  Philadelphia  Museum  of  Art), 
of  two  very  valuable  works  of  the  Quito  School 
(lent  by  the  Ecuadorean  Embassy  in  Washington), 
and  of  other  beautiful  paintings  lent  by  private 
collectors,  this  exhibit  was  a  representative  show- 
ing of  the  various  trends  in  religious  art  from  the 
days  of  the  Conquest  to  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century  in  Ecuador,  Guatemala,  Mexico^  Peru,  and 
Venezuela.  — JOSE  GOMEZ  SICRE 

LATIN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  The  revised  edition  of 
Dudley  Fitts*  Anthology  of  Contemporary  Latin 
American  Poetry  makes  available  again  to  English- 
speaking  readers  a  comprehensive  and  indispensa- 
ble guide  to  recent  Latin  American  poetry,  with 
English  translations  facing  the  original  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  or  French.  Harriet  de  Onis*  The  Gold- 
en Land  is  an  anthology  of  Latin  American  folk- 
lore in  literature,  with  selections  from  44  writers 
and  four  centuries  of  literature  based  on  native 
themes. 

The  most  important  new  publishing  venture  in 
Latin  America  is  the  Biblioteca  Americana,  a  se- 
ries of  studies  published  by  the  Fondo  de  Cultura 
Econ6mica  in  Mexico  City,  whose  Goleccion  Tierra 
Firme  has  been  noted  in  previous  articles  in  the 
YEAB  BOOK.  The  first  five  volumes  o£  the  new  se- 
ries, which  will  be  devoted  to  classic  works  of  lit- 
erature, are  the  Popul  Voh;  Jos6  Couto's  Dialogo 
sobre  la  historia  de  la  pintura;  Ramon  Iglesias*  edi- 
tion of  Fernando  Colon's  Vida  del  Almirante  Don 
Cristdbal  Colon;  Lucio  Mancilla's  Una  excursidn 
a  los  indios  ranqueles;  and  Jos6  Joaquin  Olmedo's 
Poesias  completas. 

Argentina.  Among  the  outstanding  novels  of  the 
year  are  Guillermo  House's  El  ultimo  perro>  a 
novel  of  gaucho  life  that  has  been  compared  to 
the  classic  work  in  this  field,  Don  Segundo  Som- 
bra;  Arturo  Capdevila's  Advenimiento,  a  religious 
novel  laid  in  Chile;  Raul  Larra's  Gran  Chaco,  a 
novel  of  social  protest,  laid  in  the  semitropical 
north  of  Argentina;  Bernardo  Verbitsky's  En  esos 
anos9  a  skillful  portrayal  of  postwar  world  condi- 
tions,- El  -tinculo,  Los  Rembrandts,  La  rosa  de  Cer- 
nobbiOy  three  short  novels  by  Eduardo  Mallea,  one 
of  the  great  contemporary  Latin  American  novel- 
ists. Two  volumes  of  short  stones  are  worthy  of 
special  note:  Julio  Axamburu's  La  centella  de 
fuego,  graceful,  concise  stories  of  provincial  Me; 
and  Gabriel  Casaccia's  El  pozo,  tales  of  mystery 
and  emotion. 

A  distinguished  addition  to  the  available  works 
an  Domingo  Faustina  Sarmiento  (1811-88),  Ar- 
gentina's great  educator  and  president,  is  A  Sar- 
miento Anthology,  selected  and  edited  by  A.  W. 
Bunkley  and  published  by  the  Princeton  University- 
Press.  Escritores  iberoamericanos  de  1900  is  a  vol- 
ume of  reminiscences  on  Rub£n  Dario,  Amado 
Nervo,  Rufino  Blanco  Fombona,  and  other  famous 
literary  figures  of  the  period,  written  by  their  great 
contemporary,  Manuel  Ugarte.  Jose*  Luis  Lanuza's 
Morenada  is  a  volume  of  essays  and  sketches  about 
the  Negroes  of  Buenos  Aires.  Filosofia  de  ayer  y 
de  hoy  is  a  series  of  articles  on  thinkers  of  the  19tn 
and  20th  centuries  by  the  illustrious  Argentine  phi- 
losopher, Francisco  Romero.  Bernardo  Gonzalez 
Arrui's  Belgrano  is  a  definitive  biography  of  Manuel 


Belgrano,  one  of  the  leaders  of  Argentine  inde- 
pendence. 

Among  noteworthy  volumes  of  poetry  are  Maria 
Elena  Walsh's  Otono  imperdonable,  which  shows  a 
fresh  and  sure  poetic  imagination;  Miguel  Etche- 
barne's  Soliloquio,  a  tender  and  meditative  collec- 
tion of  sonnets;  Alfredo  Roggiano's  El  no  ilumi- 
nado,  sonnets  that  are  skillfully  though  somewhat 
rhetorically  fashioned;  Reginaldo  Martin  Zorrilla's 
En  mi  campina;  Jorge  Perrone's  Romances  de  la 
aldaba,  a  ballad  collection;  Juan  Ortiz's  El  dlamo  y 
el  viento,  delicate  lyrics  about  the  landscape  and 
people  of  the  province  of  Entre  Rios;  Tiempo  cau- 
tivo,  a  collection  of  poems  written  since  1928  by 
Rafael  Alberto  Arrieta,  a  major  poet  of  serene  and 
lyric  beauty. 

Bolivia.  La  poesta  quechua  is  a  survey  of  the 
poetry  of  the  Andean  Indians  by  Jesus  Lara,  the 
well-known  novelist  and  poet,  who  has  also  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  original  poems:  Pauccarwara, 
poemas  quechuas.  Noteworthy  also  are  two  vol- 
umes of  verse  by  Reinaldo  Lopez  Vidaurre:  La 
senda  perdida,  poemas  en  prosa,  and  Cumbres  de 
oro. 

Brazil.  Marvellous  Journey  is  an  enthusiastic  in- 
troduction to  four  centuries  of  Brazilian  literature 
by  Samuel  Putnam,  the  foremost  authority  on?  the 
subject  in  the  United  States.  Erico  Verissimo's  A 
volta  do  gata  preto  is  a  sprightly  account  of  the 
author's  two  year  residence  in  the  United  States 
as  guest  lecturer  on  Brazilian  literature  in  several 
colleges  and  universities.  Cassiano  Ricardo's  Um 
dia  depois  do  outro  is  a  collection  of  verse  filled 
with  music  and  mysticism.  Poemas,  sonetos  e  bala- 
das  is  written  by  Vinicius  de  Morals,  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  exponents  of  orthodoxy  in  modern 
Brazilian  poetry. 

Chi!e;  The  outstanding  novel  of  the  year  is  Marta 
Brunet's  Humo  hacia  el  sur,  the  dramatic  story  of 
a  domineering  woman's  losing  fight  against  prog- 
ress. Maria  Luisa  Bombal's  La  amortajaday  a  strik- 
ingly successful  impressionistic  novel,  appeared  in 
English  translation  as  The  Shrouded  Woman.  Alma 
y  cuerpo  de  Chile  is  a  group  of  essays  on  the  Chil- 
ean people  and  countryside  by  the  famous  novelist, 
Luis  Durand. 

Viajes  al  corazdn  de  Quevedo;  POT  las  costas  del 
mundo  are  collections  of  articles  on  travel  and  on 
Spanish  literature  by  Chile's  greatest  poet,  Pablo 
Neruda,  whose  Tercera  residencia,  the  third  part  of 
his  Residencia  en  la  tierra,  rounds  out  one  of  the 
major  works  of  20th  century  poetry.  Humberto 
Diaz  Casanueva's  La  estatua  de  sal  contains  four 
long  poems  of  unusual  merit  and  perfection  of 
form.  Arturo  Torres  Rioseco's  Elegias  are  deeply 
moving  lyrics  in  perfect  poetic  form  by  the  cele- 
brated Chilean  poet  who  teaches  Spanish  American 
literature  at  the  University  of  California.  The  death 
of  Vicente  Huidobro  removes  from  the  Chilean 
literary  scene  one  of  its  most  stimulating  and  ex- 
asperating avant-garde  poets. 

Colombia.  Ram6n  Manrique's  La  venturosa  is  a 
novel  of  colonial  times  and  local  customs.  Jesus 
Botero^Restrepo's  novel  Andagueda  is  based  on  the 
author's  experiences  among  the  Indians  of  this  re- 
gion. Manuel  Zapata  Olivella's  Tierra  mojada  is  a 
remarkable  first  novel,  tough  and  realistic  in  style, 
proletarian  in  point  of  view. 

Outstanding  in  prose  non-fiction  are  RubSn 
Dario  y  otros  poetasy  essays  by  the  distinguished 
poet^and  critic,  J.  B.  Jaramillo  Mesa;  Andres  Hoi- 
guin's  La  poesia  inconclusa  y  otrov  ensoyos,  essays 
on  Colombian  poets;  Aspectos  de  la  cultura  en 
Colombia,  essays  by  the  famous  literary  historian, 
Guillermo  Hernandez  de  Alba;  and  a  biography  of 


LATIN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


303 


LATIN  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Bolivar  by  Jorge  Ricardo  Vajarano  that  German 
Arciniegas  considers  the  best  book  of  the  year. 
Arciniegas  has  written  an  introduction  for  Octavio 
Quinones  Pardo's  Interpretation  de  la  poesia  popu- 
lar, a  stimulating  study  of  folk  poetry,  Miguel  Rash 
Isla's  Sonetos  contains  the  collected  poems  of  a 
deservedly  popular  poet. 

Costa  Rica.  Manglar  is  a  psychological  novel 
about  a  teacher  in  southern  Chile,  written  by  a 
Costa  Rican  resident  of  this  region,  Joaquin  Gu- 
tierrez. 

Cuba.  Two  noteworthy  volumes  of  short  stories 
are  Enrique  Labrador  Ruiz's  Carne  de  quimera, 
novelines  neblinosos,  8  vague,  surrealistic  stories, 
tinged  with  ironic  fantasy,  and  Cuentos  cubanos 
contempordneos,  a  collection  of  18  stories  with 
excellent  critical  notes  by  Jose  Antonio  Portuondp. 
Other  admirable  works  of  scholarship  are  Antonio 
Iraizoz's  edition  of  Enrique  Pineyro's  Notas  cri- 
ticas,  Felix  Lizaso's  edition  of  Jose  Martfs  Ideario 
separatista,  and  Chac6n  y  Calvo's  edition  of  Re- 
visiones  literarias,  studies  by  the  great  poet,  Jose 
Maria  Heredia. 

El  huracdn  is  a  study  of  pre-Columbian  symbo- 
lism by  Fernando  Ortiz,  Cuba's  outstanding  eth- 
nographer. The  novelist  Enrique  Serpa  has 
collected  a  group  of  his  political  essays  under  the 
title  Presencia  de  Espana.  A  volume  of  unusual  im- 
portance is  Cintio  Vitier's  Diez  poetas  cubanos,  a 
selection  from  the  work  of  ten  contemporary  Cu- 
ban poets. 

Dominican  Republic.  Cuentos  insulares  is  a  volume 
of  short  stories  with  social  themes  by  Max  Henri- 
quez  Urena.  Sets  cuentistas  dominicanos,  edited  by 
Miguel  Roman  Perez  Echavarria,  contains  stories 
by  Manuel  Cabral,  Socrates  Nolasco,  Vega  Batlle, 
Fabio  Fiallo,  Nestor  Caro,^  and  Ismael  Abreu.  His- 
toria  de  la  cultura  en  America  is  a  revised  and  ex- 
panded Spanish  version  of  Pedro  Henriquez 
Urena's  Literary  Currents  in  Hispanic  America. 
The  revision,  made  just  before  the  author's  death, 
is  a  landmark  in  the  field  of  Latin  American  lit- 
erary and  artistic  history. 

Ecuador.  An  unusually  promising  first  novel  of 
rural  life  is  El  exodo  de  Yangana,  by  Angel  Rojas, 
who  also  wrote  La  novela  ecuatoriana,  an  excellent 
critical  study.  Los  animales  puros  is  a  proletarian 
novel  by  the'  well-known  poet  and  dramatist,  Pedro 
Jorge  Vera.  Three  volumes  of  poetry  of  unusual 
merit  are  Gonzalez  Escudero's  Alta  noche,  C6sar 
Davila  Andrade's  Espacio,  me  lias  vencido,  and 
Hugo  Aleman's  De  ayer.  El  visitante  de  niebla  y 
otros  poemas  is  the  latest  work  by  Ecuador's  great- 
est poet,  Jorge  Carrera  Andrade. 

Guatemala.  A  well-balanced  and  much  needed 
anthology  of  Guatemalan  short  stories  is  Alfonso 
Orautes  Cuentos  de  Guatemala.  For  un  caminito 
asi,  a  collection  of  new  as  well  as  previously  pub- 
lished verse  by  Guatemala's  most  distinguished 
man  of  letters,  Rafael  Arevalo  Martinez,  contains 
introductory  essays  by  Arturo  Torres  Rioseco,  San- 
tiago Argiiello,  and  Gabriela  Mistral. 

Mexico.  Among  the  best  novels  of  the  year  are 
Maria  Luisa  Ocampo's  Bajo  el  fuego,  which  won 
the  Altamirano  Prize;  Donde  crecen  los  tepozanis, 
a  first  novel,  dealing  with.  Indian  witchcraft  by 
the  well-known  poet  and  dramatist,  Miguel  N. 
Lira;  Francisco  Rojas  Gonzalez's  Lola  Casanova, 
a  novel  of  adventure,  laid  in  a  Mexican  setting  of 
a  century  ago,  in  which  the  heroine,  captured  by 
Indians,  becomes  their  leader;  Diego  Canedo's  La 
noche  anuncia  el  dia,  a  fantastic  novel  involving  a 
thought-reading  machine  and  its  use  by  the  hero 
to  explore  the  minking  of  political  leaders. 

Also  Rafael  BernaTs  Su  nombre  era  muerte,  in 


which  a  misanthrope  forsakes  the  civilized  world  to 
find  adventure  in  the?  jungles  of  southwestern 
Mexico;  Agustin  Yanez's  Al  filo  del  agua,  an  ex- 
traordinarily good  novel  of  the  Mexican  Revolu- 
tion, laid  in  a  town  haunted  by  fear  and  desire. 
Cesar  Garizurieta's  El  diablo,  el  cura  y  otros  en- 
ganos  is  an  amusing  and  imaginative  collection  of 
tales.  Quetzalcoatl,  sueno  y  vigilia,  is  an  imagina- 
tive re-creation  of  the  legends  of  the  Mayan  god 
by  Ermilo  Abreu  Gomez,  one  of  Mexico's  most 
brilliant  intellectuals. 

Cien  anos  de  novela  mexicana  is  a  series  of  lec- 
tures on  the  novel  by  Mexico's  foremost  living 
novelist,  Mariano  Azuela.  Carlos  Gonzalez  Pena's 
Miranda  pasar  la  vida  contains  nostalgic  memories 
of  bygone  customs.  A  Idpiz  and  Grata  compania 
are  two  volumes  of  articles  by  Alfonso  Reyes,  the 
most  highly  respected  literary  critic  in  Spanish 
America. 

Three  additions  to  a  notable  literature  of  pub- 
lished plays  are  Xavier  Villaurrutia's  El  pobre 
barba  azul  and  Rodolfo  Usigli's  El  gesticulador 
and  Otra  primavera. 

Paraguay.  Carlos  Centurion's  Historia  de  las  le- 
tras  paraguayas,  torrw  I,  Epoca  precursora  y  epoca 
de  formation  is  a  reference  book  valuable  largely 
because  of  our  scant  knowledge  of  Paraguayan 
literature. 

Peru.  Jose  Galvez  has  written  a  nostalgic  account 
of  the  passing  glories  of  his  native  ^city  in  Una 
Lima  que  se  va.  Luis  Alberto  Sanchez's  Los  poetas 
de  la  colonia  y  de  la  revolution  is  a  reprint  of  the 
first  book  by  this  noted  literary  historian.  Minu- 
sculas  and  Adoracidn  contain  some  of  the  poetry  of 
Manuel  Gonzalez  Prada,  one  of  the  great  figures  in 
19th  century  Peruvian  literature. 

Salvador.  Trigueros  de  Le6n's  Labrando  en  ma- 
dera  is  a  series  of  subtle,  impressionistic  studies  of 
Spanish  American  poets.  The  Sonetos  of  Claudia 
Lars  are  delicate  creations  by  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous women  poets  of  Latin  America. 

Uruguay.  Two  novels  of  superior  literary  merit 
are  Francisco  Costa  Doldan's  Conjuncion  and  Ma- 
nuel Medina  Betancort's  Beatriz.  Felisberto  Her- 
nandez's Nadie  encenderd  las  Idmparas  is  a  volume 
of  fantastic,  fourth  dimensional  stories.  Hugo 
Barbagelata's  La  novela  y  el  cuento  en  Hispano 
America  is  an  informative  and  valid  study  of  Span- 
ish American  fiction. 

Noteworthy  volumes  of  poetry  are  Carlos  Denis 
Molina's  Tiempo  de  sueno;  Rafael  Romano's  Nace 
un  tiempo,  a  first  work  in  a  variety  of  styles, 
written  with  keen  sensibility;  Felipe  Novo's  Viento 
desnudo;  Julio  J.  Casal's  Cuaderno  de  otono,  a 
new  volume  by  an  outstanding  poet;  Las  sombras 
didfanas,  a  collection  of  sonnets  by  one  of  Uru- 
guay's greatest  poets,  Carlos  Sabat  Ercasty;  Ariel 
prisionero,  Ariel  liberado,  a  long  heroic  poem  by 
another  great  Uruguayan,  Sarah  Bollo. 

Venezuela.  Among  the  outstanding  novels  are 
Blanca  Rosa  Lopez's  En  aquellas  islas  del  Caribe, 
a  first  novel  bv  a  gifted  writer  of  short  stories;  Jos4 
Berti's  Espejismo  de  la  selva,  which  deals  with 
life  on  a  rubber  plantation;  Arturo  Uslar  Pietri's 
El  camino  de  El  Dorado,  which  won  the  Aristides 
Rojas  Prize  for  the  best  novel  of  the  year.  This 
work  is  a  fictional  life  of  the  Spanish  conquista- 
dor, Lope  de  Aguirre.  Another  life  of  Aguirre  is 
Casto  Fulgencio  L6pez's  Lope  de  Aguirre,  el 
Peregrino. 

The  field  of  biography  is  notably  rich^this  year 
in  Venezuela,  with  J.  A.  Cova's  San  Martin,  Anibal 
de  los  Andes  and  Mariano  Picon  Salas'  Miranda, 
which  was  one  of  the  leading  contenders  for  the 
Premio  Nacional  de  Literatura.  This  biennial  prize 


UTTER  DAY  SAINTS 


304 


LAW 


was  awarded  to  Mario  Briceno  Iragorri  for  his  El 
Regente  Heredia  o  la  piedad  h&roica.,  a  biography 
of  Jose  Francisco  Heredia,  one  of  the  forgotten 
heroes  of  Venezuelan  independence.  Another  book 
by  Briceno  Iragorri  is  El  caballo  de  Ledesma,  a 
collection  of  beautifully  conceived  and  written  es- 
says on  various  themes.  Carlos  Brandt's  En  el  pais 
de  Gomez  is  a  scathing  judgment  on  Juan  Vicente 
G6mez,  tyrannical  dictator  of  Venezuela  from  1908 
to  1935.  Andres  Eloy  Blanco's  Vargas,  el  Albacea 
de  la  Angustia  is  a  biography  of  a  leader  of  Vene- 
zuelan independence,  written  by  one  of  Vene- 
zuela's great  contemporary  poets. 

Enrique  Bernardo  Nunez's  La  ciudad  de  los 
techos  TO/OS,  a  series  of  sketches  of  Caracas,  was 
awarded  the  Premio  Municipal  de  Prosa  in  1947. 
Gilberto  Antolinez's  Hacia  el  indio  y  $u  mundo  is 
a  defense  of  Indian  America  as  opposed  to  the 
America  of  European  origin  and  influence.  R. 
Olivares  Figueroa's  Folklore  ven-ezolano  is  a  col- 
lection of  popular  verse  by  a  distinguished  poet 
and  critic.  Ramon  Gonzalez  Paredes*  Samuel  and 
Ellos  are  two  one-act  psychological  plays,  very 
modern  and  highly  stylized,  like  those  of  Piran- 
dello. 

In  the  Juegos  Florales  Iberoamericanos  held  in 
Mexico,  the  first  prize  was  won  by  Manuel  Felipe 
Bugeles  for  his  poem,  Iberoamerica.  The  Vene- 
zuelan Premio  Municipal  de  Poesia  went  to  Carlos 
Attgusto  Leon  for  his  Los  nombres  de  la  vida. 
Other  poetic  works  of  unusual  merit  were  Vicente 
Gerbassi's  Poemas,  Palmenes  Yarza's  Instancias, 
J,  A.  Escalona's  Soledad  invadida,  Pedro  Pablo 
Paredes'  Alabanza  de  la  ciudad,  Enrique  Castel- 
lanos"  Sinfonias  terrestres,  Jose  Ram6n  Medina's 
La  edad  de  la  esperanza,  and  Juan  Beroes'  Cantos 
para  el  abril  de  una  doncella. 

— DONALD  D,  WALSH 

LATTER  DAY  SAINTS.  A  religious  body,  commonly 
known  as  the  Mormon  Church,  organized  at  Fay- 
ette,  N.Y.,  on  Apr.  6,  1830,  by  Joseph  Smith,  The 
Bible,  the  Book  of  Mormon,  the  Doctrine  and  Cov- 
enants, and  the  Pearl  of  Great  Price,  are  regarded 
as  the  word  of  God. 

Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  latter  Day  Saints.  The 
largest  body  of  Mormons,  they  believe  in  the  same 
organization  that  existed  in  the  Primitive  Church, 
namely,  apostles,  prophets,  pastors,  teachers,  etc.; 
also  they  Believe  in  the  gift  of  tongues,  prophecy, 
revelation,  visions,  and  healing.  The  church  main- 
tains 8  temples  devoted  to  sacred  ordinances.  Be- 
sides the  Brigham  Young  University,  the  church 
has  14  collegiate  institutes  and  102  high  school 
seminaries.  Church  membership;  1,016,170,  pre- 
sided over  by  the  First  Presidency  of  the  Church. 

Administrative  affairs  and  the  performance  of  all 
church  ordinances  are  carried  on  by  the  Melchize- 
dek  Priesthood,  numbering  146,330,  assisted  by 
the  Aaronic  Priesthood,  numbering  135,313.  Priest- 
hood is  held  only  by  male  members.  Auxiliary  or- 
ganizations include  the  Relief  Society,  a  woman's 
organization  with  111,843  enrollment;  a  Sunday 
School  with  444,541  members;  a  Mutual  Improve- 
ment Association  for  young  people,  with  136,843 
members.  The  church  also  maintains  a  Genealogi- 
cal Society  and  a  Library,  The  church  is  divided 
into  units  termed  Stakes  and  Wards,  numbering 
172,  and  Missions  and  Branches,  numbering  42. 
Two  General  Conferences,  4  Stake  Conferences, 
and  1  Ward  Conference  are  held  each  year.  Head- 
quarters: 47  East  South  Temple  St.,  Salt  Lake  City, 
Utah. 

Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter  Day 
Saints.  Non-Mormon  division  of  the  Latter  Day 


Saints  Church,  after  the  death  of  Joseph  Smith,  Jr., 
established  1852.  Headquarters  now  at  Independ- 
ence, Mo.  In  the  United  States  there  are  633 
churches,  8,472  priests,  and  136,167  members. 
Converts  in  1947  totaled  3,489.  The  Church  main- 
tains 3  homes  for  the  aged  and  one  hospital. 
Church  property  is  valued  at  $10  million;  total 
income  from  members  (1948)  is  approximately 
$1  million.  Headquarters:  The  Auditorium,  Inde- 
pendence, Mo. 

LATVIA.  A  republic  in  the  Baltic,  occupied  by  the 
U.S.S.R.  and  incorporated  into  the  Soviet  Union, 
as  the  Latvian  Soviet  Socialist  Republic,  on  Aug.  3, 
1940.  The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  have 
not  recognized  Latvia's  entry  into  the  Soviet  Union. 
Area:  24,840  square  miles.  Population  (1940):  1,- 
950,000.  Chief  towns:  Riga  (capital),  393,211  in- 
habitants, Leipaja  (Libau)  57,098,  Daugavpils 
(Dvinsk)  45,160.  Budget  estimates  (1948):  reve- 
nue 1,455,100,000  rubles;  expenditure  1,443,200,- 
000  rubles.  The  important  agricultural  crops  are 
oats,  hay,  rye,  barley,  wheat,  flax,  and  sugar  beets. 

IAW.  This  review  is  limited  to  important  develop- 
ments during  the  judicial  year,  1948,  in  U.S.  Su- 
preme Court  decisions,  jurisprudence  and  practice. 
For  discussion  of  legislation  and  similar  topics,  the 
special  title  involved  should  be  consulted. 

Civil  Liberties.  In  these  troubled  times  the  pres- 
ervation of  our  basic  freedoms  and  the  protection 
of  the  individual  against  unwarranted  governmen- 
tal action,  both  Federal  and  State,  assume  an  ever 
increasing  importance.  Government  must  be  strong 
enough  to  further  the  legitimate  interests  of  the 
general  public  without  becoming  a  police  state 
and  destroying  our  democratic  tradition,  built  upon 
the  dignity  and  worth  of  the  individual. 

On  many  of  the  difficult  cases  that  reach  the 
Court  thoughtful  people,  just  as  the  Justices  them- 
selves, will  often  be  in  sharp  disagreement.  Fault 
may  be  found  with  one  or  more  decisions.  But  the 
Supreme  Court  has  long  stood  as  a  champion  of  the 
individual  against  arbitrary  and  oppressive  govern- 
mental action;  and  during  the  last  term  its  deci- 
sions dealing  with  civil  liberties  were  gratifying. 

The  Court  is  probably  more,  certainly  not  less, , 
responsive  to  the  ideals  of  civil  liberty  than  is  a 
representative  cross  section  of  the  people,  High- 
lighting its  current  efforts  are  its  decisions  in  aid  of 
racial  minorities  such  as  the  Negroes  and  Japanese. 
Restrictive  covenants  aimed  at  segregating  Ne- 
groes in  urban  areas  were  held  non- enforceable. 
The  background  of  the  restrictive  covenant  is  this. 

In  1917  the  Court  in  Buchanan  v.  Warley,  245 
U.S.  60,  invalidated  an  ordinance  of  Louisville, 
providing  that  Negroes  and  whites  should  not  live 
in  the  same  block,  partly  upon  the  basis  of  due 
process  of  law  and  partly  in  reliance  on  a  civil 
rights  statute  stating  that  all  citizens  of  the  United 
States  should  have  the  same  right  as  white  citizens 
to  purchase,  hold  and  convey  real  property.  Since, 
therefore,  racial  segregation  could  not  be  achieved 
by  a  municipal  ordinance,  a  group  of  property 
owners  often  resorted  to  the  use  of  restrictive  cov- 
enants whereby  they  agreed  that  certain  types  of 
persons,  usually  those  "not  of  the  Caucasian  race" 
may  not  purchase  or  occupy  the  restricted  prop- 
erty. 

The  legal  theory  in  support  of  such  restrictive 
covenants  was  that  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  re- 
stricts only  state  action  and  does  not  proscribe  pri- 
vate or  individual  discriminations.  Corrigan  v. 
Buckley,  271  U.S.  323  (1926),  supported  this 
view. 


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305 


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In  the  current  restrictive  covenant  cases  a  un- 
animous Court,  with  three  Justices  not  sitting,  held 
that  State  judicial  action  was  State  action  and 
hence  State  courts  could  not  enforce  covenants  ex- 
cluding Negroes  from  using  or  occupying  real 
property  by  virtue  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment, 
Shelley  v.  Kraemer,  68  S.  Ct.  836;  and,  although 
the  Fourteenth  Amendment  is  inapplicable  to  the 
District  of  Columbia,  a  Federal  court  for  that  dis- 
trict may  not  enforce  similar  restrictive  covenants 
since  these  are  contrary  to  the  public  policy  of  the 
United  States  and  also  are  prohibited  by  §  1  of  the 
Civil  Rights  Act  of  1866,  Kurd  v.  Hodge,  68  S. 
Ct.  847. 

By  this  reasoning  the  Court  avoided  overruling 
the  Corrigan  case,  and  paradoxically  restrictive 
covenants  remain  valid  but  judicially  non-enforce- 
able. Although  this  tenuous  distinction  may  cause 
future  troubles,  it  probably  has  no  great  legal  sig- 
nificance. Extra-legal  practices  on  the  part  of  real 
estate  brokers  in  making  sales,  of  mortagees  in  ex- 
tending credit,  and  of  property  owners  will  con- 
tinue, of  course,  to  work  a  practical  segregation  of 
Negroes  and  other  racial  minorities  in  city  areas 
until  the  climate  of  opinion  becomes  more  tolerant. 
See  Frank,  United  States  Supreme  Court,  16  U. 
Chi.  L.  Rev.  1,  25-26,  in  relation  to  Indianapolis; 
and  for  a  good  treatment  of  the  general  problem, 
McGovney,  Racial  Residential  Segregation  by  State 
Court  Enforcement  of  Restrictive  Agreements, 
Covenants  or  Conditions  in  Deeds  is  Unconstitu- 
tional 33  Calif.  L.  Rev.  5;  21  So.  Calif.  L.  Rev. 
358. 

And  slowly  the  Negro  is  gaining  admission  into 
academic  halls.  Although  States  are  still  permitted 
to  refuse  Negroes  admission  to  white  schools,  they 
are  gradually  being  forced  to  accord  equal  educa- 
tional opportunities  to  the  Negro.  Following 
Gaines  v.  Canada,  305  U.S.  337  (1938),  the  Court 
in  Sipvel  v.  Board  of  Regents,  68  S.  Ct.  299,  ruled 
that  when  a  properly  qualified  Negro  applied  for 
admission  to  the  University  of  Oklahoma  School  of 
Law,  which  was  the  only  institution  for  legal  edu- 
cation supported  and  maintained  by  Oklahoma  tax 
payers,  the  Negro  petitioner  "is  entitled  to  secure 
legal  education  afforded  by  a  State  institution.  .  .  . 
The  State  must  provide  it  for  her  in  conformity 
with  the  equal  protection  clause  of  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  and  provide  it  as  soon  as  it  does  for 
applicants  of  any  other  group." 

Oklahoma  thereupon  created  overnight  a  new 
law  school  for  Negroes  and  the  case  was  brought 
back  by  the  Negro  to  the  Supreme  Court  as  Fisher 
v.  Hurst,  68  S.  Ct.  389,  to  force  compliance  with  the 
Court's  mandate.  In  denying  this  request  the  Court 
stood  on  the  technical  ground  that  the  record  was 
inadequate  to  determine  the  sufficiency  of  the  new 
law  school.  Dissenting,  Mr.  Justice  Rutledge 
stated:  **  Obviously  no  separate  law  school  could 
be  established  elsewhere  overnight  capable  of 
giving  petitioner  a  legal  education  equal  to  that 
afforded  by  the  State's  long-established  and  well- 
known  State  university  law  school.  Nor  could  the 
necessary  time  be  taken  to  create  such  facilities, 
while  continuing  to  deny  them  to  petitioner,  with- 
out incurring  the  delay  which  would  continue  the 
discrimination  our  mandate  required  to  end  at 
once/* 

Discrimination  against  Japanese  was  thwarted 
in  two  cases  arising  under  California  statutes  and 
involving  the  right  of  persons  of  Japanese  origin 
to  own  land  and  to  engage  in  commercial  fishing. 
The  first,  Oyama  v.  California,  68  S.  Ct.  269,  in- 
volved California's  Alien  Land  Law.  This  law  pro-, 
hibits  an  alien,  ineligible  for  citizenship  (a  eu- 


phemism for  a  Japanese),  from  acquiring,  occupy- 
ing, or  transferring  agricultural  land;  escheats  land 
bought  in  violation  to  the  State;  and  provides  for 
escheat  if  transfers  are  made  with  "intent  to  pre- 
vent, evade,  or  avoid"  escheat  and  that  such  an 
intent  will  be  presumed  when  an  ineligible  alien 
paid  the  consideration  for  a  transfer. 

In  the  case  at  bar  title  to  the  land  had  been 
taken  in  the  name  of  the  minor  son,  an  American 
citizen;  the  father,  a  Japanese  ineligible  for  citizen- 
ship, had  provided  the  purchase  price,  and  man^ 
aged  the  property  as  the  guardian  of  his  son.  The 
Court  held  that  the  statute  was  unconstitutional  as 
applied  to  the  facts  of  the  case  because  it  deprived 
the  citizen-son  of  the  equal  protection-  of  the  State 
laws  and  of  his  privileges  as  an  American  citizen. 

Since  there  was  no  presumption  of  invalidity  if 
other  Americans  received  gifts  from  their  fathers, 
a  majority  held  that  a  different  set  of  presumptions 
could  not  be  applied  to  a  minority  group  of  citizens 
simply  because  their  parents  were  Japanese.  By 
sustaining  the  attack  upon  the  statutory  presump- 
tion the  Court  did  not  pass  upon  other  aspects  of 
the  Alien  Land  Law  and  avoided  overruling  Cock- 
rill  v.  California,  268  U.S.  258  (1925),  which  had 
upheld  the  statutory  presumption  of  the  Alien 
Land  Law  where  the  ineligible  alien  paid  for  land 
and  had  title  put  in  a  stranger's  name.  Thus  tech- 
nically California  might  have  continued  with  es- 
cheat actions  in  which  citizen-sons  were  not  in- 
volved, but  the  California  Attorney  General  chose 
not  to  do  so.  See  17  Civil  Liberties  Quarterly  1. 

On  the  basis  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment, 
Takahashi  v.  Fish  &  Game  Comn,  68  S,  Ct.  1138, 
forthrightly  ruled  that  California  may  not  bar  her 
foreign-born  Japanese  from  commercial  fishing  in 
offshore  waters,  and  hence  its  statute  providing 
that  fishing  licenses  may  not  be  issued  to  persons 
ineligible  to  citizenship  is  unconstitutional. 

Protection  accorded  an  alien  against  deportation 
is  a  most  valuable  personal  right,  for  in  the  words 
of  Mr.  Justice  Douglas  "Deportation  can  be  the 
equivalent  of  banishment  or  exile.  .  .  ,  The  stakes 
are  indeed  high  and  momentous  for  the  alien  who 
has  acquired  his  residence  here."  In  Delggdillo  v. 
Carmichael,  68  S,  Ct.  10,  in  which  this  statement 
was  made,  and  in  Fong  Haw  Tan  v.  Phelan,  68  S. 
Ct.  374,  the  Court  denied  deportation  by  construing 
the  immigration  statutes  in  favor  of  the^  alien:  re- 
jecting in  the  first  case  die  government's  captious 
interpretation  of  what  constitutes  "entry'^;  and  con- 
struing in  the  second  case  the  "repeater"  provision 
narrowly  so  as  to  affect  only  aliens  who  after  one 
conviction  subsequently  commit  a  second  crime,. 

On  the  other  hand  a  sharply  divided  Court  ruled 
that  the  President,  acting  under  the  Alien  Enemy 
Act  of  1798,  could  direct  the  removal  frpm  the 
United  States  of  all  alien  enemies  "who  shall  bs 
deemed  by  the  Attorney  General  to  be  dangerous 
to  the  public  peace  and  safety  of  the  United 
States/'  and  that  the  Attorney  General's  order  of 
Jan.  18,  1946,  for  the  deportation  of  a  German 
alien  was  not  subject  to  any  judicial  review  aside 
from  questions  of  statutory  interpretation  and  con- 
stitutionality. 

Mr.  Justice  Frankfurter  states  the  majority's  con- 
clusions thus:  **we  hold  that  full  responsibility  for 
5ie  just  exercise  of  this  great  power  may  validly 
be  left  where  the  Congress  has  constitutionally 
placed  it — on  the  President  of  the  United  States. 
The  Founders  in  their  wisdom  made  him  not  only 
the  Commander-in-Chief  but  also  the  guiding  or- 
gan in  the  conduct  of  our  foreign  affairs,  He  who 
was  entrusted  with  such  vast  powers  in  relation  to 
the  outside  world  was  also  entrusted  by  Congress, 


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306 


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almost  throughout  the  whole  life  of  the  nation, 
with  the  disposition  of  alien  enemies  during  a  state 
of  war.  Such  a  page  of  history  is  worth  more  than 
a  volume  of  rhetoric/* 

In  dissent  Mr.  Justice  Black  replied:  "But  I  do 
not  reach  the  question  of  power  to  deport  aliens 
of  countries  with  which  we  are  at  war  while  we 
are  at  war,  because  I  think  the  idea  that  we  are 
still  at  war  with  Germany  in  the  sense  contem- 
plated by  the  statute  controlling  here  is  a  pure  fic- 
tion. Furthermore,  I  think  there  is  no  act  of  Con- 
gress which  lends  the  slightest  basis  to  the  claim 
mat  after  hostilities  with  a  foreign  country  have 
ended  the  President  or  the  Attorney  General,  one 
or  both,  can  deport  aliens  without  a  fair  hearing 
reviewable  in  the  courts." 

And  Mr.  Justice  Douglas,  also  dissenting,  re- 
fused to  delimit  the  historic  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
to  "a  more  narrow  range  of  judicial  inquiry  here 
than  in  habeas  corpus  arising  out  of  any  other  de- 
portation proceeding."  Procedural  due  process  re- 
quires a  fair  hearing,  and  that  the  order  be  based 
upon  some  evidence.  "The  notion  that  the  discre- 
tion of  any  officer  of  government  can  override  due 
process  is  foreign  to  our  system."  Ludecke  v.  Wat- 
kins,  68  S.  Ct.  1429,  1435,  1436,  1441,  1442. 

At  the  preceding  term  a  divided  Court  sustained 
the  action  of  a  New  Jersey  board  of  education  in 
providing  the  same  free  bus  transportation  for  pa- 
rochial students  as  supplied  for  students  attending 
public  schools.  Everson  v.  Board  of  Education  of 
Etoing  Tp.,  330  U.S.  1,  discussed  in  last  year's  re- 
view. By  comparison,  at  this  term  the  Court  con- 
sidered and  held  invalid  the  introduction  of  reli- 
gious education  into  the  public  schools  of  Cham- 
paign, Illinois. 

Under  the  system  of  "released"  time,  sponsored 
by  the  Champaign  Council  on  Religious  Education, 
religious  training  was  offered  in  the  public  schools 
once  a  week  for  intervals  ranging  from  thirty  min- 
utes to  forty-five  minutes.  If  the  parent  desired  his 
children  to  attend  a  particular  religious  class  he  so 
indicated  and  attendance  by  his  children  was  then 
compulsory.  Children  of  parents  not  so  inclined 
were  kept  at  school  and  given  secular  education 
while  the  other  children  were  receiving  religious 
instruction. 

Mr.  Justice  Black,  who  spoke  for  the  majority  in 
the  Everson  case,  also  spoke  for  the  majority  in  the 
current  case*  "Pupils  compelled  by  law  to  go  to 
school  for  secular  education  are  released  in  part," 
he  stated,  "from  their  legal  duty  upon  the  condi- 
tion that  they  attend  the  religious  classes.  This  is 
beyond  all  question  a  utilization  of  the  tax-estab- 
lished and  tax-supported  public  school  system  to 
aid  religious  groups  to  spread  their  faith.  And  it 
falls  squarely  under  the  ban  of  the  First  Amend- 
ment (made  applicable  to  the  States  by  the  Four- 
teenth )  as  we  interpreted  it  in  Everson.  .  .  .  Here 
not  only  are  the  State's  tax-supported  public  school 
buildings  used  for  the  dissemination  of  religious 
doctrines.  The  State  also  affords  sectarian  groups 
an  invaluable  aid  in  that  it  helps  to  provide  pupils 
for  their  religious  classes  through  use  of  the  State's 
compulsory  public  school  machinery.  This  is  not 
separation  or  Church  and  State/* 

Justice  Reed,  dissenting,  felt  that  the  Champaign 
system  of  "released"  time  and  the  use  of  the  pubfic 
school  building  was  no  more  than  a  friendly  ges- 
ture between  Church  and  State.  Noting  the  in- 
direct financial  aid  given  to  parochial  schools  in  the 
Everson  case,  and  that  the  National  School  Lunch 
Act  aids  all  school  children  attending  tax  exempt 
schools,  he  further  noted  that  the  practices  of  the 
government  offer  examples  of  aid  to  religion. 


"The  Congress  of  the  United  States  has  a  chap- 
lain for  each  House  who  daily  invokes  divine  bless- 
ings and  guidance  for  the  proceedings.  The  armed 
forces  have  commissioned  chaplains  from  early 
days.  .  .  .  Under  the  Servicemen's  Readjustment 
Act  .  .  .  eligible  veterans  may  receive  training  at 
government  expense  for  the  ministry  in  denomi- 
national schools.  The  schools  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia have  opening  exercises  which  'include  a 
reading  from  the  Bible  without  note  or  comment, 
and  the  Lord's  Prayer/  In  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  and  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy, schools  fully  supported  and  completely  con- 
trolled by  the  Federal  government,  there  are  a 
number  of  religious  activities.  Chaplains  are  at- 
tached to  both  schools.  Attendance  at  church  serv- 
ices on  Sunday  is  compulsory  at  both  the  Military 
and  Naval  Academies.  .  .  .  both  schools  since 
their  earliest  beginnings  have  maintained  and  en- 
forced a  pattern  of  participation  in  formal  wor- 
ship." He  concluded  that  a  State  should  be  given 
great  leeway  in  dealing  with  its  important  social 
problems,  and  that  devotion  to  the  great  principle 
of  religious  liberty  should  not  lead  us  into  a  rigid 
Interpretation  of  the  constitutional  guarantee  that 
conflicts  with  accepted  habits  of  our  people.  Mc- 
Collum  v.  Board  of  Education,  68  S.  Ct.  461,  dis- 
cussed in  Owen,  The  McCollum  Case,  22  Temple 
L.  Q.  159;  Catholic  Bishop's  Statement,  N.Y.  Tri- 
bune, Nov.  21,  1948,  p.  36  (sharply  critical  of  the 
holding). 

A  decision,,  having  vast  political  significance  to 
labor  during  the  last  election,  ruled  that  labor 
unions  may  continue  to  use  union  newspapers  to 
advocate  a  desired  course  of  political  action.  For 
the  majority,  Justice  Reed  held  that  use  of  union 
funds  for  such  purpose  was  not  an  "expenditure" 
within  the  meaning  of  the  Federal  Corrupt  Prac- 
tices Act  as  amended  by  the  Taft-Hartley  Act. 
Four  Justices  concurring  in  the  result  interpreted 
the  statute  to  forbid  the  activity  but  held  the  stat- 
ute unconstitutional.  U.S.  v.  C.I.O.,  68  S.  Ct.  1349. 

In  the  field  of  criminal  prosecution  a  statute  de- 
nouncing conduct  as  criminal  must  not  invade  the 
defendant's  basic  rights,  such  as  freedom  of  speech, 
must  be  sufficiently  definite  to  apprise  the  defend- 
ant of  the  conduct  made  criminal,  must  prescribe 
the  penalty,  and  the  accused  must  be  convicted  of 
the  crime  charged.  Thus  a  penal  ordinance,  for- 
bidding the  use  of  sound  amplification  devices  ex- 
cept with  permission  of  the  chief  of  police,  invades 
the  basic  right  of  freedom  of  speech.  "We  hold 
that  [the]  .  .  .  ordinance  is  unconstitutional  on 
its  face,"  said  Mr.  Justice  Douglas,  "for  it  estab- 
lishes a  previous  restraint  on  the  right  of  free 
speech.  ...  To  use  a  loud-speaker  or  amplifier 
one  has  to  get  a  permit  from  the  Chief  of  Police. 
There  are  no  standards  prescribed  for  the  exercise 
of  his  discretion.  The  statute  is  not  narrowly  drawn 
to  regulate  the  hours  or  places  of  use  of  loud- 
speakers, or  the  volume  of  sound.  .  .  .  Any  abuses 
which  loud-speakers  create  can  be  controlled  by 
narrowly  drawn  statutes.  .  *  .  The  power  of  cen- 
sorship inherent  in  this  type  of  ordinance  reveals 
its  vice.  Courts  must  balance  the  various  commu- 
nity interests  in  passing  on  the  constitutionality  of 
local  regulations  of  the  character  involved  here. 
But  in  that  process  they  should  be  mindful  to  keep 
the  freedoms  of  the  First  Amendment  in  a  pre- 
ferred position."  Saia  c.  New  York,  68  S.  Ct.  1148. 
New  York  Penal  Law  §  1141,  as  interpreted  by  the 
State  Court  of  Appeals,  made  criminal  the  distri- 
bution of  a  book,  magazine,  or  newspaper  princi- 
pally made  up  of  criminal  news  of  bloodshed  and 
lust  so  "as  to  become  vehicles  for  inciting  violent 


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and  depraved  crimes  against  the  person,"  In  re- 
versing the  conviction  of  a  bookdealer  because  the 
statute  was  too  vague,  the  Supreme  Court  held  that 
a  "failure  of  a  statute  limiting  freedom  of  expres- 
sion to  give  fair  notice  of  what  acts  wiU  be  pun- 
ished and  such  a  statute's  inclusion  of  prohibitions 
against  expressions,  protected  by  the  principles  of 
the  First  Amendment,  violates  an  accused's  rights 
under  procedural  due  process  and  freedom  of 
speech  or  press."  Winters  v.  New  York,  68  S.  665, 
(  667.  Even  though  the  statute  define  the  proscribed 
act  with  sufficient  definiteness,  failure  to  prescribe 
the  penalty  for  violation  results  in  a  dismissal  of 
the  criminal  proceeding.  U.S.  v.  Evans,  68  S.  Ct 
634.  And  an  accused  is  denied  procedural  due 
process  where  his  conviction  is  not  based  upon  the 
crime  charged.  Cole  v.  Arkansas,  68  S.  Ct.  514. 

In  Michigan  a  trial  judge  may  serve  as  a  one- 
man  grand  }ury  to  investigate  crimes,  and  may 
punish^for  contempt  a  witness  who  testifies  "eva- 
sively/' Such  a  one-man-judge  grand  jury,  conclud- 
ing a  witness  was  evasive,  immediately  charged 
the  witness  with  contempt,  convicted,  and  sen- 
tenced him  to  sixty  days  in  jail.  Very  properly  the 
Supreme  Court  held  die  contempt  proceeding  to 
be  a  denial  of  procedural  due  process. 

Mr.  Justice  Black  traces  this  nation's  accepted 
practice  of  guaranteeing  a  public  trial  to  an  ac- 
cused back  to  a  long  time  before  the  settlement 
of  our  land.  "The  traditional  Anglo-American  dis- 
trust for  secret  trials  has  been  variously  ascribed 
to  the  notorious  use  of  this  practice  by  the  Spanish 
Inquisition,  to  the  excesses  of  the  English  Court  of 
Star  Chamber,  and  to  the  French  monarchy's  abuse 
of  the  lettre  de  cachet.  All  of  these  institutions  ob- 
viously symbolized  a  menace  to  liberty."  In  re 
Oliver,  68  S.  Ct.  499. 

On  the  right  of  a  defendant  in  a  Federal  crimi- 
nal proceeding  to  have  counsel,  unless  the  right 
is  intelligently  waived  by  the  accused,  the  Court 
has  set  a  high  standard  of  which  we  may  justly 
be  proud.  "The  Sixth  Amendment  guarantees  that 
an  accused,  unable  to  hire  a  lawyer,  shall  be  pro- 
vided with  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  de- 
fense in  all  criminal  prosecutions  in  the  Federal 
courts."  And  it  "is  the  solemn  duty  of  a  Federal 
judge  before  whom  a  defendant  appears  without 
counsel  to  make  a  thorough  inquiry  and  to  take 
all  steps  necessary  to  insure  the  fullest  protection 
of  this  constitutional  right  at  every  stage  of  the 
proceedings.  ...  To  discharge  this  duty  properly 
in  light  of  the  strong  presumption  against  waiver 
of  the  constitutional  right  to  counsel,  a  judge  must 
investigate  as  long  and  as  thoroughly  as  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  before  him  demand/*  Von 
Moltke  v.  Gillies,  68  S.  Ct.  316  (reversing  a  judg- 
ment dismissing  a  petition  for  habeas  corpus  and 
remanding  the  case  for  further  proceedings  to  de- 
termine definitely  whether  petitioner  had  under- 
standingly  waived  her  constitutional  right).  Re- 
grettably, the  Court  holds  that  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  does  not  require  the  same  civilized 
standard. 

Over  the  dissent  of  Justices  Douglas,  Black, 
Murphy,  and  Rutledge,  tie  Court  reaffirmed  pre- 
ceding doctrine  in  the  following  language:  'The 
due  process  clause  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment 
does  not  incorporate,  as  such,  the  specific  guaran- 
tees found  in  the  Sixth  Amendment  although  a 
denial  by  a  State  of  rights  or  privileges  specifically 
embodied  in  that  and  others  of  the  first  eight 
amendments  may,  in  certain  circumstances,  or  in 
connection  with  other  elements,  operate,  in  a  given 
case,  to  deprive  a  litigant  of  due  process  of  law  in 
violation  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment.  .  .  .  As- 


307  LAW 

serted  denial  [of  counsel]  is  to  be  tested  by  an 
appraisal  of  the  totality  of  facts  in  a  given  case/' 
Bute  v.  Illinois,  68  S.  Ct,  763,  777  (holding  coun- 
sel was  not  necessary);  Gryger  v.  Burke,  68  S.  Ct. 
1256  (similar);  but  Townsend  v.  Burke,  68  S.  Ct. 
1252  and  Wade  v.  Mayo,  68  S,  Ct.  1270,  held  the 
circumstances  required  counsel. 

In  the  matter  of  the  use  of  confessions,  the 
Court  is  usually  vigilant  in  protecting  the  rights 
of  the  accused.  Haley  t>.  Ohio,  68  S.  Ct.  302,  re- 
versed the  murder  conviction  of  a  fifteen  year  old 
Negro  boy  because  of  the  use  of  his  confession.  It 
had  been  obtained  after  five  hours  of  interrogation, 
starting  at  midnight,  by  police  officers  working  in 
relays,  without  any  warning  to  the  boy  of  his 
rights,  and  without  his  having  the  advice  of  friends, 
family,  or  counsel.  Accord,  Lee  v.  Mississippi,  68 
S.  Ct.  300  (reversing  a  conviction  of  a  seventeen 
year  old  Negro). 

On  the  closely  related  constitutional  privilege 
against  self-incrimination,  the  Court  held  the  privi- 
lege did  not  attach  to  books  and  records  required 
to  be  kept  by  licensed  dealers  under  the  Emer- 
gency Price  Control  Act,  on  the  theory  that  these 
records  are  public  and  designed  to  assist  in  the 
enforcement  as  well  as  the  administration  of  the 
statute. 

Justice  Jackson's  dissent  states  the  danger  of 
this  holding:  "The  protection  against  compulsory 
self-incrimination,  guaranteed  by  the  Fifth  Amend- 
ment, is  nullified  to  whatever  extent  this  Court 
holds  that  Congress  may  require  a  citizen  to  keep 
an  account  of  his  deeds  and  misdeeds  and  turn 
over  or  exhibit  the  record  on  demand  of  govern- 
ment inspectors,  who  then  can  use  it  to  convict 
him.  ...  It  would,  no  doubt,  simplify  enforce- 
ment of  all  criminal  laws  if  each  citizen  were  re- 
quired to  keep  a  diary  that  would  show  where  he 
was  at  all  times,  with  whom  he  was,  and  what  he 
was  up  to,  .  .  ,  we  should  have  no  hesitation  in 
holding  that  the  government  must  lose  some  cases 
rather  than  the  people  lose  their  immunities  from 
compulsory  self-incrimination."  Shapiro  v.  U.S., 
68  S.  Ct.  1375,  1410.  The  search  and  seizure  doc- 
trine of  Harris  v.  U.S.,  331  U.S.  145,  discussed  in 
last  year's  review,  has  been  restricted  and  its  dan- 
ger lessened  in  Johnson  v.  U.S.,  68  S.  Ct.  367,  17.S. 
t>.  DiRe,  68  S.  Ct.  222,  and  Trupiano  tx  U.S.,  68 
S.  Ct  1229.  In  the  last  case  Federal  agents  had  ex- 
tensive information  regarding  the  operation  of  an 
illicit  distillery  in  ample  time  to  procure  a  search 
warrant  before  making  the  raid,  and  the  Court, 
therefore,  held  that  the  fact  the  contraband  prop- 
erty seized  was  in  close  proximity  to  one  of  the 
arrested  operators  did  not  validate  the  search, 
without  warrant,  as  an  incident  to  the  arrest.  No 
reason  was  shown  why  the  arresting  officers  could 
not  have  obtained  a  search  warrant — "no  reason," 
said  the  Court,  "except  indifference  to  the  legal 
process  for  search  and  seizure  which  the  Consti- 
tution contemplated." 

The  validity  of  New  York's  special  or  "blue  rib- 
bon" jury,  upheld  in  Fay  v.  New  York,  67  S.  Ct. 
1613,  discussed  in  last  year's  review,  was  again 
unsuccessfully  challenged  on  the  ground  that  it 
violated  the  due  process  and  equal  protection 
clauses  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment.  Moore  t;. 
New  York,  68  S.  Ct.  705.  And  the  Court  has  stead- 
fastly adhered  to  its  position  that  convictions  of 
Negroes  cannot  stand,  where  Negroes  are  inten- 
tionally and  systematically  excluded  from  jury 
service.  Patton  v.  Mississippi,  68  S.  Ct.  184;  Brun- 
son  v.  North  Carolina,  68  S.  Ct.  634. 

War  Decisions.  Because  of  the  similarity  of  the 
Selective  Service  Acts  of  1940  and  1948,  cases  un- 


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308 


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der  the  former  Act  have  continuing  importance. 
Judicial  review  available  to  a  draft  registrant  is 
extremely  limited.  Thus  in  a  criminal  prosecution 
o£  a  conscientious  objector  for  being  absent  with- 
out leave  from  a  civilian  public  service  camp,  the 
defendant-registrant  is  entitled  to  have  the  issue 
of  improper  classification  submitted  to  the  jury 
only  where  the  court  determines  that  there  was  no 
basis  in  fact  for  the  draft  board's  classification,  and 
the  registrant  is  not  entitled  to  introduce  new  evi- 
dence as  to  his  status  as  a  minister  for  it  is  the 
board's  record  upon  which  the  registrant's  viola- 
tion of  orders  must  be  based.  Cox  v.  U.S.,  68  S.  Ct 
115.  Compare  the  very  narrow  scope  of  judicial 
review  open  to  an  enemy  alien  ordered  deported. 
Ludecke  v.  Watkins,  supra,  under  Civil  Liberties. 

To  keep  the  costs  of  the  last  war  within  reason- 
able limits  and  because  of  the  continuing  cold  war, 
the  power  of  the  Federal  government  to  recapture 
excessive  war  profits,  to  mobilize  industry,  and  to 
requisition  property  has  vast  significance. 

The  Renegotiation  Act  of  1942  gave  certain  of- 
ficials power  to  renegotiate  ^war  contracts,  and  to 
determine  "excessive  profits,"  subject  to  review  by 
the  Tax  Court.  Lichter  v.  U.S.,  68  S.  Ct.  1294, 
ruled  the  Act  constitutional,  and  that  the  Tax 
Court  had  exclusive  jurisdiction  to  review  the  ad- 
ministrative determination  of  "excessive  profits." 
Mr.  Justice  Burton  took  the  position  that  under  the 
constitutional  power  "To  raise  and  support  Ar- 
mies" Congress  could  have  conscripted  industry 
and  workmen,  just  as  it  did  in  drafting  men  into 
the  armed  forces  under  the  Selective  Service  Act. 

Congress  did  not  choose,  however,  to  mobilize 
the  productive  capacity  of  the  nation  into  a  gov- 
ernmental unit  on  the  totalitarian  model.  Instead, 
government  chose  to  contract  with  industry,  but 
ue  to  the  unprecedented  demand  for  war  materi- 
als, the  speed  with  which  contracts  had  to  be  con- 
summated, and  the  inability  of  the  contracting  par- 
ties to  determine  fair  compensation  in  advance,  the 
Renegotiation  Act  was  designed  to  permit  a  re- 
capture of  excessive  war  profits.  This  Congress 
might  constitutionally  do;  and  the  statutory  term 
"excessive  profits,"  in  its  context,  sufficiently  ex- 
pressed the  legislative  policy  so  that  the  delegation 
of  power  to  administrative  officials  was  constitu- 
tional. For  comparable  reasons  the  government 
could  requisition  meat  products  for  war  purposes 
at  QPA  prices,  and  the  Fifth  Amendment  did  not 
require  the  owner  to  be  compensated  on  the  basis 
of  replacement  costs.  U.S.  t?.  John  J.  Felin  6-  Co., 
68  S.  Ct.  1238  (construing  the  Emergency  Price 
Control  Act,  the  Second  War  Powers  Act,  and 
related  wartime  legislation).  With  equal  fairness 
Priebe  6  Sam  tx  17*$.,  68  S.  Ct  123,  ruled  that  a 
liquidated  damage  clause  in  a  war  contract,  in- 
serted to  compel  prompt  compliance  by  the  con- 
tractor, should  not  be  enforced  against  a  contractor 
who  delivered  when  the  government  made  de- 
mand, although  not  prepared  to  do  so  when  the 
government  had  a  contract  right  to  demand  de- 
livery. 

Under  the  Trading  With  the  Enemy  Act,  as 
amended  by  the  First  War  Powers  Act  of  1941, 
the  Alien  Property  Custodian  could  seize  shares  of 
stock,  in  a  domestic  corporation,  held  by  friendly 
aliens  as  pledgees  of  German  corporations.  But 
while  the  Alien  Property  Custodian  could  take  this 
property,  the  Court  was  careful  to  point  out  the 
Constitution  guarantees  to  friendly  aliens  the  right 
to  just  compensation  for  property  requisitioned, 
and  that  it  can  be  assumed  the  United  States  will 
meet  this  constitutional  obligation  and  hence 
friendly  aliens  will  be  compensated  for  any  prop- 


erty taken.  Silesian  American  Corp.  v.  Clark,  68 
S.  Ct  179.  The  same  statutes  were  construed  to 
give  the  Alien  Property  ^Custodian  the  right  to 
"pierce  the  corporate  veil/"  in  reaching  enemy  in- 
terests technically  held  by  friendly  alien  corpora- 
tions. Clark  v.  Uebersee  Finanz-Korporation,  A.  G., 
68  S.  Ct  174  (adopting  the  English  rule  estab- 
lished during  World  War  I  in  the  Daimler  case, 
(1916)  2  App.  Cas.  307). 

The  Congressional  war  power  does  not  end  with 
the  cessation  of  hostilities.  Nor  was  it  ended  by, 
the  Presidential  proclamation  terminating  hostili- 
ties on  Dec.  31,  1946,  even  though  this  proclama- 
tion inaugurated  "peace-in-fact"  The  deficit  in 
housing  was  in  considerable  measure  caused  by 
the  heavy  demobilization  of  veterans  and  by  the 
reduction  in  residential  construction  during  the 
war  due  to  the  allocation  of  building  materials  to 
military  projects.  Congress  could,  therefore,  con- 
stitutionally enact  the  Housing  and  Rent  Act  of 
1947.  Woods  v.  Cloyd  W.  Miller  Co.,  68  S.  Ct.  421. 
And  the  remedial  provisions  of  statutory  rent  con- 
trol were  strengthened  by  holding  that  the  one- 
year  statute  of  limitations  for  the  recovery  of  over- 
charges commenced  to  run  from  date  of  breach 
of  refund  order,  rather  than  from  the  date  of  each 
rental  collection,  Woods  v.  Stone,  68  S.  Ct  624; 
and  tiie  expiration  of  the  Emergency  Price  Control 
Act  on  June  30,  1947,  did  not  deprive  the  Emer- 
gency Court  of  Appeals  of  its  exclusive  jurisdiction 
to  review  OPA  rental  orders,  Woods  v.  Hills,  68  S. 
Ct  992. 

Business,  Transportation,,  and  Labor.  Probably  the 
Cement  Institute  decision,  68  S.  Ct.  793,  invalidat- 
ing industry's  use  of  the  basing  point  system  in 
fixing  prices,  is  the  most  important  current  victory 
by  government  in  its  war  on  monopoly  and  dis- 
criminatory prices.  The  Cement  Institute,  acting 
for  the  cement  industry,  worked  out  a  multiple 
basing  point  system  built  upon  the  theory  of  the 
single  basing  point  system,  "Pittsburgh  plus,"  used 
by  steel.  Under  "Pittsburgh  plus"  sales  of  steel 
were  made  only  at  delivered  prices,  and  the  deliv- 
ered price  of  steel  from  anywhere  in  the  United 
States  to  a  point  of  delivery  anywhere  in  the  United 
States  was  in  general  the  Pittsburgh  price  plus  the 
railroad  freight  rate  from  Pittsburgh  to  the  point  of 
delivery. 

For  example,  a  Chicago  steel  producer  would 
sell  his  steel  at  the  Pittsburgh  price  plus  the  rail- 
road freight  rate  from  Pittsburgh  to  the  point  of 
delivery,  and  his  purchasers  in  Chicago  were  thus 
required  to  pay  for  Chicago  produced  steel  the 
Pittsburgh  base  price  plus  what  it  would  have  cost 
to  ship  the  steel  by  rail  from  Pittsburgh  to  Chicago 
had  it  been  shipped.  The  theoretical  cost  of  this 
fictitious  shipment  became  known  as  "phantom 
freight." 

On  the  other  hand  a  Chicago  producer  selling 
steel  in  Pittsburgh  had  to  "absorb"  his  freight  costs. 
"Several  results,"  stated  Mr.  Justice  Black,  "obvi- 
ously flow  from  use  of  a  single  basing  point  system 
such  as  'Pittsburgh  plus'  originally  was.  One  is  that 
the  'delivered  prices'  of  all  producers  in  every  lo- 
cality where  deliveries  are  made  are  always  the 
same  regardless  of  the  producer's  different  freight 
costs.  Another  is  that  sales  made  by  a  non-base 
mill  for  delivery  at  different  localities  result  in  net 
receipts  to  the  seller  which  vary  in  amounts  equiv- 
alent to  the  'phantom  freight*  included  in,  or  the 
'freight  absorption'  taken  from  the  'delivered 
price.' " 

Due  to  bulk  and  a  tendency  to  deteriorate,  ce- 
ment is  consumed  within  a  relatively  small  distance 
from  its  point  of  production,  and  hence  the  princi- 


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309 


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pie  of  "Pittsburgh  plus"  was  modified  by  the  ce- 
ment industry,  which  worked  out  a  multiple  basing 
point  system  with  basing  points  scattered  about  the 
country.  But  the  effect  on  the  consumer  within 
any  one  of  the  basing-point  systems  established  by 
the  cement  industry  was  substantially  the  same  as 
under  "Pittsburgh  plus/' 

The  Court  affirmed  the  finding  of  the  FTC  that 
the  cement  industry's  use  of  its  multiple  basing 
point  price  system  was  an  unfair  method  of  com- 
petition under  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  Act 
and  an  unlawful  price  discrimination  under  the 
Clayton  Act;  and  rejected  the  contention  that  the 
FTC  is  deprived  of  jurisdiction  to  establish  a  vio- 
lation of  the  FTC  Act  because  the  same  conduct 
might  also  be  a  violation  of  the  Sherman  Act. 

A  second  FTC  victory,  the  Morton  Salt  case,  68 
S.  Ct.  822,  may  result  also  in  additional  widespread 
changes  in  pricing  methods.  The  Court  ruled  that 
the  Clayton  Act,  as  amended  by  the  Robinson- 
Patman  Act,  forbids  all  cost  discounts  which  the 
vendor  cannot  justify  as  reflecting  actual  cost  dif- 
ferences to  him,  even  though  there  is  no  theoreti- 
cal discrimination  since  the  quantity  price  discount 
is  available  to  all  customers  who  buy  in  sufficient 
amount.  Only  the  five  great  grocery  chain  stores 
could  and  did  buy  50,000  cases  of  salt  in  one  year, 
which  was  required  to  earn  the  cost  discount  in- 
volved in  this  case.  And  as  a  matter  of  procedure, 
exceedingly  important  in  this  type  of  case,  the 
Court  ruled  that  once  the  FTC  establishes  the  ex- 
istence of  quantity  price  discounts,  the  burden  of 
proof  shifts  to  the  company  to  show  that  the  differ- 
ential is  justified  by  its  actual  costs;  and  the  Com- 
mission need  find  only  that  there  is  a  "possibility" 
(as  distinguished  from  a  "probability")  that  com- 
petition will  be  injured  by  the  price  iscrimination. 

Students  have  long  recognized  that  patents  are 
susceptible  of  use  in  a  manner  violating  the  Sher- 
man Anti-Trust  Act.  A  patent  is,  of  course,  a  spe- 
cial kind  of  monopoly  granted  by  the  government 
to  the  patentee,  but  patentees  have  often  attempt- 
ed to  go  beyond  their  clear  legal  monopoly  and 
fix  prices  and  regiment  a  particular  industry. 

While  an  outright  sale  of  a  patented  article  put 
control  of  the  purchaser's  resale  price  beyond  the 
patentee's  power,  the  General  Electric  case,  272 
U.S.  476  (1926),  ruled  that  a  patentee  could  law- 
fully grant  a  license  to  make  and  vend  on  condi- 
tion that  the  licensee  in  its  sales  of  the  patented 
devices  conformed  to  the  patent-licensor's  sale 
price  schedule.  Although  four  Justices,  Black, 
Douglas,  Murphy,  and  Rutledge,  desired  to  over- 
rule the  GE  case,  a  majority  refused  to  do  so  but 
held,  however,  that  the  GE  decision  did  not  allow 
a  patentee  to  collaborate  with  another  patentee 
and  by  a  cross-licensing  system  fix  prices.  U.S.  u. 
Line  Material  Co.,  68  S.  Ct.  550. 

And  a  unanimous  Court  ruled  in  the  Gypsum 
case,  68  S.  Ct.  525,  that  the  GE  decision  "gives  no 
support  for  a  patentee,  acting  in  concert  with  all 
members  of  an  industry,  to  issue  substantially  iden- 
tical licenses  to  all  members  of  the  industry  under 
the  terms  of  which  the  industry  is  completely  regi- 
mented, the  production  of  competitive  unpatented 
products  suppressed,  a  class  of  distributors 
squeezed  put,  and  prices  on  unpatented  products 
stabilized."  Nor  could  a  salt  producer  owning  pat- 
ented machines  for  the  utilization  of  salt  products 
validly  lease  them  on  condition  that  the  lessees 
purchase  from  it  all  the  salt,  which  was  unpatent- 
ed, that  would  be  processed  in  the  machines.  In- 
ternational Bait  Co.  D.  U.S.,  68  S.  Ct  12. 

Three  cases  affecting  the  motion  picture  indus- 
try should  go  far  toward  breaking  up  monopolistic 


practices  if  the  district  courts,  to  which  the  cases 
were  remanded,  mould  their  decrees  realistically 
to  the  facts  and  theory  enunciated  by  the  Supreme 
Court.  In  the  Paramount  case,  68  S.  Ct.  915,  the 
defendants  fall  into  three  groups: 

(1)  Paramount,    Loew,    BXO,   Warner   Bros., 
Twentieth    Century-Fox,    which   produce   motion 
pictures,  and  their  respective  subsidiaries  or  affili- 
ates which  distribute  and  exhibit  films.  These  are 
the  five  major  defendants  or  exhibitor-defendants. 

(2)  Columbia  Pictures  and  Universal,  which 
produce,  and  their  subsidiaries  which  distribute 
films. 

(3)  United  Artists,  which  is  engaged  only  in 
the  distribution  of  motion  pictures.  The  first  group, 
or  the  five  "majors,"  own  or  control  approximately 
70  percent  of  the  first-run  theaters  in  cities  of  over 
100,000,  approximately  60  percent  of  the  first-run 
theaters  in  cities  of  25,000  to  100,000,  and  have 
interests  in  all  theaters  in  about  30  smaller  towns. 
No  film  is  sold  to  an  exhibitor  in  the  distribution 
of  motion  pictures;  instead,  the  right  to  exhibit 
under  copyright  is  licensed. 

Two  price-fixing  conspiracies  were  found  to  exist: 
a  horizontal  one  between  all  the  defendants  with- 
in the  rule  of  the  Gypsum  case;  and  a  vertical  one 
between  each  distributor-defendant,  and  its  li- 
censees. A  reasonable  "clearance"  (the  stipulated 
period  of  time  in  license  contracts  which  must 
elapse  between  runs  of  the  same  feature  within  a 
particular  area  or  in  specified  theaters)  remains 
permissible. 

Other  practices  such  as  pooling  and  division  of 
profits,  block  booking  (requiring  exhibitors  to  take 
a  group  of  pictures  or  none  at  all ) ,  and  the  grant- 
ing of  special  privileges  to  reasonably  large  inde- 
pendents that  were  denied  small  competitors  must 
stop.  In  determining  the  relief  to  be  granted  the 
United  States,  the  Court  held  it  would  uproot  es- 
tablished business  relationships  to  order  that  films 
be  sold  by  competitive  bidding,  and  would  give 
no  substantial  benefit  to  small  independents,  since 
the  majors  had  become  too  strong  for  price  compe- 
tition, and  the  task  of  supervising  such  a  decree 
was  impracticable. 

While  Mr.  Justice  Douglas's  opinion  indicates 
that  the  majors  should  be  required  to  divest  them- 
selves of  their  exhibiting  outlets  as  the  most  effi- 
cient answer  to  the  monopoly  presented,  the  case 
was  remanded  to  the  trial  court  for  findings  and 
conclusion  as  to  the  best  remedy  for  adoption.  On 
the  other  hand  Schine  Chain  Theaters,  68  S.  Ct. 
947,  established  that  a  divestiture  decree  was  an 
appropriate  means  of  breaking  up  a  monopoly 
established  by  a  parent  company  and  five  of  its 
wholly  owned  subsidiaries»  which  owned  or  con- 
trolled a  chain  of  approximately  148  motion  pic- 
ture theaters.  And  U.S.  v.  Griffith,  68  S.  Ct.  941, 
held  that  the  Sherman  Act  had  been  violated  by 
affiliated  theater  owners  which  used  their  circuit 
buying  power  to  obtain  films  under  master  agree- 
ments which  lumped  together  towns  in  which  there 
were  competing  theaters  with  towns  in  which 
there  was  no  such  competition,  and  which  obtained 
certain  exclusive  privileges  in  both  monopoly  and 
competitive  towns. 

While  the  Sherman  Act,  which  was  passed  in 
1890,  was  phrased  in  terms  of  "commerce"  and 
much  Federal  legislation  enacted .  during  the  last 
twelve  or  thirteen  years  has  been  framed  in  terms 
of  "affecting  commerce,"  the  Court  in  Mandeville 
Island  Farms  v.  American  Crystal  Sugar  Co.,  68  S. 
Ct  996,  merged  the  two  lines  of  theory  so  that  the 
Sherman  Act  Covers  restraints  of  trade  both  "in 
commerce"  and  "affecting  commerce."  Thus  an 


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310 


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agreement  of  California  sugar  refiners,  who  sell  in 
interstate  commerce,  to  pay  a  uniform  price  for 
sugar  beets  grown  in  California  violates  the  anti- 
trust act,  although  the  final  aim  of  the  refiners  was 
to  control  the  local  sugar  beet  market 

The  government,  though,  was  unsuccessful  in 
its  attempt  to  curb  the  expansion  of  U.S.  Steel.  In 
the  most  important  anti-trust  case  before  the  Court 
in  years,  the  United  States  had  sued  to  enjoin  U.S. 
Steel  and  its  subsidiaries  from  purchasing  Con- 
solidated Steel  Corporation,  the  largest  independ- 
ent steel  fabricator  on  the  West  coast.  During  the 
kst  war  the  government  developed  the  Geneva, 
Utah,  steel  plant  at  a  cost  approximating  $200  mil- 
lion. 

U.S.  Steel  was  the  wartime  operator  of  the  Ge- 
neva plant,  and  purchased  it  from  the  Surplus 
Property  Administrator  in  1946  for  the  sum  of  $47,- 
500,000,  after  the  Attorney- General  had  filed  an 
opinion  that  such  a  purchase  of  Geneva  did  not 
violate  the  anti-trust  laws.  Having  obtained  Ge- 
neva, U.S.  Steel  then  sought  to  purchase  Consoli- 
dated for  the  partial  use  of  its  Geneva  product. 

The  United  States  sought  to  establish  that  (1) 
the  acquisition  of  Consolidated  would  constitute  an 
illegal  restraint  of  interstate  commerce  because 
manufacturers  other  than  U.S.  Steel  would  be  ex- 
cluded from  supplying  Consolidated's  requirements 
of  rolled  steel  products,  and  because  competition 
now  existing  between  Consolidated  and  U.S.  Steel 
in  the  sale  of  fabricated  products  will  be  elimi- 
nated; and  (2)  the  acquisition  of  Consolidated, 
viewed  in  the  light  of  a  previous  series  of  acquisi- 
tions by  U.S.  Steel,  constitutes  an  attempt  to  mo- 
nopolize the  production  and  sale  of  fabricated  steel 
products  in  the  Consolidated  market.  For  the  ma- 
jority, Mr.  Justice  Reed  affirmed  the  trial  court  in 
finding  against  the  government.  The  dissent  of  four 
Justices,  represented  by  Douglas,  represents  the 
view  that  bigness  in  itself  is  a  phenomenon  at 
which  the  Sherman  Act  was  aimed,  and  that  to 
permit  further  growth  of  U.S.  Steel  violates  the 
anti- trust  Act.  "Approval  of  this  acquisition  .  .  . 
makes  dim  the  prospects  that  the  western  steel 
industry  will  be  free  from  the  control  of  the  eastern 
giants.  ,  .  .  United  States  Steel  has  one-third  of 
the  rolled  steel  production  of  the  entire  country. 
The  least  I  can  say  is  that  a  company  that  has  that 
tremendous  leverage  on  our  economy  is  big 
enough."  US.  v.  Columbia  Steel  Co.,  68  S.  Ct 
1107. 

In  the  field  of  transportation  the  commodities 
clause  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  prohibits  a 
railroad  from  transporting  any  commodity,  with 
some  exceptions,  which  it  owns  or  in  which  it  has 
an  interest,  except  for  its  own  use.  The  Elgin  case, 
298  U.S.  492  (1936),  held  that  this  prohibition 
did  not  prevent  a  railroad  from  transporting  com- 
modities of  a  corporation  whose  stock  is  wholly 
owned  by  a  holding  company  which  also  owns  all 
of  the  stock  of  the  railway,  unless  the  control  of 
the  railway  is  so  exercised  as  to  make  it  the  al- 
ter ego  of  the  holding  company.  The  Court,  four 
Justices  dissenting,  refused  to  depart  from  that  prec- 
edent on  the  ground  that  its  overruling  or  modifi- 
cation should  be  left  to  Congress.  U.S.  v.  South 
Buffalo  Railway  Co.,  68  S.  Ct.  868.  The  Transporta- 
tion Act  of  1940  vests  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  with  an  exclusive  jurisdiction  over, 
and  establishes  the  standards  for  approval  of,  a 
railroad  merger.  Hence  the  Commission  must  de- 
termine whether  a  plan  is  "just  and  reasonable"  in 
its  treatment  of  stockholders;  and  what  Michigan, 
the  incorporating  State  of  one  of  the  merging  rail- 
roads, might  give  dissenting  stockholders  on  liqui- 


dation is  irrelevant,  except  insofar  as  it  may  be 
reflected  in  current  values  for  which  they  are  en- 
titled to  an  equivalent.  Schwabacher  v.  U.S.,  68 
S.  Ct  958  (dealing  with  a  merger  of  the  Pere  Mar- 
quette,  a  Michigan  corporation,  and  the  Chesa- 
peake &  Ohio,  a  Virginia  corporation).  And  a 
railway  system,  consolidated  with  ICC  approval, 
cannot  be  required  by  a  state  to  establish  a  subsidi- 
ary as  a  condition  to  operating  therein.  Seaboard 
Air  Line  Railway  Co.  t;.  Daniel,  68  S.  Ct.  426. 

In  the  labor  field,  the  Bag  Ridge  case,  68  S.  Ct. 
1186,  may  have  consequences  similar  to  the  Mf. 
Clemens  portal-to-portal  pay  decision,  328  U.S. 
680  (1946),  that  necessitated  the  Portal-to-Portal 
Act  of  1947  to  undo  its  mischief.  In  Bay  Ridge, 
certain  dissident  longshoremen,  opposed  not  only 
by  their  employer  but  also  by  their  union,  sued  for 
compensation  alleged  to  be  due  under  the  Fair  La- 
bor Standards  Act.  The  Court,  five  to  three,  held 
they  were  entitled  to  time  and  one  half  for  over- 
time hours  in  addition  to  the  time  and  one  half 
the  day  rate  they  were  given  by  their  contract  for 
evening,  holiday,  and  weekend  work.  The  majority 
held  that  the  contract  time  and  one  half  was  not 
"overtime"  but  was  a  "night  differential,"  and 
hence  was  the  "regular  rate"  for  night  hours,  al- 
though this  fifty  percent  differential  is  two  or  three 
times  larger  than  any  "night  differential"  in  Amer- 
ican industry.  By  sustaining  the  employees^  de- 
mand for  "overtime  pyramided  on  overtime,"  the 
longshoremen  received  a  multimillion  dollar  wind- 
fall. For  discussion,  see  Farmer,  Overtime  on  Over- 
time, 34  Va.  L.  Rev.  745. 

Migratory  Divorces.  Construction  of  the  Consti- 
tution's Full  Faith  and  Credit  Clause  puts  the  Su- 
preme Court  very  much  in  the  domestic  relations 
field.  The  first  Williams  case,  317  U.S.  287  ( 1942), 
held  that  a  State,  Nevada,  could  grant  a  valid  di- 
vorce, provided  the  plaintiff  was  domiciled  therein, 
although  (1)  this  State  was  not  the  matrimonial 
domicile  and  (2)  the  defendant  spouse  in  Nortli 
Carolina  was  served  only  constructively  ( by  publi- 
cation) and  did  not  appear  in  the  Nevada  divorce 
action.  Such  an  "ex  parte"  divorce  was  entitled  to 
full  faith,  and  credit  in  a  North  Carolina  bigamy 
prosecution  of  the  divorce-plaintiff,  who  had  re- 
married. 

The  second  Williams  case,  325  U.S.  226  (1945), 
ruled,  however,  that  while  the  jurisdictional  finding 
of  domicile  by  the  Nevada  court  granting  the  "ex 
parte"  decree  is  entitled  to  prima  facie  weight,  it 
is  not  conclusive  in  a  sister  State,  and  North  Caro- 
lina might  relitigate  the  jurisdictional  issue  and 
find  that  the  plaintiff  was  not  in  fact  domiciled  in 
Nevada  and  hence  his  divorce  was  a  nullity. 

The  question  remained  as  to  the  validity  of 
"quickie  divorces,  granted  by  such  States  as  Ne- 
vada and  Florida,  when  the  defendant  spouse  ap- 
peared in  the  divorce  action — which  usually,  but 
not  always,  meant  that  both  spouses  desired  di- 
vorce, but  could  not  or  did  not  want  to  obtain  it 
at  home.  The  Court  has  now  partially  answered 
the  question.  Following  orthodox  doctrines  of  res 
judicata  established  in  other  areas  of  litigation,  the 
Court  has  ruled  that  where  the  defendant  spouse 
appears  in  the  divorce  proceeding  and  either  liti- 
gates the  issue  pf  the  plaintiff's  domicile,  or  coun- 
terclaims for  a  divorce,  any  decree  of  divorce  en- 
tered in  that  proceeding  is  entitled  to  full  faith  and 
credit  in  any  other  State,  at  least  in  litigation  be- 
tween the  spouses  and  those  in  privity  with  them. 
Sherrer  t?.  Sherrer,  68  S.  Ct.  1087  (involving  validity 
of  Florida  divorce  decree  in  Massachusetts),  Coe 
v.  Coe,  68  S.  Ct  1094  (involving  validity  of  Ne- 
vada divorce  decree  in  Massachusetts). 


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311 


Thus  "quickie"  Nevada  and  Florida  divorces, 
granted  in  proceedings  in  "contested"  cases  are 
valid  as  between  the  spouses.  Conceivably  a  State 
in  which  the  spouses  had  been  domiciled  prior  to 
one  of  them  removing  to  Florida  or  Nevada  may, 
in  a  criminal  prosecution  for  bigamy  or  some  re- 
lated crime,  still  attack  the  jurisdictional  findings 
of  the  Florida  or  Nevada  divorce  decree  rendered 
in  a  "contested"  case.  If  a  State,  such  as  North 
Carolina  is  not  in  privity  with  the  parties,  the 
"quickie"  divorce  decree  will  be  valid  for  most  but 
not  all  purposes.  This  possibility  receives  some  sup- 
port from  doctrine  currently  announced  that  a  di- 
vorce decree  is  divisible.  Thus  where  a  wife  was 
granted  a  separation  decree  and  awarded  alimony 
by  a  New  York  court  while  the  spouses  were  domi- 
ciled in  New  York,  and  thereafter  the  husband  re- 
moved to  and  became  domiciled  in  Nevada  and 
subsequently  obtained  a  default  decree  of  divorce 
based  on  constructive  service,  the  divorce  decree 
terminates  the  marriage  relation,  but  does  not  ter- 
minate the  duty  under  the  New  York  decree  to  pay 
alimony,  provided  a  support  order  can  survive  di- 
vorce in  New  York.  Estin  v.  Estin,  68  S.  Ct  1213 
(New  York  law  held  that  a  support  order  can 
survive  divorce,  and  hence  Nevada  court  not  hav- 
ing in  personam  jurisdiction  over  the  wife  could 
not  terminate  her  property  interests  in  the  New 
York  judgment),  Kreiger  v.  Kreiger,  68  S.  Ct  1221 
(similar). 

Jurisprudence,  Federal  Practice  and  Law  Reform. 
While  the  Court's  totality  of  judicial  work  declined 
slightly  during  the  last  Term,  division  in  the  Court 
remains  high  and  sharp.  At  the  last  (1947-1948) 
Term  the  Court  handed  down  119  majority  opin- 
ions disposing  of  155  cases  compared  to  143  opin- 
ions disposing  of  190  cases  at  the  preceding  ( 1946- 
47)  Term.  Of  the  119  opinions,  66  percent  in- 
volved dissenting  votes,  about  a  4  percent  increase 
in  dissents.  Twenty-four,  or  20  percent,  of  the  cases 
were  decided  by  the  narrow  margin  of  five  to  four, 
and  this  is  also  a  slight  percentage  increase. 

Chief  Justice  Vinson  and  Justice  Reed,  being  the 
most  infrequent  dissenters,  represent  the  core  of 
the  Court;  all  the  remaining  Justices  were  in  dis- 
sent far  more  frequently,  with  Justice  Douglas  the 
top  dissenter.  To  the  extent  that  a  general  charac- 
terization can  be  given  to  a  bloc,  Justices  Burton, 
Frankfurter,  and  Jackson  comprise  the  right,  and 
Justices  Black,  Douglas,  Murphy,  and  Rutledge  the 
left  wing.  16  L.W.  3383;  Frank,  The  United  States 
Supreme  Court,  16  U.  Chi.  L>  Rev.  1,  45.  For  re- 
lated discussion,  see  Braden,  Search  for  Objectivity 
in  Constitutional  Law,  57  Yale  L.  ].  571;  Bern- 
hardt,  Supreme  Court  Reversals  on  Constitutional 
Issues,  34  Corn.  L.  Q>  55. 

Professor  Frank  in  his  excellent  article,  supra, 
characterizes  the  Court's  recently  concluded  Term 
in  this  manner: 

"Like  America,  the  Supreme  Court  ?  did  not  go 
anywhere  very  definitely  in  1947-48."  Congress, 
on  the  other  nand,  definitely  did  go  forward,  by 
revising,  modifying,  and  enacting  as  positive  law 
Titles  18  and  28  of  the  United  States  Code,  which 
were  approved  by  the  President  on  June  25,  and 
became  effective  Sept  1,  1948.  Tide  18  deals  with 
Crimes  and  Criminal  Procedure,  Title  28  with  the 
Judiciary  and  Judicial  Procedure. 

Both  Titles  are  supplemented  by  Federal  proce^ 
dural  rules  promulgated  by  the  Supreme  Court  un- 
der its  statutory  rule-making  power — the  Criminal 
Rules,  Civil  Rules,  Copyright,  and  Admiralty^  Rules, 
and  General  Orders  in  Bankruptcy.  2  Moore's  Fed- 
eral Practice  (2nd  ed.)  fl.03.  The  revision  of 
Titles  18  and  28,  eliminated  obsolete  statutory  ma- 


terials; consolidated,  compressed,  and  clarified  the 
older  statutory  language,  and  particularly  in  re- 
gard to  Title  28  made  important  changes  in  civil 
practice  and  procedure,  without  altering  the  basic 
structure  of  the  Federal  judicial  system  or  its  juris- 
dictional basis.  See  Mans,  New  Federal  Judicial 
Code:  Enactment  by  80th  Congress  a  Notable 
Gain,  34  A.B.AJ.  863;  Galston,  An  Introduction 
to  the  New  Federal  Judicial  Code,  8  F.R.D.  201; 
Moore,  Statement  Before  House  Judiciary  Com- 
mittee, 1948  Code  Cong.  Serv.  1965.  Improvement 
and  clarification  in  a  work  of  this  magnitude  can 
undoubtedly  be  made,  and  the  Chief  Justice  has 
re-constituted  his  judicial  committee,  Judges  Maris, 
Galston,  and  Smith  to  study  the  matter.  To  make 
the  necessary  correlating  changes  to  revised  Titles 
18  and  28,  the  Court  amended  the  Federal  Crim- 
inal Rules  and  the  Federal  Civil  Rules  on  Dec.  27 
and  29,  1948.  It  did  not,  however,  promulgate  the 
Advisory  Committee's  proposed  Federal  rule  to 
govern  the  condemnation  of  property  under  the 
power  of  eminent  domain,  but  re-referred  the  mat- 
ter to  the  Committee  for  more  study,  particularly  as 
to  the  method  of  trial.  If  and  when  the  Court  pro- 
mulgates the  rule,  this  specialized  type  o£  civil  liti- 
gation will  receive  simple  treatment  within  the  gen- 
eral framework  of  the  Federal  Civil  Rules. 

— JAMES  WM.  MOOBE 

LEAD.  Consumption  of  lead  by  domestic  industry 
was  very  high  last  year,  which  caused  further  in- 
creases in  the  all-time-high  price  of  15  cents  per 
Ib.  for  common  lead  at  New  York  at  the  first  of  the 
year  to  21.50  cents  at  year  end.  Domestic  con- 
sumption of  primary  lead  was  approximately  700,- 
000  net  tons  (1947:  744,000  tons).  Consumption 
of  primary,  antimonial,  and  secondary  lead  was 
about  1,025,000  tons  (1947:  1,150,000  tons).  The 
heavy  domestic  consumption,  despite  strikes  here 
and  abroad,  was  at  the  expense  of  foreign  con- 
sumption that  has  remained  low  since  the  war. 

Domestic  mine  production  continued  at  a  high 
level  under  the  impetus  of  high  prices,  about  378,- 
000  tons  (1947:  384,216  tons),  despite  a  loss  of 
25,000  tons  due  to  a  strike  at  southeastern  Missouri 
properties  of  St.  Joseph  Lead  Co.  Missouri  contin- 
ued, nevertheless,  as  the  leading  producing  State. 

Recovery  of  secondary  lead  from  scrap  was  high, 
325,000  tons  in  the  first  eight  months  (year  1947: 
504,000  tons).  Scrap  was  very  scarce  and  compe- 
tition for  it  was  so  keen  that  the  price  approached 
that  of  primary  metal.  Consumers  were  buying 
secondary  lead  and  imports  at  gray  market  prices 
as  high  as  24  cents  per  Ib. 

Imports  of  lead  and  concentrates  were  very 
large,  stimulated  by  the  high  domestic  and  pre- 
mium prices.  By  the  end  of  November,  imports  were 
294,545  tons  (year  1947:  227,787  tons).  Refined 
lead  constituted  70  percent  of  the  tonnage,  largely 
from  Mexico  and  Canada,  with  smaller  tonnages 
from  Australia,  Peru  and  Italy.  Ore  and  matte  rep- 
resented 17  percent  of  the  imported  tonnage,  prin- 
cipally from  Bolivia  and  South  Africa.  The  tariff 
was  suspended  for  a  year  beginning  July  1. 

World  mine  production  of  lead  should  reach 
1,380,000  tons,  it  is  estimated  (1947,  revised: 
1,276,000  tons).  On  a  refinery  basis,  primary  lead 
production  by  principal  producing  nations  to  the 
end  of  November  was  as  follows:  Australia,  190,- 
500  tons;  Mexico,  184,211  tons;  Canada,  143,467 
tons.  Production  by  Mexico  and- Canada  was  sig- 
nificantly lower  than  in  1947,  but  Australia  showed 
only  a  small  decline.  However  most  of  the  smaller 
producing  nations  were  able  to  step  up  their  pro- 
duction significantly  in  1948. 


LEBANON 


312 


LIBERAL  PAKTY 


Shortages  o£  lead  in  the  domestic  market  during 
the  year  were  aggravated  by  strategic  stockpiling 
at  the  rate  of  about  1(3,000  tons  a  quarter. 

— JOHN  ANTHONY 

LEBANON.  An  Arab  republic  on  the  eastern  Medi- 
terranean. Area:  3,881  square  miles  including  the 
Lebanon  and  anti-Lebanon  mountain  ranges,  not 
more  than  1,000  square  miles  cultivated,  and  500 
more  cultivable.  Population:  over  1,187,000  with 
a  high  population  density.  Chief  cities:  Beirut 
(capital  and  principal  port)  over  350,000  inhabit- 
ants; Tripoli  (port)  72,000,  More  than  half  the 
population  are  Christians,  divided  into  several  sects 
with  Maronites  predominating.  Except  for  a  few 
Jews  the  rest  are  Moslems;  the  Sunnis  being  the 
largest  group  and  the  Shias  next. 

Education.  In  1946-47  there  were  623  primary 
and  secondary  public  schools  with  52,400  pupils 
and  326  private  schools  with  some  43,000  pupils. 
Outstanding  among  the  latter  (which  include  many 
foreign  schools)  axe  the  non-sectarian  American 
University  of  Beirut  and  the  Universite  Saint  Jo- 
seph (French  Jesuit)  also  in  Beirut.  In  addition  to 
several  institutes  for  training  teachers — commerce, 
domestic  science  and  other  vocational  courses — 
the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  supervises  the 
Lebanese  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  Literacy  is  higher 
in  Lebanon  than  in  any  other  Arab  country. 

Production.  Almost  all  the  cultivated  land  de- 
pends on  rainfall,  with  olives,  citrus  and  other 
fruit,  vegetables,  cereals,  and  dry  legumes  impor- 
tant. The  estimated  70,000  tons  of  wheat  produced 
in  1948  was  much  higher  than  1947's  50,000  tons, 
but  there  is  still  a  deficit  to  be  made  up  in  part  by 
imports  from  Syria.  Citrus  and  banana  crops,  both 
exported,  have  increased  thanks  to  improved  culti- 
vation methods.  The  prospects  of  exporting  more 
olive  oil  are  better  because  of  improved  refining. 
Silk-making  has  been  important  but  its  future  is 
made  uncertain  by  the  competition  of  rayon  and 
nylon.  (See  SYRIA  for  Foreign  Trade.) 

Transportation.  There  are  about  250  miles  of  rail- 
way, of  which  the  war-built  link  connecting  Haifa 
and  Tripoli  (and  thereby  Africa  and  Europe)  is 
the  newest  The  good  network  of  asphalted  roads 
connects  Beirut  with  Damascus  and  all  important 
Lebanese  towns.  British,  Egyptian,  and  Iraqi  air- 
lines <use  Beirut's  airport.  There  are  radio,  tele- 
phone, and  telegraph  facilities. 

Finance.  Lebanon  forms  a  customs  and  economic 
union  with  Syria.  Budget  estimates  for  1947  were 
balanced  at  £Leb58.9  million.  (Official  rate  of 
exchange  since  1946:  £Leb2.205  equals  U,S.$.) 

Government.  The  republic,  whose  independence 
from  the  French  mandate  was  proclaimed  in  1941 
and  asserted  in  1946,  is  headed* by  a  President 
(Bechara  el-Khoury,  elected  in  1943)  elected  for 
six  years  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  is  as- 
sisted by  Ministers,  appointed  by  him,  who  are  re- 
sponsible to  the  Chamber.  The  Deputies  are  elect- 
ed by  popular  ballot  for  four  years  with  every  citi- 
zen over  21  eligible  to  vote. 

Events,  1948.  An  application  was  made  for  a  loan 
from  the  International  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and 
Development  to  intensify  and  improve  agricultural 
production  and  to  complete  irrigation  projects 
started  during  the  war.  In  February,  Lebanon's 
Ambassador  to  the  United  States,  Charles  Malik, 
was  elected  President  of  the  United  Nations*  Eco- 
nomic and  Social  Council  for  1948". 

Relations  with  France.  On  February  6,  Lebanon 
signed  an  agreement  with  ^  France  under  which 
France  guaranteed  Lebanon's  currency  against  de- 
valuation for  ten  years,  the  French  government's 


property  claims  were  liquidated,  and  the  French 
debt  to  Lebanon  modified.  In  October,  following 
the  recommendations  of  Belgian  and  Egyptian  ex- 
perts, the  Chamber  ratified  the  agreement.  But  in 
loosening,  rather  than  cutting  off,  financial  ties  with 
France,  Lebanon  complicated  its  economic  rela- 
tions with  Syria. 

UNESCO  Conference.  On  November  17,  the  third 
general  conference  of  the  United  Nations  Educa- 
tional and  Scientific  and  Cultural  Organization 
opened  in  Beirut.  Its  deliberations  were  marked  by 
two  incidents  reflecting  the  area's  tension:  Mustafa 
el-Aris,  accredited  observer  for  the  World  Federa- 
tion of  Trade  Unions  and  alleged  leader  of  the 
banned  Lebanese  Communist  Party,  was  arrested 
while  attending  the  conference.  The  Israeli  appli- 
cation, solicited  by  UNESCO's  organization  board 
in  an  unofficial  capacity,  was  withdrawn  because 
the  Lebanese  government  was  "unwilling  to  grant 
the  necessary  facilities."  The  conference  was  cli- 
maxed by  UNESCO's  vote  of  three  "Lebanon  Con- 
ference Fellowships"  to  allow  Lebanese  to  spend 
six  months  studying  abroad  as  a  mark  of  the  con- 
ference's gratitude  for  Lebanese  hospitality. 

Palestine  Problem.  Immediately  following  the 
United  Nations'  Palestine  partition  vote  demon- 
strations started.  Government  funds  were  allocated 
to  help  Palestinian  Arabs.  In  January  the  govern- 
ment forbade  unauthorized  movement  by  Jews 
and  expelled  all  Palestinian  Jews.  By  May  a  state 
of  emergency  had  been  declared.  The  June  report 
that  the  government  had  authorized  the  seizure  of 
all  Israel-bound  ships  touching  at  Beirut  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  six-week  detention  of  American  citi- 
zens from  the  American  Export  liner  Marine  Carp. 
The  first  American  protest  was  rejected  on  the  basis 
that  the  action  had  been  taken  for  the  "safety  of 
the  Lebanese  Army  of  Occupation  in  Palestine  and 
for  the  order  and  security  in  Palestine  territories 
occupied."  Following  its  second  note  the  United 
States  agreed  to  the  Lebanese  demand  that  those 
held  return  to  the  United  States.  (See  ARAB 
LEAGUE  AFFAIRS;  PALESTINE.) 

—  DOROTHEA  SEELYE 


LEEWARD  ISLANDS,  British.  A  group  of  islands  in  the 
British  West  Indies  comprising  the  four  presiden- 
cies: Antigua  (with  Barbuda  and  Redonda),  St. 
Christopher  and  Nevis  (with  Anguilla  and  Som- 
brero), Montserrat,  and  the  Virgin  Islands.  Area: 
422^  square  miles.  Population  (1946  census): 
1085847.  Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation  of 
the  people.  Chief  products:  sugar  and  molasses 
(Antigua  and  St.  Christopher),  cotton  (Montser- 
rat, St.  Christopher,  Nevis,  and  Virgin  Islands), 
limes,  fruits,  and  vegetables  (Montserrat),  coco- 
nuts (Nevis),  and  salt  (Anguilla  and  St.  Christo- 
pher). Foreign  trade  (1946):  imports  £1,500,000; 
exports  £1,100,000.  Finance  (1946):  revenue 
£700,000;  expenditure  £620,000.  A  governor  ad- 
ministers the  colony,  which  is  divided  into  four 
presidencies.  An  Executive  Council  and  a  General 
Legislative  Council  assist  the  governor.  The  seat 
of  government  is  at  Antigua.  Governor:  Earl  Bald- 
win of  Bewdley  (appointed  Feb.  9,  1948). 

LIBERAL  PARTY.  The  Liberal  Party  of  New  York 
State  was  formed  May  19,  1944,  Chairman,  Adolf 
A.  Berle,  Jr.;  Vice  Chairmen,  David  Dubinsky,  Dr. 
John  L.  Childs,  Dr.  George  S.  Counts,  Dr.  Rein- 
hold  Niebuhr,  Alex  Rose;  Secretary,  Joseph  V, 
O'Leary;  Treasurer,  Harry  Uviller;  Executive  Di- 
rector, Ben  Davidson;  Upstate  Director,  James 
Donnelly. 
The  Party  has  80  Assembly  District  Clubs  in 


LIBERIA 


313 


LIBRARY  OF  CONGRESS 


New  York  City,  county  organizations  in  the  various 
counties  of  the  State,  a  Trade  Union  Council  com- 
prising AFL  and  CIO  unions  with  a  combined 
membership  of  over  500,000,  a  Women's  Division, 
a  Veteran's  Division,  and  a  Youth  Division.  Com- 
mittees of  the  Party  are  active  in  national,  State, 
and  local  affairs.  In  the  1948  national  elections  the 
Liberal  Party  endorsed  President  Truman  for  re- 
election, and  Senator  Alben  W.  Barkley  for  Vice 
President. 

LIBERIA.  A  Negro  republic  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  between  Sierra  Leone  and  the  Ivory  Coast. 
Capital,  Monrovia  (population,  10,000). 

Area  and  Population.  Total  area:  43,000  square 
miles.  No  proper  census  has  ever  been  taken,  and 
the  population  is  estimated  at  anywhere  from  one 
to  two  million.  Only  about  60,000  of  the  coast 
Negroes  are  considered  civilized  by  European 
standards.  Among  them  are  some  15,000  Americo- 
Liberians — the  descendants  of  freed  slaves  from 
the  United  States — who  form  the  governing  and 
intellectual  class.  The  natives  are  divided  among 
six  principal  stocks  and  various  smaller  tribes.  The 
Mandingoes  are  Moslems  and  most  of  the  rest  are 
pagans,  though  various  Christian  missions  are  op- 
erating in  the  country.  English  is  the  language  of 
government  and  commerce. 

Education.  In  1946  there  were  206  schools  (81 
run  by  the  Government)  and  16,000  students.  The 
great  mass  of  the  Liberian  people  is  illiterate  and 
wholly  innocent  of  any  formal  education. 

Production  and  Trade.  Most  of  the  inhabitants, 
living  in  a  tribal  state,  participate  little  or  not  at 
all  in  the  world's  money  economy.  Such  resources 
as  the  country  possesses  are  largely  undeveloped. 
Almost  the  only  export  is  raw  rubber,  produced  on 
the  Firestone  plantations  and  shipped  out  through 
the  port  of  Marshall,  east  of  Monrovia.  In  1946 
exports  were  valued  at  $12,312,982  and  imports 
(largely  manufactured  goods)  at  $4,731,715. 

Communications.  There  are  no  railways  and  very 
few  roads,  though  the  latter  are  being  extended 
here  and  there,  and  no  interior  telegraph  or  tele- 
phone communications.  There  are  several  ports, 
but  only  one  (at  Monrovia)  with  facilities  for  serv- 
icing vessels  at  docks;  all  operations  in  the  other 
ports  being  carried  on  by  lighter. 

Finance.  In  1946  the  government's  revenue 
amounted  to  $2,337,401  and  its  expenditure  to  $2,- 
307,114.  Customs  account  for  nearly  half  of  the 
income;  while  debt  charges,  interest  and  amortiza- 
tion absorb  over  one-fifth  of  the  outgo.  Under  the 
terms  of  the  Loan  Agreement  with  the  United 
States,  Liberian  finances  are  supervised  by  Ameri- 
can experts.  A  first  charge  on  all  revenues  is  the 
service  on  the  American  loan.  The  external  bonded 
debt  as  of  Jan.  1,  1946,  was  $708,000. 

Government.  The  frame  of  government  is  mod- 
eled after  that  of  the  United  States.  There  is  a 
President  and  his  Cabinet,  a  Senate  ( 10  members ) 
and  a  House  of  Representatives  (21  members). 
The  President,  elected  in  1943  for  the  term  1944- 
52,  is  William  V.  S.  Tubman  of  the  True  Whig 
Party.  This  party  is  controlled  by  a  small  oligarchy 
of  Americo-Liberian  families  dwelling  in  the  few 
coastal  cities,  for  the  franchise  is  restricted  to  Ne- 
gro landowners.  ThJs  party  has  pretty  well  mo- 
nopolized political  power  in  the  Republic  for  the 
last  three  generations.  The  real  natives  of  the  coun- 
try have  participated  very  little  in  the  national  ad- 
ministration. 

Events,  1948.  More  and  more  the  Negro  Republic 
came  under  the  political  and  economic  tutelage  of 
the  United  States.  The  ambitious  Stettinius  plan 


(described  in  the  YEAE  BOOK,  Events  of  1947)  got 
under  way  during  the  year  under  review.  The  op- 
erating organ  of  the  scheme  was  the  Liberia  Com- 
pany, for  which  over  two  dozen  affiliates  and  sub- 
sidiaries were  eventually  planned.  During  1948  it 
became  involved  in  such  enterprises  as  me  public 
utility  business,  banking,  cocoa-growing,  and  social 
welfare  programs.  The  Liberia  Foundation,  which 
had  charge  of  the  last-mentioned  activity,  was 

E laced  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Edwin  R.  Em- 
ree,  who  had  until  recently  been  head  of  the  now 
defunct  Rosenwald  Fund,  devoted  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  American  Negroes.  Public  health  as 
well  as  education  and  welfare  were  included  in  the 
Foundation's  sphere  of  activity. 

Before  the  country  could  be  developed  it  would 
require  the  construction  of  a  modern  transportation 
and  communications  system,  then  almost  wholly 
lacking.  There  was,  for  example,  no  railroad.  This 
shortcoming  the  Liberia  Company  proposed  to 
remedy  by  surveying  a  route  for  a  line  from  Mon- 
rovia inland  some  200  miles  to  the  border  of 
French  Guinea  via  the  Bomi  Hills  district,  where  it 
would  tap  the  recently  explored  iron-ore  deposits. 
Such  a  line  would  also  open  up  large  and  fertile 
areas  to  agricultural  exploitation. 

In  August  it  was  revealed  by  the  Liberia  Com- 
pany that  it  had  chosen  as  president  of  its  affiliate, 
the  Liberia  Products  Company,  Major  General 
William  W.  Richards  of  the  Royal  Ordnance  Corps. 
This  concern  was  to  operate  in  such  fields  as  tex- 
tile production,  logging,  palm-oil  processing,  and 
fishing.  During  the  summer  another  affiliate,  the 
Liberian  International  Airways,  Inc.,  began  service 
between  New  York,  Dakar,  Monrovia,  and  Leo- 
poldville.  . 

The  deep-water  harbor  under  construction  near 
Monrovia  for  several  years  was  formally  opened  on 
July  26,  the  101st  anniversary  of  Liberian  inde- 
pendence. Covering  some  750  acres  and  accom- 
modating 8  or  9  vesselsj  it  had  been  built  with 
American  funds  made  available  by  lend-lease 
agreement  of  1943.  The  port's  operation  was  to 
be  in  the  joint  hands  of  seven  American  shipping 
and  trading  concerns. 

During  the  spring  Mr.  Stettinius  paid  a  brief 
visit  to  Liberia  to  inspect  progress  and  consult  with 
company  and  government  officials. 

— ROBERT  GALE  WOOLBEBT 

LIBRARY  OF  CONGRESS.  This  library  while  serving  as 
the  principal  research  source  to  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  and  its  Committees,  furthering  gov- 
ernmental studies  and  cooperating  in  international 
projects  and  conferences,  continued  to  perform  the 
duties  of  the  world's  largest  reference  library.  Con- 
gressional, in  name  and  primary  function,  it  is,  in- 
escapably, a  national  library  by  legislative  origin, 
public  maintenance,  Federal  status,  and  the  con- 
stant importunity  of  layman  and  scholar.  Com- 
prehensive collections — unique  in  many  fields — 
increasing  through  gift,  domestic  and  foreign  ex- 
change, copyright  deposit,  purchase  and  transfer, 
in  excess  of  cataloging  capacity,  imposed,  in  par- 
tial solution  of  the  problem^  priorities  for  the  treat- 
ment of  new  material. 

Among  additions,  notable  for  scope  and  diversity 
were:  manuscripts  of  major  works  of  Bach,  Haydn, 
Mozart,  Beethoven,  Brahms,  and  Reger;  the  papers 
of  Josephus  Daniels,  the  Russian  Library  of  the 
American  Legation  at  Riga  stored  in  Stockholm 
since  confiscation  in  1940,-  Confederate  war  maps, 
including  275  holographs,  prepared  by  Major  Jede- 
diah  Hotchkiss,  many  annotated  by  Generals  Lee 
and  Jackson;  Friendship  Train  testimonials  to 


LIBRARY  Of  CONGRESS 


314 


LIBRARY  Of  CONGRESS 


Drew  Pearson  from  the  French  and  Italian  govern- 
ments. 

Also  a  rare  Chinese  Buddhist  book  printed  in 
Hangchow  in  1160  A.D.;  Armenian  publications 
presented  by  the  Committee  for  the  Armenian  Col- 
lections of  the  Library  of  Congress;  a  contempo- 
rary engrossed  and  signed  copy  of  the  Thirteenth 
Amendment;  French  clandestine  war-time  publi- 
cations covering  the  period  from  mid- 1940  to  the 
liberation  of  Paris  in  August,  1944;  and  selected 
films  declared  surplus  to  the  needs  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Air  Force  but  considered  eminently 
important  for  current  use  and  permanent  retention. 

The  Lacock  Abbey  confirmation  of  Magna  Carta 
( 1225 )  was,  by  a  special  courier,  returned  to  the 
British  Museum  in  accordance  with  the  act  of  Par- 
liament which  had  authorized  its  loan  for  two 
years.  A  collotype  facsimile,  perfectly  executed  to 
the  minutest  detail,  a  gift  from  the  British  Museum 
was  placed  on  display.  The  tour  of  the  Freedom 
Train  made  it  possible  for  millions  to  see  28  basic 
documents  in  American  history  lent  from  the  Li- 
brary's collections,  including  Jefferson's  "Rough 
Draft"  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  ( 1776), 
the  first  volume  of  the  manuscript  Journal  of  the 
Constitutional  Convention  (1787),  and  a  draft  by 
George  Mason  of  a  Declaration  of  Rights  which 
became  the  basis  of  the  Bill  of  Rights. 

Though  curtailed  hours  of  reader  service  con- 
tinued, in  April  the  exhibit  halls  were  opened  on 
all  evenings  that  visitors  might  inspect  the  fre- 
quently changing  displays  as  well  as  the  perma- 
nently enshrined  originals  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  the  Constitution,  and  other  docu- 
mentary heritages.  An  exhibit  of  material  on  UNES- 
CO's purposes  and  progress  demonstrated,  as  well, 
the  Library's  interest  through  the  years  in  promot- 
ing the  international  interchange  of  knowledge. 
There  were  three  State  exhibits  in  continuation  of 
the  series  begun  several  years  ago:  the  215th  an- 
niversary of  the  founding  of  Savannah  and  the  Col- 
ony of  Georgia  was  commemorated,  Wisconsin's 
100th  anniversary  of  statehood  was  observed,  and 
the  establishment  of  the  Territory  of  Oregon  was 
appropriately  marked. 

The  original  Czechoslovak  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, and  the  original  signed  copy  of  the 
""Declaration  of  Common  Aims  of  the  Independent 
Mid-European  Nations"  sent  to  Woodrow  Wilson 
by  Thomas  G.  Masaryk  were  distinguished  pieces 
in  "Thirty  Years  of  the  Czechoslovak  Republic — 
An  Exhibition  in  Honor  of  Its  Founders."  The 
Voice  of  America  beamed  a  description  to  Europe 
with  clear  reception  reported. 

Ultrafax,  a  new  high-speed  communication  sys- 
tem combining  modern  principles  of  television  and 
photography,  was  demonstrated  by  R.C.A.  before 
a  distinguished  audience  of  government  officials, 
scientists,  engineers,  librarians,  service  personnel, 
and  leaders  in  communications  in  the  Library's 
Coolidge  Auditorium.  Among  the  lectures  deliv- 
ered were  "Aviation  History,  1903-1960"  by  John 
K.  Northrop;  T.  S.  Eliot,  winner  of  the  1948  Nobel 
Prize  in  Literature  spoke  on  "Edgar  Poe  and  his 
Influence  in  France";  Dr.  Amiya  Chakravarty  pre- 
sented the  music  and  dances  of  India  with  motion 
picture  illustration;  and  Robert  Frost  read  selec- 
tions from  his  poetry.  FM  broadcasting  of  concerts 
of  chamber  music  was  begun,  thus  increasing  the 
potential  audience  from  five  hundred  to  several 
million. 

Publications  ranged  from  established  serials — 
The  United  States  Quarterly  Book  List,  The  Hand- 
book of  Latin  American  Studies,  and  The  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Current  Acquisitions — to  such  special 


studies  as  the  Legislative  Reference  Service  report 
on  Limitation  of  Debate  in  the  United  States  Sen- 
ate. Other  publications  included  An  Album  of 
American  Battle  Art,  1755-1918,  A  Guide  to  the 
Art  of  Latin  America,  National  Censuses  and  Vital 
Statistics  in  Europe,  1918-1939,  with  a  supplement 
for  1939-48,  and  a  new  serial,  Monthly  List  of 
Russian  Accessions,  containing  entries  for  publica- 
tions in  the  Russian  language  currently  received  by 
the  Library  of  Congress  and  a  number  of  cooperat- 
ing libraries. 

Fifty  new  records  of  folk  songs  from  the  Archive 
of  American  Folk  Song  were  issued  and  the  Bollin- 
gen  Foundation  through  a  special  grant  made  pos- 
sible a  series  of  recordings  of  poems  read  by  their 
authors.  The  Bollingen  Prize  in  Poetry  was  estab- 
lished as  an  annual  award  for  the  best  book  of 
verse  published  by  an  American  author  during  the 
preceding  calendar  year.  The  Fellows  in  American 
Letters  of  the  Library  of  Congress  will  serve  as 
the  Jury  of  Selection.  With  the  support  of  the 
Rockefeller  Foundation  and  under  the  general  edi- 
torship of  Ralph  Henry  Gabriel,  the  Library  under- 
took the  sponsorship  of  a  series  of  extended  essays 
dealing  with  the  various  aspects  of  American  civili- 
zation in  the  20th  century. 

The  striving  for  international  peace  through  un- 
derstanding placed  privileged  responsibilities  upon 
the  Library.  Luther  H.  Evans,  Librarian  of  Con- 
gress, a  member  of  the  U.S.  National  Commission 
for  UNESCO,  assisted  the  U.S.  Delegation  at  the 
Second  General  Conference  held  at  Mexico  City 
in  the  organization  and  development  of  its  pro- 
gram. In  November  he  journeyed  to  Beirut  as  a 
delegate  to  the  Third  General  Conference.  The 
Chief  Assistant  Librarian,  Verner  W.  Clapp,  served 
on  the  U.S.  Library  Mission  to  advise  on  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  National  Diet  Library  of  Japan.  In 
August,  the  Library  of  Congress  undertook,  on  a 
contractual  basis,  the  compilation  of  bibliographies 
for  the  Division  of  Library  Services  of  the  United 
Nations. 

Statistics  of  the  Library  of  Congress,  as  of  July  1, 
1948,  are  presented  in  the  accompanying  table. 

Content*  reckoned  at  nearly 27,000,000 

Pieces  included: 

Printed  books  and  pamphlets 8,387,385 

Manuscript  pieces. 8,896,597 

Maps  and  views 1,868,911 

Music— volumes  and  pieces 1,788,449 

Phonograph  recordings ^ 287,414 

Photographic  negatives,  prints  and  slides 1,708,247 

Prints  and  broadsides 578,765 

Posters,  photostats,  and  miscellany 624,163 

Unbound  serials  parts  and  newspaper  issues ....  2,392,055 

Legislative  Reference  Service: 

Requests  from  Members  and  Committees  of  Con- 
gress for  reference  or  research 21,420 

Reports  prepared  in  typed  form  (plus  63  pub- 

Itahed); . .    ... 7 . . .  1,900 

General  reference  and  circulation  services: 

Pieces  supplied  for  use 2,081,483 

Readers  served  (452,613  individually) 878,622 

Telephone  requests  for  reference  and  loan  service .        171 ,373 

Bibliographies  prepared  (28,266  entries) 654 

Letters  in  response  to  reference  requests 29,660 

National  Union  Catalog  entries  reached  more 

than 14,000,000 

(recording  the  principal  holdings  of  more  than 
800  libraries) 

Administrative  changes  included  the  establish- 
ment of  the  European  Affairs  Division  and  the  Air 
Research  Unit  Robert  Lowell  was  succeeded  by 
L6onie  Adams  as  Consultant  in  Poetry  in  English 
for  the  year  1948-49. 

The  Legislative  Reference  Service  responded 
to  the  largest  number  of  inquiries  in  the  33  years 
of  its  history.  Many  reports  were  prepared  by 
senior  specialists  assigned  to  broad  subjects. 


LIBRARY  PROGRESS 


315 


LIBRARY  PROGRESS 


Through  the  sale  of  more  than  20  million  printed 
catalog  cards  and  The  Cumulative  Catalog  of  the 
Library  of  Congress  a  million  dollars  and  a  million 
work  hours  were  saved  in  many  institutions. 

— LUTHER  H.  EVANS 

LIBRARY  PROGRESS.  The  aim  of  public  library  serv- 
ice in  America  now,  as  always,  has  been  to  serve 
all  of  the  people  of  the  country  regardless  of  eco- 
nomic status,  race,  or  residence.  The  ultimate  goal 
of  librarianship  is  to  serve  all  of  the  people  every- 
where. Thirty-five  million  people  (mostly  rural) 
still  have  no  public  libraries  whatever,  while  ap- 
proximately 50  million  are  served  by  libraries 
which  are  inadequate  by  any  reasonable  standards 
to  provide  a  first-class  service  of  information  and 
education. 

Acknowledging  this  lack  of  libraries  and  the  great 
variety  of  complex  problems  facing  the  United 
States  today,  E.  W.  McDiarmid,  President  of  the 
American  Library  Association,  stated  in  his  inau- 
gural address  at  the  Atlantic  City  conference  in 
June,  that  "our  society  requires  for  every  respons- 
ible citizen  a  fundamental  education  from  the  first 
grade  through  high  school,  followed  by  a  system 
of  higher  education  for  those  competent  to  profit 
from  it,  and  an  intensive  program  of  adult  educa- 
tion for  everyone.  Our  people  must  not  only  have 
a  basic  general  education,  covering  the  fundamen- 
tals of  history,  sociology,  politics,  science,  and  lit- 
erature, but  they  must  in  addition  have  a  continu- 
ing program  of  education  in  the  background, 
history,  fundamental  issues,  and  current  aspects  of 
the  great  problems  that  face  us." 

Realizing  this,  libraries  throughout  the  United 
States  adopted  the  "Great  Issues"  program  ( see  the 
A.L.A.  Booklist,  Aug.  15,  1948,  supplement)  and 
offered  their  resources  for  a  better-informed  Ameri- 
can, especially  in  regard  to  the  following  crucial 
problems:  Inflation-Deflation,  How  Much  World 
Government?,  Management-Labor  Relations,  Amer- 
ican-Russian Relations,  and  Civil  Rights.  Sim- 
ilarly, librarians  have  been  greatly  concerned  about 
the  preservation  of  intellectual  freedom,  and  as  a 
result  adopted  the  revised  "Library  Bill  of  Rights/' 
which  reaffirms  its  belief  in  the  basic  policies 
which  should  govern  the  services  of  all  libraries. 

Library  Planning  and  Surveys.  Concentrated  efforts 
were  made  to  translate  the  various  national  plans 
of  library  groups  into  action  and  the  latest  of  the 
Planning  for  Libraries  Series  was  completed.  This 
was  The  Public  Library  Plans  for  the  Teen  Age, 
which  blueprints  possibilities  for  specialized  pub- 
lic library  service  to  young  people,  and  shows  how 
the  public  library  enriches  and  reinforces  school 
library  service. 

The  half-way  mark  was  reached  in  the  two-year 
Public  Library  Inquiry  being  conducted  by  the  So- 
cial Science  Research  Council  under  the  direction 
of  Robert  D.  Leigh.  Initiated  by  the  A.L.A.,  this 
appraisal  of  the  Ainerican  public  library  as  a  social 
institution  was  made  possible  by  a  Carnegie  Cor- 
poration grant.  An  over-all  group  of  60  libraries  or 
library  systems  in  cities,  towns,  and  counties  of  the 
United  States  was  included  in  the  survey,  the  re- 
sults of  which  are  scheduled  for  1949  publication 
by  the  Columbia  University  Press.  The  15  projects 
of  the  Inquiry  were  divided  as  follows:  a.  (basic 
aspects  o£  the  library )  personnel,  government,  pro- 
cesses, use,  and  finance;  b.  (producers  of  library 
materials  and  services )  book  and  magazine  publish- 
ing, industries,  government  publications,  non-the- 
atrical films,  music  and  other  records  and  library 
music  materials,  special  libraries  and  technical 
services;  and  c.  (subsidiary  factors)  foreign  and 


international  library  developments,  the  evolution 
of  the  public  library  in  the  United  States,  the  li- 
brary in  relation  to  the  institutions,  process  and 
possibilities  of  adult  education,  the  relation  of  the 
public  library  to  the  research-library  network,  and 
the  relation  of  the  public  library  to  the  school 
system. 

A  survey  of  salaries  and  working  conditions  of 
library  personnel  was  begun  in  November  by  the 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  in  cooperation  with 
the  A.L.A.  Board  on  Personnel  Administration. 
Full  time  professional  and  non-professional  posi- 
tions in  libraries  of  all  types  and  sizes  were  cov- 
ered. Libraries,  library  services,  and  personnel 
were  studied  in  nine  southern  states  by  the  Ten- 
nessee Valley  Library  Council.  These  included  Al- 
abama, Florida,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Mississippi, 
North  and  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Vir- 
ginia, Other  surveys  were  conducted  at  the  Uni- 
versities of  Stanford  and  Minnesota,  the  public 
libraries  at  Wichita  and  Los  Angeles,  and  the  New 
Mexico  State  Library. 

State  and  Federal  Relations.  Laws  covering  a  va- 
riety of  library  legislation  were  passed.  Colorado, 
Indiana,  and  Ohio  adopted  general  recodification 
of  their  library  laws  with  far-reaching  changes. 
Elsewhere  new  library  laws  or  amendments  to  old 
laws  provided  for  administrative  changes,  higher 
library  tax  ceilings,  certification  of  librarians,  the 
development  of  county  and  regional  libraries,  and 
increased  state  aid. 

Several  states  passed  enabling  laws  to  permit  the 
use  of  federal  funds  and  early  in  1948  the  Federal 
Library  Demonstration  Bill  passed  the  U.S.  Senate, 
but  not  the  House  of  Representatives.  It  will  be  re- 
introduced  in  the  1949  Congress.  The  purposes  of 
the  bill  are:  (a)  to  provide  demonstrations  of  ade- 
quate public  library  service  to  people  now  without 
it  or  inadequately  served,  and  (b)  to  provide 
means  for  studying  various  methods  of  providing 
public  library  service  primarily  in  rural  areas  and 
for  studying  the  effect  of  planning  on  an  area  basis 
upon  the  development  of  library  services.  Provi- 
sions of  the  bill  are:  (a)  State  library  agencies  may 
submit  plans  for  use  of  federal  funds  in  demon- 
strating public  library  service  primarily  in  rural 
areas,  and  (b)  two  types  of  plans  may  be  submit- 
ted; one  calling  for  a  basic  demonstration  using 
$25,000  per  year  for  five  years  in  each  state,  fi- 
nanced entirely  by  federal  funds,  or  an  expanded 
plan  may  be  added  to  this  which  would  allow 
states  to  match  an  additional  $25,000  to  $75,000 
of  federal  funds  annually  for  five  years,  (c)  The 
Commissioner  of  Education  would  be  required  to 
make  annual  reports  to  the  Congress  upon  the  op- 
eration of  the  demonstrations  and  would  be  re- 
quired to  make  a  final  public  report  evaluating  the 
demonstrations. 

International  Relations.  A  continued  interest  in 
this  field  was  manifested  by  librarians,  both  in  the 
United  States  and  abroad.  Librarians  from  about 
30  countries  visited  the  United  States  and  67  for- 
eign students  attended  American  library  schools 
during  1947-48.  A  number  of  American  librarians 
attended  conferences  in  Europe  and  Latin  Amer- 
ica, or  went  on  special  missions  to  Europe  and  to 
the  Orient.  The  International  Federation  of  Library 
Associations  convened  in  England  in  September 
and  the  1950  meeting  will  probably  be  held  in  the 
United  States  in  connection  with  the  A.L.A.  con- 
ference in  Washington,  D.C.,  honoring  the  150th 
anniversary  of  the  Library  of  Congress  and  the 
75th  year  of  the  A.L.A. 

At  the  annual  conference  of  the  Canadian  Li- 
brary Association,  held  June  7-9,  at  Ottawa  and  at- 


LIBRARY  PROGRESS 


316 


LIBRARY  PROGRESS 


tended  by  517  delegates,  Elizabeth  Dafoe, 
University  of  Manitoba  Library,  was  elected  presi- 
dent. The  1949  conference  is  scheduled  for  June 
20-24  at  Winnipeg.  William  Kaye  Lamb,  former 
librarian  of  the  University  of  British  Columbia, 
was  appointed  Dominion  Archivist  with  the  special 
task  of  planning  toward  the  establishment  of  a 
Canadian  National  Library.  Indian  libraries  are 
also  proposing  the  establishment  of  a  National 
Central  Library  at  New  Delhi,  and  discussed  this 
at  the  8th  All-India  Library  Conference  in  Octo- 
ber in  Nagpur.  The  Japanese  Diet  ( Congress )  Li- 
brary was  established  June  5  in  Tokyo, 

Professional  Training  and  Personnel,  Enrollments 
in  the  34  accredited  library  schools  in  the  United 
States  and  two  in  Canada  were  1,889  students  in 
1948,  compared  with  1,939  students  for  1947, 
With  few  exceptions,  library  schools  were  engaged 
in  the  revision  of  their  programs.  The  prevalent 
shortage  of  librarians  was  not  the  primary  reason 
for  devising  new  plans  of  education  but  it  un- 
doubtedly heightened  a  profession-wide  interest 
in  all  aspects  of  library  education.  Several  confer- 
ences on  education  for  librarianship  and  recruiting 
for  the  profession  were  held  and  a  Joint  Committee 
on  Library  Work  as  a  Career  was  formed.  While 
salaries  in  libraries  increased  during  the  year  they 
did  not  equal  the  increase  in  cost  of  living  with  the 
result  that  Minimum  Library  Salary  Standards  for 
1948  were  adopted.  Due  to  budgetary  measures 
the  Placement  Office  at  A.L.A.  headquarters  was 
discontinued  September  1  and  the  A.L.A.  Em- 
ployment Register  instituted. 

Library  Statistics,  Books  and  Reading.  The  Ameri- 
can Library  Directory  for  1948  lists  11,334  librar- 
ies in  the  United  States,  classified  as  follows:  7,172 
public,  1,547  college  and  junior  college,  253  law, 
164  medical,  112  institutional,  202  hospital,  193 
federal,  173  state,  and  518  special.  Not  included 
are  the  libraries  in  elementary  and  secondary 
schools,  hospital  collections  furnished  by  public 
libraries,  and  special  industrial  libraries.  There  are 
81  libraries  of  all  types  in  the  United  States  terri- 
tories and  dependencies,  and  945  in  Canada  and 
Newfoundland,  Library  schools  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  number  41  and  there  are  204 
library  organizations. 

According  to  1947  statistics  compiled  by  the 
U.S.  Office  of  Education,  public  libraries  in  United 
States  cities  with  a  population  of  100,000  or  more, 
contained  44,470,573  volumes,  had  8,662,725  regis- 
tered borrowers,  circulated  133,241,491  books,  and 
expended  $39,797,351,  excluding  capital  outlay. 
This  is  a  slight  increase  over  corresponding  figures 
for  both  1946  and  1945.  Statistics  covering 
1946-47  college  and  university  libraries,  including 
student  enrollment,  staff,  book  stock,  circulation, 
and  expenditures  were  published  in  the  July  1948 
issue  of  College  and  Research  Libraries, 

"Reading  Trends  in  1947"  and  "The  Fifty  Not- 
able Books  of  1947,"  chosen  by  librarians,  were 
published  in  the  A.L.A.  Bulletin  for  February 
1948.  The  Great  Books  educational  programs,  es- 
tablished several  years  ago,  have  spread  to  the  ex- 
tent that  these  weekly  gatherings  are  attended  by 
over  50,000  people  in  some  200  cities  and  towns 
throughout  the  country.  The  Great  Books  Foun- 
dation was  formed  to  coordinate  and  centralize  all 
activities  connected  with  the  selected  group  of 
works.  The  Great  Bogks  are  defined  by  the  Foun- 
dation as  those  "which  provide  new  and  profound 
insights  into  the  fundamental  problems  of  man- 
kind." For  articles  covering  such  book  programs 
see  Library  Quarterly  for  January  1948,  Wilson 
Library  Bulletin,  December  1947,  etc. 


School  Libraries.  Workshops,  institutes,  and  meet- 
ings in  many  parts  of  the  country  emphasized  li- 
brary services  to  children  and  young  people,  with 
several  covering  elementary  school  libraries.  The 
publication  of  The  Public  Library  Plans  for  the 
Teen  Age  was  noteworthy,  as  was  a  companion 
publication,  A  Youth  Library  in  Every  Community. 

As  a  result  of  state  aid,  school  library  programs  in 
several  states  made  considerable  progress.  Georgia 
increased  its  1947-48  budget  of  $150,000  to  $300,- 
000  for  next  year.  New  Jersey  received  $10,000  for 
school  library  books  for  1947-48.  North  Carolina 
budgeted  $172,326  in  1947-48  and  $196,855  for 
1948-49.  Virginia  provided  $279,165  for  1947-48, 
of  which  $47,253  was  for  state  and  film  libraries. 
Wisconsin  appropriated  $142,855  and  in  Indiana, 
schools  which  meet  certain  requirements  may  ob- 
tain up  to  75  cents  per  student  for  library  books. 

College  and  University  Libraries.  Cooperative  en- 
terprises are  being  developed  in  various  parts  of 
the  country:  the  latest  being  by  Midwest  univer- 
sities with  plans  for  a  cooperative  storage  building, 
probably  at  the  University  of  Chicago.  Regional 
library  centers  are  already  established  at  Denver, 
Philadelphia,  the  Pacific  Northwest  (Seattle), 
Cleveland  and  the  Joint  University  Libraries 
(Nashville)  as  well  as  the  Library  of  Congress 
Union  Catalog.  Policies  in  cooperative  acquisitions 
are  being  followed  by  the  John  Crerar  Library, 
Chicago,  and  the  Library  Council  of  the  state-wide 
system  of  the  University  of  California  Libraries. 

During  the  year  the  first  books  arrived  from 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Sweden  under  the  Farm- 
ington  Plan,  which  provides  for  the  acquisition  of 
current  foreign  publications  of  research  interest. 
In  1949  it  will  be  extended  to  cover  Norway,  Den- 
mark, Belgium,  The  Netherlands,  and  Mexico. 

Increasing  in  numbers  are  the  college  and  uni- 
versity libraries  arranging  their  collections  along 
divisional  lines,  of  which  the  University  of  Ne- 
braska is  one.  In  order  to  give  librarians  of  the 
country  an  opportunity  to  see  a  divisional  library 
in  operation,  this  university  held  an  institute,  at 
which  time  building  features  and  divisional  oper- 
ating problems  were  discussed. 

Gifts,  Grants,  and  Buildings.  Gifts  of  book  collec- 
tions and  money  for  the  purchase  of  bcjoks  or  con- 
struction of  buildings  have  materially  aided 
libraries  and  their  services  throughout  the  year. 
Among  the  gifts  were:  a  collection  of  manuscripts 
and  books  from  Ferenc  Molnar,  Hungarian  play- 
wright, to  the  New  York  Public  Library;  2,000  vol- 
umes and  manuscripts  of  the  late  Rabbi  Chaim  F. 
Epstein,  St.  Louis,  to  Yeshiva  University,  New 
York;  two  valuable  railroad  collections  from  Frank 
F.  Fowle  and  Stanley  Berge  to  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity Library;  1,500  volumes  on  the  theater  from 
Herbert  Arnold  Speiser,  to  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania Library;  $10,000  from  the  Wherett  Me- 
morial Fund  of  the  Pittsburgh  Foundation  for 
science  and  engineering  library  material  to  the 
Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology;  30,000  docu- 
ments from  Frederick  Law  Ofinsted,  landscape 
architect  and  city  planner,  and  a  remarkable  col- 
lection of  musical  manuscripts  from  Mrs.  Gertrude 
Clark  Whittall  to  the  Library  of  Congress. 

A  Mohandas  K,  Gandhi  memorial  collection 
came  from  the  Hindustan  Association  to  Cornell 
University  Library;  180  Danish  plays  and  books 
from  Jean  Hersholt  to  the  University  of  California 
Library,  Los  Angeles;  a  $10,000  art  collection  from 
the  Reverend  Eugene  F.  Bigler  to  Kenyon  College 
Library,  Gambier,  Ohio;  manuscripts  and  letters 
from  the  wife  of  the  late  Sherwood  Anderson  to 
the  Newberry  Library,  Chicago;  funds  to  establish 


LIBYA 


317 


LIVING  COSTS  AND  STANDARDS 


dormitory  libraries  from  John  B.  Griffing  to  Drake 
University  Library,  Des  Monies,  Iowa;  a  grant 
from  the  Central  Education  Board  for  social- 
science  collections  to  the  West  Virginia  Wesleyan 
College,  Buckhanon;  the  entire  Thurlow  Weed  col- 
lection relating  to  19th  century  American  political 
life  to  the  University  of  Rochester,  N.Y. 

Also  a  valuable  collection  on  the  history  of 
women  from  Margaret  Sanger  to  Smith  College  Li- 
brary; and  the  William  M.  Elkins  Library,  "the 
finest  collection  of  Americana  in  private  hands  in 
the  world"  to  the  Free  Library  of  Philadelphia. 
Among  the  war  memorials  was  the  $100,000 
branch-library  building  (with  $25,000  for  reno- 
vation) presented  to  New  Orleans  by  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Harry  H,  Latter  in  honor  of  their  son,  Milton  H. 
Latter,  killed  at  Okinawa. 

Contrasted  to  the  inactivity  of  the  war  years, 
building  construction  gained  a  new  impetus  dur- 
ing the  past  year.  Numerous  university  and  public 
libraries  have  long-term  plans  for  new  buildings  or 
additions.  Among  those  completed  or  under  con- 
struction are;  University  of  California,  Princeton 
University,  Colby  College,  University  of  Maine, 
Dana  College,  Spartanburg  Junior  College,  Vir- 
ginia Union  University,  University  of  Iowa,  Har- 
vard University,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, Kansas  Wesleyan  University,  Gustavus 
Adolphus  College,  Washington  State  College,  and 
the  public  libraries  at  Topeka,  Kan.;  Deland,  Fla.; 
Racine,  Wis.;  Phoenix,  Ariz.;  Athens,  Ga.;  Oak 
Ridge,  Term.;  and  Forest  Park,  111. 

Publications.  Dining  the  past  year,  in  addition  to 
the  regular  periodicals,  A.L.A.  Bulletin,  Booklist, 
Subscription  Books  Bulletin,  College  and  Research 
Libraries,  and  Hospital  Book  Guide,  the  A.L.A. 
Publishing  Department  issued  14  new  books  and 
pamphlets  and  21  reprints  from  a  total  of  over  200 
projects  considered.  The  films,  New  Chapters  and 
Use  Your  Library,  and  a  set  of  five  children's 
story  records  are  also  sold  by  A.L.A. 

See  also  Library  Association,  American  under 
SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS. 

— MILDRED  OTHMER  PETERSON 

LIBYA.  A  territory  of  northern  Africa.  Area:  679,- 
358  square  miles.  Population  (Dec.  31,  1938): 
888,401.  Of  these  763,179  were  Moslems,  30,046 
Jews,  89,098  Italians,  and  6,078  other  Europeans 
(including  many  Maltese).  Chief  cities:  Tripoli, 
capital  (pop,,  108,240),  Bengasi  (64,641),  Misu- 
rata  (45,097),  and  Horns  (34,940).  Ghadames, 
Sinauen,  Mizda,  Murzuk,  and  Ghat  are  caravan 
halting  places  in  the  interior. 

Production  and  Trade.  There  are  in  Libya  3  zones 
from  the  coast  inland;  the  Mediterranean,  the  only 
one  properly  suitable  for  agriculture;  the  sub-des- 
ert, which  produces  the  alfa  plant,  and  the  desert, 
which  contains  some  fertile  oases.  The  chief  prod- 
ucts are  olive  oil,  dates,  fruits,  salt,  sponges,  fish, 
and  tobacco.  Other  products  include  matting,  car- 
pets, and  leather  articles.  In  1947  the  value  of  im- 
ports from  Libya  to  Great  Britain  was  £247,570; 
exports  to  Libya  from  Great  Britain  £434,448. 

Government.  Formerly  a  colony  of  Italy,  but  lost 
by  her  in  the  terms  of  the  peace  treaty  that  came 
into  effect  on  Sept.  15,  1947,  in  which  she  re- 
nounced sovereignty  over  all  her  African  posses- 
sions. Under  Italian  rule  it  had  been  divided  into 
four  coastal  provinces — Derna,  Bengasi,  Misurata, 
and  Tripoli — and  a  military  territory  of  the  south. 
Since  January,  1943,  it  has  been  under  two  British 
Military  Administrations  (one  at  Tripoli  and  the 
other  at  Bengazi),  except  for  the  Fezzan  region  in 
the  south,  which  is  under  French  occupation. 


Events,  1948.  The  four-power  commission  investi- 
gating conditions  and  opinion  in  the  former  cok 
onies  of  Italy  arrived  at  Tripoli  in  March.  It  heard 
from  the  National  Council  for  the  Liberation  of 
Libya,  a  coalition  of  all  five  of  the  parties  in  the 
territory  (headed  by  Beshir  el  Sadawi  Bey),  that 
the  people  wanted  not  only  independence  but 
unity.  The  Council  also  asserted  that  its  views  repre- 
sented those  of  an  important  segment  of  Italian  and 
Jewish  opinion  within  the  colony.  Though  the  Arab 
League  had  been  active  in  organizing  local  opinion, 
the  Council  opposed  a  United  Nations  trusteeship, 
even  one  administered  by  the  Arab  states.  The  re- 
port of  the  commission,  made  public  late  in  July,  re- 
flected these  statements.  At  the  same  time,  the  Brit- 
ish were  known  to  have  their  eye  on  naval  and  air 
bases  in  Cyrenaica,  while  the  French  were  any- 
thing but  anxious  to  give  up  their  hold  on  the 
Fezzan. 

A  month  before  the  commission  reached  Tripoli 
an  incident  had  been  created  in  that  city  by  the 
Arab  Nationalist,  or  Kutla,  Party,  the  most  exalted 
of  the  independence  groups.  When  its  leaders  were 
arrested  and  its  headquarters  searched  by  the  Brit- 
ish administration,  it  became  militant  and  the  au- 
thorities were  obliged  to  use  firearms  to  quell  the 
resultant  riot,  in  which  5  persons  were  killed  and 
17  seriously  wounded.  Further  violence  occurred 
on  June  12-13,  when  anti-  Jewish  disturbances  in 
the  same  city  resulted  in  the  death  of  16  persons 
and  injuries  to  50. 

In  mid-January  the  British  revealed  that  they 
had  given  the  United  States  permission  "tempo- 
rarily" to  reopen  the  airfield  at  Mellaha,  near  Trip- 
oli, for  use  by  American  military  planes  requiring 
refueling  and  servicing  en  route  to  Greece  and 
points  in  the  Middle  East.  The  Soviet  government 
protested  to  both  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  that  this  was  a  violation  of  the  Italian  peace 
treaty,  but  these  protests  were  rejected. 

—  ROBERT  GALE  WOQLBERT 

LIECHTENSTEIN.  A  central  European  principality. 
Area:  62  square  miles.  Population  (1945  census): 
12,197.  Capital,  Vaduz  (2,020  inhabitants).  Chief 
products:  corn,  wine,  fruit,  wood,  marble.  Main  in- 
dustries: cotton  spinning  and  weaving,  leather 
goods,  pottery,  and  livestock  raising.  Liechtenstein 
belongs  to  the  Swiss  Customs  Union  ;  Swiss  cur- 
rency is  used.  Budget  estimates  (1947):  revenue 
3,115,400  francs;  expenditure  3,120,530  francs. 
Public  debt,  Dec.  31,  1946,  3,201,348  francs. 
Reigning  Prince,  Francis  Joseph  II  (succeeded 
Aug.  25,  1938).  Head  of  Government,  Alexander 
Frick  (Sept.  3,  1945). 

LITHUANIA.  A  republic  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Baltic  Sea.  It  was  proclaimed  the  Lithuanian  Soviet 
Socialist  Republic  and  admitted  into  the  Soviet 
Union  on  Aug.  3,  1940.  The  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  however,  have  not  recognized  Lith- 
uania's status  as  a  union  republic  of  the  U.S.S.R. 
Area:  31,600  square  miles.  Population  (1940):  2,- 
879,070.  Chief  towns:  Vilnius  (Vilna)  207,750  in- 
habitants, Kaunas  (Kovno)  152,365,  SiauHai  (Shav- 
li)  31,299.  Agriculture  is  the  prime  occupation  of 
the  people.  The  main  crops  include  rye,  wheat, 
pats,  barley,  flax,  and  sugar  peets.  Livestock  raising 
is  important  Manufactured  goods  include  linen 
fabrics,  yarn,  cotton,  leather,  tobacco,  plywqod, 
lumber,  and  sugar.  Budget  estimates  (1948):  1,~ 
199,120,000  rubles, 


LIVING    COSTS    AND    STANDARDS.    See    PBICES 
LIVING  COSTS. 


LOUISIANA 


318 


MACHINE  BUM0/NG 


LOUISIANA,  A  west  south  central  State.  Area:  48,- 
506  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  2,576,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  2,363,880.  Chief 
cities:  Baton  Rouge  (capital),  34,719  inhabitants 
in  1940;  New  Orleans,  494,537.  See  AGRICULTURE, 
EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS, 
UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Legislation.  The  regular  session  of  the  Louisiana 
Legislature  which  convened  on  May  10  and  ad- 
journed July  8,  and  the  special  session  lasting  10 
days  which  adjourned  October  3,  resulted  in  rec- 
ord-breaking biennial  general  fund  appropriations 
of  about  $365  million,  largely  for  education. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $186,672,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $173,899,000. 

Elections.  Louisiana's  10  electoral  votes  were  cast 
for  Thurmond  who  had  a  popular  plurality  over 
Truman  and  Dewey,  In  the  regular  Senatorial  race, 
Incumbent  Democrat  Allen  J.  Ellender  was  re- 
elected  with  no  opposition.  Russell  B.  Long,  Demo- 
crat, was  elected  at  the  same  time  to  complete  the 
unexpired  term  ending  Jan.  3,  1951.  All  8  House 
seats  remained  Democratic.  In  the  State  election  on 
April  20,  a  complete  slate  of  Democrats  was 
elected,  including  Earl  Long — Governor;  William 
J.  Dodd — Lieutenant  Governor;  Wade  O.  Martin, 
Jr. — Secretary  of  State;  Bolivar  E,  Kemp — Attor- 
ney General;  A.  P.  Tugwell— Treasurer;  L.  B.  Bay- 
nard — Auditor. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  James  H.  Davis;  Lieut. 
Governor,  J.  Emile  Verret;  Secretary  of  State, 
Wade  O.  Martin,  Jr.;  Attorney  General,  Fred  S. 
LeBlanc;  State  Treasurer,  A.  P.  Tugwell;  State  Au- 
ditor, L.  B.  Baynard. 

LUTHERAN  CHURCH.  The  National  Lutheran  Council 
with  8  national  bodies  is  the  agency  for  two-thirds 
of  Lutheranism  in  America.  The  Council  is  the  U.S. 
National  Committee  for  the  Lutheran  World  Fed- 
eration, numbering  some  60  million  adherents  on 
five  continents  and  in  42  countries.  The  Synodical 
Conference,  consisting  of  the  Lutheran  Church- 
Missouri  Synod  and  four  other  smaller  groups, 
comprises  the  other  third  of  Lutheranism. 

In  America  the  Council  engages  in  ministry  to 
college  students,  social  services,  American  missions, 
public  relations,  service  to  military  personnel,  re- 
settlement of  displaced  persons,  and  collection  of 
relief  supplies.  Lutherans  had  contributed  more 
than  40  million  dollars  for  war  and  postwar  emer- 
gency relief  and  reconstruction  by  the  end  of  1948, 
The  bicentennial  observance  of  organized  Luther- 
anism in  America  by  Pennsylvania  Lutherans  was 
the  main  anniversary  of  1948. 

Major  task  before  American  Lutheranism  was  to 
continue  support  of  its  homeless  in  exile  and  to  find 
them  immigration  opportunities  in  Canada,  Aus- 
tralia, the  United  States,  and  South  America.  The 
ising  oppression  by  totalitarianism  in  eastern  Eu- 
ope  and  the  Far  East  was  noted  in  the  arrest  and 
onviction  of  Bishop  Lajos  Ordass  of  Hungary  and 
be  overrunning  of  mission  fields  by  Chinese  Com- 
aunist  armies.  These  pressures  were  felt  sensitively 
»y  Lutheran  churchmen  engaged  in  a  world-wide 
iro'gram  of  evangelization.  Three  well  known 
hurch  leaders  died  during  the  year:  Dr.  Ralph 
xmg,  Executive  Director  of  The  National  Lu- 
bieran  Council;  Dr.  Daniel  Nelson,  Lutheran 
Vbrld  Federation  Commissioner  to  China,  in  a 
liracy  plane  crash;  Bishop  Frank  Wheatcroft  of 
be  Lutheran  Church  of  France. 

The  Lutheran  churches  in  America  have  a  total 
faptized  membership  (1947)  of  5,836,147  with 
6,375  churches  and  14,305  ministers.  Excluding 


elementary  schools,  there  are  94  educational  insti- 
tutions with  35,987  enrolled  students.  Foreign  mis- 
sionaries number  1,140;  confirmed  members  of 
mission  churches,  170,227.  Church  properties  in 
the  United  States  were  valued  at  $539,909,317. 
Contributions  totaled  $131,942,030.  Headquarters 
of  the  National  Lutheran  Council,  231  Madison 
Ave.,  New  York  16,  N.Y.— CABL  E.  LUND-QUIST 

LUXEMBOURG  (Luxemburg).  A  grand  duchy  between 
Belgium,  France,  and  Germany.  Area:  999  square 
miles.  Population  (1947  census):  286,786.  Capi- 
tal: Luxembourg,  61,590  inhabitants.  Agriculture 
was  the  occupation  of  32  percent  of  the  people  in 
1946.  Oats,  potatoes,  wheat,  rye,  and  grapes  com- 
prise the  chief  crops.  Livestock  (1946)  included 
118,080  cattle,  78,290  pigs,  15,157  horses,  10,447 
sheep,  and  1,760  goats.  The  chief  industries  are 
mining  and  metallurgy.  In  1947  output  (in  metric 
tons)  of  iron  ore  was  1,994,427,  pig  iron  1,818,160, 
steel  1,714,297.  Budget  estimates  (1948):  revenue 
3,511,567,000  francs;  expenditure  3,914,299,029 
francs.  Consolidated  debt  (1947):  1,787,366,081 
francs.  On  Jan.  1,  1948,  an  economic  union  (Bene- 
lux )  of  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  and  Luxembourg 
came  into  force.  Foreign  trade  statistics  for  Luxem- 
bourg are  included  with  those  of  Belgium. 

The  grand  duchy  is  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
with  the  hereditary  sovereignty  being  in  the  Nassau 
family.  A  democratic  form  or  government  is  pro- 
vided by  the  Constitution  of  1868  (amended  in 
1919).  There  is  a  chamber  of  deputies  of  51  mem- 
bers elected  for  6  years  by  universal  suffrage.  The 
right  to  organize  the  government  rests  with  the 
sovereign.  A  council  of  state  of  15  members  is 
chosen  for  life  by  the  sovereign.  Ruler:  Grand 
Duchess  Charlotte.  Prime  Minister,  Pierre  Dupong 
(Christian  Socialist);  Foreign  Affairs,  Joseph  Beck 
(Christian  Socialist). 

MACAO.  A  Portuguese  colony  in  southern  China, 
comprising  the  island  of  Macao  and  the  small 
adjacent  islands  of  Taipa  and  Coloane,  at  the 
rnouth  of  die  Canton  River.  Area:  6  square  miles. 
Population:  374,737,  including  9,000  Portuguese 
(1940).  Fishing  is  the  most  important  industry, 
engaging  more  than  40,000  people.  The,  chief  ex- 
ports include  cement,  fish,  and  preserves. 

MACHINE  BUILDING.  The  building  of  machines  is 
becoming  more  and  more  dependent  on  machine 
tools  as  they  replace  operations  formerly  done  by 
hand.  While  this  is  having  the  effect  of  reducing 
the  percentage  of  highly  skilled  men  needed  in  the 
industry  it  is  making  even  greater  skill  necessary 
in  many  of  the  operations.  Specialists,  trained  in 
the  use  of  one  or  two  machines,  have  replaced  the 
all-around  men  in  many  plants.  But  the  all-around 
mechanic  is  more  necessary  than  ever  in  keeping 
the  more  intricate  machines  in  operation.  Since  we 
must  have  machine  tools  to  produce  all  other  types 
of  machines  as  well  as  their  products,  both  the 
skilled  mechanic  and  the  machine  operator  are 
very  necessary  to  our  progress. 

There  has  been  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
machines  which  can  perform  operations  on  more 
than  one  piece  at  the  same  time.  This  began  with 
the  multiple-spindle  automatic  screw  machine  but 
is  being  'extended  to  other  machines  such  as  the 
gear  cutter  and  the  lathe. 

Steel  castings,  which  at  one  time  were  replacing 
steel  forgings  to  a  great  extent,  are  meeting  strong 
competition  with  forgings  in  many  fields.  This  is 
particularly  true  in  the  oil-well  field  where  pipe- 
lines are  under  heavy  pressure  and  failures  or  J 


MACHINE  BUlLDiMG 


319 


MACHINE  BUliDING 


age  is  very  expensive.  Many  of  the  valves  and 
other  fittings  used  in  well-known  oil-well  "Christ- 
mas Trees"  are  now  made  of  forgings  instead  of 
castings.  The  cost  of  the  forgings  has  been  reduced 
by  improved  methods  of  machine  forging,  which 
are  receiving  careful  attention. 

Among  the  cost-reducing  methods  is  the  use  of 
robot,  or  automatic  handling  devices  on  some  of 
the  heavy  forgings.  A  huge  5,000  ton  hydraulic 
forging  machine  can  now  be  handled  by  remote 
control  from  a  "pulpit"  where  pushbuttons  enable 
the  operator  to  work  huge  tongs  which  hold  the 
forging,  moving  the  work  in  and  out  of  the  press 
at  will.  This  greatly  reduces  the  cost  of  direct 
labor,  which  in  this  case  would  be  idle  much  of 
the  time. 

Surface  finishing  is  another  item  of  manufacture 
which  is  undergoing  drastic  changes.  While  the 
profilometer,  a  machine  to  read  the  imperfections 
in  the  smoothness  of  a  surface,  has  been  in  use  for 
some  time,  there  has  been  no  standardizing  of  the 
work  until  quite  recently.  This  is  quite  an  accom- 
plishment, owing  to  the  many  conflicting  elements 
which  are  part  of  the  problem  of  surface  finish. 
These  include  roughness,  which  depends  on  the 
nearness  of  surface  grooves  or  scratches  to  each 
other,  the  depth  and  direction  of  these  imperfec- 
tions, and  other  factors. 

A  frequent  method  in  surface  finishing  is  to 
compare  the  finish  with  standard  steel  blocks  ma- 
chined to  different  finishes.  Polish  is  not  necessarily 
part  of  a  good  finish.  The  accuracy  of  modern  ma- 
chining can  be  judged  by  the  fact  that  some  of 
the  scratches  or  imperfections  can  be  reduced  to  a 
few  millionths  of  an  inch. 

After  a  part  has  been  finished  it  must  be  pro- 
tected against  corrosion,  which  can  ruin  the  best 
of  finishes.  One  steel  concern  has  saved  a  $40,000 
annual  loss  from  this  source  by  air-conditioning  the 
department  containing  the  polished  steel  parts. 
The  previous  loss  was  caused  by  pinpoint  corrosion 
after  finishing. 

Screw  Threads.  The  importance  of  screw  threads 
can  hardly  be  overestimated.  They  are  used  to  hold 
parts  together,  in  sizes  so  small  as  to  be  hardly  visi- 
ble, in  watches  and  some  fine  instruments,  and  also 
in  the  assembling  of  machinery  weighing  many 
tons.  After  many  years  of  consultation  and  strenu- 
ous work  we  are  on  the  verge  of  having  standard 
screws  which  can  be  interchanged  in  British  and 
American  machines.  This  is  equally  valuable  in 
peace  and  war.  The  British  will  adopt  our  60° 
thread  angle  and  we  will  use  their  rounded  form 
for  the  bottom  of  the  threads,  which  adds  strength, 
as  it  eliminates  any  sharp  corner  from  which  cracks 
could  start.  The  rounded  top  of  the  thread  is  more 
or  less  optional,  as  it  does  not  affect  the  fit.  And 
with  the  growing  use  of  ground  threads,  made  with 
abrasive  wheels  having  a  crushed  face,  the  new 
form  is  the  easiest  to  produce.  It  will  be  known  as 
the  "Unified"  thread. 

We  also  have  another  new  thread  for  use  on 
studs  and  bolts.  Known  as  the  "Lok-Thred,"  it  has 
a  depth  of  not  much  over  half  the  standard  thread, 
and  an  angular  bottom  face  so  that  the  nut  bears 
on  the  6°  surface  and  puts  the  stress  on  the  body 
of  the  bolt  rather  than  on  the  thread  itself.  It  some- 
what resembles  the  Dardalet  thread  which  has^  had 
only  a  limited  use. 

Castings.  Foundry  work  is  also  changing.  One 
large  mechanized  foundry  is  using  synthetic  sand 
while  another  uses  a  dry,  lean  mixture  of  sand  and 
cement  for  its  molds  for  large  castings.  After  pour- 
ing, the  molds  are  broken  up  and  the  material  used 
again,  with  a  little  conditioning. 


A  new  development  in  precision  castings  is  be- 
ing used  to  produce  the  rotors  for  the  Buick  Dyna- 
flow  transmission,  this  being  known  as  tie  "Anti- 
och"  process,  not  to  be  confused  with  the  "lost 
wax,"  or  "investment"  process,  being  used  in  other 
industries.  The  new  process  uses  plaster  molds 
which  give  very  accurate  castings  of  exceptional 
smoothness,  free  from  porosity,  and  which  are 
homogeneous  and  compare  in  strength  with  sand 
cast  iron.  The  efficiency  of  these  rotors  depends 
largely  on  the  accuracy  of  the  blade  form.  This 
method  saves  a  huge  investment  in  special  tools 
necessary  to  produce  them  by  machining  methods. 

Carbide  Drills.  Carbide  tools  continue  to  be  used 
in  more  and  more  operations.  Their  use  includes 
not  only  the  cutting  edges  of  tools  but  also  wear 
strips  on  boring  bars  and  similar  tools  where  guides 
must  be  provided.  One  development  is  a  single-lip 
drill  by  the  Carboloy  Company,  to  be  used  in 
shallow  as  well  as  in  deep  holes  where  this  type 
of  drill  has  been  used  in  the  past.  It  is  designed 
to  secure  maximum  results  where  sufficient  speed 
is  available.  Early  users  of  carbide  tried  to  adapt  it 
to  the  cutting  edges  of  drills  but  without  any 
great  success.  Presumably  the  newer  types  of  car- 
bide are  better  suited  for  this  work. 

Saving  Idle  Time.  With  the  increase  in  cutting 
speeds  the  time  of  handling  work  in  and  out  of 
the  machine  becomes  more  important  than  before 
and  affects  production  to  a  marked  degree.  Similar- 
ly, time  lost  between  different  cutting  operations 
affects  the  output  per  hour  or  per  day.  To  test  the 
advantages  of  saving  as  much  of  this  time  as  possi- 
ble the  Warner  &  Swasey  Company  equipped  a 
small  turret  lathe  with  a  motor  which  could  start, 
stop,  and  reverse  under  a  heavy  load.  A  lathe  was 
then  built  to  match  the  motor.  All  functions  except 
positioning  are  governed  by  an  automatic  drum  on 
the  end  of  the  turret  slide  opposite  the  turret.  Four 
cam  drums  are  geared  to  the  turret  and  index  with 
it.  Spindle  reverse  is  controlled  within  %  of  a  revo- 
lution, eliminating  the  need  for  collapsing  taps  and 
dies.  These  changes  have  greatly  reduced  idle  time 
and  so  have  increased  the  output  of  the  machine. 

Spinning.  The  spinning  process,  which  is  usually 
confined  to  the  making  of  a  few  sheet  metal  parts 
to  save  the  expense  of  punches  and  dies,  is  now 
being  used  as  a  production  process  by  the  Interna- 
tional Harvester  Company.  They  have  developed 
an  automatic  spinning  machine  for  making  the 
skimmer  disks  for  their  cream  separators,  more  sat- 
isfactorily and  at  a  lower  cost  than  was  possible 
with  the  presses  formerly  used. 

Powdered  Metal.  Powdered  metal  parts,  impreg- 
nated with  oil,  are  being  more  widely  used.  Be- 
ginning with  small  bronze  bearings,  the  process 
now  extends  to  such  iron  parts  as  pistons  for  shock- 
absorbers  and  contact  plates  in  clutches.  Powdered 
bronze  bearings  for  the  steering  assembly,  wind- 
shield wiper  cross-shaft,  water-pump  bushings, 
and  similar  parts  of  the  Ford,  Mercury,  and  Lin- 
coln cars  are  now  in  use.  These  parts  are  at  least 
as  strong  as  solid  metal  and  solve  many  lubrication 
problems.  Powdered  metal  parts  are  also  being  made 
in  larger  sizes  than  ever  before. 

Among  the  minor  improvements,  but  one  that 
can  be  of  great  assistance  in  the  shop,  is  the  new 
adhesive  tape  which  is  being  used  to  bond  metal, 
fiber,  wood,  and  plastics,  and  which  has  a  strength 
of  3,500  Ib.  per  square  inch.  Another  development 
is  the  double-faced  tape  which  is  used  to  hold  work 
in  place  on  face  plates  firmly  so  as  to  permit  light 
machining  of  metal  parts  wnich  would  be  difficult 
to  hold  by  the  usual  methods. 

— FRED  H,  COLVIN 


MADAGASCAR 


320 


MAGAZINES 


MADAGASCAR.  A  French,  island  colony  in  the  In- 
dian Ocean  off  the  southeastern  coast  of  Africa, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mozambique 
Channel.  Area:  241,094  square  miles.  Population 
(1946):  4  million.  Nossi-Be  and  Sainte  Marie  are 
considered  parts  of  Madagascar,  whereas  the  Glori- 
ous Islands,  and  the  islands  of  Kerguelen,  Crozet, 
St.  Paul,  Amsterdam,  and  other  islands  are  de- 
pendencies. The  Comoro  Islands  became  an  au- 
tonomous territory  in  1946,  under  partial  authority 
of  the  High  Commissioner  of  Madagascar.  Tanana- 
rive (1946  pop.  163,079)  is  the  capital,  Tamatave, 
the  chief  port.  The  official  language  is  French. 

Education  and  Religion.  Education  is  compulsory 
up  to  the  age  of  14.  In  1947  there  were  1,040  of- 
ficial schools  with  a  total  of  120,000  pupik  Native 
institutions  of  higher  learning  include  medical,  in- 
dustrial, agricultural,  and  administrative  schools. 
There  are  3,493  Protestant,  and  1,867  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  also  75  mosques. 

production  and  Trade.  The  majority  of  the  natives 
are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  cattle  raising.  Live- 
stock (1945):  5,948,000  cattle,  421,000  pigs,  and 
319,500  sheep  and  goats.  Principal  crops  in  1945 
were  (figures  in  metric  tons):  rice  (770,000), 
coffee  (28,000),  sugarcane  (230,000),  vanilla 
(653),  maize,  tapioca,  coconuts,  and  sweet  pota- 
toes. The  extensive  forests  yield  rubber,  gum, 
resins,  and  plants  for  medicinal,  tanning,  and  dye- 
ing purposes.  Minerals  include:  gold,  mica,  pre- 
cious stones,  phosphates,  and  graphite.  The  1946 
mineral  output  was  valued  at  96,495,026  francs. 

Chief  exports  are  vanilla  (21  percent),  coffee 
(15  percent),  cloves,  honey,  and  gold.  Total  im- 
ports in  1946,  $31,023,000;  exports,  $39,671,000. 
Textiles,  gasoline,  machinery  and  parts,  and  paper 
are  the  chief  imports. 

Finance.  The  1947  general  budget  estimates  bal- 
anced at  1,168,569,340  francs;  the  provincial  budg- 
et amounted  to  955,889,800  francs. 

Government.  Madagascar  and  dependencies,  a 
French  colony  since  1896,  is  administered  by  a 
Governor  General  appointed  by  the  French  Min- 
ister of  Colonies.  Under  the  1946  reorganization, 
tlie  colony  is  divided  into  5  provinces  with  a  gen- 
eral assembly  at  Tananarive.  The  colony  is  repre- 
sented in  the  French  National  Assembly,  the 
Council  of  the  Republic,  and  the  Assembly  of  the 
French  Union,  by  5  deputies  to  each.  Governor 
General:  Pierre  de  Chevigne. 

MADEIRA.  A  district  (Funchal)  of  Portugal,  com- 
prising a  group  of  islands  (Madeira,  Porto  Santo, 
and  three  uninhabited  isles )  in  the  Atlantic  about 
550  miles  southwest  of  Lisbon.  Area:  314  square 
miles.  Population  (1940):  250,124.  Capital,  Fun- 
chal (on  Madeira),  48,493  inhabitants.  The  chief 
products  are  wine,  sugar,  embroidery,  linen,  leath- 
er, stew  hats,  baskets,  fish,  and  fruits.  Cereals, 
textiles,  and  coal  are  the  principal  imports. 

MAGAZINES.  In  1948,  for  the  first  time  in  seven 
years,  the  magazine  industry  began  to  see  some 
breaks  in  the  prosperity  it  had  enjoyed  for  so  long. 
Statistically  the  general  picture  was  deceptive,  for 
many  critical  problems  lay  hidden  behind  the  all- 
tiine  high  advertising  and  circulation  volume 
many  magazines  could  boast.  And  to  replace  such 
problems  as  inadequate  paper  supply  and  printing 
facilities,  both  now  things  of  the  past,  were  diffi- 
culties more  basic  and  serious.  While  paper  was 
plentiful  and  of  improved  quality,  it  was  taking  up 


to  5  percent  more  of  the  total  income  received  by 
magazines  than  in  1947,  and  printing  costs  had 
risen  up  to  25  percent.  Even  though  record 


amounts  were  received  from  circulation  and  adver- 
tising, much  of  this  could  be  accounted  for  by  the 
increases  in  advertising  rates  and  single  copy  and 
subscription  prices  which  a  large  number  of  publi- 
cations had  put  into  effect. 

Advertising.  Almost  all  magazines  carried  less 
linage  in  1948  than  in  1947.  There  were  some 
notable  exceptions,  such  as  Look,  Better  Homes 
and  Gardens,  Woman's  Home  Companion,  Popu- 
lar Science,  Business  Week,  and  Holiday  (up  80 
percent).  But  linage  in  Esquire,  for  example, 
dropped  30  percent  in  1948;  Redbook  dropped  W 
percent;  Vogue,  Mademoiselle,  Glamour,  Charm, 
Harpers  Bazaar,  showed  decreases  of  20  percent 
and  more  in  linage.  This  was  particularly  serious  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  point  at  which  publica- 
tions break  even  is  higher  because  of  increased  pro- 
duction costs.  In  spite  of  this  general  downward 
trend,  Curtis  Publishing  Company,  because  of  an 
efficient  new  plant,  was  able  to  increase  its  profits. 

There  were  about  12,500  national  magazine  ad- 
vertisers in  the  country,  spending  a  total  of  over 
$460  million  in  magazine  advertising  during  1948. 
The  return  of  the  buyers*  market  and  more  active 
competition  will  mate  it  necessary  for  industry 
and  business  to  rely  even  more  heavily  on  national 
advertising  in  the  future.  But  the  increased  budgets 
for  national  advertising  will  be  spent  with  great 
care  and  the  competition  by  publications  for  na- 
tional advertising  is  sure  to  be  tremendous.  Even 
before  the  returns  of  the  presidential  elections 
shook  the  faith  of  business  in  polls  and  market 
surveys,  there  were  definite  signs  that  advertising 
managers  were  looking  for  more  specific  yardsticks 
to  help  them  evaluate  possible  media; 

The  Magazine  Advertising  Bureau's  survey  of 
magazine  audiences  made  early  in  1948  failed  to 
satisfy  advertising  executives  or  to  quiet  their  gen- 
eral dissatisfaction  with  the  information  that  had 
been  given  them  by  publishers.  Because  of  this 
the  Association  of  National  Advertisers  made  its 
own  survey,  released  at  the  end  of  May  as  the  ANA 
Magazine  Rate  and  Circulation  Study  of  Fourteen 
Magazines.  The  magazines  included  in  this  study 
were  American,  American  Home,  Better  Homes 
and  Gardens,  Collier's,  Cosmopolitan.,  Good  House- 
keeping, Laaies'  Home  Journal,  Life*  Look,  Me- 
Call's,  Newsweek,  Saturday  Evening  Post,  Time? 
and  the  Woman's  Home  Companion.  In  this  report 
gauges  were  suggested  to  help  advertisers  select 
magazines  which  would  give  them  better  value  for 
their  advertising  dollars.  The  report  stressed  the 
use  of  accurate  mathematical  measurements  such 
as  the  rate  per  thousand  circulation,  promotion 
methods,  character  and  duplication  of  magazine 
audiences.  The  report  criticized  the  intangible 
measurements  such  as  "readers  per  copy"  upon 
which  many  publications  had  relied  heavily  during 
recent  years  to  secure  increased  advertising. 

In  spite  of  die  drop  in  advertising  linage  gen- 
erally and  the  feeling  that  magazines  should  try 
other  alternatives  for  meeting  costs  than  raising  ad- 
vertising rates,  a  number  of  magazines  either  raised 
their  advertising  rates  again  during  the  last  quarter 
of  1948,  or  announced  increases  effective  early 
in  1949.  These  included  Better  Homes  and  Gar- 
dens, American,  School  Management,  Look,  Wom- 
an's Home  Companion,  Redbook,  Mechanix  Illus- 
trated, McCalFs,  Holiday,  and  others.  In  most  cases 
circulation  guarantees  were  also  upped. 

Circulation.  Magazines  have  fared  generally  bet- 
ter in  circulation  than  in  advertising,  with  several 
showing  notable  gains  during  1948.  Most  impres- 
sive advance  was  made  by  Reader's  Digest  which 
now  sells  over  fifteen  million  copies  each  month, 


MAGAZINES 


321 


MAGAZINES 


including  domestic  and  international  editions — two 
miUion  more  than  the  previous  year.  But  despite 
these  increases  and  the  gain  in  circulation  dollar 
volume  caused  by  higher  subscription  and  news- 
stand rates,  there  is  a  widespread  effort  in  the 
magazine  industry  to  boost  circulation  even  beyond 
the  present  record  peaks.  Some  of  the  techniques 
for  selh'ng  subscriptions  that  were  in  use  before 
the  war,  were  resumed,  such  as  special  introduc- 
tory offers  at  reduced  rates.  In  1948  the  Atlantic 
Monthly  offered  seven  issues  for  $2.50;  Look,  28 
issues  for  $3.00;  Popular  Science  gave  an  eight- 
month  introductory  subscription  for  $1.  Other  pub- 
lications, such  as  Science  Illustrated,  offered  sav- 
ings for  long-term  subscriptions.  Newsweek  tested 
five  different  40-week  special  offers  at  varying  rates 
for  different  groups.  It  was  planned  to  arrive  at 
some  standard  introductory  rate  by  averaging  the 
returns  on  the  various  lists. 

In  1947,  climaxing  the  reading  boom  started 
during  the  war,  over  5,000  million  magazines 
were  bought  by  the  American  people,  but  the  1948 
figure  dropped  well  below  that  peak.  In  spite  of 
this  general  loss,  and  even  with  so  many  increases 
in  newsstand  prices,  there  were  forty-eight  maga- 
zines which  sold  over  a  million  copies  per  issue 
during  1948.  However,  at  the  year's  end  there  were 
indications  that  a  limit  to  the  price  raises  which  the 
public  would  absorb  had  been  reached.  In  many 
cases  newsstand  sales  fell  off  because  of  higher 
single-copy  prices,  and  substantial  drops  in  cir- 
culation resulted.  The  Ladies9  Home  Journal  gave 
its  advertisers  a  rebate  of  5  percent  for  several  is- 
sues in  which  its  circulation  guarantees  had  not 
been  met. 

The  fight  for  new  readers  during  1948  led  to 
practices  out  of  use  since  before  the  war.  Free 
examination  copies  were  given;  copies  of  magazines 
were  sent  for  one  or  two  issues  after  expiration  of 
subscriptions.  And  the  pressure  to  protect  circula- 
tion guarantees  to  advertisers  led  to  the  resumption 
of  door-to-door  soliciting  for  subscriptions,  in  an 
effort  to  increase  the  proportion  of  subscription  to 
single-copy  buyers.  With  this  house-to-house  can- 
vassing came  the  many  abuses  which  are  common- 
ly connected  with  this  operation.  Though  most  of 
die  complaints  were  against  the  solicitors  them- 
selves, who  tended  to  be  over-zealous,  unscrupu- 
lous, and  to  use  fake  appeals  and  sympathy  sales 
devices,  the  public  relations  of  the  entire  magazine 
industry  stood  to  suffer. 

To  combat  this,  the  National  Association  of 
Magazine  Publishers  has  been  trying,  through  their 
Central  Registry  Board  ( set  up  but  little  used  since 
1940 ) ,  to  eliminate  the  bad  taste  left  by  unscrupu- 
lous solicitors.  Local  Better  Business  Bureaus  have 
cooperated  with  them  closely  in  their  program  of 
public  relations  and  in  their  efforts  to  have  solici- 
tors and  subscription  agencies  abide  by  their  Ar- 
ticles of  Agreement.  Complaint  forms  were  made 
available  to  the  Better  Business  Bureaus  which 
could  be  filed  with  the  Central  Registry  against 
any  members.  Under  the  Articles  of  Agreement 
penalties  for  those  who  violate  the  code  include 
warning  letters,  payments  of  damages  of  not  more 
than  $500  for  any  single  complaint,  and  expulsion 
from  the  Board.  Though  most  of  the  complaints 
so  far  have  been  about  nonfulfillment  of  subscrip- 
tions, the  complaints  about  solicitors  have  proved 
more  damaging  to  the  industry.  The  National  As- 
sociation of  Magazine  Publishers  is  particularly 
anxious  to  enforce  its  code  in  order  to  forestall  local 
restrictions  against  all  magazine  solicitation. 

The  Comics  Magazines.  The  NAMP  was  not  the 
only  magazine  executive  group  that  felt  impelled 


to  set  up  a  code  of  ethics.  During  1948  some  of  the 
heaviest  criticism  against  any  medium  of  commu- 
nication was  leveled  against  comics  magazines. 
Such  eminent  men  as  Dr.  Francis  Wertham,  noted 
psychiatrist  (in  an  article  in  the  Saturday  Review 
of^  Literature  in  May,  later  reprinted  in  die  Read" 
ers  Digest),  John  Mason  Brown,  and  many  lead- 
ing educators  and  penologists  criticized  the  comics 
as  sources  of  juvenile  delinquency,  the  "marijuana 
of  the  cradle,"  etc.  In  New  York  State,  Senator 
Benjamin  Feinberg,  majority  leader  of  the  State 
Legislature,  announced  that  he  would  sponsor  a 
bill  to  deal  with  undesirable  comics.  To  combat 
this  barrage  of  criticism,  fourteen  of  the  thirty-five 
publishers  of  comics  magazines,  "realizing  their 
responsibility  to  ...  millions  of  readers  and  to 
the  public,"  formed  the  Association  of  Comics 
Magazine  Publishers,  Inc.,  which  put  forth  a  pub- 
lic-relations program  to  answer  critics  of  this  large 
sector  of  the  magazine  industry.  This  group  set 
up  a  code  of  ethics  for  the  comics  magazine  in- 
dustry and  asked  all  of  its  members  to  submit 
copies  of  their  comics  titles  for  review.  The  As- 
sociation also  appointed  a  committee  of  responsible 
leaders  and  educators  to  act  as  advisors  to  the 
comics  magazine  industry.  The  Comics  Code  which 
was  worked  out  by  the  ACMP  urged  the  publica- 
tion of  comics  magazines  that  contained  only  good 
wholesome  education  or  entertainment.  The  Code 
provided  the  following  restrictions  in  comics  maga- 
zines: (1)  no  sexy  comics  or  indecent  drawings; 
(2)  crime  should  not  be  presented  to  show  details 
and  methods  of  crime,  nor  should  it  create  sym- 
pathy for  the  criminals  rather  than  the  law;  (3) 
no  torture  scenes;  (4)  no  vulgar  or  obscene  lan- 
guage and  a  minimum  of  slang;  ( 5 )  divorce  should 
not  be  made  alluring  or  humorous;  (6)  no  ridicule 
of  any  religious  or  racial  group. 

Other  comics  publishers  took  steps  to  correct  the 
abuses  of  their  industry  and  to  ward  off  the  pos- 
sibility of  increased  legal  restrictions  against  the 
sale  or  distribution  of  their  products.  Already  many 
cities  have  put  in  rigid  ordinances  against  comics, 
and  others  have  censorship  committees.  Los  An- 
geles County  prohibits  the  sale  of  comics  dealing 
with  murder,  burglary,  arson,  kidnapping,  or  as- 
sault with  dangerous  weapons.  Detroit  and  Hills- 
dale,  Michigan,  have  banned  36  titles  under  a 
state  law  outlawing  "obscene,  indecent,  and  im- 
moral literature."  Other  ordinances  are  expected 
in  New  York  City,  Kansas  City,  Cleveland,  Cin- 
cinnati, and  New  Orleans. 

In  New  Orleans,  a  report  to  the  Mayor  on  comics 
magazines  suggested  that  the  solution  lay  only  in 
the  voluntary  cooperation  and  self-regulation  of 
comics  book  publishers,  wholesale  distributors,  re- 
tailers, parents,  and  organizations.  It  was  also  sug- 
gested that  an  advisory  committee  of  parents  and 
city  officials  be  formed. 

The  National  Comics  Publications,  Inc.,  one  of 
the  largest  comics  publishing  companies,  ran  a 
series  of  full-page  advertisements  in  the  Saturday 
Evening  Post  to  answer  comics  critics.  They  point- 
ed out  that  the  increase  in  comics  magazine  titles 
to  a  total  of  300  and  the  consequent  competition 
encourages  some  publishers  to  use  lurid  and  sensa- 
tional features,  but  that  well-edited  comics  can  be 
a  force  for  good  among  children. 

Foreign  Markets.  In  addition  to  the  drive  for  do- 
mestic business,  there  has  also  been  a  spurt  in 
overseas  sales  or  magazines.  Omnibodk  added  for- 
eign editions  in  Australia  ^and  France;  the  interna- 
tional editions  of  Readers  Digest  increased  from 
5  to  8  million.  Macfadden  Publications  was  still  a 
giant  in  overseas  sales,  with  their  eleven  foreign 


MAGAZINES 


322 


MAGAZINES 


editions  selling  over  60  million  annually.  True 
Story  represents  the  bulk  of  their  sales,  some  50 
million  annually.  The  rest  of  the  sales  are  made  up 
from  the  Australian  and  British  editions  of  True 
Romances,  the  French  edition  of  Super  Detective., 
and  the  Australian  edition  of  Photoplay.  Seven 
countries  are  producing  True  Story  locally,  mostly 
as  straight  translations  of  the  U.S.  magazine.  Most 
stories  in  True  Story  emphasize  emotion  and  not 
scene,  and  therefore  they  have  a  common  denomi- 
nator suitable  to  many  countries. 

A  big  spurt  in  overseas  sales  of  magazines  can 
be  expected  as  the  result  of  a  $10  million  fund 
made  available  by  the  Economic  Cooperation  Ad- 
ministration to  guarantee  new  investments  made 
abroad  in  "informational  media."  The  purpose  of 
this  fund  is  to  overcome  the  dollar  shortage  in 
certain  foreign  countries  by  enabling  American 
producers  of  books,  magazines,  newspapers,  and 
films  to  accept  national  currencies  for  the  sale  of 
their  products  abroad. 

Another  movement  designed  to  increase  under- 
standing of  the  American  way  of  life  abroad  by 
sending  United  States  publications  overseas,  was 
a  program  set  up  through  the  Civil  Affairs  Division 
of  the  United  States  Army  for  distribution  of  Amer- 
ican magazines,  usually  newsstand  returns,  through 
the  United  States  Information  Centers  and  reading 
rooms  in  occupied  areas,  in  Germany,  Japan,  Aus- 
tria, and  Korea.  Practically  all  general,  business, 
trade,  and  professional  magazines  are  welcomed, 
but  not  pulps,  comics,  or  controversial  political 
magazines.  Pressure  was  put  on  the  Government 
to  allot  a  fund  to  pay  for  the  shipment  of  such 
magazines.  This  would  be  considered  part  of  the 
State  Department's  Voice  of  America  program.  It 
is  understood  that  both  the  Senate  and  the  House 
agreed  tentatively  on  $3  million  for  this  purpose. 

Still  selling  widely  in  Germany  were  the  three 
magazines  published  by  the  U.S.  Military  Govern- 
ment— Heute,  a  picture  magazine,  Der  Monat,  a 
political  monthly,  and  Neue  Auslese,  a  cultural  di- 
gest— supplementing  Die  Neue  Zeitung,  the  three- 
times-a-week  flourishing  newspaper  published  un- 
der the  same  auspices. 

Suspensions.  A  number  of  magazines  were  sus- 
pended or  discontinued.  Notable  among  those  dis- 
continued was  Pic,  which  in  spite  of  its  622,000 
monthly  circulation  was  dropped  in  December  by 
Street  and  Smith  to  divert  paper  and  press  time  to 
the  year-old  Street  and  Smith  publication,  Made- 
moiselle's Living.  '48,  The  Magazine  of  the  Year, 
the  cooperative  undertaking  which  had  gone 
through  a  number  of  reorganizations,  was  finally 
discontinued.  Kaleidoscope,  the  spectacular  fash- 
ion magazine,  was  suspended  after  publishing  three 
issues.  Salute,  after  undergoing  several  changes  in 
the  past  few  years,  stopped  publication.  Junior 
Bazaar  combined  with  Harpers  Bazaar;  and  Every  ~ 
woman's,  the  magazine  distributed  through  inde- 
pendent groceries,  was  suspended  temporarily. 

Among  other  magazines  suspended  were  Nu- 
ances, Best  Stories,  Our  Army  and  Our  Air  Force, 
The  Span,  Countrybook,  Catholic  Life,  Reader's 
Scope,  Slwck,  New  Quarterly  of  Poetry,  Hippo- 
crene,  Go,  Briarcliff  Quarterly,  South,  Mammoth 
Adventure,  Mammoth  Detective,  The  Smart  Trav- 
eler, International  Digest,  The  American  Woman, 
Silver  Star,  Quest,  Pilot,  Sports  Stars,  New  Masses, 
and  Chimera, 

New  Magazines.  1948  was  the  first  year  in  some 
time  that  did  not  see  a  flush  of  new  magazines. 
But  in  spite  of  the  unsettled  state  of  the  industry, 
there  were  some  new  magazines  started  or  an- 
nounced. Dell  Publishing  Company  was  preparing 


Sports  Illustrated  (first  issue  dated  February, 
1949).  This  is  Life  size  with  50  percent  text  and 
50  percent  pictures,  designed  to  cover  the  whole 
world  of  sports  from  the  point  of  view  of  both  spec- 
tator and  participator.  Circulation  guarantee  for 
the  first  issue  is  400,000  copies.  Sports  World  will 
be  published  in  January  by  Hillman  Publications, 
Inc.  Also  noteworthy  is  Nations  Heritage,  which 
will  begin  with  the  January,  1949,  issue.  This  lav- 
ish magazine,  designed  to  give  a  real  picture  of 
the  heritage  of  America,  is  backed  by  B.  C.  Forbes 
&  Sons,  and  will  sell  for  $150  a  year,  $25  a  copy. 

Other  new  magazine  ventures  include  Clue,  4~H 
Life,  Radio  Stars  and  Television,  Bridegroom,  The 
Wedding  Magazine  for  Men  (to  be  published  by 
Esquire  beginning  with  the  March,  1949,  issue), 
Television  Guide,  Tele-View,  Tele-Views,  Tele- 
Viewer,  Physics  Today,  New  Sporting  Goods  Prod- 
ucts, Two  Way  Trader,  and  Happy  Marriage. 

Editorial  changes.  Several  magazines  made  chang« 
es  in  editorial  slants  or  physical  design  to  try  to 
attract  new  readers  and  keep  old  ones.  Liberty 
started  a  new  "Home  Section"  with  the  May  issue, 
carrying  brand  names  and  prices.  Harper's  came 
out  with  a  new  size  and  format.  Fortune  changed 
its  editorial  emphasis  entirely  and  will  now  con- 
cern itself  with  "assisting  the  successful  develop- 
ment of  American  business  enterprise,"  instead  o£ 
"mirroring  industry."  A  new  Fortune  feature, 
"Business  Roundup,"  gives  the  readers  a  bird's-eye 
view  of  U.S.  business  during  the  month.  Esquire 
revamped  its  format,  added  service  features,  and 
will  include  a  regular  travel  section.  Collier's 
changed  format  and  cover  design  and  is  now  pay- 
ing $1,000  to  authors  for  each  issue's  star  story. 

The  real  problem  editorially  is  that  continued 
increased  costs  may  lead  to  cuts  in  editorial  fea- 
tures, stories,  pictures,  or  articles. 

There  were  many  other  newsworthy  events  in 
the  magazine  industry  during  1948.  World  Report 
combined  with  U.S.  News  and  changed  its  name 
to  U.S.  News  and  World  Report.  One  hundred  and 
seven  educators,  lawyers,  statesmen,  and  writers 
signed  an  appeal  to  revoke  the  ban  which  had 
caused  the  Nation  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  New 
York  City  public  schools,  stating  that  this  was  a 
clear  matter  of  freedom  of  the  press.  The  ban  was 
upheld  and  the  case  was  taken  to  the  New  York 
State  Education  Department,  which  at  the  end  of 
the  year  had  not  acted  upon  it.  Ladies9  Home  Jour- 
nal carried  $2,677,260  worth  of  ads  in  its  October 
issue,  probably  the  largest  advertising  volume  ever 
carried  by  one  magazine  in  a  single  issue. 

Theatre  Arts,  which  was  bought  by  Alexander 
Ince  in  January,  1949,  was  sold  by  him  to  a  Chi- 
cago syndicate  headed  by  John  D.  Mac  Arthur. 
Time  celebrated  its  25th  Anniversary  with  its  Mar. 
8,  1948,  issue.  Omnibook  completed  ten  years  of 
publication.  1948  was  the  Diamond  Jubilee  of  the 
Woman's  Home  Companion.  Its  public  service  pro- 
gram— articles  on  important  social  and  health 
problems — aroused  much  interest  and  action.  These 
were  widely  reprinted,  and  mentioned  by  radio 
commentators.  Some  of  the  subjects  covered  were 
"Women  Alcoholics,"  "The  Crisis  in  Education," 
"Better  Teeth,"  etc.  With  the  February,  1949,  is- 
sue, Mademoiselle's  Living  will  become  a  bi- 
monthly. Industry  spent  $108,849,752  last  year  on 
its  6,000  house  organs.  This  subsidized  circulation 
totals  almost  fifty  million  monthly.  Magazine  pub- 
lishers are  concerned  by  the  almost  certain  pros- 
pect, early  in  1949,  of  increased  second-class  postal 
rates.  As  the  year  closed,  magazine  publishers  felt 
that  profits  for  1949  would  decrease  below  those 
of  1948.  —A.  S.  BURACK 


MAINE 


323 


MANCHURIA 


MAINE.  A  New  England  State.  Area:  33,040  sq. 
mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  900,000,  compared 
with  (1940  census)  847,226.  Chief  cities:  Augusta 
(capital),  19,360  inhabitants  in  1940;  Portland, 
73,643.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS 
AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COL- 
LEGES, VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $55,181,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $55,369,000. 

Ejections.  Maine's  election  was  held  September  13. 
Its  5  electoral  votes  went  to  Dewey  who  gained 
a  popular  majority  of  about  35,000  over  Truman, 
Wallace;  and  other  contenders.  Mrs.  Margaret 
Chase  Smith,  Republican  nominee,  won  the  Sena- 
torial race,  and  all  3  House  seats  remained  Re- 
publican. In  the  contest  for  governor,  the  Republi- 
can, Frederick  G.  Payne,  won. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Horace  A.  Hildreth; 
Lieut.  Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  Harold 
I.  Goss;  Attorney  General,  Ralph  W.  Farris;  State 
Treasurer,  Frank  S.  Carpenter;  State  Auditor,  Fred 
M.  Berry;  State  Comptroller,  Harlan  H.  Harris. 

MALAYA,  Federation  of.  A  federation  of  9  Malay 
states  and  the  settlements  of  Penang  and  Malacca, 
under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain.  The  Federa- 
tion of  Malaya  was  established  on  Feb.  1,  1948,  to 
supersede  the  Malayan  Union,  which  came  into 
being  in  1946.  The  area  and  population  (1940- 
41)  of  the  states  and  settlements  are  listed  in  the 
accompanying  table. 


Division  (Capital)  Area 

Johore  (Johore  Bahru) 7,500 

Kedah  (Alor  Star) 3,660 

Kelantan  (Kota  Bhara) 5,750 

Malacca  (Malacca) 640 

Negri  Sembilan  (Seremban) 2,580 

Pahang  (Pekan) 13,820 

Penang  (George  Town) 390 

Perak  (Taiping) 7,980 

Perils  (Kangar) 316 

Selangor  (Kuala  Lumpur) 3,160 

Trengganu  (Kuala  Trengganu) 5,050 


Population 
737,509 
515,758 
390,332 
236,087 
296,009 
221,800 
419,047 
992,691 
57,776 
700,552 
211,041 

Total. 50,840        4.248,565 

Preliminary  figures  from  the  1948  census  esti- 
mates the  total  population  at  5,808,247,  including 
2,608,975  Chinese,  2,214,295  Malays,  533,961  In- 
dians, 9,986  Eurasians,  and  9,150  Europeans.  Cap- 
ital of  the  Federation  of  Malaya:  Kuala  Lumpur 
(1939  pop.,  138,425). 

Education  and  Religion.  There  were,  in  1946,  a 
total  of  1,014  Malay  government  schools  and  88 
private  schools  with  126,000  pupils;  976  Chinese 
schools  with  172,000  pupils;  724  Indian  schools 
with  12,873  pupils;  187  English  schools  with  60,- 
967  students.  The  English  schools  provide  sec- 
ondary and  professional  education. 

The  majority  of  Malays  are  Sunni  Moslems  un- 
der the  religious  leadership  of  the  various  state 
rulers.  Hinduism  is  professed  by  most  of  the  In- 
dians, while  some  Indians  and  Chinese  adhere  to 
the  Buddhist  religion.  Christian  churches  are  to  be 
found  in  the  larger  towns,  their  congregations  in- 
cluding a  large  number  of  Asiatics. 

Production.  Chief  agricultural  products  are  rice, 
copra,  palm  oil  and  kernels,  tea,  and  pineapples. 
The  production  (1946)  was:  rice,  225,045  metric 
tons  from  789,640  acres;  tea,  316,000  lb.;  palm  oil, 
11,756  tons  and  kernels,  932  tons.  Rubber  yield  in 
1947  was  656,400  metric  tons  (1948:  11  months, 
587,300).  Fisheries  are  important  and  yielded  an 
estimated  40,000  tons  in  1946. 

Minerals  include  coal,  tin  ore,  phosphate,  man- 
ganese, bauxite,  scheelite,  and  wolframite.  Tin  out- 


put totaled  27,480  metric  tons  in  1947  (1948:  9 
months,  32,900);  coal,  224,676  tons  in  1946. 
Trade  (1947):  imports  M$l,367,5009000;  exports 
M$l,319,500,000. 

Government.  The  Federation  is  composed  of  the 
nine  Malay  States  and  the  two  former  settlements, 
Malacca  and  Penang  with  Province  Wellesley.  Any 
other  territory  may  be  admitted  into  the  federation 
by  agreement."  The  central  government  comprises  a 
High  Commissioner  (to  whom  power  is  delegated 
jointly  by  the  King  and  the  Malay  rulers),  a  Fed- 
eral Executive  Council,  and  a  Federal  Legislative 
Council.  The  Legislative  Council  is  composed  of 
75  members:  14  official,  50  unofficial,  and  the  re- 
mainder presidents  of  the  Councils  of  State,  Settle- 
ment Councils,  and  ex-officio  members.  In  addition 
the  ruler  of  each  state  has  concluded  agreements 
with  the  British  Government  and  has  undertaken  to 
promulgate  a  written  constitution  for  his  state.  A 
Conference  of  Rulers  was  to  meet  with  the  High 
Commissioner  at  least  three  times  a  year. 

The  Federation  agreement  establishes  a  federal 
citizenship  "designed  to  draw  together  with  a  com- 
mon loyalty  all  those  who  can  be  said  to  regard 
Malaya  as  their  true  home."  Such  citizenship  will 
be  a  requirement  for  membership  of  unofficial  in 
the  Federal  Legislature  and  also  in  the  Councils  of 
State.  The  first  High  Commissioner,  Sir  Edward 
Gent,  was  sworn  in  on  Feb.  1,  1948.  He  died  on 
July  4,  1948,  and  was  succeeded  in  September  by 
Sir  Henry  Gurney.  Effective  May  1, 1948,  the  posts 
of  Governor  General  of  Malaya  and  Special  Com- 
missioner in  South-East  Asia  were  amalgamated  in 
that  of  Commissioner  General  for  the  United  King- 
dom in  South-East  Asia.  Commissioner  General: 
Malcolm  MacDonald. 

Bibliography.  For  an  account  of  the  Communiist 
uprising  in  Malaya  during  the  last  six  months  of 
1948,  see  "The  Communist  Uprising  in  Malaya," 
Far  Eastern  Survey,  Dec.  22,  1949;  p.  281-286 
(American  Institute  of  Pacific  Relations). 

MAtTA.  A  British  colony  in  the  Mediterranean, 
comprising  the  islands  of  Malta  (95  sq,  mi.),  Gozo 
(26  sq.  mi.),  and  Comino  (1  sq.  mi):  a  total  area 
of  122  square  miles.  Civil  population  (1948  census): 
307,000.  Capital:  Valletta,  22,779  inhabitants. 
Education  (1947-48):  104  primary  schools  and 
43,000  pupils;  60  (12  state-aided)  private  schools 
and  10,500  pupils;  4  secondary  schools  and  965 
girl  students;  one  lyceum  and  996  boys;  and  the 
Royal  University  with  about  300  students.  English 
and  Maltese  are  the  official  languages. 

Production  and  Trade.  Agriculture,  cattle  raising, 
and  fishing  are  the  chief  occupations.  The  princi- 
pal crops  include  wheat,  barley,  potatoes,  vege- 
tables, fruits,  and  cotton.  Total  imports  (1946, 
£12,953,413;  exports  £707,458. 

Government.  Revenue  for  1946-47  was  £4,890,- 
748;  expenditure,  £4,540,263.  The  1948  budget 
estimated  expenditure  at  £5,095,455.  A  new  con- 
stitution conferring  responsible  government  on 
Malta  went  into  operation  on  Sept.  22,  1947.  Gen- 
eral adult  suffrage  is  embodied  in  the  constitution. 
The  Legislative  Assembly  consists  of  40  members, 
5  from  each  of  the  8  electoral  districts.  The  Cabinet 
consists  of  not  more  than  8  ministers  who  consti- 
tute the  Executive  Council.  Matters  relating  to 
foreign  affairs  and  defense  are  reserved  to  the  gov- 
ernor. Prime  Minister:  Dr.  Paul  Boffa.  Governor: 
Sir  Francis  Douglas. 

MANCHURIA.  The  northeasternmost  section  of  the 
Republic  of  China.  In  September  1945,  Manchuria 
was  divided  into  the  following  provinces:  Liaoning, 


MANGANESE 


324 


MARITIME  COMMISSION 


Kirin,  Heilungkiang,  Liaopei,  Nunkiang,  Hsingan, 
Sungldang,  Hokiang,  and  Antung,  with  a  total  area 
of  503,013  square  miles.  Chief  cities:  Mukden, 
Harbin,  Changchun,  the  capital,  and  Antung.  The 
chief  crops  include  soybeans,  kaoliang,  millet, 
maize,  and  wheat.  Minerals  include  iron,  coal,  gold, 
magnesite,  and  oil  shale.  See  CHTJSTA. 

MANGANESE.  Imports  of  manganese'  ore  into  the 
United  States  were  considerably  lower  in  1948  than 
in  1947,  and  well  below  the  rate  of  consumption 
required  for  the  current  high  steel  ingot  rate.  Re- 
ceipts of  metallurgical  and  battery  grades  of  ore 
in  the  first  nine  months  totaled  only  897,076  net 
tons,  with  a  manganese  content  of  420,295  tons. 
Battery  grade  irpports  were  7  percent  of  the  total. 
Consumption  in  the  period  was  1,011,131  tons 
of  ore.  The  difference  was  made  up  from  with- 
drawals from  bonded  warehouses  (previously  im- 
ported), and  by  reductions  in  the  inventories  of 
dealers  and  producers. 

Imports  during  the  nine  months  were  very  little 
more  than  half  the  1947  imports  of  1,541,818  tons. 
It  is  estimated  that  current  steel  operations  require 
600,000  tons  of  metallic  manganese  annually,  re- 
quiring imported  ores  to  the  extent  of  1.3  million 
tons. 

The  bulk  of  the  imports  during  the  period  was 
shipped  by  die  U.S.S.R.,  294,262  tons.  Other  prin- 
cipal ore  shipping  countries  were:  South  Africa, 
175,068  tons;  India,  148,842  tons;  Brazil,  111,085 
tons;  Gold  Coast,  80,059  tons. 

Domestic  production  of  ore  containing  35  per- 
cent manganese  or  more  totaled  98,500  tons  in  the 
nine  month  period.  This  tonnage  came  largely 
from  Montana,  where  high  grade  nodules  are  pro- 
duced at  Anaconda  and  the  Philipsburg  district 
where  battery  grade  ores  are  mined. 

— JOHN  ANTHONY 

MANITOBA.  A  prairie  province,  situated  in  about 
the  center  of  Canada.  Area:  £46,512  square  miles, 
including  26,789  square  miles  of  fresh  water.  Pop- 
ulation (1948  estimate):  757,000.  Leading  reli- 
gious denominations:  Roman  Catholic,  203,259; 
United  Church,  194,001;  Anglican,  125,076;  Lu- 
theran, 48,213;  and  Presbyterian,  43,073.  In  1946 
there  were  18,794  live  births,  6,537  deaths,  and 
8,594  marriages.  Education  (1945-46):  151,264 
students  enrolled  in  schools  and  colleges.  Chief 
cities:  Winnipeg  (capital),  229,045  (1946  cen- 
sus); St.  Boniface,  21,613;  Brandon,  17,551;  Por- 
tage la  Prairie,  7,620. 

F.oduction.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction for  1947  was  $196,358,000.  Value  of  field 
crops  (1947):  $144,651,000  from  6,807,000  acres. 
Chief  field  crops  (1947):  wheat,  42,000,000  bu. 
($57,960,000);  oats,  39,000,000  bu.  ($28,080,- 
000);  barley,  34,000,000  bu.  ($35,360,000);  flax- 
seed,  5,200,000  bu.  ($27,248,000).  Livestock 
(June  1,  1947):  778,600  cattle  ($59,776,000); 
195,300  horses  ($11,447,000);  347,200  swine  ($7,- 
806,000);  181,000  sheep  ($1,851,000);  8,224,100 
poultry  ($8,067,000).  Fur  production  (1946-47): 
$3,099,159.  There  were  638  fur  farms  in  1946, 
with  fur  animals  valued  at  $2,367,444.  Marketed 
value  of  fisheries  production  was  recorded  at  $4,- 
871,037  in  1946.  The  total  value  of  creamery  but- 
ter produced  in  1947  was  26,265,000  lb.,  valued 
at  $13,526,000.  There  were  3,590,000  lb.  of  fac- 
tory cheese  produced  in  1947,  with  an  estimated 
value  of  $1,620,000.  According  to  the  1947  esti- 
mate, the  total  farm  value  of  poultry,  meat,  and 
eggs  was  $16,135,000.  The  value  of  5,180,000  lb. 
of  honey  produced  in  1947  was  $1,450,000. 


Manufacturing.  The  gross  value  of  manufactured 
products  in  1946  was  $351,887,099.  There  were 
38,367  persons  employed  in  1,357  establishments. 
Salaries  and  wages  paid  were  $61,018,345.  Cost 
of  materials  used  totaled  $223,096,935.  The  lead- 
ing industries  in  1946  were  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing, flour  and  feed  mills,  railway  rolling  stock, 
and  butter  and  cheese. 

Government.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  Mar.  31, 
1948,  revenues  were  estimated  at  $29,495,052  and 
expenditures  were  estimated  at  $29,405,384.  For 
the  year  ended  Mar.  31,  1947  (11  months)  reve- 
nues amounted  to  $24,019,948  and  expenditures 
were  $19,737,346.  The  executive  power  is  vested 
in  a  lieutenant  governor  who  is  advised  by  a  min- 
istry of  the  legislature.  In  the  Legislative  Assembly 
there  are  58  members  elected  for  a  five-year  term 
by  popular  vote  of  the  adult  population.  Party 
standing  at  the  provincial  election  of  Oct.  15,  1945, 
was  43  Coalition  (25  Liberal  Progressives,  14  Pro- 
gressive Conservatives,  2  Social  Credit,  2  Inde- 
pendent) and  12  Anti- Coalition  (10  Cooperative 
Commonwealth  Federation,  1  Independent  Anti- 
Coalition,  1  Labour  Progressive).  There  were  also 
3  service  members  with  no  party  affiliation.  Six 
members  (appointed  for  life)  in  the  Senate  and 
17  members  in  the  House  of  Commons  represent 
Manitoba  in  the  Dominion  Parliament  at  Ottawa. 
Lieut.  Gov.,  R.  F.  McWilh'ams  (appointed  Nov. 
1,  1940;  Premier,  Douglas  L,  Campbell  ( appointed 
Nov.  13,  1948).  See  CANADA. 

MARITIME  COMMISSION,  United  States.  The  Merchant 
Marine  Act  of  1936  established  the  U.S.  Maritime 
Commission  as  an  independent  Government  agen- 
cy, charged  with  providing  for  a  Merchant  Marine 
that  should  be  sufficient  in  peacetime  to  carry  a 
substantial  portion  of  the  nation's  trade,  and  avail- 
able in  time  of  emergency  to  serve  as  an  auxiliary 
to  the  armed  forces.  In  carrying  out  this  task,  the 
Maritime  Commission  helps  to  equalize  American 
with  foreign  shipping  costs,  by  paying  differential 
subsidies  to  ship-owners  and  builders,  and  provides 
ships  by  selling  or  chartering  its  own  vessels  and 
by  encouraging  the  building  of  new  vessels.  ' 

The  high  cost  of  operating  American  ships  has 
in  the  past  tended  to  drive  them  off  the  sea  when 
shipping  competition  was  keen.  This  has  meant 
that  in  time  of  war  there  were  not  enough  ships  in" 
operation  to  serve  expanded  needs  for  cargo  and 
troop  transport.  Provision  was  therefore  made  in 
the  Merchant  Marine  Act  of  1936  for  the  Govern- 
ment to  pay  the  difference  between  United  States 
and  foreign  costs  to  American  ships  operating  on 
foreign  trade  routes  which  are  considered  essential 
to  our  trade  and  security.  Companies  receiving 
these  subsidies  must  agree  to  maintain  adequate 
service  and  to  keep  their  fleets  in  efficient  condi- 
tion by  replacing  obsolete  ships  with  new,  modern 
vessels.  If  a  company  earns  over  a  10  percent  profit 
on  its  capital  employed  over  a  ten-year  period,  one- 
half  of  the  excess  must  be  returned  to  the  Govern- 
ment, up  to  the  full  amount  of  the  subsidies 
granted. 

Operating  subsidies,  suspended  during  World 
War  II,  were  resumed  on  Jan.  1,  1947.  All  opera- 
tors receiving  subsidies  before  the  war  have  ap- 
glied  for  resumption  of  subsidies,  and  applications 
ave  been  filed  for  additional  subsidized  opera- 
tions. Payments  since  the  war  will  probably  be 
higher  than  before  due  to  increases  in  operating 
costs,  such  as  seamen's  wages,  food,  and  fuel,  to  a 
greater  extent  than  increases  in  similar  foreign 
costs.  Nevertheless,  payments  of  subsidies  for  mer- 
chant shipping  average  only  about  2  percent  of  all 


MARITIME  COMMISSION 


325 


MARKLE  FOUNDATION 


Government  subsidies,  and  the  recent  end  of  the 
first  ten-year  subsidy  period  for  several  operators 
has  led  to  the  recapture  by  the  Government  of  all 
the  subsidy  paid  to  three  companies  and  a  substan- 
tial amount  of  that  paid  to  four  others. 

During  World  War  II  nearly  all  available  mer- 
chant vessels  were  taken  over  by  the  Government, 
which  employed  private  companies  as  its  agents 
to  operate  the  ships.  After  the  war  most  of  the  req- 
uisitioned ships  still  afloat  were  returned  to  their 
owners.  This  left  about  4,000  war-built  vessels  in 
Government  possession.  Under  the  Merchant  Ship 
Sales  Act  of  1946,  the  Commission  was  authorized 
to  sell  these  vessels  to  private  ship-owners.  Up  to 
Dec.  31,  1948,  a  total  of  1,773  had  been  sold. 

American  ship-owners  purchased  660  of  the  best 
types  for  their  own  use,  while  foreign  operators 
bought  1,113  to  replenish  their  war-depleted  fleets. 
By  Mar.  1,  1948,  the  fleets  of  the  leading  maritime 
nations  were  approaching  their  prewar  levels 
through  purchases  and  new  construction.  The 
United  States  Congress  therefore  ended  the  Com- 
mission's authority  to  sell  its  surplus  vessels  to  for- 
eign operators,  but  extended  until  Mar.  1,  1949, 
its  power  to  sell  vessels  to  American  citizens. 

Through  these  purchases  the  privately  owned 
United  States  fleet  in  active  operation  has  been  re- 
turned to  about  its  prewar  level,  numbering  1,008 
vessels  of  1,000  gross  tons  and  over,  on  Sept.  30, 
1948.  This  fleet  has  not  been  sufficient,  however, 
to  meet  all  the  heavy  postwar  shipping  demands, 
especially  the  requirements  for  bulk  transport  of 
coal  and  grain  sent  abroad  for  relief  purposes.  Con- 
sequently several  hundred  Government-owned 
ships  were  also  kept  sailing,  a  few  operated  by  the 
Government  through  general  agents  to  transport 
displaced  persons,  but  most  of  them  chartered  by 
private  companies  from  the  Government.  A  provi- 
sion in  the  Foreign  Assistance  Act  that  50  percent 
of  the  cargoes  purchased  under  the  Act  and  sent 
abroad  from  the  United  States  should  be  carried 
in  United  States  ships  whenever  they  were  avail- 
able at  market  rates  gave  employment  to  these 
vessels. 

Government-owned  vessels  under  charter  have 
dropped  in  the  past  year,  however,  from  a  peak 
of  1,510  on  June  30,  1947,  to  362  on  Dec.  31, 
1948.  United  States  ships,  which  carried  67  per- 
cent of  United  States  export  and  import  trade  in 
the  first  six  months  of  1946,  were  carrying  only 
about  57  percent  in  the  first  seven  months  of  1948. 
Foreign  flagships  increased  their  carriage  of  Unit- 
ed States  imports  by  6  percent  in  the  latter  half 
of  1947  and  have  been  taking  over  a  constantly 
increasing  share  of  the  bulk  cargo. 

The  domestic  fleet,  operating  along  and  between 
United  States  coasts,  and  between  the  United 
States  and  its  Territories  and  possessions,  formerly 
constituted  about  60  percent  of  the  total  United 
States  merchant  fleet  and  served  as  a  defense  re- 
serve. During  World  War  II  most  of  these  ships 
were  taken  for  war  service,  and  since  the  war  they 
have  been  unable  to  regain  their  business,  due  to 
high  operating  costs  and  low  rates  of  competing 
land  carriers.  The  Commission  has  petitioned  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  to  investigate  the 
rail-water  rate  structure,  which  is  placing  an  undue 
burden  on  water  carriers.  It  has  also  granted  spe- 
cial low  charter  rates  on  its  vessels  to  domestic  op- 
erators, but  the  fleet  has  remained  at  less  than  half 
its  prewar  figure,  totaling  205  dry  cargo  vessels  of 
1,000  gross  tons  and  over,  on  June  30, 1948,  against 
428  on  June  30,  1938.  The  coastwise  and  inter- 
coastal  fleets  alone  are  at  one-third  their  prewar 
levels. 


Government-owned  vessels  that  are  not  sold  or 
chartered  are  kept  in  reserve  fleets  at  seven  perma- 
nent, and  two  temporary  sites,  along  the  coasts. 
These  fleets  contained  a  total  of  1,901  vessels  on 
Nov.  1,  1948,  of  which  1,837  were  built  during 
World  War  II  and  64  were  built  before  the  war. 
Old  or  badly  damaged  ships  are  being  scrapped. 
All  good  vessels  are  treated  to  preserve  them  for 
any  future  emergency  use.  Over  500  have  been  se- 
lected by  the  armed  services  as  part  of  the  perma- 
nent National  Defense  Reserve  Fleet, 

Since  the  war  the  United  States  shipbuilding 
industry  has  been  rapidly  slipping  from  its  unprec- 
edented wartime  peak  to  its  prewar  low.  Employ- 
ment on  new  ship  construction  has  fallen  far  be- 
low the  minimum  considered  essential  to  provide 
a  nucleus  for  expansion  in  an  emergency,  and  the 
repairs  and  reconversions  of  war-built  vessels, 
which  kept  many  yards  busy  after  the  war,  are 
nearing  completion.  During  the  year  ended  June 
30,  1948,  the  United  States  built  only  33  vessels, 
while  other  countries  built  368. 

After  the  war  the  Maritime  Commission  sug- 
gested a  building  program  of  144  vessels  over  the 
next  10  years  and  a  25-year  replacement  program. 
Early  in  1948  a  Committee  of  Cabinet  members 
appointed  by  the  President  recommended  a  mini- 
mum of  50  passenger  vessels  and  170  tankers  to 
be  built  in  the  next  3  years  in  order  to  bring  the 
fleet  up  to  defense  requirements.  In  accordance 
with  national  policy,  these  vessels  were  to  be  built 
and  operated  by  private  ship-owners  wherever 
possible,  with  the  Government  paying  the  differ- 
ence between  United  States  and  foreign  shipbuild- 
ing costs  and  the  cost  of  national  defense  features, 
such  as  speed  in  excess  of  commercial  require- 
ments. 

A  survey  of  operators  showed  that  there  were 
good  prospects  for  the  building  of  about  18  new 
passenger-cargo  vessels,  2  passenger-trailer  vessels 
for  coastwise  operation,  and  20  tankers.  In  August 
1948  the  Commission  was  able  to  place  contracts 
for  5  passenger  or  combination  passenger-cargo  lin- 
ers, which  two  operators  had  agreed  to  purchase. 
A  construction  subsidy  of  approximately  45  percent 
will  be  paid  on  these  vessels. 

Bids  were  also  received  for  building  a  number 
of  high-speed  tankers,  on  which  the  Commission 
would  pay  for  national  defense  features  only,  and 
for  a  trans-Atlantic  express  liner  of  50,000  tons, 
on  which  a  construction  subsidy  would  be  paid. 
Other  orders  are  in  prospect,  including  2  prototype 
vessels  which  the  Commission  hopes  to  build  as 
models  for  vessels  suited  to  competitive  peacetime 
trade  but  readily  adaptable  to  war  service.  In  ad- 
dition, private  companies  have  on  order  some  60 
tankers,  which  will  help  to  meet  the  continued 
high  demand  for  oil  transport.  By  Nov.  1,  1948, 
there  were  79  merchant  vessels  of  1,000  gross  tons 
or  more,  totaling  1,123,340  gross  tons,  on  order  in 
United  States  shipyards,  and  a  start  had  been  made 
on  a  new  postwar  building  program. 

— WILLIAM  WABD  SMITH 

MARKLE  FOUNDATION,  The  John  and  Mary.  Since  its 
inception  in  1927,  the  Foundation  has  confined  its 
major  activities  to  support  of  research  programs 
through  grants  to  institutions.  The  shortage  of 
medical  research  men  and  women  in  this  country 
has,  however,  dictated  a  change  of  policy  beginning 
in  1948.  The  Foundation  proposes  to  supply  $5,- 
000  a  year  for  a  limited  number  of  men,  each  man 
to  be  assured  a  tenure  of  five  years  on  1ihe  staff  of 
a  medical  school.  President,  George  Whitney;  Ex- 
ecutive Director,  John  M.  RusseUj  Secretary,  Doro- 


MARTINIQUE 


326 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 


thy  Rowden.  Offices:  14  Wall  St.,  New  York  5, 

N.Y. 

MARTINIQUE.  A  West  Indian  overseas  department 
of  France.  Area:  385  square  miles.  Population 
(1946  census):  261,595,  mostly  Negro  and  mulat- 
to, with  about  5,000  whites.  Fort-de-France,  the 
capital,  had  66,006  inhabitants  in  1946.  Sugar 
(1946  export,  16,519  tons),  cacao,  bananas,  pine- 
apples, and  rum  are  the  main  products.  Trade 
(1946):  imports  1,583,400,000  francs;  exports 
1,563,500,000  francs.  Finance  (1947  est):  rev- 
enue and  expenditure  balanced  at  1,474,803,000 
francs.  The  department  is  under  a  governor,  aided 
by  a  privy  council,  and  an  elected  general  coun- 
cil. Martinique  is  represented  in  the  French  Na- 
tional Assembly,  the  Council  of  the  Republic,  and 
in  the  French  Union. 

MARYLAND.  A  south  Atlantic  State.  Area:  12,327 
sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  2,148,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  1,821,244.  Chief  cities: 
Annapolis  (capital),  13,069  inhabitants  in  1940; 
Baltimore,  859,100.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION, 
MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $100,382,000;  total 
expenditure,  $101,043,000. 

Leaislation.  A  special  session  in  May  gave  em- 
ployees of  the  State  of  Maryland  a  cost-of-living 
raise  in  pay.  An  important  amendment  approved 
by  the  voters  in  November  provides  for  annual 
sessions  of  the  legislature.  Even-year  sessions  will 
be  restricted  largely  to  consideration  of  the  annual 
budget.  Another  amendment  facilitates  the  pro- 
cedure for  territorial  annexations  to  Baltimore  City. 

Elections.  The  8  electoral  votes  which  were  Roose- 
velt's in  1944  went  in  1948  to  Dewey  who  won  a 
small  plurality  over  Truman.  House  seats  remained 
as  during  the  80th  Congress — 4  Democratic  and 
2  Republican.  There  were  no  races  for  Senate  or 
Statewide  office. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  William  Preston  Lane, 
Jr.;  Lieut.  Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  Ber- 
tram L.  Boone,  II;  Attorney  General,  Hall  Ham- 
mond; State  Treasurer,  Hooper  S.  Miles;  State 
Comptroller,  James  J.  Lacy;  State  Auditor,  Daniel 
L.  Clayland,  III. 

MASSACHUSETTS.  A  New  England  State.  Area: 
7,839  Sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  4,718,000 
compared  with  (1940  census)  4,316,721.  Chief 
city:  Boston  (capital),  770,816  inhabitants  in 
1940.  See  AGHICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS 
AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COL- 
LEGES, VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $274,342,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $350,961,000. 

Legislation.  The  General  Court  met  in  annual  ses- 
sion on  January  7  and  adjourned  on  June  19  after 
record  total  appropriations,  including  deficiencies 
and  supplements,  of  $241.6  million.  It  made  $200 
million  in  State  credit  and  $5  million  in  annual 
contributions  available  to  localities  for  public  hous- 
ing for  veterans.  This  program  contemplates  20,- 
000  new  homes  in  less  than  two  years,  with  rentals 
averaging  $45  per  month.  Also  approved  were  a 
$14.5  million  bond  issue  for  general  construction 
and  repairs  and  a  $2.5  million  metropolitan  district 
commission  bond  issue. 

State  employees  received  a  $150  cost-of-living 
bonus  plus  increases  under  a  job  reclassification 
program,  while  legislative  salaries  were  raised  to 


$2,750  a  year.  Other  enactments  legalized  the  sale 
of  colored  margarine;  established  a  youth  service 
board  with  jurisdiction  over  juvenile  offenders; 
reapportioned  legislative  districts;  reaUotted  $14 
million  in  income  tax  revenue  to  localities  under 
a  new  education  formula  and  provided  new  aid 
to  municipalities  for  school  construction;  expand- 
ed workmen's  compensation  benefits  to  dependent 
widows  and  children;  and  relaxed  certain  aspects 
of  women's  and  children's  labor  laws. 

In  the  November  election,  the  people  approved 
measures  to  earmark  motor  vehicle  and  motor  fuel 
tax  revenues  for  highway  purposes,  and  to  restrict 
the  Presidency  to  two  terms. 

Elections.  Truman  won  the  16  electoral  votes  with 
a  popular  majority  over  Dewey,  Wallace,  and  other 
candidates  greater  than  that  of  Roosevelt  in  1944. 
In  the  Senatorial  race,  Republican  incumbent  Lev- 
erett  Saltonstall  was  reelected,  and  the  Democrats 
won  6  seats  in  the  House  to  8  for  the  Republicans, 
a  gain  of  one  for  the  Democrats.  In  contests  for 
State  office,  the  Democrats  made  a  clean  sweep, 
electing  Paul  A.  Dever  governor  over  incumbent 
Robert  F.  Bradford;  Charles  Sullivan — Lieutenant 
Governor;  Edward  Cronin — Secretary  of  State; 
Francis  Kelly — Attorney  General;  John  Hurley — 
Treasurer;  Thomas  Buckley — Auditor. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Robert  F.  Bradford; 
Lieut.  Governor,  Arthur  W.  Coolidge;  Secretary 
of  State,  Frederic  W.  Cook;  Attorney  General, 
Clarence  A.  Barnes;  State  Treasurer,  Laurence 
Curtis;  State  Auditor,  Thomas  J.  Buckley;  State 
Comptroller,  Fred  A.  Moncewicz. 

MAURITIUS.  A  British  island  colony  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  comprising  the  island  of  Mauritius,  about 
550  miles  east  of  Madagascar,  and  a  number  of 
dependent  islands.  Area:  720  square  miles,  exclud- 
ing the  dependent  islands  totaling  87  square  miles. 
Population  of  Mauritius  (1946  est.):  428,273  with 
dependencies  totaling  13,463  (in  1944).  About  63 
percent  of  the  population  are  Indo-Mauritians. 
Capital:  Port  Louis  (pop.  66,805).  The  state-aided 
Christian  churches  are  predominantly  Roman  Cath- 
olic. Except  for  some  50,000  Moslems,  the  natives 
are  mostly  Hindus.  Education  ( 1946 ) :  128  schools 
and  40,959  pupils. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  island  produces  less 
than  10  percent  of  its  food  requirements.  Agricul- 
tural crops  are  chiefly  for  export.  Principal  export 
crop  is  sugar,  of  which  a  total  of  330,000  metric 
tons  was  produced  in  1947.  The  1948  crop  is  esti- 
mated at  360,000  to  370,000  metric  tons.  Rum  is 
an  important  export.  Copra  and  aloe  fiber  also  are 
exported.  Trade  (1946):  imports  Rs66,700,209; 
exports  Rs49,014,680. 

Government.  Budget  estimates  (1948-49):  reve- 
nue Rs36,355,652;  expenditure  Rs41,320,891.  Un- 
der the  Constitution  of  Sept.  15,  1947,  the  colony 
with  its  dependencies  is  administered  by  a  gov- 
ernor assisted  by  a  legislative  council  of  34  mem- 
bers (3  ex-officio,  12  nominated,  and  19  elected) 
and  a  reconstituted  executive  council.  In  the  gen- 
eral election  held  Aug.  9-10,  1948,  the  unexpected 
results  gave  11  seats  to  Indo-Mauritians,  7  seats 
to  the  colored  section,  and  1  seat  to  the  white  sec- 
tion of  the  population.  Governor:  Sir  Henry  C. 
Mackenzie-Kennedy. 

MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY.  Treatment  of  Coronary 
Thrombosis  with  Myocardial  Infarction  by  means  of 
Anticoagulants.  In  1938  Solandt,  Nassim,  and  Best 
suggested  as  the  result  of  experimental  studies  in 
animals  that  the  extension  of  coronary  thrombosis, 
and  the  development  of  mural  thrombi  might  be 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 


327 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 


prevented  by 'the  administration  of  anticoagulants. 

The  results  of  preliminary  trials  of  anticoagulant 
therapy  in  clinical  cases  of  coronary  thrombosis 
by  Wright  and  others  in  1945  and  1946  were  so 
encouraging  that  the  board  of  directors  of  the 
American  Heart  Association  authorized  the  forma- 
tion of  a  Committee  For  The  Evaluation  Of  Anti- 
coagulants In  The  Treatment  Of  Coronary  Throm- 
bosis And  Myocardial  Infarction.  This  committee 
made  up  of  cardiologists  from  16  hospitals  in  the 
United  States  has  recently  reported  an  analysis  of 
the  first  800  cases  studied  in  a  series  which  will  ul- 
timately comprise  1,000  cases. 

The  general  plan  of  the  study  was  as  follows: 
368  patients  admitted  to  the  participating  services 
on  even  days  received  conventional  treatment  and 
make  up  the  control  group.  The  432  patients  ad- 
mitted on  odd  days  received  anticoagulants  in  ad- 
dition to  conventional  therapy  and  constitute  the 
treated  group.  The  treated  group  were  given  either 
dicumarol  alone  or  heparin  combined  with  dicuma- 
rol  in  sufficient  amounts  to  significantly  interfere 
with  the  normal  clotting  mechanism.  When  hepa- 
rin was  used  the  aim  was  to  prolong  the  clotting 
time  of  whole  blood  to  approximately  three  times 
the  normal  value  by  the  Lee- White  technic.  With 
dicumarol  the  minimum  prolongation  of  the  pro- 
thrombin  time  necessary  to  obtain  a  therapeutic 
effect  was  considered  to  be  in  a  range  of  from  30 
to  50  seconds  as  measured  by  the  Link-Shapiro 
modification  of  the  Quick  one-stage  technic. 

It  was,  of  course,  considered  essential  that  lab- 
oratory facilities  adequate  for  the  performance  of 
accurate  prothrombin  time  determination  be  avail- 
able; and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  daily  determinations 
of  the  prothrombin  time  were  considered  abso- 
lutely essential  before  the  administration  of  dicu- 
marol, since  it  is  only  by  such  a  careful  control  of 
the  clotting  mechanism  that  dangerous  bleeding 
tendencies  may  be  avoided. 

A  study  of  the  patients  in  the  two  series  showed 
a  striking  simularity  in  regard  to  age,  history  of 
previous  infarction,  and  estimated  severity  of  the 
present  attack  so  that  differences  observed  with  the 
two  plans  of  treatment  seemed  to  be  of  significance. 

The  death  rate  in  the  treated  group  was  found 
to  be  significantly  less  than  in  the  control  group 
(15  percent  as  against  24  percent).  Of  greater  im- 
portance was  the  reduction  in  the  number  of  deaths 
which  followed  one  or  more  thromboembolic  com- 
plications. Such  deaths  occurred  in  roughly  10  per- 
cent of  the  control  group  but  in  only  3  percent  of 
the  treated  group.  When  the  mortality  rate  was 
analyzed  as  it  related  to  weeks  of  illness,  it  was 
found  that  in  each  period  the  death  rate  for  the 
control  patients  was  significantly  greater  than  that 
for  the  treated  group. 

These  figures  were  considered  to  indicate  that 
anticoagulant  therapy,  if  not  used  before,  should 
be  begun  even  as  late  as  the  second  or  third  week 
after  a  myocardial  infarction  has  occurred  or  even 
later  if  complications  have  developed.  And  second- 
ly, that  to  give  maximal  protection  anticoagulant 
treatment  should  be  continued  for  at  least  four 
weeks  after  the  last  thromboembolic  episode. 
When  analyzed  by  age  the  greatest  benefit  in  the 
reduction  of  the  mortality  rate  was  in  the  group  of 
patients  60  years  of  age  or  older.  An  analysis  of  the 
incidence  of  thromboembolic  complications  shows 
that  these  occurred  in  25  percent  of  the  control  pa- 
tients and  in  11  percent  of  the  treated  patients. 

An  analysis  of  the  types  and  locations  of  throm- 
boembolic complications  in  the  two  groups  is  of 
interest.  Secondary  myocardial  infarction  occurred 
in  9  percent  of  the  controls  and  in  2  percent  of  the 


treated  patients.  Infarction  of  new  areas  in  the 
myoaorcSum  occurred  in  6^  percent  of  the  controls 
against  2^  percent  of  the  treated  patients  and  pul- 
monary embolism  in  9.4  percent  of  the  controls  as 
against  5.2  percent  of  the  treated  subjects.  Cerebral 
emboli  occurred  in  3.4  percent  of  the  controls  and 
in  1.4  percent  of  the  treated  patients.  Peripheral 
emboli  developed  in  3  percent  of  the  controls  and 
in  1  percent  of  the  treated  group.  Finally  venous 
thrombosis  occurred  in  5  percent  of  the  controls 
and  in  less  than  2  percent  of  the  treated. 

"Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  at  every  site  and 
with  every  type  of  complication,  those  receiving 
anticoagulant  treatment  in  addition  to  conventional 
treatment  had  a  distinctly  better  chance  of  escap- 
ing thromboembolic  complications  than  those  who 
received  the  conventional  forms  of  treatment  only." 

This  study  seemed  to  indicate  that  the  hazards 
of  hemorrhage  with  anticoagulant  therapy  are  not 
great.  Of  30  hemorrhages  clinically  observed,  15 
were  mild,  14  were  moderately  severe,  and  only 
one  was  severe.  The  authors  state  "The  postmortem 
observations  on  hemorrhagic  phenomena  are  not 
yet  ready  for  presentation,  but  those  examined  to 
the  date  of  reporting  presented  no  alarming  picture 
of  the  hemorrhagic  risks  in  anticoagulant  therapy 
under  proper  controls." 

Finally  it  was  thought  that  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  failures  occurring  with  anticoagulant 
treatment  were  due  to  the  fact  that  the  prothrom- 
bin time  was  not  adequately  prolonged.  A  review 
of  the  cases  in  which  thromboembolic  complica- 
tions occurred  during  the  administration  of  dicu- 
marol revealed  that  of  the  38  complications  only 
four  occurred  in  patients  whose  prothrombin  time 
was  known  to  have  been  maintained  at  30  seconds 
or  more  for  at  least  three  days  before  the  complica- 
tions appeared.  The  authors  conclude: 

"1.  On  the  basis  of  data  compiled  from  800 
cases  of  coronary  occlusion  with  myocardial  infarc- 
tion, it  is  concluded  that  patients  treated  with  anti- 
coagulants in  addition  to  the  conventional  forms 
of  treatment  present  a  death  rate  and  incidence  of 
thromboembolic  complications  during  the  first  six- 
week  period  following  an  attack  significantly  lower 
than  those  experienced  by  patients  treated  solely 
by  conventional  methods. 

"2.  Anticoagulant  therapy  should  be  used  in  all 
cases  of  coronary  thrombosis  with  myocardial  in- 
farction unless  a  definite  contraindication  exists. 

"3.  In  the  absence  of  hemorrhagic  conditions, 
the  hazards  from  hemorrhage  are  not  sufficient  to 
contraindicate  the  use  of  anticoagulants  in  coronary 
occlusion,  provided  that  there  are  facilities  for  ade- 
quate laboratory  and  clinical  control/'  (Wright, 
Marple,  and  Beck  JAMA  138:1074,  1948.) 

Antibiotics.  Clinical  experience  during  the  past 
year  has  demonstrated  that  three  new  antibiotics 
are  of  considerable  therapeutic  value.  These  are 
bacitracin,  aureomycin,  and  chloromycetin.  Fur- 
thermore, a  new  compound  of  streptomycin  has 
increased  the  range  of  utility  of  this  drug.  These 
developments  will  be  considered  separately. 

Bacitracin.  In  1945  Johnson,  Anker,  and  Meleney 
isolated  from  a  mixture  of  organisms  found  in  the 
debrided  tissues  removed  from  a  compound  frac- 
ture an  antibiotic  produced  by  the  Tracey  strain 
of  Bacillus  subtilis.  This  substance  was  found  to 
be  of  high  antibacterial  activity  and  to  have  a  low 
toxicity.  It  was  designated  as  bacitracin.  Although 
the  chemical  constitution  of  the  material  has  not 
yet  been  determined,  crude  bacitracin  has  been 
sufficiently  purified  and  standardized  to  permit  its 
clinical  use.  The  potency  of  bacitracin  is  assayed 
by  determining  the  amount  that  will  inhibit  growth 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 


328 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 


in  a  standardized  culture  of  hemolytic  strepto- 
coccus. Bacitracin  appears  to  contain  a  mixture  of 
amino  acids  with  a  molecular  weight  of  less  than 
4,000.  Bacitracin  Is  now  clinically  available  for 
local  use. 

In  1947  Meleney  and  his  co-workers  reported  on 
the  local  use  of  bacitracin  in  various  types  of  sur- 
gical infections.  They  found  that  it  yielded  favor- 
able results  comparable  to  penicillin  and  that, 
furthermore,  in  many  cases  in  which  penicillin  had 
failed  bacitracin  was  effective.  A  favorable  re- 
sponse was  elicited  in  88  of  100  unselected  cases 
(JAMA  133:675,  1947). 

The  drug  has  a  wide  antibacterial  spectrum,  and 
has  been  found  to  be  effective  against  most  strains 
of  hemolytic  streptococci,  nonhemolytic  strepto- 
cocci, coagulase-positive  staphylococci,  pneumo- 
cocci,  gonoeocci,  anaerobic  cocci  in  general,  the 
gas  gangrene  group,  the  bacillus  of  tetanus,  the 
diphtheria  bacillus  and  diphtheroids,  the  spiro- 
chetes  of  syphilis  and  also  mouth  spirochetes,  the 
actinomycotic  group  of  organisms,  and  the  proto- 
zoan parasite,  Endamoeba  histolytica.  Bacitracin 
has  little  or  no  action  against  the  Gram  negative 
non-spore  forming  bacilli. 

While  in  general  the  range  of  antibiotic  activity 
of  bacitracin  is  similar  to  that  of  penicillin,  it  ap- 
pears to  have  these  advantages  over  penicillin. 
First,  it  is  not  inhibited  by  organisms  which  pro- 
duce penicillinase  and  is,  therefore,  more  likely 
to  be  effective  in  infections  due  to  bacterial  mix- 
tures. Second,  it  is  more  slowly  eliminated  from  the 
body  than  is  penicillin  and,  therefore,  can  be  given 
at  longer  intervals.  Third,  its  effectiveness  against 
bacteria  is  in  direct  proportion  to  its  concentration. 
It  appears  so  far  that  bacitracin  has  less  tendency 
to  produce  allergic  or  hypersensitive  reactions  than 
has  penicillin.,  Although  certain  strains  of  bacteria 
may  gradually  build  up  a  resistance  to  bacitracin, 
this  is  usually  of  a  low  order  and  is  not  either  as 
common  or  as  great  as  the  resistance  which  may 
occur  with  penicillin. 

The  chief  disadvantage  of  bacitracin  as  com- 
pared with  penicillin  is  that  up  to  the  present  time 
it  has  not  been  obtained  in  a  pure  crystalline  form. 
The  still  relatively  crude  product  now  available 
may  in  certain  cases  produce  damage  to  the  kid- 
neys when  the  drug  is  injected  systemically  in  man. 
As  compared  to  streptomycin,  bacitracin  has  a 
wider  range  of  antibacterial  activity  and  there  is 
less  likelihood  of  the  development  of  resistance  to 
it  during  the  course  of  treatment  However,  it  is 
not  effective  against  the  Gram  negative  aerobic 
non-spore  forming  bacilli  against  which  strepto- 
mycin is  ordinarily  effective. 

Bacitracin  is  absorbed  from  the  gastro-intestinal 
tract  poorly,  and  for  that  reason  effective  concen- 
trations of  the  drug  are  built  up  in  the  bowel.  It 
appears  that  bacitracin  given  by  mouth  may  be 
effective  against  susceptible  intestinal  organisms, 
especially  Clostridium  welchii  and  intestinal  strep- 
tococci. Early  clinical  trials  suggest  that  the  drug 
may  be  of  value  in  minimizing  the  activity  of  the 
intestinal  flora  before  surgical  operations  on  the 
bowel  if  it  is  combined  with  orally  administered 
streptomycin.  Furthermore,  in  a  few  cases  it  has 
been  found  to  be  effective  in  chronic  ulcerative 
colitis  and  in  regional  ileitis.  It  also  has  been  given 
in  both  the  active  and  chronic  stages  of  amebic 
dysentery. 

Because  of  the  occasional  nephrotoxic  action  of 
systemically  administered  bacitracin,  at  the  present 
time  the  routine  use  of  the  drug  is  recommended 
only  where  it  may  be  applied  locally. 

Recently  a  group  of  workers  from  five  hospitals 


in  the  United  States  have  reported  on  the  result 
of  the  systemic  administration  of  bacitracin  ( Mele- 
ney, et  al.»  Annals  of  Surgery  128:714,  1948).  This 
preliminary  study  dealt  with  105  cases  of  surgical 
infections  treated  with  systemically  administered 
bacitracin  in  New  York,  Cincinnati,  New  Orleans, 
San  Antonio,  and  Philadelphia.  These  represented 
a  wide  diversity  of  conditions  but  for  the  most 
part  consisted  of  cases  which  had  failed  to  respond 
to  the  sulfonamides  and  to  the  other  antibiotics. 

There  was  an  over-all  favorable  response  in  about 
70  percent  of  the  cases  treated,  and  in  about  20 
percent  the  results  were  considered  dramatic.  The 
most  dramatic  results  were  in  three  cases  of  ex- 
tensive progressive  bacterial  synergistic  gangrene, 
all  of  which  responded  in  72  hours.  Excellent  re- 
sults were  also  obtained  in  human  bite  infections 
and  in  cases  of  meningitis.  The  highest  percentage 
of  favorable  results,  88  percent,  was  obtained  in 
cases  of  cellulitis.  Results  were  unfavorable  in  cases 
of  thrombophlebitis  and  brain  abscess. 

In  the  group  responding  most  favorably  to  ba- 
citracin the  causative  organisms  were  for  the  most 
part  in  the  staphyloccal  and  streptoccal  groups.  In 
the  30  percent  of  cases  in  which  the  results  were 
questionable  or  frankly  nil,  it  was  considered  that 
the  organisms  were  for  the  most  part  resistant  to 
bacitracin. 

In  this  study  evidence  of  mild  renal  damage 
(transient  albuminuria)  was  observed  in  most  of 
the  patients.  With  some  of  the  later  preparations 
of  bacitracin  in  which  the  drug  was  produced  com- 
mercially on  a  larger  scale  by  the  "deep  tank  meth- 
od" the  evidences  of  nephrotoxicity  were  greater. 
It  is  suggested  that  if  the  drug  be  used  systemically 
in  its  present  crude  form,  close  watch  be  kept  for 
any  evidence  of  renal  damage,  and  should  any  sign 
pointing  to  such  damage  occur,  treatment  with  ba- 
citracin should  be  discontinued.  It  is  hoped  that 
further  purification  of  bacitracin  will  eliminate  the 
nephrotoxic  principle  without  lessening  its  anti- 
bacterial action. 

/lureomycin.  A  new  antibiotic,  aureomycin  hydro- 
chloride,  a  crystalline  material  obtained  from  the 
mold  Streptomyces  aureofaciens,  has  been  studied 
extensively  during  the  past  year  and  promises  to  be 
of  great  value.  Aureomycin  was  first  described  by 
Dr.  B.  M.  Duggar,  Lederle  Laboratories  Division, 
American  Gyanamid  Company.  At  the  present 
time  its  chief  value  seems  to  be  that  it  is  effective 
against  rickettsial  disease,  in  contrast  to  penicillin 
and  streptomycin.  Besides  this,  aureomycin  has  two 
other  great  advantages:  it  is  effective  when  admin- 
istered orally,  and  the  development  of  resistance 
to  the  antibiotic  by  bacteria  during  the  course  of 
treatment  is  low  or  absent. 

The  rickettsial  diseases  in  which  aureomycin  has 
been  used  effectively  include,  Rocky  Mountain 
sported  fever,  Q-Fever,  typhus,  Rickettsialpox, 
lymphogranuloma  venereum,  and  psittacosis  (un- 
published data  by  S.  C.  Wong  and  H.  R.  Cox). 
Studies  of  aureomycin  therapy  of  Rocky  Mountain 
spotted  fever  by  Ross,  et  al.,  from  the  Research 
Foundation  of  Children's  Hospital,  Washington, 
D.C.,  and  the  Department  of  Preventive  Medicine, 
the  Johns  Hopkins  University  School  of  Medicine 
indicate  that  aureomycin  is  the  most  effective  agent 
in  the  treatment  of  this  disease. 

Its  efficacy  was  found  to  be  superior  to  that  of 
paraaminobenzoic  acid  which  had  been  the  drug 
of  choice.  Thirteen  patients  were  studied  during 
the  summer  of  1948.  The  temperatures  subsided 
rapidly  under  aureomycin  therapy  within  an  aver- 
age period  of  2%  days,  and  striking  clinical  im- 
provement was  observed  in  all  the  patients.  No 


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toxic  effects  from  the  drug  were  noted.  (JAMA 
138:1213,  1948.) 

Equally  good  results  have  been  obtained  in  a 
few  cases  of  Q-Fever,  typhus,  and  Hickettsialpox 
which  have  been  treated  with  aureomycin.  Wright 
and  his  co-workers  made  an  intensive  study  of 
the  use  of  aureomycin  in  lymphogranuloma  vene- 
reum,  and  concluded  that  this  antibiotic  is  a  spe- 
cific form  of  therapy  for  the  "virus"  as  well  as  be- 
ing highly  effective  against  the  secondary  bacterial 
invaders.  Aureomycin  was  stated  to  be  the  treat- 
ment of  choice  in  all  cases  of  lymphogranuloma 
venereum  infection  with  surgery,  wherever  me- 
chanical conditions  demand  it. 

Aureomycin  has  also  been  found  to  be  effective 
in  certain  instances  of  the  clinical  syndrome  of  un- 
determined etiology  designated  as  primary  atypical 
pneumonia.  While  its  unique  ability  to  control 
rickettsial  diseases  appears  to  be  the  chief  value  of 
the  drug  at  the  present  time,  aureomycin  has  also 
been  found  to  be  effective  against  many  coccic  and 
bacillary  forms.  Finland  and  his  co-workers  at  the 
Boston  City  Hospital  have  recently  reported  the 
use  of  this  antibiotic  in  100  cases  of  a  variety  of 
bacterial  infections. 

Studies  of  the  sensitivity  of  bacteria  to  aureomy- 
cin show  that  strains  of  hemolytic  streptococci, 
pneumococci,  gonococci,  and  meningococci  were 
almost  completely  inhibited  by  aureomycin  in  very 
small  concentrations  ( 1  microgram  per  cubic  centi- 
meter or  less).  Staphylococci  and  most  strains  of 
gram-negative  bacilli,  including  typhoid  and  other 
Salmonella,  were  inhibited  by  25  micrograms  per 
cubic  centimeter  or  less.  The  only  really  resistant 
strains  observed  were  those  of  Proteus  vulgaris  and 
P.  pyocyaneus.  On  a  weight  basis  aureomycin  was 
less  effective  than  penicillin  against  most  of  the 
coccic  organisms,  but  was  about  as  effective  as 
streptomycin  against  most  of  the  gram-negative 
bacilli. 

Clinical  infections  studied  included  gonococcic 
urethritis,  pneumococcic  pneumonia,  meningococ- 
cemia,  typhoid  fever.  Salmonella  infections,  and 
urinary  tract  infections.  In  the  cases  studied  a  good 
result  was  obtained  in  64,  a  doubtful  result  in  28, 
and  in  15  cases  the  drug  was  considered  to  have 
failed.  At  the  present  time  the  indications  for 
aureomycin  therapy  in  other  than  rickettsial  dis- 
eases would  seem  to  be  in  infections  caused  by 
penicillin  resistant  gram-positive  cocci  and  in  in- 
fections caused  by  the  coli-aerogenes  group  of 
bacteria,  including  those  of  the  urinary  tract  and 
peritonitis  with  or  without  bacteremia.  Aureomycin 
also  appears  to  be  the  antibiotic  of  choice  in  the 
treatment  of  acute  brucellosis. 

At  the  present  time  the  value  of  aureomycin 
therapy  has  not  been  clearly  defined  in  Salmonella 
infections,  including  typhoid  fever,  and  it  appears 
that  penicillin  is  still  the  treatment  of  choice  in 
infections  caused  by  gram-positive  cocci  which 
are  not  penicillin  resistant. 

'  Aureomycin  also  appears  to  be  effective  in  cer- 
tain bacterial  and  viral-like  infections  of  the  eye. 
All  the  laboratory  and  clinical  studies  suggest  that 
the  toxicity  of  aureomycin  is  minimal.  For  all  prac- 
tical purposes  it  may  be  stated  that  aureomycin  is 
not  toxic  in  therapeutic  dosage  except  for  produc- 
ing occasional  nausea  and  diarrhea.  It  is  not  as  yet 
known  whether  or  not  there  is  any  allergy  to  the 
antibiotic, 

Treatment  of  Acute  Leukemia  in  Children  with  Amino- 
pterin.  The  acute  leukemias  of  childhood  are  dis- 
eases of  unknown  origin  involving  primarily  the 
blood-forming  organs  and  the  blood.  They  are 
characterized  clinically  by  enlargement  of  the 


lymph  nodes  and  of  the  spleen,  usually  by  a  .great 
increase  in  the  number  of  white  blood  cells  in  the 
circulating  blood  and  by  infiltration  of  various  vis- 
cera with  abnormal  cells  of  leukemic  origin.  The 
disease  usually  progresses  rapidly  and  terminates 
fatally  in  a  comparatively  short  period  of  time. 
None  of  the  methods  of  treatment  employed  up 
to  this  time  have  been  of  any  significant  value. 

In  June  Farber  and  his  associates  at  the  Chil- 
dren's Medical  Center  in  Boston  reported  their  in- 
teresting experiences  with  the  treatment  of  a  group 
of  children  with  this  disease  with  a  folic  acid  an- 
tagonist, aminopterin.  Farber,  having  previously 
observed  that  the  injection  of  folic  acid  conjugates 
seemed  to  accelerate  the  leukemic  process,  decided 
that  the  trial  of  chemicals  which  were  antagonistic 
to  folic  acid  might  be  justified  in  this  disease.  The 
most  powerful  antagonist  to  folic  acid  yet  discov- 
ered is  aminopterin  (  4-arninopteroyl-glutamic 
acid). 

Of  16  infants  and  children  with  acute  leukemia 
treated  by  Farber  and  his  associates  with  amino- 
pterin, 10  showed  clinical,  hematologic,  and  path- 
ological evidence  of  improvement  of  important 
nature  of  as  long  as  three  months  duration  at  the 
time  of  their  report.  Six  patients  did  not  respond 
well,  and  of  these  four  were  dead  at  the  time  of 
the  report.  Observations  in  the  group  who  re- 
sponded showed  that  aminopterin  had  a  marked 
effect  upon  the  leukemic  bone  marrow  and  upon 
the  immature  cells  in  the  peripheral  blood  and 
very  probably  upon  leukemic  deposits  in  the  vis- 
cera as  well. 

Under  treatment  with  aminopterin  there  was  a 
tendency  in  this  group  of  patients  for  the  abnormal 
changes  in  the  peripheral  blood  and  in  the  bone 
marrow  to  revert  to  a  state  much  more  nearly  nor- 
mal. This  improvement  in  the  hemotalogic  aspect 
of  the  disease  was  associated  with  a  corresponding 
improvement  in  the  clinical  condition  of  the  pa- 
tients. Some  children  who  were  practically  mori- 
bund at  the  beginning  of  treatment  were  brought 
back  to  what  seemed  to  be  a  clinically  normal  state 
with  the  aminopterin  injections. 

While  these  results  are  striking,  the  authors  em- 
phasize very  strongly  that  the  remissions  so  far  ob- 
tained have  been  only  temporary;  and  that  it  is 
impossible  to  state  whether  or  not  the  substance 
will  be  of  value  for  a  longer  period  than  that  cov- 
ered by  their  studies.  They  also  emphasize  the  fact 
that  the  toxic  effects  of  aminopterin,  which  may 
include  severe  stomatitis,  may  make  continued  use 
of  the  drug  impossible.  It  should  also  be  stated 
that  spontaneous  remissions  of  short  duration  are 
occasionally  observed  in  the  course  of  untreated 
acute  leukemia.  At  any  rate  the  findings  of  Farber 
and  his  co-workers  is  of  great  interest. 

As  they  state  "no  evidence  has  been  mentioned 
in  this  report  that  would  justify  the  suggestion  of 
the  term  'cure*  of  acute  leukemia  in  children.  A 
promising  direction  for  further  research  concerning 
the  nature  and  treatment  of  acute  leukemia  in  chil- 
dren appears  to  have  been  established  by  the  ob- 
servations reported"  (New  England  Journal  of 
Medicine  238:787,  1948). 

Use  of  Human  Arterial  Grafts  in  the  Treatment  of 
Certain  Cardiovascular  Defects.  One  of  the  most  in- 
teresting and  important  surgical  reports  of  the  past 
year  was  that  of  Gross  and  his  associates,  of  the 
Harvard  Medical  School  and  the  Children's  Hospi- 
tal in  Boston,  on  the  use  of  human  arterial  grafts 
in  the  treatment  of  cardiovascular  defects.  In  an 
attempt  to  devise  a  technical  procedure  which 
would  help  in  bridging  gaps  in  the  arterial  system 
resulting  from  injury  or  disease,  Gross  and  his  as- 


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330 


MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY 


spciates  studied  in  dogs  the  possibility  of  transfer- 
ring a  segment  of  a  large  artery  from  one  animal 
to  another.  Studies  of  three  types  were  made. 

In  the  first  a  segment  of  the  aorta  was  removed 
from  a  donor  animal  and  implanted  within  a  few 
hours  into  a  recipient  dog.  It  was  found  that  when 
the  aortic  segments  were  kept  moist  and  in  a  com- 
mon domestic  refrigerator  for  only  a  few  hours 
there  was  a  very  high  probability  of  the  survival 
of  the  graft  in  the  recipient  animal.  After  a  period 
of  6  hours  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  grafts  sur- 
vived. After  18  hours  the  vast  majority  of  the  dogs 
died  from  thrombosis  in  the  graft  or  from  rupture 
at  the  suture  line.  In  the  second  group  the  excised 
vessels  were  rapidly  frozen  to  —72°  C.,  and  were 
stored  at  this  temperature  for  periods  varying  from 
2  to  35  days  before  being  implanted  into  recipient 
dogs.  Of  12  grafts  of  this  type  only  one  was  at  all 
successful,  and  Gross  was  led  to  believe  that  freez- 
ing would  not  be  a  satisfactory  method  for  pre- 
serving arterial  grafts. 

In  the  third  study  the  excised  aorta  segments 
were  stored  in  flasks  containing  an  electrolyte  so- 
lution to  which  had  been  added  glucose,  dog  se- 
rum, a  buffer,  penicillin,  streptomycin,  and  a 
phenol-red  indicator.  Each  flask  was  stored  in  an 
icebox,  the  temperature  of  which  did  not  range 
beyond  l°-4°  C,  The  tissue-culture  studies  on  such 
vessels  showed  them  to  be  viable  for  as  long  as 
35  to  40  days  in  most  cases.  Transfer  of  the  graft 
was  carried  out  in  24  animals  with  successful  re- 
sults. In  the  oldest  experiments  the  grafts  were 
known  to  be  carrying  blood  for  periods  of  as  long 
as  10  months. 

With  this  careful  experimental  study  as  a  back- 
ground', Gross  secured  segments  of  arteries  ob- 
tained within  a  few  hours  from  human  beings  who 
had  died  in  automobile  accidents  and  stored  them 
for  use  whenever  the  need  might  arise  in  a  human 
patient  At  the  time  of  his  report  9  such  grafts  had 
been  used  to  bridge  gaps  between  the  aorta  and 
the  pulmonary  artery  in  cases  of  cyanotic  heart 
disease,  which  did  not  seem  suitable  for  a  treat- 
ment by  the  more  commonly  employed  technics  of 
Blalock  or  Potts. 

Two  patients  in  this  group  died  from  causes  not 
attributable  to  any  defect  in  the  graft,  and  in  the 
7  survivors  the  grafts  were  apparently  functioning 
normally  and  carrying  blood  for  a  period  of  as  long 
as  5  months.  Gross  also  successfully  used  human 
aortic  transplants  in  the  treatment  of  3  patients 
with,  coarctation  of  the  aorta  in  whom  the  defect 
produced  by  the  excision  of  the  stenotic  segment 
was  too  great  to  be  bridged  by  an  end-to-end 
suture. 

Although  none  of  Gross*  patients  have  been  fol- 
lowed for  any  considerable  period  of  time,  the 
early  results  certainly  suggest  that  this  method  of 
transplantation  of  arteries  in  man  represents  an- 
other fundamental  advance  in  the  field  of  cardio- 
vascular surgery.  (New  England  Journal  of  Medi- 
cine 239 :578,  1948.) 

Technical  Advances  in  Surgery.  During  the  past 
year  several  important  technical  suggestions  have 
been  made,  especially  by  a  group  of  younger  Amer- 
ican surgeons.  Several  of  these  were  reported  at 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  Society  of  University 
Surgeons  and  deserve  brief  description. 

Ravitch  of  Johns  Hopkins  reported  that  he  had 
employed  successfully  in  man  the  ingenious  tech- 
nic  which  he  had  previously  worked  out  in  animals 
by  means  of  which  after  excision  of  the  entire 
colon,  the  terminal  ileum  could  be  brought  through 
the  preserved  anal  sphincters  and  anastomosed  to 
the  perianal  skin. 


This  tecbnic,  which  permits  ablation  of  the  colon 
and  yet  at  the  same  time  allows  the  preservation 
of  sphincteric  function,  seerns  to  represent  a  great 
advance  in  the  treatment  of  patients  who  demand 
colectomy  for  non-malignant  disease/  It  obviates 
the  necessity  of  a  bowel  opening  on  the  abdomi- 
nal wall,  with  all  the  difficulties  which  such  an 
opening  involves.  These  difficulties  are  especially 
great  when  the  ileum  drains  on  the  skin  of  the 
abdominal  wall.  Ravitch  has  performed  5  such  pro- 
cedures for  chronic  ulcerative  colitis  and  one  for 
familial  polypoid  adenomatosis  of  the  colon.  There 
have  been  no  deaths,  and  he  states  that  the  results 
thus  far  have  been  encouraging,  (Surgery  24:170, 
1948.) 

Swenson  and  Bill  of  the  Children's  Hospital  in 
Boston  described  a  method  of  resection  of  the 
rectum  and  rectosigmoid  with  preservation  of  the 
anal  sphincters.  They  believe  this  technic  will  be 
useful  particularly  in  Hirschsprung's  disease.  It  is 
their  opinion  that  the  great  dilatation  of  the  colon 
observed  in  this  condition  is  due  to  spasm  of  a  seg- 
ment of  the  rectum  or  rectosigmoid  which  produces 
a  functional  obstruction  and  not,  as  had  formerly 
been  thought,  to  any  intrinsic  disease  of  the  mus- 
culature or  innervation  of  the  distended  segment  of 
the  gut.  Their  operation  has  been  applied  success- 
fully in  three  children.  (Surgery  24:212,  1948.) 

Longmire  and  Sanford  of  Johns  Hopkins  de- 
scribed an  exceedingly  ingenious  procedure  for 
the  relief  of  obstruction  of  the  common  bile  duct 
in  cases  in  which  extensive  stricture  or  scar,  ad- 
vanced neo-plastic  disease,  or  congenital  atresia 
made  direct  anastomosis  of  the  duct  to  the  intestine 
impossible.  The  operation  described  by  Longmire 
and  Sanford  consists  essentially  of  excision  of  the 
left  lobe  of  the  liver,  identification  of  the  large  in- 
trahepatic  duct  which  normally  carries  bile  from 
this  lobe,  and  anastomosis  of  this  isolated  duct  to 
a  loop  of  the  small  bowel. 

They  reported  that  they  had  employed  this  pro- 
cedure successfully  in  one  case  of  recurrent  ob- 
struction of  the  common  bile  duct  due  to  acquired 
stricture.  Also  the  procedure  had  been  attempted  in 
3  cases  of  congenital  biliary  atresia  in  which  pre- 
vious exploration  had  shown  complete  absence  of 
the  extrahepatic  biliary  system.  Unfortunately  in 
these  cases  the  atretic  process  seemed  to  be  gen- 
eralized since  they  were  not  able  to  find  a  duct 
large  enough  for  an  anastomosis  even  after  resec- 
tion of  the  left  lobe  of  the  liver.  (Surgery  24:264, 
1948.) 

Gross  described  a  two-stage  procedure  for  the 
treatment  of  large  omphaloceles.  These  are  ano- 
malies of  development  in  which  there  is  failure  of 
closure  of  the  abdominal  wall  in  the  region  of  tbe 
umbilicus.  Through  a  large  defect  at  the  umbilicus 
there  protrudes  a  thin  walled  hernial  sac  which 
contains  varying  amounts  of  the  abdominal  vis- 
cera. In  the  past  small  omphaloceles  have  been  re- 
paired successfully  but  larger  ones  containing  the 
liver  together  with  other  viscera  have  not  been  re- 
paired successfully  because  the  undeveloped  ab- 
domen of  the  infant  has  not  been  large  enough  to 
contain  the  viscera  which  lies  in  the  sac.  In  the  in- 
fants in  whom  operation  has  not  been  possible 
death  has  usually  occurred  within  a  few  days  due 
to  necrosis  of  the  ammotic  sac  and  the  develop- 
ment of  peritonitis. 

The  novelty  of  Gross'  contribution  lies  in  the 
fact  that  he  makes  no  attempt  to  replace  the  viscera 
in  the  abdomen  but  merely  covers  the  sac,  by  su- 
turing over  it  the  skin  which  has  been  widely  un- 
dermined, in  order  to  obtain  sufficient  laxity  to  per- 
mit suture  without  tension.  Interestingly  enough  in- 


MELLON  INSTITUTE 


331 


METEOROLOGY 


fants  so  treated  do  not  develop  peritonitis  or  in- 
testinal obstruction  and  although  their  appearance 
is  grotesque  because  of  the  huge  umbilical  protru- 
sion, they  get  along  quite  well.  Gross  found  that  in 
6  months  or  so  there  was  sufficient  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  the  abdominal  cavity  to  permit  re- 
placement of  the  viscera  without  difficulty  and  re- 
pair of  the  abdominal  wall.  Three  cases  in  which 
this  technic  had  been  employed  successfully  were 
reported.  (Surgery  24:277,  1948.) 

— H.  WALTON  COCHHAN 

MELLON  INSTITUTE.  The  aim  of  Mellon  Institute  is 
the  creation  of  new  knowledge  by  scientific  investi- 
gation for  the  benefit  of  mankind,  in  accordance 
with  the  institution's  definite  fellowship  system. 
According  to  this  procedure  the  researches  are  re- 
stricted to  major  problems  of  the  pure  and  applied 
sciences  and  particularly  chemistry — problems  that 
require  protracted  periods  of  time  for  solution  by 
specialists.  The  Institute  was  founded  by  Andrew 
W.  Mellon  and  Richard  B.  Mellon  in  1913  and  is 
located  at  4400  Fifth  Ave.,  Pittsburgh  13,  Penn- 
sylvania. It  is  a  non-profit  institution.  Director, 
Edward  R.  Weidlein;  Assistant  Directors,  E.  Ward 
Tillotson,  William  A,  Hamor,  George  D.  Real, 
Harry  S.  Coleman,  L.  H.  Cretcher,  G.  H.  Young. 
The  industrial  research  of  the  Institute  is  organ- 
ized on  a  contract  basis,  the  problem  being  set  by 
a  person,  firm,  or  association  interested  in  its  solu- 
tion, the  scientific  worker  being  found  and  engaged 
by  die  Institute,  and  an  industrial  fellowship  being 
assigned  for  a  period  of  at  least  a  year.  Each  holder 
of  an  industrial  fellowship  is  given  broad  facilities 
for  accomplishing  the  research  entrusted  to  him 
and  all  results  belong  exclusively  to  the  donor  of 
the  fellowship.  Only  one  investigation  is  conducted 
on  a  specific  subject  at  any  one  time  and  hence 
there  is  no  duplication  of  the  research  activities  of 
the  fellowships  in  operation.  At  present  there  are 
75  of  these  industrial  fellowships,  which  employ 
490  scientists  and  engineers.  The  projects  range 
from  ferrous  metallurgy  and  refractories  to  novel 
Pharmaceuticals  or  medicinal  agents,  synthetic  rub- 
ber, new  plastics  and  textiles,  and  improvements 
in  foods  and  other  essential  commodities.  All  the 
work  during  wartime  related  to  urgent  military 
problems.  The  Institute's  department  of  research 
in  pure  chemistry  is  concentrating  on  the  synthesis 
of  new  chemotherapeutic  agents.  There  is  also  a 
strong  department  of  research  in  chemical  physics. 

MENNON1TES.  A  religious  group  founded  in  Switzer- 
land in  1525  in  protest  against  ecclesiastical  rule 
and  rigid  liturgy.  In  the  United  States  tie  Men- 
nonites  began  arriving  in  1683  and  settled  in  Ger- 
mantown,  Pa.,  ultimately  dividing  into  16  bodies. 
Menncnite  Church.  This  is  the  largest  group  of 
Mennonites  in  the  U.S.,  having  a  total  membership 
of  54,729.  The  420  churches  are  served  by  1,050 
ordained  men.  A  total  of  1,880  students  is  enrolled 
in  3  church  colleges,  and  71,650  persons  are  en- 
rolled in  Sunday  or  Bible  schools.  The  church 
maintains  16  institutions  for  care  of  the  aged,  or- 
phans, and  the  sick. 

MERCURY.  Domestic  production  of  mercury  con- 
tinued on  a  decline  that  began  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  war.  Production  in  the  first  nine  months  of 
1948  was  only  12,050  flasks  (76  Ib.  each),  about 
half  1947  production,  23,244  flasks.  At  year  end, 
three  mines,  two  in  California  and  one  in  Oregon, 
accounted  for  96  percent  of  production.  Increasing 
consumption,  35,100  flasks  in  the  nine  month  pe- 
riod, compared  with  35,581  flasks  in  1947,  was 


served  by  a  higher  volume  of  imports.  These  in- 
creased to  32,596  flasks  in  nine  montihs,  compared 
with  10,228  flasks  in  1947. 

Domestic  mines  have  been  gradually  forced  out 
of  production  by  the  low  price  set  by  Mercurio- 
Europeo,  the  Spanish-Italian  cartel,  which  estab- 
lished a  price  of  $56  a  flask,  Mediterranean  ports. 
U.S.  duty  is  $19  for  the  metal  plus  25  cents  for 
the  flask.  Ocean  freight  and  insurance  cost  about 
$3.  In  December,  1948,  the  cartel  raised  its  price 
$14  a  flask,  bringing  the  New  York  price  to  a 
range  of  $90  to  $92.  — JOHN  ANTHONY 

METEOROLOGY.  January-April.  The  first  four 
months  of  1948  were  characterized  by  periods  of 
above  normal  temperature  punctuated  by  several 
severe  cold  waves.  UnusuaUy  warm  weather  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  country  in  the  first  half  of 
January.  This  was  brought  to  an  end  east  of  the 
Rockies  by  outbreaks  of  cold  polar  air  on  the  15th- 
16th  and  again  on  the  18th,  which  brought  below- 
freezing  temperatures  to  all  southern  areas  except 
extreme  southern  Texas  and  Florida.  The  lowest 
temperatures  of  the  winter  were  recorded  in  the 
Lake  region,  and  snow,  measuring  a  foot  in  depth 
in  portions  of  Mississippi  and  Tennessee,  covered 
much  of  the  South.  Severe  cold  continued  in  sec- 
tions east  of  the  Rockies  through  the  remainder  of 
January  and  the  first  half  of  February. 

However,  warm  weather  continued  in  the  Moun- 
tain and  Pacific  States  until  the  closing  week  of 
January,  resulting  in  the  warmest  January  of  rec- 
ord in  many  portions  of  that  area.  During  the  last 
week  of  January  and  the  first  half  of  February  low 
temperatures  prevailed  in  the  Far  West  as  well  as 
in  the  eastern  portions  of  the  country.  Vegetable 
and  citrus  crops  in  southern  Arizona  and  California 
were  damaged  by  frosts.  On  the  12th  of  February 
sub-zero  temperatures  were  recorded  in  every 
western  State.  Generally  mild  weather  occurred  in 
the  latter  half  of  February.  The  early  days  of 
March  brought  two  rapidly  moving  cold  air  masses 
which  spread  over  practically  the  entire  country.. 

New  low  temperature  records  were  set  in  the 
Middle  West,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico.  Freezing 
temperatures  were  recorded  in  Brownsville,  Tex., 
and  snow  fell  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley.  A  sharp 
rise  in  temperature  followed  this  cold  wave  east  of 
the  Rockies.  The  remainder  of  the  month  was 
marked  by  changeable  conditions  although  tem- 
peratures generally  averaged  above  normal.  The 
month  of  April  was  notable  for  above  average  tem- 
peratures which  prevailed  over  the  entire  country 
with  the  exception  of  the  Northwest,  New  England, 
and  the  Middle  Atlantic  States.  However,  during 
the  first  week  damaging  frosts  occurred  in  the  Mid- 
dle West  and  southern  Mountain  States,  and  freez- 
ing temperatures  were  recorded  along  the  Atlantic 
Coast  as  far  south  as  Virginia. 

Precipitation,  in  January  was  above  normal  in 
Florida  and  along  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  Coasts, 
and  near  normal  to  deficient  in  all  other  areas. 
Drought  conditions  and  high  temperatures  in  Ne- 
vada, southern  California,  and  western  Arizona  re- 
sulted in  a  much  below  normal  mountain  snow- 
pack.  Heavy  snows  fell  in  the  Ohio  Valley  and  in 
New  England.  In  February  precipitation,  much  of 
which  occurred  as  snow,  was  above  normal  over  a 
considerable  area  of  the  country  except  for  the  At- 
lantic Coastal  States. 

March  was  characterized  by  light,  though  wide- 
spread, rainfall  over  most  sections  except  the  South- 
east and  central  Gulf  States  where  large  excesses 
were  accumulated.  In  April  the  heaviest  precipita- 
tion occurred  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  while 


METEOROLOGY 


332 


METEOROLOGY 


dry,  windy  weather  caused  dust  storms  in  the 
Southwest  and  in  the  Great  Plains.  General  above 
normal  precipitation  in  California  much  improved 
the  outlook  for  the  water  supply. 

Flooding  was  reported  on  several  streams  in  the 
Ohio  Valley  in  January.  A  number  of  damaging 
floods  occurred  in  March  causing  over  a  million 
dollars'  worth  of  damage  in  southern  Michigan  and 
driving  hundreds  of  families  from  their  homes  in 
the  vicinity  of  Wilkes  Barre,  Pa.  The  Ohio  River 
and  many  of  its  tributaries  overflowed  during 
April,  and  there  was  also  some  flooding  in  Missis- 
sippi and  northern  Florida.  The  rapid  melting  of  a 
heavy  snow  cover  caused  the  Red  River  in  the 
North  to  reach  the  highest  stage  reported  in  many 
years. 

There  were  a  number  of  severe  storms  in  the 
early  months  of  1948.  The  first  to  strike  in  January 
caused  much  damage  from  severe  icing  and  high 
winds  in  the  Middle  West;  brought  traffic-halting 
snow  to  portions  of  Missouri,  Iowa  and  Wisconsin; 
gave  heavy  rains  over  the  Ohio  Valley;  and  resulted 
in  thunderstorms  and  tornadoes  in  several  mid- 
western  and  southern  States.  Total  losses  from 
this  storm  were  tremendous;  damage  resulting 
from  high  winds  and  icing  in  Illinois  alone  were  be- 
lieved to  approach  $3,000,000. 

Severe  winter  weather  east  of  the  Rockies  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  month,  attended  by  bliz- 
zards, heavy  snows,  and  low  temperatures,  caused 
much  human  suffering,  including  a  large  number 
of  injuries  and  several  deaths.  Monetary  losses 
were  very  high,  approaching  $20  million  in  the 
State  of  Arkansas  as  a  result  of  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing damage  to  roads,  and  ice  damage  to  forests  and 
utilities.  In  February  glaze  and  ice  storms  were 
numerous  but  caused  only  minor  damage.  An  un- 
usually heavy  snowstorm  occurred  in  Oregon  on 
the  5th  and  6th  when  a  total  of  16  inches  of  snow 
fell  in  20  hours  at  The  Dalles. 

March  was  notable  for  a  number  of  destructive 
tornadoes.  On  the  19th  a  storm  which  moved  from 
the  central  Great  Plains  to  the  Lake  region  was 
marked  by  no  fewer  than  a  score  of  tornadoes;  the 
most  severe  occurred  at  Bunker  Hill,  111.,  and  vicin- 
ity, killing  24  persons,  injuring  295,  and  causing 
about  $3  million  damage.  High  winds  with  gusts 
up  to  100  m.p.h.  caused  an  estimated  $4  million 
damages  in  Indiana,  many  millions  an  Ohio,  and 
about  $750,000  in  New  York.  Total  tornado  and 
wind  damage  resulting  from  this  storm  probably 
exceeded  $10  million.  On  the  20th  a  tornado  struck 
at  Will  Rogers  and  Tinker  Air  Fields  near  Okla- 
homa City,  Okla,,  causing  over  $10  million  damage, 
.and  in  less  than  a  week  a  second  tornado  struck 
Tinker  Field  resulting  in  damages  exceeding  $6 
million. 

Another  storm  accompanied  by  tornadoes,  hail, 
sleet,  freezing  rain,  and  heavy  snows  occurred  in 
the  North  Central  States  on  the  26th  and  27th.  As 
a  result,  total  March  storm  damage  was  unusually 
high,  $30  to  $40  million,  with  tornado  damage 
alone  exceeding  $28  million.  The  most  destructive 
storms  in  April  occurred  in  California  and  Arkansas. 
In  a  portion  of  the  San  Joaqum  Valley  wind,  dust, 
and  rain  caused  $8  million  in  damage  to  crops  and 
$2  million  to  property.  A  hailstorm,  with  some  hail- 
stones of  3%  inches  in  diameter  reported,  caused 
more  than  a  million  dollars'  worth  of  damage  in 
Union,  Ouachita,  Calhoun,  and  Bradley  counties 
in  Arkansas. 

May-August.  Temperature  fluctuations  during  the 
second  period  of  the  year  were  rather  marked.  The 
weather  in  May  was  cool  and  damp  in  the  Pacific 
and  Mountain  States  and  in  the  Northeast.  The 


abundant  moisture  was  favorable  for  agriculture  in 
the  Pacific  States  but  delayed  planting  in  New 
England,  and  was  detrimental  to  crops  and  live- 
stock in  Idaho  and  western  Montana.  Although 
temperatures  averaged  below  normal  in  the  cen- 
tral regions  of  the  country,  the  latter  half  of  the 
month  was  warm  and  sunny*  Some  record  max- 
imum temperatures  were  recorded  in  North  Da- 
kota and  Wyoming  and  along  the  middle  Atlantic 
Coast. 

The  mild  weather  continued  into  the  first  half 
of  June  except  in  New  England  where  tempera- 
tures were  below  normal.  During  the  latter  half 
below  normal  temperatures  prevailed  over  the 
country  except  for  the  Pacific  Coast,  the  South,  and 
Southeast.  Some  frost  damage  was  reported  from 
north-central  Wisconsin  on  the  15th,  and  a  min- 
imum of  32°  F.  was  recorded  at  Phillipsburg,  Pa., 
on  the  17th.  July's  temperatures  were  very  close  to 
normal  over  most  areas  of  the  country  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Northwest  where  snow  and  frost  oc- 
curred at  high  elevations  in  Utah  and  southeastern 
Idaho  on  the  27th  and  29th,  and  the  second  lowest 
July  temperature  of  record  for  Montana  was  re- 
ported at  West  Yellowstone  on  the  18th. 

In  August  temperatures  continued  below  normal 
in  the  Pacific  States,  but  the  most  outstanding  fea- 
ture of  the  month's  weather  was  the  heat  wave 
which  spread  over  the  Lake  region  and  the  North- 
east during  the  last  decade  of  the  month.  Max- 
imum temperature  records  were  established  for  Au- 
gust at  New  York,  N.Y.  with  103°  F.;  Buffalo,  N.Y. 
with  99°  F.;  and  Nantucket,  Mass,  with  95°  F.  A 
maximum  temperature  of  107°  F.  at  Mather,  Wis., 
equaled  the  State  record. 

Precipitation  was  heavy  in  many  sections  of  the 
country  in  May,  and  unusually  heavy  in  Washing- 
ton, Oklahoma,  Maryland,  and  Delaware.  This  was 
rated  the  wettest  May  of  record  in  Washington  and 
Delaware,  and  the  second  wettest  in  Maryland. 
Most  precipitation  which  occurred  in  June  was  of 
the  thunderstorm  type  with  much  local  variation. 
Exceedingly  heavy  rains  fell  in  Nebraska,  Kansas, 
and  Oklahoma,  but  below  normal  amounts  were 
recorded  in  the  South,  New  England,  through  the 
lower  Ohio  Valley  and  much  of  the  Lake  region, 
in  northern  North  Dakota,  and  along  the  coast  of 
Washington  and  central  California.  Heavy  rains 
partially  relieved  an  acute  drought  in  southeastern 
Louisiana,  and  lesser  droughts  in  Minnesota  and 
Illinois. 

Again  in  July  unusually  heavy  rain  occurred  in 
Kansas,  and  above  normal  totals  were  accumulated 
in  the  Northwest,  the  Ohio  Valley,  the  Appalachi- 
ans, and  the  extreme  Southeast.  Light  to  extremely 
light  precipitation  was  reported  from  the  other 
sections  of  the  country.  August  again  bestowed  ex- 
tremely heavy  rainfall  on  Kansas,  and  above  normal 
falls  were  reported  from  the  Great  Plains,  the 
northern  Rocky  Mountain  States,  and  the  Pacific 
States.  East  of  the  Mississippi  and  in  most  areas  of 
the  Southwest  the  monthly  totals  were  below  av- 
erage. 

Serious  floods  made  spectacular  news  all  during 
this  period.  In  May  a  devastating  flood  resulting 
from  heavy  rains  and  melting  snows  on  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  Columbia  River  and  its  tributaries, 
and  along  most  major  streams  in  northern  Idaho 
and  western  Montana,  took  an  undetermined  num- 
ber of  lives.  Thousands  of  homes  and  thousands  of 
acres  of  crops  were  destroyed  and  tremendous  dam- 
age done  to  other  property.  Preliminary  estimates 
show  $3  million  in  damages  in  western  Montana, 
over  $7  million  in  northern  Idaho,  and  approx- 
imately $21.5  million  near  Portland,  Ore.  In  June, 


METEOROLOGY 


333 


METEOROLOGY 


Nebraska  reported  more  than  $4  million  loss  in 
flood  damage.  Torrential  rains  occurring  during 
the  period  20-24  of  June  resulted  in  destructive 
floods  in  various  parts  of  Oklahoma.  Several  lives 
were  lost,  and  estimated  damages  exceeded  $4  mil- 
lion. 

The  Columbia  River  remained  at  high  stages 
during  the  first  part  of  June  taking  additional  lives 
and  causing  property  damage  of  many  millions  of 
dollars.  Estimates  of  total  property  damage  from 
this  flood  place  the  losses  at  more  than  $100  mil- 
lion. Several  hundred  thousand  dollars  additional 
damage  was  suffered  in  northern  Idaho  and  west- 
ern Montana.  As  a  result  of  the  unusually  heavy 
rains  in  Kansas  in  July  most  of  the  rivers  in  the 
State  overflowed,  some  reaching  record-breaking 
stages.  Losses  of  more  than  $13  million  were  suf- 
fered, more  than  half  to  growing  crops.  More  than 
10  inches  of  rain  fell  in  3  hours  over  a  considera- 
ble area  along  the  Hocking  River  in  Ohio  on  the 
22nd;  resulting  flood  loss  was  estimated  at  about 
$2  million.  Again  in  August  floods  which  caused 
nearly  a  million  dollars'  worth  of  damage  occurred 
in  southern  and  western  Kansas.  Northern  Arizona 
experienced  flash  floods  which  caused  some  dam- 
age. 

Several  storms  which  occurred  during  May  left 
total  losses  of  at  least  $15  million;  tornado  damage 
alone  amounted  to  $5.5  million.  June  was  notable 
for  an  unusual  number  of  destructive  storms,  but 
relatively  few  lives  were  lost.  On  the  10th  a  rain 
and  hailstorm  in  Douglas  County,  Wash.,  caused  $2 
million  damage.  Some  $4.5  million  worth  of  damage 
was  done  by  hail  and  wind  in  Cheyenne  County, 
Kans.,  on  the  13th,  and  on  the  15th  wind,  hail,  and 
lightning  in  three  Kansas  counties  caused  an  addi- 
tional $2,175,000  damage.  Total  storm  losses  in 
Nebraska  for  the  month  of  June  exceeded  $7.5  mil- 
lion, and  for  the  country  as  a  whole  tornado  dam- 
age alone  amounted  to  over  $3.5  million.  Storm 
losses  during  July  were  lower  than  usual,  for  July 
storms,  though  numerous,  were  rarely  severe.  Hail 
caused  a  million  dollars  in  damages  in  Colorado 
on  the  15th,  and  losses  of  $250,000  were  sustained 
at  Nashville  from  thunderstorms  on  the  22nd,  and 
in  Iowa  from  a  tornado  on  the  29th.  Damage  from 
hail  was  very  high  in  August.  Montana  suffered  an 
estimated  $7.5  million  in  damages  from  several 
hailstorms,  and  in  portions  of  northern  Illinois  on 
the  17th  a  number  of  hailstorms  occurred,  each 
causing  damage  of  a  million  dollars  or  more. 

September-December.  In  the  last  third  of  the  year 
temperatures  showed  a  wide  variability.  Septem- 
ber's average  temperatures  were  generally  above 
normal  especially  in  the  North  Central  region 
where,  during  the  second  and  third  weeks,  depar- 
tures averaged  as  high  as  15°  F.  above  normal.  Un- 
usually cold  weather  occurred  in  the  Middle  At- 
lantic and  New  England  States  in  the  first  week  of 
September  and  again  in  the  third  week.  From  the 
15th  to  the  17th,  killing  frosts  occurred  in  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  Valley  and  Adirondack  region  of 
New  York  and  at  higher  elevations  in  New  Eng- 
land. Generally  warm  weather  prevailed  west  of 
the  Rockies  during  most  of  the  month,  but  in  the 
last  week  an  influx  of  cool  Pacific  air  brought  tem- 
perature averages  to  below  normal  and  killing 
frosts  occurred  on  the  24-25th  at  higher  elevations 
in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  Frosts  also  occurred 
in  the  northeast. 

This  period  of  cool  weather  carried  over  into  the 
first  two  weeks  of  October.  Killing  frosts  were  gen- 
eral in  most  northern  regions  during  the  second 
week,  and  also  caused  some  damage  to  vegetation 
in  portions  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  From  the 


16th  to  the  19th  freezing  temperatures  in  middle 
portions  of  the  country  reached  as  far  south  as 
northern  Louisiana  and  Mississippi,  resulting  in  one 
of  the  earliest  killing  frosts  on  record  in  those 
States. 

In  November  temperatures  in  the  eastern  parts 
of  the  country  and  extreme  north  central  areas 
were  considerably  above  normal,  with  departures 
in  the  Lake  region  and  northeastern  States  averag- 
ing about  8°  F.  above  normal.  Snow  began  to  ac- 
cumulate in  the  Rockies,  and  in  the  Far  West  cold 
Polar  air  masses  accompanied  by  snow  and  wind 
brought  subzero  temperatures  to  northern  and  cen- 
tral portions  of  the  region,  and  occasionally  frost 
and  freezing  to  vegetable  and  citrus  areas  of  the 
extreme  south.  Near  the  end  of  the  month  frost  oc- 
curred in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  in  Texas  as  far 
south  as  Brownsville,  and  a  low  of  25°  F.  was  re- 
corded at  Eagle  Pass.  A  severe  snow  storm  occurred 
in  the  Central  Great  Plains  during  the  period  17th 
to  20th  but  temperatures  remained  just  below  freez- 
ing. 

The  cold  weather  was  persistent  in  the  Far  West 
during  December.  Unusually  mild  weather  pre- 
vailed in  the  East  with  the  exception  of  Florida 
where  a  departure  of,  6°  F.  below  normal  was  re- 
corded. Extreme  southern  Texas  and  extreme  north- 
ern Maine  also  showed  minus  departures.  Although 
temperatures  in  the  middle  portions  of  the  country 
averaged  near  normal,  they  showed  much  fluctua- 
tion, plus  departures  in  Montana  ranging  from  6° 
to  9°  F.  Fairmont,  Minn.,  reported  a  record-break- 
ing high  temperature  of  66°  F.  on  the  3rd. 

Precipitation  in  September  was  generally  light 
except  in  scattered  areas  in  the  East  and  North- 
west, and  in  the  central  Gulf  area.  Extreme  south- 
ern portions  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  Ala- 
bama all  received  twice  the  normal  amount  of 
rain.  October  was  very  dry.  Only  Oregon,  Arizona, 
Florida,  and  Virginia  reported  above-normal  rain- 
fall; Montana  received  only  17  percent  of  normal 
amount.  Precipitation  was  above  normal  in  No- 
vember in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  Washington, 
western  Montana,  and  the  central  Rockies,  and 
eastern  portions  of  the  country  except  Florida, 
Heavy  rains  occurred  from  Arkansas  and  Louisi- 
ana to  the  Atlantic  Coast,  especially  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  month.  Montgomery,  Ala.,  re- 
corded more  than  8  inches  of  rain  in  24  hours,  and 
the  State  average  precipitation  was  459  percent  of 
normal.  The  southwestern  portion  of  the  country 
was  exceptionally  dry,  Arizona  received  only  2  per- 
cent of  the  November  rainfall,  and  many  stations 
in  that  State  and  in  southern  California  received  no 
measurable  amounts.  December  precipitation  was 
above  normal  in  Atlantic  Coastal  States  from  New 
Jersey  to  South  Carolina,  the  Ohio  Valley,  portions 
of  the  Middle  West  and  the  fountain  States,  and 
in  scattered  areas  of  New  England  and  along  the 
Pacific  Coast.  Most  of  this  precipitation  occurred 
in  the  form  of  snow  except  in  the  southeastern 
States,  Tallahassee,  Fla.,  and  nearby  stations  re- 
ported heavy  rainfall  on  the  9th,  with  24-hour 
amounts  exceeding  4  inches. 
_  Three  hurricanes  affected  the  mainland  of  the 
United  States  during  September.  The  first  skirted 
the  Atlantic  Coast,  resulting  in  heavy  rains  from 
Florida  to  North  Carolina.  The  second  moved  in- 
land from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  over  southeastern 
Louisiana  on  the  4th,  and  held  a  northerly  course 
through  western  Mississippi  and  Tennessee  into 
southern  Illinois  where  it  dissipated  on  the  6th, 
Heavy  rains  occurred  along  its  path  in  southern 
Louisiana  and  Mississippi,  and  total  damage  was 
estimated  at  $900,000.  There  was  no  loss  of  life. 


METEOROLOGY 


334 


METHODIST  CHURCH 


On  the  22nd  a  severe  hurricane  accompanied  by 
heavy  rain  and  winds  of  more  than  one  hundred 
miles  per  hour  moved  across  southern  Florida. 
Three  people  were  killed  and  45  hospitalized.  Con- 
siderable flooding  occurred  in  the  Lake  Okeechobee 
region  where  10  to  11  inches  of  rain  fell  at  some 
stations.  Crop  damage  was  considerable.  Total 
damage  from  this  hurricane  was  estimated  at  $6,- 
500,000.  On  the  5th  of  October  southern  Florida 
was  again  struck  by  a  hurricane,  the  center  of 
which  passed  over  Miami.  There  were  no  fatalities 
but  damage  was  estimated  at  $5,500,000. 

Losses  from  other  storms  were  unusually  low  in 
October.  The  two  most  damaging  storms  were  a 
tornado  in  Florida  on  the  5th — a  side  issue  of  the 
hurricane — which  caused  $100,000  in  damages, 
and  a  wind  and  hail  storm  in  Texas  on  the  31st 
resulting  in  $180,500  worth  of  damage.  Total  losses 
for  the  month  from  local  storms  amounted  to  less 
than  $500,000.  There  were  no  serious  floods.  Dur- 
ing the  first  week  of  November,  several  windy  days 
in  the  Great  Plains  and  Far  West  caused  some 
damage  along  the  northern  Oregon  coast  on  the 
3rd,  local  damage  to  California  citrus  crops  on  the 
4th,  and  severe  dust  storms  in  western  Oklahoma 
on  the  7th.  One  of  the  most  severe  early  season 
snow  storms  of  record  in  the  central  Great  Plains 
occurred  on  the  17th-20th.  In  Kansas  and  central 
and  northeastern  Nebraska,  where  4  to  20  inches 
of  snow  fell,  gale  force  winds  sometimes  reaching 
speeds  of  70  m.p.h.  piled  up  drifts  20  feet  deep. 
Railroads  and  highways  were  blocked,  motorists 
stranded,  and  communications  disrupted.  Many 
communities  were  completely  isolated,  and  heavy 
losses  of  livestock  were  suffered.  Snow  in  huge 
drifts  also  covered  parts  of  eastern  Colorado,  south- 
eastern South  Dakota,  northwestern  Iowa,  and  ex- 
treme southwestern  Minnesota.  In  eastern  Colorado 
the  high  winds  caused  additional  damage  to  small 
grains  by  moving  soil.  At  least  9  lives  were  lost  in 
this  storm  and  millions  of  dollars  of  damage  in- 
curred. Destructive  tornadoes  hit  Mississippi  on  the 
5th  and  again  on  the  18th,  Nine  people  were  killed 
and  more  than  60  injured;  damage  amounted  to 
$700,000.  In  all,  more  than  $2,500,000  in  damages 
were  suffered  throughout  the  country  in  November 
in  addition  to  the  damage  from  the  severe  snow 
described  above. 

During  the  period  December  3rd-6th  a  storm 
which  moved  northeastward  from  southern  Cali- 
fornia developed  great  intensity  over  the  Great 
Plains  and  the  Lake  region.  Strong  winds  and 
heavy  snows  in  the  central  Rockies  gave  Salt  Lake 
City  a  record  December  fall  of  11  inches  on  the 
4th.  The  strong  southerly  winds  preceding  this 
storm  caused  numerous  dust  storms  in  the  central 
and  lower  Great  Plains.  During  the  second  week 
the  northern  Cascade  and  Rocky  Mountains  re- 
ceived heavy  falls  of  snow.  Stampede,  Washington, 
reported  a  total  of  53  inches  for  the  week.  In  the 
mountains  of  California  heavy  amounts  of  snow 
which  fell  during  the  third  week  of  December  im- 
proved the  prospects  for  irrigation  water  for  the 
summer  of  1949.  A  general  snowstorm  in  the 
Northeast  brought  more  than  19  inches  of  snow  to 
New  York  City,  the  third  greatest  fall  of  record. 
In  the  southeastern  States  heavy  rains  which  fell 
during  the  latter  part  of  November  caused  severe 
flooding  in  Mississippi,  Oklahoma,  and  Georgia, 
with  streams  overflowing  in  coastal  regions  from 
Mississippi  through  Virginia  in  the  first  week  of 
December.  Heavy  rainfall  in  Oregon  during  the 
second  week  caused  moderate  overflow  along  the 
Willamette  River. 

Weather  conditions   were   generally   favorable 


for  agriculture  during  the  last  period  of  the  year. 
Most  crops  and  livestock  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
country  were  in  satisfactory  condition,  but  cold 
weather  had  caused  some  shrinkage  of  livestock  in 
the  West  and  some  damage  to  citrus.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  small  grains  were  well  protected  by  snow 
cover  in  the  West,  although  tie  Northeast  and 
much  of  the  Lake  region  were  unusually  bare  for 
this  time  of  year.  — F.  W.  REICHELDERFER 

METHODIST  CHURCH,  The.  In  the  somewhat  complex 
organization  of  the  13%  million  members  of  Metho- 
dist churches  throughout  the  world  about  three  out 
of  every  four  belong  to  that  branch  centering  in 
the  United  States  and  known  as  "The  Methodist 
Church/*  It  was  formed  by  the  reunion  in  1939  of 
three  bodies,  all  stemming  from  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  organized  in  1784  in  Baltimore 
under  the  leadership  of  emissaries  of  John  Wesley, 
of  London,  founder  of  the  movement.  Division  in 
one  case,  over  lay-participation  and  the  episcopacy, 
resulted  in  1828  in  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church.  The  other,  over  slavery,  produced  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  in  1844. 

These  churches,  in  merging  a  decade  ago,  com- 
bined to  form  America's  largest  Protestant  body 
with  a  domestic  membership,  including  prepara- 
tory members  (592,675)  of  9,243,737  and  an  addi- 
tional 875,000  overseas  membership  in  the  church- 
es of  mission  lands.  Also,  closely  affiliated  are  the 
autonomous  Methodist  churches  of  Brazil,  Japan, 
Korea,  and  Mexico,  totaling  116,000. 

There  are,  however,  in  the  United  States  other 
independent  Methodist  bodies,  totaling  1,900,000 
members.  The  major  ones  are  the  African  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  (868,755),  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church  (489,244),  and 
the  Colored  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (381,000), 

The  parent  body  of  Methodism,  the  Methodist 
Church  in  Great  Britain,  numbering  900,000  has 
fostered  the  organization  of  other  independent 
bodies  in  South  Africa,  Australasia,  and  New  Zea- 
land. Since  the  word  Methodist  in  the  United 
States  most  frequently  is  used  in  reference  to  "The 
Methodist  Church,"  described  above,  from  this 

Eoint  the  facts  and  figures  following  pertain  to  this 
ody. 

Being  a  ^quadrennial  year,  1948  records  the  de- 
nomination's General  Conference  held  in  Boston 
in  April,  the  supreme  law  and  policy  making  au- 
thority. The  episcopal  address  of  the  63  bishops, 
effective  and  retired,  reviewed  accomplishments  of 
the  past  four  years,  notably  the  successful  "Crusade 
for  Christ,"  appraised  the  "state  of  the  church" 
and  pointed  the  direction  for  future  movement. 
The  754  delegates,  half  of  them  laymen,  consid- 
ered 1,511  proposals  for  legislation.  Their  enact- 
ments, as  usual,  resulted  in  a  new  book  of  Disci- 
pline. 

Primary  action  of  the  Conference  was  the  launch- 
ing of  a  four-year  program,  "the  Advance  for 
Christ  and  His  Church."  Bishop  W.  C.  Martin  of 
Dallas,  Tex.,  is  Chairman  and  Dr.  E.  Harold  Mohn 
the  Executive  Director,  with  headquarters  in  Chi- 
cago. The  movement  calls  for  a  teaching  and 
preaching  endeavor  to  deepen  understanding  and 
commitment  to  "Our  Faith,  Our  Church,  Our  Min- 
istry, and  Our  Mission/*  Study  of  the  World  Coun- 
cil of  Churches  is  first  on  the  syllabus,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  preaching  missions  of  several  months  on 
each  emphasis.  Expressional  aspects  of  the  Ad- 
vance will  be  a  33  percent  increase  in  benevolent 
giving,  to  meet  rising  costs,  plus  heavy  underwrit- 
ing by  persons  and  groups  of  specific  missionary 
projects,  home  and  foreign,  and  overseas  relief. 


METHODIST  CHURCH 


335 


MEXICO 


New  Bishops.  Changes  in  the  episcopacy,  earlier 
made  by  thv.  General  Conference,  since  unification 
follow  a  "home  rule"  principle.  In  the  United 
States  they  are  now  effected  hy  the  six  Jurisdic- 
tional  Conferences,  and  abroad  by  Central  Confer- 
ences, which  meet  quadrennially  following  the 
General  Conference. 

Bishops  retiring  were  H.  Lester  Smith,  Colum- 
bus, O.;  Titus  Lowe,  Indianapolis,  Lad.;  Ray- 
mond J.  Wade,  Detroit,  Mich.;  Edwin  F.  Lee,  (de- 
ceased) Singapore;  Wilbur  E.  Hammaker,  Denver, 
Colo.;  Charles  C.  Selecman,  Dallas,  Tex.;  James  H. 
Straughn,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  Lewis  0.  Hartman, 
Boston,  Mass.;  and  D.  D.  Alejandro,  Manila,  P.I. 

Two  new  episcopal  areas  were  added  to  the  33 
into  which  the  United  States  had  been  divided  for 
administrative  purposes,  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  and 
Jacksonville,  Fla.  Fourteen  new  bishops  were 
chosen,  consecrated,  and  assigned,  as  follows :  John 
Wesley  Lord,  Boston;  Lloyd  C.  Wicke,  Pittsburgh; 
Marvin  A.  Franklin,  Jackson,  Miss.;  Roy  H.  Short, 
Jacksonville,  Fla.;  John  W.  E.  Bowen,  Atlantic 
Coast  Area,  Atlanta;  Marshall  R.  Reed,  Detroit; 
Richard  C.  Raines,  Indianapolis;  Hazen  G.  Werner, 
Columbus,  O.;  H.  Clifford  Northcott,  Madison, 
Wis,;  Dana  Dawson,  Topeka,  Kan.;  Glenn  R.  Phil- 
lips, Denver;  Donald  H.  Tippett,  San  Francisco; 
Gerald  H.  Kennedy,  Portland,  Ore.  The  Philippine 
Central  Conference  chose  Jose  L.  Valencia  to  suc- 
ceed Bishop  Alejandro. 

Other  New  Leaders.  Other  notable  changes  in 
leadership  include:  Mrs.  F.  G.  Brooks,  Mt.  Vernon, 
Iowa,  succeeding  Mrs.  J.  D.  Bragg,  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
as  president  of  the  Woman's  Division  of  Christian 
Service  (1,455,086  members).  Chiton  G.  Bennett, 
Chicago,  succeeding  Dr.  George  L.  Morelock,  as 
Executive  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Lay -Activities; 
Dr.  John  O.  Gross,  succeeding  Dr.  H.  W.  McPher- 
son  as  Executive  Secretary,  Division  of  Educa- 
tional Institutions,  Nashville,  Tenn.;  Dr.  Eugene  L. 
Smith  to  succeed  Dr.  Ralph  E.  Diffendorfer  as 
Executive  Secretary  of  the  Division  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions, New  York,  effective  Aug.  1,  1949;  Bishop 
Titus  Lowe,  succeeding  Bishop  Herbert  Welch  as 
executive  of  Methodist  Committee  on  Overseas  Re- 
lief; Dr.  J.  Manning  Potts,  succeeding  Dr.  Roy  H. 
Short  as  editor  of  Upper  Room. 

The  Methodist  Publishing  House,  operating  in 
three  manufacturing  and  14  distribution  centers, 
reported  its  largest  gross  receipts  in  its  159  years, 
$11,232,564,  and  appropriated  $400,000,  of  the 
produce  of  the  year,  following  long  custom,  to  re- 
tired preachers*  funds.  Construction  of  the  first  two 
units  of  a  $3  million  plant  expansion  was  ordered. 
Dr.  Fred  D.  Stone,  one  of  two  publishing  agents, 
retired  and  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Roy  L.  Smith, 
Chicago.  Dr.  T.  Otto  Nail  was  made  acting  editor 
of  The  Christian  Advocate  (Chicago),  official  week- 
ly, and  the  Rev.  Prince  A.  Taylor  was  elected  editor 
of  The  Central  Christian  Advocate  (New  Orleans), 
which  serves  the  denomination's  340,000  Negro 
members. 

Activities.  Autumn  saw  large  Methodist  participa- 
tion in  an  inter-church  missionary  conference  in 
Columbus,  O.,  followed  by  36  regional  conferences 
which  gave  a  new  impetus  to  missions.  In  addition 
to  routine  assignments,  23  men  and  28  women 
were  recruited,  given  six  weeks'  briefing,  and  dis- 
patched to  Japan  and  Korea  to  teach  English.  A 
plan  of  systematic  visitation  of  mission  fields  by  the 
bishops.,  approved  by  the  General  Conference,  was 
put  into  immediate  operation.  Currently  there  are 
1,275  Methodist  missionaries  working  in  49  coun- 
tries under  the  supervision  of  16  overseas  bishops. 

Endowments  of  the  125  educational  institutions 


related  to  the  denomination,  including  9  universi- 
ties and  69  colleges,  are  now  $230  million,  a  sum 
52  percent  above  the  1940  figure.  In  the  same 
period  100  new  buildings  have  been  erected.  Dur- 
ing this  year  134  students  from  abroad  are  being 
supported  from  a  million  dollar  appropriation  for 
this  purpose  from  the  $27  million  fund  raised  for 
relief  and  reconstruction. 

Summer  institutes,  camps,  and  assemblies  for 
training  and  service  were  held  in  700  centers. 
Nearly  500  picked  collegians  and  adult  counselors, 
coached  and  organized  into  "Caravan"  teams  of 
five,  spent  the  summer  in  unremunerated  service 
to  1,827  churches.  Church  school  extension  service 
provided  formal  training  for  100  young  women 
who  had  volunteered  for  a  year's  service  in  rural 
areas  on  a  subsistence  basis.  Special  effort  during 
the  quadrennium  to  offset  declining  churcn  (Sun- 
day )  school  attendance  stopped  the  slump  and  reg- 
istered advances  of  12  percent  in  enrollment,  14 
percent  in  attendance.  Related  to  The  Methodist 
Church  are  228  hospitals,  homes,  and  other  philan- 
thropic institutions. 

Correlation  of  audio  and  visual  activities  of  sev- 
eral church  agencies  has  been  effected  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Radio  and  Film  Commission  of 
The  Methodist  Church.  A  Survey  Commission, 
named  by  the  General  Conference,  will  study  the 
administrative  organization  of  the  church.  Another 
commission  has  engaged  an  executive  to  devote 
himself  to  recruitment  and  guidance  of  youth  in- 
terested in  preparing  for  Christian  life  service. 

Statistics.  Latest  figures  show  40,397  preaching 
places  in  the  United  States  divided  into  21,603 
pastoral  charges.  There  are  37,458  church  schools 
with  an  enrollment  of  5,343,446  and  an  average  at- 
tendance of  2,770,234.  Churches  and  parsonages 
have  a  total  valuation  of  $996,057,805  against 
which  there  are  debts  of  $23,564,184.  During  the 
past  year  $60  million  was  paid  for  building,  im- 
provements, and  debt  reduction.  An  over-all  figure 
for  all  Methodist  property  held  locally  and  by 
Methodist  agencies  is  $1,475,530,795,  The  Metho- 
dist Church  raised  for  all  purposes  during  its  last 
reported  year  $196,435,168,  an  advance  of  $38,- 
296,711  over  the  preceding  year.  The  Woman's 
Societies  of  Christian  Service,  organized  in  27,478 
parishes,  raised  $5,630,252  for  their  educational, 
missionary,  and  philanthropic  work,  in  addition  to 
having  contributed  more  than  $10  million  to  their 
local  church  programs. 

The  Methodist  Church  operates  without  a  single 
central  headquarters.  Between  General  Confer- 
ences the  Council  of  Bishops  gives  general  guid- 
ance in  some  aspects  of  church  Hfe,  and  the  admin- 
istrative boards  and  agencies  in  others.  Bishop 
James  C.  Baker,  Los  Angeles,  is  the  1948-49  Presi- 
dent of  the  Council.  New  York  (150  Fifth  Ave.) 
is  home  of  the  Board  of  Missions,  including  the 
Woman's  Division.  Chicago  (740  Rush  St.)  has 
World  Service,  World  Peace  Commission,  Board  of 
Lay  Activities,  Board  of  Pensions,  and  Publishing 
offices.  Nashville,  Tenn.  (810  Broadway)  is  home 
of  the  Board  of  Education  and  additional  Publish- 
ing activities  and  of  the  Board  of  Evangelism  (1908 
Grand  Ave.).  The  Board  of  Temperance  is  at  100 
Maryland  Ave.  N.E.,  Washington,  D.C.  Other 
branches  of  administrative  agencies  are  in  St. 
Louis,  Louisville,  Cincinnati,  New  Orleans,  and 
San  Francisco.  — RALPH  STOODY 

MEXICO.  A  republic  of  North  America.  The  coun- 
try is  largely  a  high  plateau,  bordered  by  cordil- 
leras  and  volcanic  peaks.  Coastal  lowlands  mark 
the  maritime  margins  of  the  plateau.  Mexico  has 


MEXICO 


336 


MEXICO 


two  peninsulas,  Yucatan  and  Lower  California, 
Winters  as  a  rule  are  dry.  In  the  north,  tempera- 
tures range  from  cool  in  the  plateaus  to  hot  in  the 
desert.  The  southeast  is  tropical,  especially  Yuca- 
tan, 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  759,258  square  miles. 
Population,  23,425,000  (1947),  of  which  mestizos 
make  up  more  than  50  percent,  Indians  29  percent 
and  the  rest  are  persons  of  European  descent  Prin- 
cipal cities:  Mexico  (capital),  Guadalajara,  Puebla, 
Monterrey,  Merida,  and  Tampico. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship,  although  it  establishes 
restrictions  with  regard  to  the  religious  ceremonies, 
which  must  be  confined  to  churches,  temples,  and 
homes.  Roman  Catholicism  is  predominant.  Span- 
ish is  the  official  language,  but  numerous  Indian 
languages  are  spoken  in  the  rural  areas.  The  most 
recent  statistics  indicated  that  about  60  percent 
of  the  adult  population  was  literate,  and  mat  the 
number  of  primary  schools  of  all  kinds  exceeded 
24,000,  with  an  enrollment  of  2,154,368.  Of  these 
schools,  according  to  President  Aleman's  report  to 
Congress  of  Sept  1,  1947,  12,419  were  Federal 
primary  schools,  instructing  935,000  pupils.  Inter- 
mediate education  is  offered  by  about  400  schools, 
with  an  approximate  total  registration  of  64,000, 
not  including  normal  and  vocational  institutions. 
There  are  13  important  universities  in  Mexico.  The 
literacy  campaign  in  the  rural  areas,  under  the  Cul- 
tural Missions,  made  substantial  progress  in  1948. 
In  1947,  there  were  66  missions  operating  through- 
out the  country. 

Production.  The  nation's  economy  is  based  on 
agriculture  and  mining,  but  rapid  progress  toward 
industrialization  has  been  made  in  recent  years. 
1947  was  a  good  year  for  agriculture;  production 
of  corn,  the  staple  food,  was  over  two  million  met- 
ric tons.  In  spite  of  that,  Mexico  imported  376,000 
pesos  of  com  (peso  =  $U.S.  0.1453;  Dec.  2,  1948). 
Wheat  production  was  450,000  metric  tons.  Pro- 
duction forecasts,  for  1948,  of  the  basic  agricul- 
tural items  were  (in  metric  tons):  com,  2,756,191; 
wheat,  577,254;  beans,  197,750,  and  rice,  134,387. 

Stock  raising  is  an  important  industry,  and  Mex- 
ico has  a  population  of  about  12  million  cattle  and 
5  million  hogs.  Hoof-and-mouth  disease  seriously 
affected  the  industry  in  1947,  exports  decreasing 
to  a  value  of  one  million  pesos,  as  compared  with 
47  million  the  previous  year.  Mineral  production 
is  a  large  item  in  the  country's  economy.  Silver  is 
the  largest  export  commodity.  Industrial  metal  ex- 
ports in  1947  increased  in  the  sum  of  307  million 
pesos  compared  with  the  previous  year.  Important 
minerals  produced  in  1947  were  (metric  tons):, 
coal,  86,600;  crude  petroleum,  671,000;  iron  ore, 
45,300;  steel  ingots,  26,800;  copper,  5,290;  lead, 
18,600,  and  zinc,  16,300. 

Manufacturing  has  grown  considerably,  but  in 
1947  production  figures  on  the  whole  decreased, 
due  in  general  to  the  lack  of  export  markets.  Tex- 
tile production  decreased  about  40  percent,  and 
lost  markets  valued  at  95  million  pesos.  The  shoe 
industry  lost  markets  valued  at  4  million  pesos,  and 
beer  28  million.  As  a  contrast,  the  sugar  industry, 
after  satisfying  domestic  needs,  had  enough  pro- 
duction to  export  100,000  metric  tons  to  the  U.S. 
and  Europe. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  in  1947  were  valued  at 
2,152  million  pesos  and  imports  to  3,237  million, 
an  increase  in  exports  of  12  percent  and  in  imports 
of  22  percent  over  the  previous  year.  The  geo- 
graphic distribution  of  exports  was  74  percent  to 
the  U.S.;  7.5  percent  to  Europe;  8.3  percent  to 
Latin  America,  and  the  rest  to  other  countries.  Im- 


ports were  88  percent  from  the  U.S.,  7.8  percent 
from  Europe,  1.4  percent  from  Latin  America  and 
the  rest  from  other  countries. 

A  characteristic  of  Mexican  trade  in  1947  that 
alarmed  the  economists  and  the  government  was 
the  large  amount  of  luxury  goods  imported,  which 
increased  from  150  million  pesos  in  1946  to  260 
million,  and  came  mostly  from  the  United  States, 
including  170  million  pesos  in  automobiles,  31 
million  in  radio  sets,  and  21  million  pesos  in  re- 
frigerators. 

The  trade  picture  for  the  first  four  months  of 
1948  indicated  a  trend  toward  normalcy.  In  May, 
the  National  Bank  of  Mexico  reported  the  monthly 
average  for  exports  at  211.4  million,  as  compared 
with  180  million  in  1947,  while  the  monthly  import 
average  was  223.3  million  pesos,  compared  with 
270  million  the  previous  year. 

Transportation.  Mexico  has  12,741  miles  of  rail- 
road track,  on  which  nearly  300  million  ton-kilo- 
meters were  carried  in  1947,  an  increase  of  4  mil- 
lion over  the  previous  year.  There  are  43,711  miles 
of  highway,  and  the  most  recent  figures  show 
nearly  180,000  motor  vehicles  registered.  There 
are  750,000  radio  sets  and  175,100  telephones.  In- 
ternational airlines  provide  transportation  to  the 
outside  world,  and  more  than  14  national  airlines 
operate  within  the  country.  The  merchant  marine 
has  about  260  ocean-going  vessels. 

Finance.  The  1948  budget  calculated  revenue  at 
2,050  million  pesos,  an  increase  of  thirty  percent 
over  1947,  and  expenditure  estimated  at  2,300  mil- 
lion, as  compared  with  1,665  million  in  1947.  Larg- 
est appropriations  were  for  Communications  ( 415.5 
million  pesos);  Public  Debt  (361.186  million); 
Education  (246  million);  Electrification  (235  mil- 
lion) and  Defense  (240  million).  At  the  end  of 
1947,  currency  in  circulation  was  1,757  million 
pesos,  and  bank  deposits  amounted  to  1,742  mil- 
lion. Gold  reserves  were  calculated  at  $100  million. 
Gold  exchange  holdings  were  reduced  to  $224 
million,  indicating  the  dangerous  decline  of  50 
percent  over  the  previous  year.  Cost  of  living  in- 
dex in  September,  1948,  was  376  (1937  =  100). 
Mexico  has  a  limited  list  of  import  controls,  and 
none  in  exchange. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  Feb.  5,  1917, 
provides  for  a  Federal  Union  of  28  states,  three 
territories,  and  the  Federal  District.  The  Congress 
is  bicameral,  with  a  Senate  of  two  members  for 
each  state  and  for  the  Federal  District,  and  a 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  the  proportion  of  one  for 
each  150,000  inhabitants.  The  President  is  elected 
for  a  6-year  term,  and  may  not  be  reelected.  On 
July  7,  1946,  Dr.  Miguel  Aleman  was  elected  Presi- 
dent, and  took  office  Dec.  1,  1946. 

Events,  1948.  Mexico's  second  year  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  President  Miguel  Aleman  was  rela- 
tively uneventful  in  domestic  politics,  but  active 
internationally,  and  like  other  Latin  American  re- 
publics, she  was  seriously  concerned  with  her  eco- 
nomic future. 

Backed  by  the  strong  majority  party,  Partido 
Revolucionario  Institutional,  the  government  had 
to  face  the  traditional  opposition  or  entrenched  in- 
terests. Early  in  the,  year,  the  new  Partido  Popular 
campaigned  for  changes  in  the  electoral  law.  This 
new  party  was  formed  by  leftist  groups,  and  has 
among  its  directors  the  well-known  labor  leader 
Vicente  Lombardo  Toledano.  The  question  of  the 
day  was  whether  Lombardo  would  be  able  to 
swing  labor  into  his  ranks,  an  interesting  parallel 
with  the  Wallace-New  Party  picture  in  the  United 
States.  In  February,  an  interesting  illustration  of 
the  use  of  the  principle  of  state  sovereignty  as  op- 


MEXICO 


337 


MIDWAY  ISLANDS 


posed  to  the  policies  of  the  state  government  was 
provided  by  the  attitude  of  several  states  which 
refused  to  comply  with  the  new  tax  law  revising 
the  municipal  tax  system.  The  government  en- 
forced the  new  law,  pointing  out  that  Mexico  is 
one  of  the  countries  in  which  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment gets  the  smallest  share  of  revenue  from  the 
local  organs. 

Labor  Activities.  On  March  22,  the  powerful  Latin 
American  Confederation  of  Labor  (CTAL)  held 
its  third  congress.  The  event  was  important,  be- 
cause all  the  Latin  American  countries  were  inter- 
ested in  hearing  of  postwar  plans  for  labor.  The 
presence  of  Louis  Saillant,  President  of  the  World 
Federation  of  Trade  Unions,  was  significant,  as 
well  as  the  role  played  by  Lombardo  Toledano, 
who  had  previously  been  suspended  from  his  posi- 
tion as  Director  of  the  Confederation  of  Mexican 
Workers  (CTM).  A  serious  split  in  the  Mexican 
labor  front  was  considered  possible.  The  congress 
was  also  affected  by  the  withdrawal  from  the 
CTAL  of  important  labor  groups  from  Chile  and 
Mexico.  One  of  the  resolutions  approved  by  the 
congress  was  the  demand  for  the  end  of  the  colo- 
nial system  in  the  hemisphere,  specifically  for  the 
return  of  Chamizal  to  Mexico,  Belize  to  Guate- 
mala and  Mexico,  the  Falkland  Islands  to  Argen- 
tina, part  of  the  Antarctic  territory  to  Chile,  and 
the  independence  of  Puerto  Rico.  At  the  end  of 
the  congress,  Lombardo  Toledano  was  reelected 
President  of  the  CTAL. 

On  May  1,  all  Mexican  labor  unions  celebrated 
the  traditional  Labor  Day,  and  in  spite  of  wild 
rumors  that  had  circulated  that  they  would  attempt 
a  revolutionary  coup,  the  festivities  were  con- 
ducted in  an  orderly  manner.  A  colorful  note  was 
provided  by  famous  painters  Diego  Rivera  and 
David  Alfaro  Siqueiros,  who  marched  with  a  group 
campaigning  for  U.S.  presidential  candidate  Henry 
Wallace. 

Disforfoances  in  the  University.  On  April  17,  a  series 
of  strikes  and  agitation  began  in  the  National  Uni- 
versity, lasting  several  weeks.  The  movement  was 
started  by  a  group  of  law  students  who  petitioned 
the  University  Council  for  several  changes,  and 
ended  by  demanding  the  resignation  of  Rector  Sal- 
vador Subiran,  The  students  took  the  University 
buildings,  and  on  the  27th  the  government  was 
forced  to  close  the  institution.  The  situation  was 
aggravated  by  clashes  between  rival  student 
groups,  and  took  a  political  turn  when  Antonio 
Diaz  Sotoy  Gama,  of  revolutionary  background, 
announced  that  he  wished  to  be  appointed  Rector. 
An  agreement  was  finally  reached  between  the 
University  Council  and  the  dissenting  students, 
who  returned  to  the  classrooms. 

Internationa!  Politics.  Mexico  was  active  during  the 
year  in  world  politics.  Early  in  March,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  Guatemala's  claim  to  British-controlled 
Belize  (see  GUATEMALA),  the  Ministry  of  Foreign 
Relations  announced  its  purpose  of  pressing  Mex- 
ico's right  to  that  territory,  together  with  Guate- 
mala. At  the  end  of  the  previous  year,  President 
Aleman  had  told  the  National  Congress  that  he 
would  safeguard  the  nation's  sovereignty  over  the 
territory  between  the  Hondo  and  Sibiin  rivers,  the 
tide  to  which  they  trace  back  to  a  Papal  Bull  of 
May  4,  1492.  This  attitude  was  also  stated  in  the 
Rio  de  Janeiro  Conference  of  1947  and  firmly 
maintained  at  the  Bogota  Conference.  It  was  un- 
derstood that  the  Mexican  and  Guatemalan  claims 
have  never  conflicted. 

Another  significant  international  event  was  the 
role  played  by  the  country  in  the  Economic  Con- 
ference of  Havana,  that  began  in  November  1947, 


but  extended  into  the  following  year.  The  Mexican 
delegation,  headed  by  Dr.  Ramon  Beteta,  took  a 
firm  stand  on  many  important  trade  issues,  and  a 
number  of  articles  were  modified  at  his  suggestion. 
But  where  Mexico  excelled  was  in  the  Ninth  Inter- 
American  Conference  of  American  States  held  at 
Bogota  in  April.  There,  Minister  of  Foreign  Re- 
lations, Jaime  Torres  Bodet,  held  a  leading  role 
all  through  the  Congress.  Long  before  it  convened, 
Mexico  had  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  incorpo- 
rating all  the  principles  of  American  international 
law  in  one  organic  document,  and  this  was  done 
by  the  Conference  in  the  Charter  of  the  American 
States. 

An  interesting  trend  in  the  foreign  policy  of  the 
country  was  the  official  indication  of  a  movement 
toward  closer  relations  with  Argentina,  In  the  past, 
the  Mexican  government  had  been  rather  cold  to- 
ward the  Peron  regime,  and  had  openly  called  it 
a  dictatorship.  But  on  May  23,  the  official  broad- 
casting station  devoted  its  time  to  speeches  made 
by  the  presidents  of  the  two  countries,  stressing 
the  need  for  future  friendship  between  them.  This 
new  policy  may  mean  that  Mexico  intends  to 
strengthen  economic  ties  with  the  Latin  American 
bloc,  rather  than  with  the  United  States. 

The  country's  policy  of  not  relinquishing  any 
rights  to  territory  extended  to  the  northern  archi- 
pelago on  the  California  coast.  The  administration 
stated  that  although  a  legal  decision  had  not  been 
reached  with  regard  to  Mexican  sovereignty  over 
these  islands,  they  would  keep  their  claim  open. 

When  a  military  coup,  on  November  24,  over- 
threw President  Romulo  Gallegos  in  Venezuela, 
(see  VENEZUELA),  Mexico  was  the  first  country  to 
express  protest  by  immediately  recalling  her  Am- 
bassador from  Caracas,  —  MIGUEL 


MICHIGAN.  An  east  north  central  State.  Area: 
96,720  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  6,195,- 
000,  compared  with  (1940  census)  5,256,106. 
Chief  cities:  Lansing  (capital),  75,753  inhabitants 
in  1940;  Detroit,  1,623,452.  See  AGRICULTURE, 
EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS, 
UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $433,318,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $483,348,000. 

Elections.  The  19  electoral  votes,  Roosevelt's  in 
1944,  went  to  Dewey.  In  the  Senatorial  race,  Re- 
publican incumbent  Homer  Ferguson  won  by  a 
small  margin  over  Democrat  contender  Frank 
Hook.  Democrats  won  5  of  the  17  House  seats  for 
a  gain  of  2.  Democrat  G.  Mennen  Williams  beat 
incumbent  Kim  Sigler  for  the  governorship,  and 
Democrats  John  W.  Connolly  and  Stephen  J.  Roth 
won  the  lieutenant  governorship  and  attorney  gen- 
eralship, respectively.  Republican  nominees  won 
the  following:  Secretary  of  State  —  F.  M.  Alger; 
Treasurer  —  D.  Hale  Brake;  Auditor  —  Murl  K, 
Aten.  The  voters  approved  measures  to  provide 
increased  legislative  salaries,  constitutional  revi- 
sion, and  succession  to  the  governorship  in  case 
the  governor-elect  dies. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Kim  Sigler;  Lieut.  Gov- 
ernor, Eugene  C.  Keyes;  Secretary  of  State,  F.  M. 
Alger,  Jr.;  Attorney  General,  Eugene  F.  Black; 
State  Treasurer,  D.  Hale  Brake;  Auditor  General, 
Murl  K,  Aten. 

MIDWAY  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  two  small  islands  and 
several  sand  islets  of  the  Hawaiian  group,  in  the 
Pacific  (177°  23'  W.  and  28°  13'  N.),  1,149  miles 
northwest  of  Honolulu.  The  islands  are  inside  and 
near  the  southern  edge  of  a  circular  reef  about  five 


MIL&ANK  MEMORIAL  FUND 


338 


MILITARY  PROGRESS 


miles  in  diameter.  Sand  Island  is  about  one  mile 
long  and  one  and  one-half  miles  wide,  containing 
about  850  acres.  The  highest  point  is  only  43  feet 
above  sea  level.  Eastern  Island  has  an  area  of  328 
acres.  To  the  westward  of  the  lagoon  is  Welles 
Harbor  which  affords  a  safe  anchorage  except  dur- 
ing the  severest  weather.  Midway  is  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Navy* 

MILBANK  MEMORIAL  FUND.  A  Fund  established  in 
1905,  with  assets  of  $10,111,392,  at  the  end  of 
1947.  Appropriations  for  grants  and  projects  in 
that  year  totaled  $287,878.  The  scope  of  the  Fund, 
while  widely  diversified,  has  been  principally  in 
the  field  of  public  health.  At  present  its  special  in- 
terests in  this  field  are  nutrition,  housing,  popula- 
tion trends,  and  the  appraisal  of  public  health 
methods  and  procedures.  In  1948  thirty-two  or- 
ganizations received  funds.  Membership:  10.  Pres- 
ident, Albert  G,  Milbank;  Executive  Director,  Frank 
G.  Boudreau,  M.D.  Office:  40  Wall  St.,  New  York 
5,  N.Y. 

MILITARY  PROGRESS.  Land  armies  played  a  domi- 
inant  role  in  the  armed  clashes  that  continued 
throughout  the  year  1948  to  plague  a  world  offi- 
cially at  peace.  While  most  of  the  fighting,  as  in 
China,  Indonesia,  Malaya,  the  Philippines,  Indo- 
China,  and  Greece,  was  officially  characterized  as 
governmental  action  to  suppress  rebellion  or  in- 
surgency, it  was  true  nevertheless  that  most  of  it 
was  between  formally  organized  (and  in  many 
cases  very  skillfully  and  efficiently  organized)  mili- 
tary units.  Yet  the  traditional  and  conventional 
land  army,  without  benefit  of  the  more  modem 
methods  of  mass  destruction,  and  without  large 
scale  participation  by  air  components,  continued 
to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  battle  and  of  the  losses. 

Except  for  the  well-known  and  generally  rec- 
ognized ability  of  land  armies  to  seize  and  occupy 
territory  without  first  totally  destroying  it,  these 
events  portend  no  particular  trend.  It  was  rather 
the  major  powers,  maneuvering  against  each  other 
in  an  ominous  "cold  war,"  who  worked  feverishly 
and  secretly  in  the  development  of  unconventional 
weapons  and  tactics.  The  atom  bomb,  radioactive 
clouds,  biological  warfare,  psychological  warfare, 
insidious  infiltration  of  agents  to  bring  about  de- 
struction and  deterioration  from  within — these 
and  more  unmentionable  terrors  held  the  attention, 
and  the  purse  strings,  of  the  great  powers. 

World  Strength.  When  consideration  is  given  to 
the  sizeable  military  forces  that  Soviet  Russia,  the 
United  States,  France,  Great  Britain,  and  some 
components  of  the  British  Commonwealth  have 
committed  to  the  occupation  of  the  homelands  of 
their  defeated  enemies,  the  sizes  of  the  land  forces 
under  arms  do  not  appear  to  be  too  enormously 
exorbitant  compared  with  those  maintained  prior 
to  World  War  II.  This  is  the  conclusion  of  the 
editors  of  United  Nations  World,  which  publica- 
tion, in  the  absence  of  the  official  figures  formerly 
furnished  to  the  League  of  Nations,  made  an  inde- 
pendent survey  of  the  standing  armies  of  the  world. 
In  publishing  its  figures  (June  1948  issue)  United 
Nations  World  commented: 

"This  roll  call  of  the  armies  of  the  world  reveals 
that  more  than  three  years  after  VE-Day,  there  are 
still  15,362,899  men  under  arms  in  57  countries. 
And  yet,  this  is  a  promising  figure.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  Yugoslavia  which  maintains  an  over- 
sized army  in  a  high  state  of  preparedness,  no 
country,  and  certainly  none  of  the  major  powers, 
maintains  even  a  fraction  of  its  war  manpower  po- 
tential." 


The  United  States  had  an  actual  strength,  as  of 
Nov.  28,  1948,  of  657,769  men,  as  compared  with 
an  authorized  strength  of  837,000  and  an  appropri- 
ated strength  of  790,000,  both  plus  110,000  18- 
year-olds  authorized  for  one-year  enlistments. 

For  the  Soviet  Union,  the  United  Nations  World 
survey  gave  an  estimated  effective  strength  of 
1,900,000  excluding  the  para-  and  semi-military 
formations,  the  militarized  police,  and  the  troops 
of  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior.  For  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  survey  placed  the  British  army  at 
534,000  effectives  in  April  of  1948,  with  plans  to 
reduce  it  to  345,000  by  March,  1949. 

The  United  Nations  World  survey  gave  the  fol- 
lowing strengths  for  armies  of  the  rest  of  the 
world : 

Afghanistan — 90,000  officers  and  men. 

Albania — Standing  army  of  approximately  60,- 
000  men  in  the  process  of  organization. 

Argentina — National  militia  of  100,000  officers 
and  men  on  1-year  active  service,  then  9  years  in- 
active reserve. 

Australia — Permanent  force  of  35,000  officers 
and  men;  militia  force  of  75,000. 

Belgium — Standing  army  (est.)  of  60,000  offi- 
cers and  men  (excluding  police  under  military 
control). 

Bolivia — Standing  army  of  15,000  (plus  12,000 
police  under  military  control). 

Brazil-— Army  of  80,000  (plus  38,000  police  un- 
der War  Office  control). 

Bulgaria — Peace  treaty  permits  land  army  of 
56,800. 

Canada — Peacetime  militia  of  18,700. 

Chile— National  militia  of  25,000. 

China — Kuomintang  army's  present  mobilized 
strength  (est.)  5,000,000  officers  and  men.  Ap- 
proximately 1,500,000  in  Communist  armies. 

Colombia — Peacetime  strength  of  standing  army 
is  10,000  (plus  5,500  police  under  military  con- 
trol). 

Cuba — Standing  army  of  900  officers  and  16,000 
men. 

Czechoslovakia — New  peacetime  army  of  ap- 
proximately 150,000. 

Denmark — National  army  now  has  24,000  men. 

Egypt — Army  has  approximately  100,000  men. 

Ethiopia — New  standing  army  consists  of  20,000 
effectives. 

Finland — Peace  treaty  authorizes  land  army  of 
34,000. 

France — New  standing  army  is  composed  of 
500,000  men. 

Greece — Army  engaged  in  civil  war  is  estimated 
at  165,000. 

Hungary — Peace  treaty  permits  land  army  of 
65,000. 

India  and  Pakistan — The  two  countries  have 
armies  totaling  1,000,000. 

Iran — Army  of  90,000  is  in  the  process  of  reor- 
ganization. 

Iraq — Standing  army  of  30,000. 

Italy — Reorganized  Italian  Republican  Army  is 
estimated  at  250,000. 

Mexico — Postwar  army  of  57,500. 

Netherlands — Approximately  175,000  effectives. 

New  Zealand — Standing  army  of  11,000. 

Norway — National  militia  of  15,000. 

Paraguay — Military  establishment  of  350  officers 
and  5,500  men. 

Peru— Standing  army  of  2,000  officers  and  30,- 
000  other  ranks,  plus  10,000  militarized  police. 

Poland — Standing  army  of  200,000   effectives. 

Portugal— Army  of  3,200  officers  and  26,800 
other  ranks. 


AMIJTARY  PROGRESS 


339 


MILITARY  PROGRESS 


Rumania — Peace  treaty  allows  army  of  125,000. 

Spain — Recent  reorganization  acts  authorize  a 
military  organization  of  500,000  officers  and  men. 

Sweden— Army  of  57,500. 

Switzerland — National  militia  with  46,200  in  a 
rather  complex  military  organization. 

Turkey — Standing  army  of  20,000  officers  and 
174,000  effectives. 

Uruguay — Active  army  of  26,000  volunteers. 

Venezuela — Active  army  of  10,000  effectives. 

Yugoslavia — Standing  army  of  800,000. 

The  United  States  Army.  In  June,  1948,  when  Con- 
gress enacted  the  new  Selective  Service  law,  the 
U.S.  Army  was  down  to  a  low  strength  of  552,000, 
all  but  a  neglible  portion  of  which  was  engaged  in 
such  essential  activities  as  occupation,  military 
government,  administration,  overseas  garrisons, 
with  little  remaining  for  development  of  an  effec- 
tive potential  for  combat  Losses  averaged  20,000 
a  month1  until  the  Spring  of  1948.  Approval  of  the 
draft  act  was  followed  by  a  stimulation  of  enlist- 
ments which  rose  from  20,000  a  month  to  39,000 
in  July  and  45,000  in  August. 

These  increases  in  strength  were  applied  pri- 
marily to  the  Mobile  Striking  Force.  Beginning 
in  the  last  half  of  the  year,  the  Army  endeavored 
to  restore  some  of  its  lost  combat  potential  by 
building  its  General  Reserve  of  forces  within  the 
Continental  United  States,  to  compose  a  Static  De- 
fense Force,  for  the  defense  and  protection  of  key 
installations,  and  the  Mobile  Striking  Force,  for 
immediate  deployment  overseas.  It  was  planned 
to  bring  the  Mobile  Striking  Force  to  a  strength  of 
228,000  men.  The  eventual  program  contemplates 
25  fully  equipped  divisions  (including  Regular 
Army  and  National  Guard)  plus  necessary  sup- 
porting combat  and  service  troops  (including  ele- 
ments of  the  Organized  Reserves). 

functions.  Although  not  a  participant  in  the  strug- 
gle between  the  Navy  and  the  Air  Force,  the  U.S. 
Army  was  given  a  more  clearly  defined  list  of  func- 
tions as  a  result  of  the  Key  West  conference  of  the 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  with  the  Secretary  of  Defense 
(see  NATIONAL  MILITARY  ESTABLISHMENT,  NAVAL 
PROGRESS).  Section  IV  of  the  Key  West  agreement 
gave  the  Army  its  basic  directive  upon  which  its 
future  composition,  equipment,  and  tactics  must 
be  based,  as  follows: 

"The  United  States  Army  includes  land  combat 
and  service  forces  and  such  aviation  and  water 
transport  as  may  be  organic  therein.  It  is  organized, 
trained  and  equipped  primarily  for  prompt  and 
sustained  combat  operations  on  land.  Of  the  three 
major  services  the  Army  has  the  primary  interest 
in  all  operations  on  land,  except  in  those  operations 
otherwise  assigned  herein. 

A.  Primary  functions;  1.  To  organize,  train,  and 
equip  Army  Forces  for  the  conduct  of  prompt  and 
sustained  combat  operations  on  land.  Specifically: 
(a)  To  defeat  enemy  land  forces,  (b)  To  seize, 
occupy,  and  defend  land  areas. 

2.  To  organize,  train,  and  equip  Army  anti-air- 
craft artillery  units. 

3.  To  organize  and  equip,  in  coordination  with 
the  other  Services,  and  to  provide  Army  forces  for 
joint  amphibious  and  airborne  operations,  and  to 
provide  for  the  training  of  such  forces  in  accord- 
ance with  the  policies  and  doctrines  of  the  Joint 
Chiefs  of  Staff. 

4.  To  develop,  in  coordination  with  the  other 
Services,  tactics,  technique,  and  equipment  of  in- 
terest to  the  Army  for  amphibious  operations  and 
not  provided  for  in  Section  V,  paragraph  A4  and 
paragraph  A  lie  (Functions  of  the  U.S.  Navy  and 
Marine  Corps). 


5.  To  provide  an  organization  capable  of  fur- 
nishing adequate,  timely,  and  reliable  intelligence 
for  the  Army. 

6.  To  provide  Army  forces  as  required  for  the 
defense  of  the  United  States  against  air  attack,  in 
accordance  with  joint  doctrines   and  procedures 
approved  by  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff. 

7.  To  provide  forces  as  directed  by  proper  au- 
thority, for  occupation  of  territories  abroad,  to  in- 
clude initial  establishment  of  military  government 
pending  transfer  of  this  responsibility  to  other  au- 
thority. 

8.  To  develop,  in  coordination  with  the  Navy, 
the  Air  Force,  and  the  Marine  Corps,  the  doctrines, 
procedures  and  equipment  employed  by  the  Army 
and   Marine  forces   in   airborne   operations.   The 
Army  shall  have  primary  interest  in  the  develop- 
ment of  these  airborne  doctrines,  procedures  and 
equipment  which  are  of  common  interest  to  the 
Army  and  the  Marine  Corps. 

9.  To  formulate  doctrines,  and  procedures  for 
the  organization,  equipping,  training  and  employ- 
ment of  forces  operating  on  land,  at  division  level 
and  above,  including  division,  corps,  army,  and 
general  reserve  troops,  except  that  the  formulation 
of  doctrines  and  procedures  for  the  organization, 
equipping,   training   and   employment  of  Marine 
Corps  units  for  amphibious  operations  shall  be  a 
function  of  the  Department  of  the  Navy,  coordi- 
nating as  required  by  paragraph  A  lie,  Section 
V. 

10.  To  provide  support,  as  directed  by  higher 
authority,  for  the  following  activities: 

a.  The  administration  and  operation  of  the  Pan- 
ama Canal. 

b.  River   and   harbor   projects   in   the   United 
States,  its  territories  and  possessions. 

c.  Certain  other  civil  activities  prescribed  by 
law. 

B.  Collateral  functions:  The  forces  developed 
and  trained  to  perform  the  primary  functions  set 
forth  above  shall  be  employed  to  support  and  sup- 
plement the  other  Services  in  carrying  out  their 
primary  functions,  where  and  whenever  such  par- 
ticipation will  result  in  increased  effectiveness  and 
will  contribute  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  over- 
all military  objectives.  The  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff 
member  of  the  Service  having  primary  responsi- 
bility for  a  function  shall  be  the  agent  of  the  Joint 
Chiefs  of  Staff  to  present  to  that  body  the  require- 
ments for  and  plans  for  the  employment  of  all 
forces  to  carry  out  the  function.  He  shall  also  be 
responsible  for  presenting  to  the  Joint  Chiefs  of 
Staff  for  final  decision  any  disagreement  within  the 
field  of  his  primary  responsibility  which  has  not 
been  resolved.  This  shall  not  be  construed  to  pre- 
vent any  member  of  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  from 
presenting  unilaterally  any  issue  of  disagreement 
with  another  Service.  Certain  specific  collateral 
functions  of  the  Army  are  listed  below; 

1.  To  interdict  enemy  sea  and  air  power  and 
communications   through   operations   on  or  from 
land. 

2.  To  provide  forces  and  equipment  for  and  tc 
conduct  controlled  mine  field  operations." 

Departmental  Reorganization.  The  first  major  re- 
organization since  1946  became  effective  in  the 
Department  of  the  Army  on  Nov.  15,  1948.  Re- 
defining the  relationship  among  a  number  of  De- 
partmental agencies,  the  changes  were  promul- 
gated as  the  first  step  in  a  long-range  program  tc 
simplify  and  facilitate  administration  throughoul 
the  Army. 

The  Chief  of  Staff  (Gen.  Omar  N.  Bradley)  in- 
stead  of  having  one  Deputy  was  given  one  Via 


MILITARY  PROGRESS 


340 


MILITARY  PROGRESS 


.Chief  of  Staff  and  two  Deputies,  Gen.  J,  Lawton 
Collins,  formerly  the  Deputy,  was  made  the  Vice 
Chief  of  Staff,  while  Lt  Gen.  Wade  H.  Haislip  was 
made  Deputy  for  Administration  and  Lt.  Gen.  Al- 
bert C,  Wedemeyer  was  made  Deputy  for  Plans 
and  Combat  Operations. 

The  duties  of  the  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Aimy  (Gordon  Gray)  were  materially  enlarged  to 
include  over-all  supervision  of  Army  logistics.  Four 
Administrative  services — the  Adjutant  General,  the 
Provost  Marshal,  the  Chaplains  Corps,  and  Special 
Services — were  placed  directly  under  the  Director 
of  Personnel  and  Administration  (Lt.  Gen.  Wil- 
lardS.  Paul). 

The  Director  of  Logistics  (Lt.  Gen.  Henry  Au~ 
rand)  was  given  direct  control  of  seven  technical 
services — Chemical  Corps,  Medical  Department, 
Signal  Corps,  Corps  of  Engineers,  Ordnance  De- 
partment, Transportation  Corps,  and  Quartermas- 
ter Corps. 

The  Finance  Department  was  placed  under  the 
Army  Comptroller  (Maj.  Gen.  Edmond  H.  Leav- 
ey).  The  Judge  Advocate  General's  office  was 
transferred  from  the  administrative  services  to  the 
Special  Staff. 

The  Legislative  and  Liaison,  Public  Information, 
and  Army-Air  Force  Troop  Information  Divisions 
were  moved  from  the  Special  Staff  to  form  a  group 
under  the  Chief  of  Information,  directly  under  the 
Office  of  the  Chief  of  Staff.  - 

In  announcing  the  new  organization  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Army  (Kenneth  C.  Royall)  indicated  it 
would  not  require  any  increase  in  number  or  rank 
of  personnel.  He  felt  that  it  might  ultimately  re- 
sult in  a  savings  of  staff  personnel.  Its  primary  ob- 
ject is  to  increase  efficiency,  to  expedite  business, 
and  to  obviate  the  necessity  for  any  sudden  change 
in  an  emergency. 

Plans  for  the  new  organization  were  worked  out 
in  the  office  of  the  Army  Comptroller,  which  itself 
was  a  development  of  1948,  having  been  estab- 
lished in  January  "in  order  to  improve  the  modern 
management  techniques  in  the  business  adminis- 
tration of  the  Army,  and  to  more  effectively  utilize 
accounting  as  a  tool  throughout  the  Army  in  the 
control  of  operations  and  costs/* 

The  new  Army  Comptroller  became  the  Budget 
Officer,  Fiscal  Director  and  Management  Engineer 
for  the  Department  of  the  Army.  First  appointee  to 
the  new  post  was  Maj.  Gen.  George  J.  Richards, 
who  had  been  Chief  of  the  old  Budget  Division. 
He  was  later  succeeded  by  Maj,  Gen.  Edmond  H. 
Leavey, 

The  duties  of  the  Army  Comptroller  include  gen- 
eral supervision  and  control  of  all  budgetary  mat- 
ters, preparation  of  budget  estimates,  formulation 
and  coordination  of  basic  fiscal  policy,  supervision 
of  use  of  foreign  exchange  by  the  Army  overseas, 
development  of  cost  analysis  and  control,  survey 
of  effective  utilization  of  manpower  and  of  admin- 
istrative organization,  methods  and  procedures,  in 
the  interest  of  efficiency  and  economy,  and  coordi- 
nation of  statistical  data.  The  personnel  and  func- 
tions of  the  Budget  Division,  the  Manpower  Board, 
the  Central  Statistical  Office  and  the  Management 
Office  of  the  office  of  the  Chief  of  Staff,  were  as- 
signed to  the  Office  of  the  Army  Comptroller. 

Ground  Forces.  A  reorganization  of  the  Army 
Ground  Forces  became  effective  on  March  15, 
under  which  the  old  office  of  Headquarters,  Army 
Ground  forces,  was  converted  into  the  Office, 
Chief,  Army  Field  Forces.  The  six  field  Armies 
within  the  continental  United  States  which  were 
formerly  commanded  by  the  Commanding  Gen- 
eral, Army  Ground  Forces,  were  transferred  so  that 


they  became  directly  responsible  to  the  Chief  of 
Staff,  U.S.  Army.  All  individuals,  units,  and  instal- 
lations formerly  assigned  to  Headquarters,  Army 
Ground  Forces,  except  the  Headquarters  itself, 
were  reassigned  to  the  Army  in  whose  geographical 
area  they  were  located. 

End  of  Horses.  On  July  1  the  Army's  Remount 
Service  was  transferred  to  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture under  an  Act  of  Congress  sponsored  by  the 
Department  of  the  Army.  At  the  time  of  the  trans- 
fer, which  marked  the  virtual  end  of  the  horse 
in  the  United  States  Army,  the  Remount  Service 
had  482  stallions,  423  brood  mares,  581  riding 
horses,  41  draft  horses,  and  280  young  horses  of 
four  years  or  younger.  There  remained  in  the  Army 
practically  nothing  of  the  once  proud  mounted 
righting  units.  There  are  now  no  mounted  tactical 
combat  units. 

Training.  Considerable  emphasis  was  placed  upon 
cold  weather  training,  with  exercises  in  Alaska  con- 
tinuing to  occupy  most  attention  in  purely  ground 
force  maneuvers. 

Joint  exercises  with  the  Navy  and  the  Air  Force 
were  also  emphasized  under  the  policies  of  the 
National  Military  Establishment.  As  in  the  preced- 
ing year,  cadets  of  the  U.S.  Military  Academy 
joined  with  midshipmen  of  the  U.S.  Naval  Acad- 
emy In  Exercise  Camid,  an  amphibious  maneuver 
involving  ground,  sea,  and  air  forces,  held  in  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  area. 

The  Army  and  Air  Force  participated  in  Exercise 
Yukon  which  involved  the  movement  of  rifle  com- 
panies from  Ft.  Lewis,  Wash.,  to  Alaska,  and  the 
conduct  of  field  maneuvers,  including  air-trans- 
ported operations  within  Alaska.  Exercise  Snow- 
drop at  Pine  Camp,  N.Y.,  featured  Army  and  Air 
Force  units  in  battalion-scale  airborne  maneuvers. 

In  the  late  Summer  and  Fall  the  Army  engaged 
with  the  Air  Force  and  Navy  and  Marine  Corps 
aviation  units  in  Exercise  Combine  III,  centering 
around  Eglin  Field,  Fla.,  and  involving  team  work 
in  bombardments,  air  support,  and  airborne  mis- 
sions. 

Reserve  and  National  Guard.  Progress  in  the  growth 
and  training  of  the  Reserve  and  the  National  Guard 
was  not  satisfactory.  The  civilian  components 
through  their  organized  associations  attacked  the 
Department  and  die  Regular  establishment  in 
strong  language  charging  lack  of  support  and  co- 
operation. A  large  scale  study  of  the  Reserve  com- 
ponents of  all  the  Armed  Services  was  made  by 
a  joint  board  convened  by  order  of  the  Secretary 
of  Defense,  Mr.  James  Forrestal,  under  the  chair- 
manship of  Mr.  Gordon  Gray,  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Army  ( see  NATIONAL  MILITARY  ESTABLISH- 
MENT). Its  comprehensive  report  was  the  basis 
on  which  legislation  was  being  prepared  for  the 
81st  Congress.  Later  President  Truman  issued  an 
order  directing  the  Departments  to  increase  the 
efficiency  of  their  reserves. 

Foreign  Armies.  Russia  has  found  no  reason  to 
change  its  policy  of  first  emphasis  upon  its  artillery 
which  it  terms  the  "God  of  War,"  Lt.  Gen,  Anatoli 
A.  Blagonravov,  president  of  the  Soviet  Academy 
of  Artillery  Science,  on  the  occasion  of  Artillery 
Day  (November  21)  wrote  an  article  in  the  Liter- 
ary Gazette  in  which  he  contended  that  artillery 
has  supplied  the  answer  to  technological  develop- 
ments in  arms  throughout  history. 

"With  the  appearance  of  armor,"  he  wrote, 
"there  came  armor-piercing  artillery:  with  the  ap- 
pearance of  aviation  there  appeared  anti-aircraft 
artillery,  and  with  the  tank,  anti-tank  artillery." 

Field  Marshal  Lord  Montgomery,  Chief  o£  the 
British  Imperial  General  Staff,  outlined  the  funda- 


MINERALS  AND  METALS 


341 


MINERALS  AND  METALS 


mental  factors  influencing  British  planning  in  an 
address  at  the  annual  conference  and  exercise  for 
Senior  Officers  at  the  Staff  College  at  Camberly. 
He  described  these  factors  as: 

"(1)  The  withdrawal  from  India,  which  meant 
that  we  no  longer  had  to  keep  a  garrison  of  40,000 
regular  troops  in  that  country,  but  on  the  other 
hand  produced  fresh  commitments  formerly  met 
by  the  Indian  Army; 

"(2)  The  introduction  of  national  service,  with 
liability  to  reserve  service  in  the  Territorial  Army; 

"(3)  The  pace  of  modern  warfare,  which  de- 
manded a  greater  degree  of  preparedness.  We 
could  no  longer  count  on  having  a  breathing  space 
at  the  beginning  of  another  war  to  build  up  and 
train  our  land  forces." 

The  old  conception  of  two  Armies,  Regular  and 
Territorial,  had  not,  he  said,  stood  up  to  the  test 
of  modern  war.  Its  place  would  be  taken  by  a 
National  Army  containing  regulars,  a  National 
Service  element,  and  a  Territorial  Army.  It  would 
be  necessary,  he  said,  to  keep  in  hand  a  well- 
equipped  regular  force  available  to  go  anywhere  at 
short  notice. 

Preparations  were  being  made  to  put  into  effect 
Britain's  new  National  Service  Act.  This  Act  pro- 
vides that  from  Jan.  1,  1949,  until  Jan.  1,  1954,  all 
male  British  subjects  who  have  reached  the  age  of 
18  and  have  not  reached  the  age  of  26,  and  who 
have  not  served  in  the  Armed  Forces  before  Jan.  1, 
1947,  will  be  liable  for  compulsory  service  in  the 
Armed  Forces.  "National  Service  Men/'  as  they 
will  be  called,  will  serve  for  12  months  whole-time 
and  for  six  years  in  the  Reserve,  a  total  of  7  years 
in  all. 

The  Cabinet  of  Australia  decided  to  create  a 
special  subcommittee  to  study  the  effects  of  ordi- 
nary bombs,  flying  bombs,  rocket  projectiles,  and 
atom  bombs.  Its  duties  are  to  advise  the  Govern- 
ment on  the  latest  developments  of  warfare  in 
these  fields. 

The  Greek  Army  demonstrated  during  the  year 
an  improvised  mine-sweeper  such  as  they  are  using 
in  the  guerrilla  country.  A  magnetized  bar  is 
mounted  from  the  front  of  the  vehicle  and  is  so 
connected  that  when  it  passes  over  metal  it  auto- 
matically stops  the  vehicle  to  permit  the  occupants 
to  dismount  and  remove  the  mine  or  obstacle. 

During  the  year  most  of  the  nations  outside  the 
Soviet  orbit  sent  military  missions,  or  military  "visi- 
tors" to  the  United  States,  to  observe  its  military 
schools  and  training.  — LEROY  WHITMAN 

MINERALS  AND  METALS.  The  output  of  mines  in  the 
United  States  forged  ahead  in  1948  to  an  all-time 
peak  value  of  15,600  million  dollars,  26  percent 
above  the  former  record  in  1947  of  12,400  million 
dollars,  Secretary  of  the  Interior  J.  A.  Krug  an- 
nounced on  Jan.  2,  1949. 

The  prodigious  dollar  volume  of  mineral  produc- 
tion resulted  not  only  from  higher  commodity 
prices  but  also  from  a  tonnage  output  surpassing 
any  previous  effort  in  peace  or  war,  the  Secretary 
stated.  The  tonnage  mined  in  1948  exceeded  that 
of  1947  by  4  percent,  according  to  preliminary 
estimates  prepared  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines. 

Mineral  products  were  called  upon  to  fuel  the 
Nation's  industries  and  transportation  at  high  gear, 
to  help  construct  and  equip  houses,  factories,  and 
travel  facilities,  to  maintain  a  military  establish- 
ment commensurate  with  world  responsibilities, 
and  to  replenish  heavily-farmed  soils.  Most  of  the 
great  mineral  output  was  needed  in  the  United 
States,  but  important  quantities  were  shipped 
abroad  to  aid  rehabilitation  of  regions  scarred  by 


war.  Fuels  made  the  most  impressive  gain  in  1948 
of  any  mineral  group,  according  to  the  analysis 
submitted  to  James  Boyd,  Bureau  of  Mines  Di- 
rector, by  the  Economics  and  Statistics  Division. 
The  value  of  mineral  fuels  produced  in  1948  was 
SO  percent  greater  than  in  1947,  partly  a  reflection 
of  the  record  quantity  of  petroleum  extracted. 
Other  nonmetalMc  minerals  increased  7  percent, 
and  metals  27  percent.  On  a  physical  volume  basis, 
the  tonnage  of  mineral  fuels  produced  in  1948  ad- 
vanced 4.8  percent,  other  nonmetallic  minerals  4.7 
percent,  and  metals  2.9  percent.  Details  on  1948 
mineral  production  follow: 

Metals.  The  steel  and  aluminum  industries  in 
1948  were  at  levels  surpassing  1947,  but  outputs  of 
the  major  nonferrous  metals — copper,  zinc,  and 
lead — were  somewhat  lower.  Large  gains  quanti- 
tatively were  achieved  for  bauxite  and  molyb- 
denum in  1948,  though  both  were  produced  at  rates 
a  third  below  those  of  1944.  The  sharpest  decline 
was  in  mercury,  whose  annual  rate  of  output  in 
December,  1948,  was  less  than  in  any  year  during 
a  century  of  record-keeping. 

Iron  and  Steel.  The  steel  industry  operated  at 
near-peak  levels  during  most  of  1948  and  made 
about  88  million  net  tons  of  ingots  and  castings,  a 
S^percent  gain  over  the  previous  year.  This  was 
made  possible  by  approximately  identical  percent- 
age increases  in  output  of  iron  ore  and  pig  iron, 
and  by  an  all-time  high  in  scrap  consumption.  Steel 
production  in  1948  was  the  third  greatest  in  his- 
tory. It  would  undoubtedly  have  equaled  the  1944 
peak  of  89.6  million  tons  except  for  the  work  stop- 
page at  coal  mines  in  April  which  curtailed  steel 
output  at  some  furnaces,  and  with  lesser  effect, 
shortages  of  facilities  for  transporting  coke  and 
pig  iron. 

Ferro-alloy  Metals.  Mine  shipments  of  manganese 
ore  dipped  4  percent  in  1948,  those  of  chromite 
more  than  tripled,  and  those  of  tungsten  and  mo- 
lybdenum increased  29  and  22  percent,  respective- 
ly. The  United  States  continued  to  have  to  rely  on 
other  countries  for  the  bulk  of  its  requirements  of 
ores  of  all  ferro-alloy  metals  except  molybdenum 
and  vanadium.  Shipments  of  ferro-alloys  from  fur- 
naces are  estimated  to  have  surpassed  the  1947  to- 
tal by  9  percent  in  tonnage  and  86  percent  in 
value.  Ferromanganese  production  established  a 
record  high  in  1948.  Late  in  the  year  output  of 
ferromanganese  was  initiated  in  Montana. 

Copper,  Zinc,  and  lead.  Production  of  copper,  zinc, 
and  lead  in  1948  was  about  1,  4,  and  6  percent,  re- 
spectively, below  1947  tonnages,  but  prices  were 
raised  enough  to  effect  respective  increases  of  3,  22, 
and  18  percent  in  value  of  output.  During  the  first 
8  months  of  1948  copper  mine  production  was  at 
the  practical  capacity  rate  of  about  875,000  short 
tons  annually.  A  strike  of  locomotive  engineers  at 
the  Utah  Copper  mine  at  Bingham,  Utah — the 
country's  largest  copper  mine~--m  the  late  months 
of  the  year  interrupted  the  high  production  rate 
sufficiently  to  reduce  national  annual  output  by  5 
percent.  Similarly,  retardation  of  zinc  and  lead  out- 
put was  an  effect  of  labor-management  difficulties 
evidenced  by  work  stoppages  in  the  Tri-State  dis- 
trict and  in  Southeastern  Missouri. 

light  Metals.  The  United  States  was  obliged  to 
import  nearly  two-thirds  of  its  bauxite  needs  in 
1948,  but  the  achievement  of  a  peacetime  record 
aluminum  production  was  made  possible  partly  by 
a  peacetime  record  output  of  domestic  bauxite. 
Production  of  magnesium  metal  was  held  at  a  low 
level,  awaiting  wider  consumer  acquaintance  with 
its  advantageous  properties  and  absorption  oi 
heavy  stocks  of  scrap. 


MINERALS  AND  M&ALS 


342 


MINERALS  AND  METALS 


Gold  and  Silver.  Gold  mine  production  was  5  to 
10  percent  lower  in  1948  than  in  1947,  largely  as 
the  result  of  suspension  of  marginal  operations 
caught  between  rising  production  costs  and  a  fixed 
price  on  sales  of  the  metal  The  decline  in  output 
of  base  metals  of  which  gold  is  a  byproduct  also 
had  a  depressing  effect.  Gold  output  continued, 
however,  above  the  other  years  since  1942.  Mine 
production  of  silver,  responding  to  the  second  full 
year  of  the  higher  Treasury  purchasing  price  of 
90%  cents  an  ounce,  was  5  percent  above  that  in 

1947  and  was  the  greatest  since  1943. 

Other  Metals.  Mercury  production  in  1948  was 
40  percent  lower  than  in  1947  and  the  smallest 
since  1933.  Of  the  larger  producers,  only  two  were 
in  operation  in  December.  Mining  of  the  platinum- 
group  metals  in  Alaska,  the  principal  domestic 
source,  in  1948  continued  at  about  the  same  rate  as 
in  1947,  but  nearly  all  requirements  must  be  im- 
ported. Of  the  new  supply  of  platinum-group 
metals  in  the  first  three  quarters  of  1948,  a  third 
(mostly  palladium)  came  from  the  U.S.S.R.  Un- 
abated demand  for  white  pigments  prompted  il- 
menite  (titanium)  production  and  shipments  in 

1948  to  be  larger  than  ever  before.  Rutile  produc- 
tion fell  17  percent  from  the  record  high  rate  for 
1947,  but  mine  shipments  reached  a  new  all-time 
peak.  Small  decreases  in  the  output  of  nonferrous- 
metal  refineries  were  partly  responsible  for  ap- 
parent declines  in  the  recovery  of  byproduct  cad- 
mium and  bismuth.  Production  of  certain  other  by- 
product metals,  particularly  indium,  tellurium,  and 
gallium,  was  probably  less  because  of  limited  de- 
mand. 

Mineral  Fuels.  Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas.  Produc- 
tion of  crude  petroleum  gained  8  percent  in  1948 
over  1947  and  exceeded  2,000  million  barrels  for 
the  first  time.  The  output  was  valued  at  $5,200  mil- 
lion, an  average  of  $2.59  per  barrel.  Marketed  pro- 
duction of  natural  gas  increased  10  percent  to 
4,870,000  million  cubic  feet  in  response  to  insistent 
demand,  particularly  in  areas  of  active  competi- 
tion between  the  principal  fuels.  The  gas  was  val- 
ued at  approximately  $312  million  at  wells  and 
$1,170  million  at  points  of  consumption.  The  nat- 
ural gasoline  industry  experienced  its  most  success- 
ful year  in  1948,  disposing  of  a  record  volume  of 
output  at  prices  materially  above  the  averages  of 
1947.  Production  of  all  light  products  gained  9 
percent  over  1947  to  6,020  million  gallons,  of 
which  2,110  million  were  liquefied  petroleum 
gases.  The  total  value  of  these  products  at  the 
plants  was  $434,200,000. 

Bituminous  Coot.  Production  of  bituminous  coal 
and  lignite  in  1948  was  estimated  at  596  million 
net  tons,  a  decrease  of  5  percent  from  the  record 
output  of  631  million  tons  in  1947.  Decreased  pro- 
duction was  due  to  a  work  stoppage  in  March  and 
April  and  to  reduced  exports  and  domestic  demand 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  year.  The  average 
value  per  net  ton  at  the  mine  for  soft  coal  in  1948 
was  estimated  at  $4.87 — a  new  record  and  an  in- 
crease of  17  percent  over  the  previous  high  of 
$4.16  in  1947. 

Pennsylvania  Anthracite.  The  estimated  produc- 
tion of  57  million  net  tons  of  Pennsylvania  anthra- 
cite in  1948  is  a  slight  decline  from  the  57.19  mil- 
lion tons  produced  in  1947.  Anthracite  is  primarily 
a  home-heating  fuel,  and  the  decline  in  output  can 
be  attributed  to  the  warmer-than-normal  weather 
prevailing  in  the  New  England  and  Middle  At- 
lantic States  in  November  and  December.  The  esti- 
mated value  of  the  1948  production  was  $460  mil- 
lion, a  slight  increase  over  the  1947  value  of  $413 
million. 


CoJce  and  Coal  Chemicals.  Production  of  beehive 
and  oven  coke  in  1948  reached  an  all-time  high  of 
74.1  million  net  tons,  a  slight  increase  over  the 
previous  record  of  74,038,000  tons  attained  in  the 
war  year  1944.  The  peak  1948  output  was  achieved 
despite  a  decline  of  6  percent  from  1947  in  output 
from  beehive  ovens,  the  decline  in  beehive  produc- 
tion having  been  more  than  compensated  for  by 
the  2-percent  increase  in  oven-coke  output.  Total 
values  of  coke  and  coal-chemical  materials  at  pro- 
ducing plants  in  1948  were  estimated  at  $850  mil- 
lion and  $278  million,  respectively.  These  values 
are  the  highest  ever  attained  for  coke-oven  prod- 
ucts and  are  increases  of  9  percent  and  25  percent 
over  corresponding  value  data  for  1947. 

Other  NonmetalHc  Minerals.  Nonmetalic  min- 
erals were  in  strong  demand  during  1948.  All-time 
record  shipments  were  made  of  sulfur,  lime,  salt, 
phosphate  rock,  potash,  cement,  gypsum,  stone, 
kaolin,  barite,  talc,  boron  minerals,  and  vermicu- 
lite. 

Building  Materials.  Output  of  construction  mate- 
rials again  increased  in  1948.  A  16-percent  gain  in 
production  of  gypsum  was  recorded,  and  cement 
sales  climbed  7  percent.  Stone  quarries  and  sand 
and  gravel  pits  yielded  larger  quantities  than  in 
1947.  Output  was  stepped  up  for  pumice,  vermicu- 
lite,  and  perlite,  which  are  becoming  widely  used 
as  lightweight  aggregate. 

Fertilizers.  Continuity  of  farm  income  at  record 
levels  was  reflected  in  great  demand  for  fertilizer 
to  stimulate  raising  the  tremendous  quantities  of 
food  needed  for  world  consumption.  Output  of 
phosphate  rock  and  potash  increased  5  and  7  per- 
cent, respectively,  in  1948  to  reach  new  records. 
Supplies  of  potash,  as  well  as  of  nitrogen,  remained 
scarce  throughout  the  year,  but  by  the  closing 
months  production  of  phosphate  rock  appeared  to 
have  equaled  demand. 

UNITED  STATES  MINERAL  PRODUCTION 


Product 
Metallic  

194^ 
.  .     $  2,915,000,000 

1948* 
$  3,690  000  000 

NonmetalHc:  Fuels.  .  .  , 
Other,., 

7,843,000,000 
1,635,000,000 

10,180,000,000 
1,750,000,000 

Total  nonmetallic 9,478,000,000        11,930,000,000 


Grand  total. 


12,393,000,000        15,620,000,000 


a  Preliminary  estimate. 

Chemical  Raw  Materials.  The  minerals  used  most 
extensively  by  the  chemical  industry  are  sulfur, 
salt,  and  h'rne — all  three  of  which  were  shipped  in 
record  quantities  in  1948;  The  United  States  con- 
tinued to  meet  the  world's  expanded  requirements 
of  boron  minerals.  Fluorspar  shipments  continued 
at  high  levels  in  1948  but  were  slightly  under  the 
peacetime  record  established  in  1947.  Barite  pur- 
chases by  oil-well  drillers  and  chemical  manufac- 
turers neared  the  million-ton  mark  in  1948. 

Other  minerals.  Increased  mechanization  of  feld- 
spar mines  and  mills  helped  effect  a  greater  output 
in  1948  compared  with  1947.  Demand  for  feld- 
spar by  potteries  and  porcelain  enamel  plants  was 
insistent,  but  total  shipments  fell  below  the  1946 
peak  principally  because  of  a  decline  in  glass  con- 
tainers manufactured.  Production  of  talc  and  pyro- 
phyllite  exceeded  500,000  tons.  Monazite  mining 
in  the  United  States  was  resumed  on  a  small  scale 
in  1948. 

Mineral  Production  by  States.  The  value  of  mineral 
output  of  the  States  of  the  United  States  for  the 
calendar  years  1946  and  1947  (with  rank  and  per- 
cent of  total  value  for  the  United  States  in  1947) 
are  listed  in  the  accompanying  table. 


MINES 


343 


MINES 


U.S.  MINERAL  PRODUCTION,  BY  STATES' 


State  Value,  194&  Value,  194.7  (1947}  total 

Ala  ........  $123,029,000  §159,788,000  15  1.64 

Alaska  .....  12,426,000  18,387,000  38  .19 

Ariz  ........  118,086,000  186,751,000  13  1.92 

Ark  ........  65,985,000  90,833,000  23  .93 

Calif  .......  592,294,000  855,553,000  3  8.79 

Colo  .......  77,573,000  105,135,000  22  1.08 

Conn  .......  5,584,000  5,677,000  46  .06 

Del  .........  491,000  613,000  50  .01 

D.C  ........  710,000  746,000  49  .01 

Ha  .........  31,093,000  45,992,000  28  .47 

Ga  .........  30,449,000  37,137,000  33  .38 

Idaho  ......  44,444,000  67,786,000  27  .70 

111  .........  358,628,000  428,327,000  5  4.40 

Ind  ........  107,479,000  141,086,000  17  1.45 

Iowa  .......  35,957,000  39,378,000  32  .41 

Kans  .......  194,563,000  267,020,000  10  2.75 

Ky  ........  272,558,000  395,745,000  7  4.07 

La  .........  273,882,000  397,312,000  6  4.08 

Maine  ......  4,389,000  6,049,000  45  .06 

Md  ........  21,991,000  25,604,000  35  .26 

Mass  .......  9,745,000  11,859,000  41  .12 

Mich  .......  133,310,000  170,616,000  14  1.75 

Minn  .......  155,734,000  219,685,000  11  2.26 

Miss  .......  33,672,000  68,092,000  26  .70 

Mo  ........  88,357,000  107,021,000  21  1.10 

Mont  .......  62,114,000  87,167,000  24  .90 

Nebr  .......  7,277,000  7,383,000  44  .08 

Nev  ........  35,454,000  42,639,000  30  .44 

N.H  ........  1,451,000  1,574,000  47  .02 

N.J  ........  33,518,000  44,250,000  29  .46 

N.Mex...    .  111,938,000  156,554,000  16  1.61 

N.Y  .......  103,571,000  130,735,000  18  1.34 

N.C  ......  20,428,000  23,699,000  36  .24 

N.Dak  .....  5,118,000  7,629,000  43  .08 

Ohio  .......  221,356,000  296,147,000  9  3.04 

Okla  .......  263,282,000  351,578,000  8  3.61 

Oreg  ........  11,807,000  16,658,000  39  .17 

Pa  .........  1,074,004,000  1,266,285,000  2  13.02 

R.I  ........  561,000  785,000  48  .01 

S.C  ........  8,189,000  10,362,000  42  .11 

S.Dak  ......  18,389,000  23,636,000  37  .24 

Tenn  .......  68,031,000  84,425,000  25  .87 

Tex  ........  1,313,003,000  1,926,699,000  1  19.80 

Utah  .......  95,506,000  206,639,000  12  2.12 

Va  .........  90,823,000  128,700,000  19  1.32 

Vt  .........  12,096,000  14,818,000  40  .15 

Wash  .......  33,029,000  40,027,000  31  .41 

W.Va  ......  588,925,000  855,150,000  4  8.79 

Wis  ........  28,596,000  34,942,000  34  .36 

Wyo  ........  78,745,000  118,422,000  20  1.22 

a  In  this  table  iron  ore,  not  pig  iron,  is  taken  as  the  basis  of 
iron  valuation.  The  many  revisions  in  the  19-16  State  totals  re- 
sult from  the  substitution  of  data  for  natural  gas  valued  at 
points  of  consumption  by  data  for  natural  gas  valued  at  wells 

See  CHEMISTRY,  COAL,  COPPEB,  GOLD,  IHON 
AND  STEEL,  MANGANESE,  and  ZING. 

MINES,  United  States  Bureau  of.  (Department  of  the 
Interior.)  Heavy  mineral  requirements  of  Amer- 
ica's booming  postwar  economy  and  the  need  for 
maintaining  a  strong  mineral  position  in  world 
affairs  gave  added  impetus  in  1948  to  the  Bureau 
of  Mines'  efforts  to  help  industry  achieve  maximum 
efficiency,  safety,  and  conservation  in  extracting, 
preparing,  and  utilizing  the  Nation's  mineral  re- 
sources. Despite  the  steady  progress  made  by  the 
American  minerals  industries  in  producing  better 
products  from  lower-grade  ores,  heavy  wartime  de- 
mands had  seriously  depleted  domestic  mineral 
reserves  —  a  development  which  gave  special  sig- 
nificance to  the  Bureau's  technologic  and  scientific 
studies. 

Mineral  Development.  In  anticipation  of  future 
emergency  needs,  the  Bureau  last  year  carried  for- 
ward 30  exploration  projects.  Of  these,  11  provided 
bases  for  important  stock-piling  estimates  of  re- 
serves of  strategic  minerals,  notably,  lead,  zinc, 
copper,  iron  and  titania.  In  addition,  the  Bureau 
established  two  more  "core  libraries"  for  the  stor- 
age of  drill  cores  obtained  during  Governmental 
and  private  projects,  and  also  studied  mining  tech- 
niques, such  as  boring  blast  holes  with  diamond 
drills  instead  of  percussion  drills.  Other  mineral 
investigations  included  a  study  of  the  most  eco- 


nomical and  effective  method  of  drilling  and  blast- 
ing taconite — a  low-grade  iron  ore  which  is  avail- 
able in  large  quantities  in  the  Lake  Superior 
region — studies  of  dynamic  stresses  in  rock,  and 
completion  of  two  sets  of  model  studies  of  pillar 
stresses  in  room  and  pillar  mining.  Investigations 
were  also  started  to  determine  whether  the  mica, 
beryl,  tantalum  minerals,  and  other  valuable  con- 
stituents of  pegmatite  deposits  in  Virginia  and 
South  Dakota  can  be  mined  separately,  or  mined 
together  and  separated  effectively  afterwards. 

Metallurgical  Studies.  As  during  the  previous  year, 
the  Bureau's  metallurgical  studies  were  aimed  at 
four  major  objectives:  (1)  developing  improved 
methods  of  beneficiating  and  processing  low-grade 
ores;  (2)  developing  new  and  improved  products; 
(3)  developing  substitutes  for  scarce  metals  and 
minerals;  and  (4)  recovering  by-products  and 
utilizing  industrial  wastes.  Advances  were  made 
toward  the  ultimate  use  of  low-grade  iron  ores  and 
in  separating  the  iron  from  titaniferous  magnetites 
and  recovering  titanium  as  a  by-product.  Intensify- 
ing its  studies  of  the  recovery  of  lead,  zinc  and 
copper  from  low-grade  ores,  the  Bureau  last  year 
also  improved  processes  for  producing  aluminum 
from  materials  other  than  high-grade  bauxite.  In- 
creased pilot-plant  production  of  the  Bureau-de- 
veloped light  rnetals,  zirconium  and  titanium,  as 
well  as  investigations  of  their  alloys,  also  formed 
part  of  the,  metallurgical-research  pattern. 

Substantial  progress  was  made  in  the  Bureau's 
search  for  synthetic  substitutes  for  sheet  mica,  es- 
sential to  the  electrical  industry,  and  a  method  was 
devised  for  purifying  sand  so  that  it  can  be  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  high-quality  glass.  The  exten- 
sive metallurgical  research  program  also  included 
the  development  of  strong,  lightweight  concrete 
aggregates,  improvement  of  methods  of  manu- 
facturing ceramic  products  from  domestic  miner- 
als, and  a  special  investigation  of  the  practicability 
of  developing  further  huge  phosphate  deposits  in 
Utah,  Idaho,  Wyoming  and  Montana. 

Research  in  Coal.  Faced  with  a  growing  shortage 
of  good-quality  coking  coal,  Bureau  scientists  last 
year  concentrated  on  developing  methods  for  up- 
grading low-grade  coals  to  produce  metallurgical 
coke  and  sought  ways  of  making  greater  use  of 
vast  deposits  of  lignite  and  sub-bituminous  coal. 
The  Bureau  developed  a  method  for  storing  lignite 
to  prevent  spontaneous  combustion  and  also,  on 
a  pilot-plant  scale,  converted  this  fuel  into  gas 
suitable  for  reducing  iron  ore,  or  after  further 
treatment,  for  making  synthetic  liquid  fuels.  New 
methods  for  drying  and  preparing  sub-bituminous 
coal  for  safe  and  economical  shipment  also  were 
examined.  In  studying  the  effect  of  mechanized 
mining  on  the  percentage  of  coal  recovered,  as 
well  as  the  development  of  mechanical  equipment 
suitable  for  use  in  steeply-pitching  anthracite  beds, 
the  Bureau  also  searched  for  effective  ways  of  re- 
covering and  using  fine  coal  now  lost  in  washing. 
A  site  at  Schuylkifl  Haven,  Pa.,  was  acquired  and 
plans  completed  for  the  Anthracite  Research  Lab- 
oratory for  which  Congress  appropriated  $450,000, 
and  a  site  at  Grand  Forks,  N.Dak,,  was  selected 
for  a  newly-authorized  lignite  research  laboratory. 

Synthetic  Liquid  Fuels.  Because  of  steadily  rising 
American  consumption  of  petroleum  and  a  rela- 
tively low  rate  of  discovery  of  new  petroleum  re- 
serves, the  Bureau's  studies  in  the  production  of 
synthetic  liquid  fuels  from  coal,  lignite,  and  oil 
were  of  special  importance.  Of  the  four  major  in- 
stallations under  construction,  the  oil-shale  demon- 
stration plant  of  the  Naval  Oil  Shale  Reserves  near 
Rifle,  Colo.,  began  producing  100  barrels  of  oil 


MINES 


344 


MINES 


per  day,  and  new  laboratory  facilities  were  com- 
pleted at  Laramie,  Wyo.,  for  further  oil-shale  re- 
search. As  further  indications  of  the  notable  prog- 
ress made  last  year  in  the  Bureau's  synthetic  liquid 
fuels  program,  a  coal-to-oil  laboratory  was  dedi- 
cated at  Bruceton,  Pa.,  and  two  demonstration 
plants  for  producing  liquid  fuels  by  different  proc- 
esses were  under  construction  at  Louisiana,  Mo. 

Work  was  continued  on  a  200-barrel-a-day  hy- 
drogenation  (Bergius  process)  plant  and  on  a  50- 
to  80-barrel-a-day  gas  synthesis  ( Fischer-Tropsch 
process)  plant.  Scheduled  for  completion  during 
1949,  the  latter  plant  will  employ  a  newly-devel- 
oped converter  unit  which  can  be  enlarged  to  pro- 
duce 1,000  barrels  a  day,  as  compared  with  the 
18-barrel-a-day  capacity  of  German  converters. 
At  Morgantown,  W.Va.,  the  Bureau  investigated 
processes  for  economical  production  of  synthesis 
gas  (carbon  monoxide  and  hydrogen),  the  major 
cost  factor  in  synthetic  fuels  manufacture,  and  the 
most  important  single  research  problem.  Bureau 
research  followed  three  major  lines:  (1)  gasifica- 
tion of  coal  in  place  underground;  (2)  gasification 
of  powdered  coal  in  superheated  steam  containing 
oxygen;  (3)  gasification  of  powdered  coal  with 
oxygen  and  steam  in  a  vortex  reactor. 

Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas.  Unprecedented  peace- 
time requirements  for  oil  stimulated  Bureau  re- 
search in  the  development  of  better  methods  of 
extracting  petroleum  from  the  ground.  To  help  in- 
crease domestic  oil  reserves,  the  Bureau  undertook 
a  basic  study  of  the  surface  forces  in  natural  pe- 
troleum reservoirs.  Similarly,  the  Bureau  completed 
laboratory  research  on  the  recovery  of  oil  from 
California  sandstones,  and  conducted  studies  on 
metals  that  would  resist  corrosion  in  gas-conden- 
sate  wells. 

Helium.  Reflecting  a  growing  demand  for  helium 
in  commercial,  medical  and  industrial  enterprises, 
the  Bureau  of  Mines — exclusive  producer  of  this 
lightweight,  noninflammable  gas — delivered  more 
than  15,916,747  cubic  feet,  or  23.6  percent  of  the 
total  production  of  67,486,567  feet,  for  non-Fed- 
eral uses.  As  a  result  of  research  carried  on  at  the 
Bureau's  Exell  and  Amarillo,  Texas,  plants,  the 
purity  of  helium  was  increased  to  99.8  percent — 
a  significant  development,  since  some  types  of 
helium-shielded  arc  welding  cannot  be  done  suc- 
cessfully with  a  less  pure  gas.  Major  objectives  of 
Bureau  research  during  the  past  year  were  the 
development  of  new  and  better  techniques  for 
using  this  valuable  gas  in  welding  and  metallurgy, 
more  efficient  extraction  methods,  and  expansion 
of  the  present  use  pattern.  Peacetime  uses  for  he- 
lium now  include  inflation  of  airships  in  private 
use,  as  a  tracer  gas  in  mapping  underground  petro- 
leum reservoirs,  in  hospital  operating  rooms  to  elim- 
inate explosion  hazards,  as  well  as  the  treatment 
and  prevention  of  caisson  disease  and  in  treating 
some  respiratory  diseases. 

Explosives  Testing  and  Research.  Minimizing  of 
hazards  associated  with  the  manufacture,  storage, 
and  use  of  explosives  continued  to  be  a  major  Bu- 
reau research  goal,  and  Bureau  investigators  last 
year  tested  more  than  1,600  permissible  explosives 
and  blasting  devices,  special  types  of  explosives, 
detonators,  and  hazardous  chemicals.  In  the  course 
of  the  Bureau's  basic  explosives  research  program, 
new  methods  were  discovered  for  measuring  the 
rate  of  detonation  of  explosives  and  the  tempera- 
ture in  detonation  waves,  A  study  of  the  explosibil- 
ity  of  ammonium  nitrate,  which  caused  the  Texas 
City,  Tex.,  disaster,  revealed  that  under  certain 
conditions  this  material  can  be  detonated  by  heat 
alone. 


Safety  and  Health  Activities.  Striving  to  conserve 
life  and  property"  in  the  mines  and  plants  of  Amer- 
ica's vital  mineral  industries,  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
last  year  intensified  its  safety  education  and  coal- 
mine inspection  activities.  Two  new  training  cours- 
es were  conducted — one  to  instruct  supervisory  of- 
ficials in  the  broad  principles  of  coal-mine  safety, 
and  the  other  to  familiarize  coal-mine  safety  com- 
mitteemen  with  established  safety  standards.  Also 
continued  were  first-aid,  mine-rescue,  accident- 
prevention,  and  other  established  training. 

As  a  result  of  Bureau  studies  of  methods  of  pre- 
venting rock  falls,  a  type  of  roof  support  wnicb 
had  proved  effective  in  some  metal  mines  was  in- 
troduced into  an  increasing  number  of  coal  mines. 
In  addition  to  making  thousands  of  analyses  of 
dust  and  mine  air  samples,  the  Bureau  determined 
the  explosibility  of  many  industrial  dusts  and  of- 
fered recommendations  for  reducing  hazards.  In 
recognition  of  the  vital  role  played  by  the  coal- 
mine inspection  program  in  promoting  health  and 
safety  in  the  domestic  coal  industry,  the  Eightieth 
Congress  authorized  the  employment  of  additional 
inspectors,  bringing  the  staff  to  250.  Nearly  4,700 
coal-mine  inspections  were  completed  in  all  coal- 
mining sections  of  the  country,  and  mine  operators, 
mine  workers'  organizations,  and  the  public  were 
informed  of  the  results.  Although  the  program  was 
purely  voluntary,  thousands  of  inspectors'  recom- 
mendations for  reducing  hazards  were  adopted.  A 
substantial  percentage  of  these  recommendations 
dealt  with  ventilation,  rock  dusting  and  the  mini- 
mizing of  fire  and  ignition  hazards.  Statistics  on 
mine  accidents  gathered  and  analyzed  by  the  Bu- 
reau reveal  that  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  July  1, 
1948,  fewer  men  lost  their  lives  for  every  million 
tons  of  coal  produced  last  year  than  in  any  corre- 
sponding period  in  the  Nation's  history. 

Anthracite  Water  Problem.  To  help  preserve  val- 
uable fuel  reserves  in  the  anthracite  region  of  east- 
ern Pennsylvania,  the  Bureau  during  the  past  year 
conducted  investigations  to  determine  tie  feasi- 
bility of  Federal  participation  in  construction  proj- 
ects or  pumping  operations  to  prevent  flooding  of 
mine  workings.  Additional  information  was  also 
gathered  on  damage  to  property  by  subsidence 
owing  to  lack  of  backfilling  in  active  mine  work- 
ings, and  the  effectiveness  of  barrier  pillars  and 
mine  dams  in  present  workings  in  resisting  the 
pressure  of  impounded  water. 

Economic  and  Mineral  Industries.  The  economic  and 
statistical  services  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines  last  year 
supplied  basic  information  on  foreign  and  domes- 
tic mineral  resources,  to  the  Government,  mineral 
industries  and  the  public.  Hundreds  of  periodic  re- 
ports dealing  with  all  phases  of  the  minerals  indus- 
tries were  issued  and  injury  statistics  were  revised 
to  meet  current  requirements. 

Public  Reports.  Because  of  a  continuing  heavy  de- 
mand for  information  on  subjects  associated  with 
the  mineral  industries,  the  volume  of  publications 
released  by  the  Bureau  during  1948  remained  high. 
The  results  of  Bureau  research  were  made  avail- 
able to  all  interested  parties  in  many  reports  and 
papers  published  during  the  past  year.  Responding 
to  requests  from  technical  organizations,  Bureau 
staff  members  addressed  technical  and  scientific 
meetings  and  contributed  to  the  technical  and 
trade  press.  Individual  chapters  of  the  Minerals 
Yearbook — long  accepted  as  an  authoritative  text 
on  current  developments  in  the  minerals  industries 
— were  issued  as  preprints  on  completion.  A  nation- 
wide audience  of  about  12  million  persons  saw 
films  from  the  Bureau's  free  loan  library  of  edu- 
cational motion  pictures.  Sponsored  by  private  in- 


MINNESOTA 


345 


MISSOURI 


dustry  and  produced  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Bureau,  the  films  depict  the  uses  and  methods  of 
producing  various  mineral  commodities. 

MINNESOTA.  A  west  north  central  State.  Area: 
84,286  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  2,940,- 
000,  compared  with  (1940  census)  2,792,300. 
Chief  cities:  Saint  Paul  (capital),  287,736  inhabit- 
ants in  1940;  Minneapolis,  492,370.  See  AGBI- 
cuLTUKEj  EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND  METALS, 
SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STA- 
TISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $178,212,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $163,119,000. 

Elections,  Truman's  majority  of  about  100,000 
over  Dewey,  Wallace,  and  others  gave  the  11  elec- 
toral votes  to  the  Democratic  nominee.  Hubert  H. 
Humphrey,  Democratic-Farmer-Labor  candidate, 
beat  incumbent  Joseph  Ball,  Republican,  in  the 
Senatorial  race,  while  Republicans  won  only  5 
of  the  9  House  seats  for  a  loss  of  3.  Most  contests 
for  State  office  were  won  by  Republicans,  includ- 
ing: incumbent  Governor  Luther  W.  Youngdahl 
who  was  reelected  over  Charles  Halstead;  C.  El- 
mer Anderson — Lieutenant  Governor;  J.  A.  A. 
Burnquist — Attorney  General;  Mike  Holm — Sec- 
retary of  State;  Julius  A.  Schmahl — Treasurer,  The 
voters  authorized  a  veterans*  bonus. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Luther  W.  Youngdahl; 
Lieut.  Governor,  C.  Elmer  Anderson;  Secretary  of 
State,  Mike  Holm;  Attorney  General,  J.  A.  A. 
Burnquist;  State  Treasurer,  Julius  A.  Schmahl; 
State  Auditor,  Stafford  King. 

MINT,  Bureau  of  the.  A  Bureau  of  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  the  Treasury  which  directs  the  coinage  of 
money  and  supervises  the  activities  of  the  three 
Mints  (Philadelphia,  Denver,  and  San  Francisco), 
the  two  Assay  Offices  (New  York  and  Seattle),  the 
gold  Bullion  Depository  at  Fort  Knox,  Ky.,  and  the 
silver  Bullion  Depository  at  West  Point,  New  York. 
Director:  Mrs.  Nellie  Tayloe  Ross. 

MISSiSSIPPI.  An  east  south  central  State.  Area: 
46,865  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  2,121,- 
000,  compared  with  (1940  census)  2,183,796. 
Chief  city:  Jackson  (capital),  62,107  inhabitants 
in  1940.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS 
AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COL- 
LEGES, VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $100,148,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $93,854,000. 

Legislation.  The  Legislature  met  in  regular  session 
on  January  6  and  adjourned  April  14.  Biennial  ap- 
propriations exceeded,  for  the  first  time,  $100  mil- 
lion and  included  $35  million  for  common  schools, 
$8  million  for  institutional  improvements,  $7.5  mil- 
lion for  aid  to  counties  and  cities,  and  $5  million 
for  hospital  construction.  Special  aid  was  given  to 
Gulf  Coast  communities  devastated  by  the  Sep- 
tember, 1947,  hurricane.  A  new  6  percent  natural 
gas  severance  tax  was  one  of  the  few  tax  changes. 

An  outstanding  event  was  the  adoption  of  a 
workmen's  compensation  law  with  compulsory  cov- 
erage, second-injury  fund,  unlimited  medical  care, 
and  double  compensation  for  illegally-employed 
minors.  Old-age  assistance  was  increased  and  a  re- 
habilitation program  for  the  State  penitentiary 
adopted. 

The  interstate  parole  and  probation  and  inter- 
state oil  and  gas  compacts  were  adopted.  The  State 
oil  and  gas  board  was  reorganized  and  a  State 
aeronautics  department  created  with  power  to  stim- 


ulate aviation  development  and  to  review  all  local 
airport  plans  submitted  under  the  Federal  Airport 
Act. 

Elections.  Thurmond  won  a  commanding  popular 
majority  over  Truman,  Dewey,  Wallace,  and  other 
nominees  and  won  the  9  electoral  votes.  Senator 
James  O.  Eastland,  Democrat,  was  reelected  with- 
out opposition,  and  the  7  House  seats  remained 
Democratic.  There  were  no  contests  for  State  of- 
fice. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Fielding  L.  Wright; 
Lieut.  Governor,  Sam  Lumpkin;  Secretary  of  State, 
Heber  A.  Ladner;  Attorney  General,  Greek  L. 
Rice;  State  Treasurer,  Robert  W.  May;  State  Au- 
ditor, Carl  N.  Craig. 

MISSOURI.  A  west  north  central  State.  Area:  69r 
420  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  3,947,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  3,784,664.  Chief 
cities:  Jefferson  City  (capital),  24,268  inhabitants 
in  1940;  St.  Louis,  816,048.  See  AGRICULTURE, 
EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS, 
UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $191,335,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $175,149,000. 

Legislation.  The  session  of  the  General  Assembly 
which  convened  January  7  was  a  continuation  of 
that  which  began  in  January,  1947.  Following  pro- 
longed recess,  it  adjourned  December  1. 

Tax  measures  included  a  2  percent  use  tax  on 
vehicles  purchased  outside  the  State,  and  a  two- 
year  authorization  to  St.  Louis  to  levy  a  payroll 
tax  not  to  exceed  one-half  of  1  percent  on  individ- 
ual earnings  and  corporation  net  profits.  Control 
and  operation  of  the  St.  Louis  Sanitarium  and  the 
Training  School  for  Feeble-Minded  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  State  to  lower  costs  to  the  city.  Also 
passed  were  laws  permitting  border  cities  to  estab- 
lish airports  in  neighboring  States,  and  to  create  a 
joint  Illinois-Missouri  planning  commission  to  fos- 
ter development  of  the  St.  Louis  Metropolitan 
Area. 

New  school  laws  provide  liberal  aid  for  educat- 
ing physically-handicapped  children,  and  stimulate 
reorganization  and  consolidation  of  school  districts. 
State  equalization  school  aid  was  made  conditional 
upon  achievement  of  local  school  taxing  minimums. 
Restrictions  were  placed  on  payment  of  unemploy- 
ment compensation  to  workers  who  quit  without 
good  cause  or  are  fired  for  misconduct,  while 
workmen's  compensation  benefits  were  consider- 
ably liberalized. 

New  insurance  regulatory  laws  were  passed  and 
several  uniform  laws  adopted.  Constitutional 
amendments  to  grant  a  veterans'  bonus  and  to  in- 
crease the  gasoline  gallonage  tax  from  2  to  3^ 
cents  were  initiated  but  defeated  by  the  voters  in 
November. 

Elections.  Truman  carried  his  home  State  over 
Dewey  and  Wallace  by  a  majority  of  250,000  and 
won  the  15  electoral  votes.  In  House  races,  Demo- 
crats won  12  of  the  13  seats,  for  a  gain  of  8.  Fpr- 
rest  Smith,  Democrat,  won  the  governorship  over 
Republican  Murray  Thompson,  and  Democrats 
also  won  all  other  major  State  offices,  including: 
Lieutenant  Governor — James  T.  Blair,  Jr.;  Secre- 
tary of  State — Walter  H.  Toberman;  Attorney 
General — J.  E,  Taylor;  Treasurer — M.  E.  Morris; 
Auditor— W.  H.  Holmes. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Phil  M.  Donnelly;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Walter  N.  Davis;  Secretary  of  State, 
Wilson  Bell;  Attorney  General,  J.  E.  Taylor;  State 
Treasurer,  Robert  W.  Winn;  State  Auditor,  Forrest 
Smith. 


MOLYBDENUM 


346 


MOROCCO,  FRENCH 


MOLYBDENUM.  The  demand  for  molybdenum  prod- 
ucts, principally  for  steel-making  purposes,  in- 
creased in  1948.  Shipments  of  ferromolybdenum, 
molybdic  oxide,  molybdenum  salts  and  metal  to- 
taled 17,082,500  Ib.  of  contained  molybdenum  in 
the  first  nine  months,  compared  with  20,744,900 
Ib.  in  the  year  1947,  a  postwar  high.  Production 
of  concentrates  was  also  increased  during  the  year 
and,  despite  heavier  consumption,  stocks  at  mines 
and  converting  plants  were  built  up  by  2.3  million 
Ib.  during  the  period,  to  25,988,000  Ib.  of  con- 
tained molybdenum.  Production  of  concentrates  to 
the  end  of  September  totaled  22,074,200  Ib.  mo- 
lybdenum content  (year  1947;  27,047,000  Ib.). 
Utah,  in  which  molybdenum  is  recovered  as  a 
by-product  from  copper  mining,  was  the  leading 
producing  State  in  the  first  half  of  the  year,  but 
Colorado  recovered  its  primary  position  in  the 
last  half.  New  Mexico,  California,  Arizona,  and 
Nevada  also  produced  molybdenum.  There  were 
no  imports  of  concentrates  or  molybdenum  prod- 
ucts in  1948.  Exports  of  concentrates  amounted  to 
1,725,762  Ib.  molybdenum  content  during  the 
nine  months,  about  60  percent  to  the  United  King- 
dom (year'1947;  2,989,251  Ib.).  The  Climax  Mo- 
lybdenum Company,  a  principal  producer,  an- 
nounced a  price  increase  in  its  products  averaging 
18  percent  effective  Jan.  1,  1949. 

— JOHN  ANTHONY 

MONACO.  A  principality  on  the  Mediterranean, 
surrounded  on  its  land  sides  by  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Alpes-Maritimes.  Area:  370  acres.  Popu- 
lation: (1946)  19,242.  Chief  towns:  Monaco  (cap- 
ital), La  Condamine,  Monte  Carlo.  The  main 
sources  of  revenue  are  derived  from  the  tourist 
traffic  and  the  gambling  concession  at  Monte 
Cailo.  Budget;  (1946)  expenditure  was  estimated 
at  248,929,790  francs,  A  ministry  assisted  by  a 
council  of  state  administers  the  country  under  the 
authority  of  the  Prince,  Legislative  power  rests 
with  the  Prince  and  the  national  council  of  12 
members  elected  by  universal  suffrage  for  a  four- 
year  term.  Ruler:  Prince  Louis  II  (succeeded  June 
26,  1922). 

MONGOLIAN  PEOPLE'S  REPUBLIC  (Outer  Mongolia).  A 

republic,  formally  established  on  Jan.  5,  1946.  It  is 
bounded  by  the  U.S.S.R.  on  the  north,  Sinkiang  on 
the  west,  and  China  on  the  south  and  east.  Area: 
580,158  square  miles.  Population:  900,000,  includ- 
ing 100,000  Russians  and  50,000  Chinese.  Capital: 
Ulan  Bator,  100,000  inhabitants.  Buddhist  Lama- 
ism  is  the  chief  form  of  religion. 

Production,  etc.  Most  of  the  country  is  pastoral. 
Some  areas  are  suitable  for  the  production  of 
wheat,  millet,  and  rye.  Livestock  included  10,600,- 
000  sheep,  1,500,000  oxen,  270,000  camels,  and 
1,340,000  horses.  All  land,  natural  resources,  fac- 
tories, mines,  and  public  utilities  have  been  na- 
tionalized. Caravan  route  is  the  principle  means  of 
communication. 

Government.  According  to  the  constitution  the 
highest  power  is  vested  in  a  parliament  (the  Great 
Hwuldan),  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  From  its 
members  30  are  elected  to  comprise  the  executive 
committee  (Little  Hunddan).  The  committee  elects 
5  of  its  members  to  form  a  board  which  administers 
state  affairs. 

MONTANA.  A  mountain  State.  Area:  146,997  sq. 
mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948):  511,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  559,456.  Chief  cities: 
Helena  (capital),  15,056  inhabitants  in  1940; 
Butte,  37,081.  See  AGRICXJLTUKE,  EDUCATION, 


MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance,  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $32,615,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $28,471,000. 

Elections.  Truman's  majority  of  about  15,000  over 
Dewey  and  Wallace  won  him  the  4  electoral  votes. 
In  races  for  Congress,  incumbent  Democrat 
James  E.  Murray  won  the  Senatorial  contest,  and 
the  2  House  seats  remain  divided  among  Demo- 
crats and  Republicans.  John  W.  Bonner,  Demo- 
crat, defeated  incumbent  Sam  C.  Ford  in  the  gu- 
bernatorial race.  Democrats  won  all  other  State- 
wide offices:  Lieutenant  Governor — Paul  Cannon; 
Secretary  of  State — Sam  C.  Mitchell;  Attorney 
General — Arnold  H.  Olsen;  Treasurer — Neil  Fish- 
er; Auditor — John  J.  Holmes;  Railroad  Commis- 
sioner— Austin  B.  Middleton,  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction — Mary  M.  Condon. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Sam  C.  Ford;  Lieut 
Governor,  Ernest  T.  Eaton;  Secretary  of  State, 
Sam  W.  Mitchell;  Attorney  General,  R.  V.  Bottom- 
ly;  State  Treasurer,  George  T.  Porter;  State  Audi- 
tor, John  J.  Holmes. 

MOROCCO,  French.  A  French  protectorate  compris- 
ing the  major  portion  of  the  Sherifian  empire  in 
northwest  Africa.  Under  the  French  Constitution 
of  1946,  the  protectorate  forms  past  of  the  French 
Union  and  is  classified  as  an  "associated  state/* 
Area:  153,870  square  miles.  Total  population  (1947 
census):  8,499,997,  of  whom  324,997  were  non- 
Moroccan  (chiefly  French).  Rabat  (1947  pop. 
160,800)  is  the  administrative  capital.  Marrakesh 
(pop.  237,800),  Fez  (pop.  200,900),  and  Meknes 
(pop.  159,600),  are  the  traditional  Moorish  cap- 
itals, Casablanca  (pop.  550,800)  is  the  principal 
seaport. 

Religion  and  Education.  The  natives  are  Moslem 
except  for  some  195,000  Jews.  The  majority  speak 
Moorish-Arabic,  but  in  the  back  country  several 
Berber  dialects  prevail.  French  is  the  official  lan- 
guage. Illiteracy  is  general  and  few  children  get 
more  than  a  rudimentary  education.  Koranic 
schools  are  numerous  and  the  Kairoween  Uni- 
versity is  highly  regarded  throughout  the  Islamic 
world.  In  1947  a  total  of  132,750  Moslems,  47,750 
Europeans,  and  19,245  Jewish  pupils  attended 
schools.  The  Institut  des  Hautes  Etudes  Maro- 
caines  at  Rabat  had  2,068  students  in  1945-46, 
Jewish  instruction  is  given  in  48  schools. 

Production,  Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry 
with  a  total  of  about  7.5  million  acres  under  culti- 
vation. The  principal  crops  are  cereals,  beans  and 
other  legumes,  olives,  fruits  and  almonds,  and 
wine.  Chief  cereal  crops  (1946)  in  metric  quintals 
(a  quintal  =  220.4  Ib.)  were:  barley  8,531,000, 
wheat  7,518,400,  maize  2,182,900.  Olive  oil  yield- 
ed 18,000  tons  in  the  1946-47  season  and  wine  7.9 
million  gallons  in  1945.  Livestock  (1946):  6,031,- 
000  sheep,  3,892,000  goats,  1,394,000  cattle,  540,- 
000  asses. 

Phosphate,  the  principal  mineral,  is  exploited 
under  a  state  monopoly.  In  1947  the  mineral  out- 
put (in  metric  tons)  was;  phosphate  2,961,000; 
coal  268,800;  cement  218,400;  manganese  22,100 
(1946);  iron  ore  153,600  (approx.  metal  content 
50  percent).  Production  of  electric  power  (1947) 
totaled  301.2  million  kw-hr.  In  1946,  a  total  of 
50,8,63  tons  of  fish  were  caught. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1947  imports  were  valued  at 
33,312  million  francs;  exports  at  18,312  million 
francs.  France  accounted  for  the  greater  part  of 
both  exports  and  imports.  In  1946,  3,828  vessels 
of  6,909,625  tons  entered  and  cleared  the  ports. 


MOROCCO,  FRENCH 


347 


/MOROCCO,  FRENCH 


Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  1948  place  revenue 
at  22,482,851,000  francs;  expenditure  at  22,482,- 
783,000  francs.  On  Jan.  1,  1947,  the  outstanding 
state  loans  amounted  to  7,486,653,000  francs, 

Government.  The  reigning  Sultan,  Sidi  Moham- 
med, belongs  to  the  Alawite  dynasty.  In  theory 
his  power  is  practically  absolute,  but  in  reality  its 
exercise  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  France,  repre- 
sented by  the  Resident-General.  The  Sultan  is  as- 
sisted by  a  Makhzen,  or  cabinet,  but  this  also  is 
under  the  control  of  the  protecting  authorities. 
Local  government  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  native 
officials  or  chieftains,  supervised  by  French  con- 
trollers. The  hinterland,^  in  the  ?  Atlas  Mountains 
and  beyond,  has  been  "pacified"  only  in  recent 
years  and  is  under  the  effective  control  of  the  mili- 
tary. There  are  French  courts  in  which  cases  in- 
volving foreigners  are  tried,  while  native  cases  are 
dealt  with  in  religious  courts  or  by  local  pashas  and 
caids.  Only  the  United  States  preserves  its  special 
capitulatory  status, 

Events,  1948.  The  growing  inclination  of  the  Sul- 
tan Sidi  Mohammed  to  align  himself  with  the  na- 
tionalist movement,  already  evidenced  on  the  oc- 
casion of  his  1947  speech  at  Tangier  (see  YEAR 
BOOK,  Events  of  1947),  continued  to  manifest  it- 
self, 1947.  On  December  3,  he  addressed  a  letter 
to  President  Vincent  Auriol  in  which  he  registered 
various  complaints.  The  exact  nature  of  this  com- 
munication was  the  subject  of  considerable  dispute 
when  on  January  9  its  alleged  contents  were  re- 
vealed by  Moroccan  sources  in  Paris. 

According  to  these  nationalist  circles,  the  Sultan 
cited  a  long  series  of  grievances,  demanded  the 
recall  of  the  Resident-General,  Gen.  Alphonse- 
Pierre  Juin,  and  spoke  of  Moroccan  independence 
and  the  abrogation  of  the  protectorate  treaty  of 
1912.  French  spokesmen,  while  refusing  to  give 
the  exact  text  of  the  letter,  declared  that  it  in  re- 
ality dealt  only  with  administrative  matters  and 
did  not  take  up  broader  issues.  On  January  12  it 
was  learned  that  the  French  government  had  made 
"a  technical  answer,"  taking  up  point  by  point  the 
matters  raised  by  the  Sultan.  On  January  23  Gen. 
Juin  announced  the  texts  of  several  reforms  he  in- 
tended to  make  in  the  electoral,  administrative,  ju- 
dicial, educational,  labor,  and  press  set-up  in  the 
protectorate.  Early  in  March  a  short  strike  of  rail- 
way workers  in  Morocco  was  settled  when  Juin 
granted  pay  increases.  He  staved  off  a  threatened 
walk-out  by  public  service  workers  with  similar 
concessions. 

In  any  event,  it  was  quite  clear  that  His  Sherifian 
Majesty  did  not  relish  the  manner  in  which  Gen. 
Juin  administered  the  protectorate  with  a  firm 
hand  and  prevented  him  from  attending  nationalist 
meetings  and  demonstrations.  There  were  those 
who  said  that  the  Sultanas  desire  to  identify  himself 
with  the  independence  party  was  a  spirit  of  rivalry 
with  the  old  RifBan  leader,  Abd-el-Krim,  who  was 
organizing  the  North  African  liberation  movement 
from  Cairo.  Despite  the  Sultan's  highly  uncoopera- 
tive attitude  toward  Gen.  Juin,  the  Paris  govern- 
ment showed  no  signs  of  recalling  him.  Early  in 
April  he  was  made  comrnander-in-chief  in  French 
North  Africa,  while  continuing  to  hold  his  post  in 
Morocco. 

According  to  a  special  correspondence  appear- 
ing in  The  Christian  Science  Monitor  on  March  30, 
President  Auriol  replied  to  the  Sultan  only  after  a 
three-months  delay  and  then  very  perfunctorily, 
thereby  annoying  His  Majesty  even  further.  The 
net  result  was  said  to  be  that  the  latter  became  de- 
termined to  persuade  the  Arab  League,  or  one  of 
its  members,  to  bring  the  Moroccan  question  be- 


fore the  United  Nations  Security  Council  on  the 
grounds  that  the  French  had  broken  their  promise, 
given  in  the  1912  Protectorate  Treaty,  to  observe 
his  sovereignty. 

Late  in  March  there  assembled  in  Tangier  sev- 
eral hundred  representatives  of  the  nationalist  or 
independence  movements  of  North  Africa  to  dis- 
cuss their  situation  and  make  plans  for  the  future. 
The  Moroccan  delegates  took  the  lead  in  arguing 
in  favor  of  taking  a  positive  stand  in  the  event  of 
a  third  World  War  in  order  that  they  might  use 
such  an  opportunity  to  regain  their  independence 
(see  TANGIER).  This  program  did  not,  however, 
mean  orienting  the  North  African  liberation  move- 
ment toward  Moscow  ( see  ALGERIA  ) . 

One  of  the  reflexes  of  the  struggle  in  Palestine 
was  the  exacerbation  of  Arab-Jewish  feelings  in 
Morocco.  For  centuries  Jewish  communities  had 
existed  there,  many  of  their  inhabitants  being  the 
descendants  of  Jews  expelled  from  Spain  under 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  The  Jews  were  forbidden 
by  law  to  own  land  and  to  engage  in  any  except 
a  %w  restricted  trades.  They  were  also  for  the 
most  part  obliged  to  live  in  a  designated  section 
of  town  known  as  the  mellah,  though  in  recent 
years  some  of  the  more  prosperous  Jews  lived  out- 
side these  quarters.  The  Moslems  looked  down  on 
their  Jewish  compatriots  but  found  it  possible  and 
desirable  to  live  with  them  in  mutual  tolerance. 
At  the  time  of  World  War  II  this  situation  was  dis- 
turbed by  the  entry  of  European  Jewish  refugees 
and  by  the  Zionist  "menace"  in  Palestine.  As  a 
result,  the  Moorish  nationalists  in  Morocco  became 
increasingly  anti- Jewish,  and  under  the  surface  a 
seething  mass  of  discontent  merely  awaited  a  spark 
to  set  off  a  conflagration. 

Such  an  incident  occurred  at  Oujda  and  Djerada, 
in  northeastern  Morocco,  on  June  8,  when  an  argu- 
ment between  a  Jew  and  a  Moorish  cobbler  over 
a  pair  of  shoes  led  to  disorders  in  which  some  40 
Jews  were  killed.  Reports  indicated  that  the  Pales- 
tine issue  had  entered  strongly  into  the  motivation 
for  the  argument  and  subsequent  riots. 

When  the  Jewish  victims  were  buried  on  the 
llth,  French  and  Moslem  authorities  were  present. 
The  local  pasha,  while  attending  prayers  for  the 
deceased  in  the  great  mosque  of  Oujda,  was  at- 
tacked by  a  fanatical  nationalist  and  gravely  in- 
jured with  stabs  in  the  neck.  Security  measures 
were  taken  immediately  and  applied  shortly  there- 
after to  all  of  Morocco.  The  Sultan  sent  his  Minis- 
ter of  Justice  to  Oujda,  where  Gen.  Juin  also  flew 
to  institute  repressive  measures. 

The  Sultan  in  particular  was  said  to  have  been 
very  angry  at  the  turn  of  events.  Only  shortly  be- 
fore the  fatal  incidents  he  had  issued  a  strong  proc- 
lamation enjoining  that  order  be  preserved  by  both 
sides  and  recommending  that  no  money  be  col- 
lected in  Morocco  "for  a  foreign  country."  After 
the  Oujda  and  Djerada  incidents,  representatives 
of  the  Moslem  and  Jewish  populations  were  called 
separately  before  the  pashas'  courts  to  hear  this 
appeal  read  to  them. 

In  October  a  new  through  service  by  train  and 
boat  was  inaugurated  between  France  and  Mo- 
rocco. A  weekend  train,  the  Morocco  Express,  left 
Paris  early  Friday;  after  a  change  of  cars  at  the 
Spanish  border,  and  a  steamer  crossing  from  Alge- 
ciras  to  Tangier,  the  rail  journey  was  resumed; 
Casablanca  was  reached  late  Sunday  night. 

In  mid-November  the  authorities  in  the  Spanish 
Zone  of  Morocco  instituted  a  virtual  blockade  of 
Tangier  by  preventing,  under  one  pretext  or  an- 
other, the  shipment  of  food  from  the  French  Zone 
to  the  International  Zone.  The  administration  of 


MOROCCO,  SPANISH 


348 


MOTION  PICTURES 


the  latter  circumvented  these  tactics  by  importing 
food  from  Casablanca  by  sea  (see  TANGIER). 

For  further  details  concerning  political  affairs 
and  economic  conditions  in  French  North  Africa 
as  a  whole,  see  the  article  on  ALGERIA. 

— ROBERT  GALE  WOOLBERT 

MOROCCO,  Spanish.  The  extreme  northern  and 
southwestern  portions  of  the  Sherifian  Empire.  It 
does  not  include  the  five  places  of  Spanish  sover- 
eignty, or  presidios,  along  the  north  coast,  such  as 
Ceuta  and  Melilla.  Area:  18,009  square  miles.  Pop- 
ulation (1948  est):  1,082,009,  all  classed  as  Mos- 
lems except  63,100  Europeans  (mostly  Spanish) 
and  14,700  Jews.  The  principal  towns  are  Tetuan 
(pop,  73,115),  Larache,  and  Alcazarquivir. 

Education.  The  government  operates  schools  for 
natives  in  die  principal  centers,  and  two  higher 
institutes  in  native  culture  have  been  set  up  at 
Tetuan.  The  Jewish  community  maintains  schools 
in  Tetuan  and  Larache.  In  general  most  children, 
especially  girls,  get  little  if  any  formal  instruction. 

(Production  ond  Trade.  Much  good  farming  land' 
is  not  cultivated,  but  efforts  are  being  made  to  step 
up  agricultural  production.  Primitive  stock-raising 
is  carried  on  extensively.  Iron  ore  is  mined  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  country  and  some  1,500,000 
tons  yearly  are  exported  through  Medilla.  Lead, 
manganese  ore,  and  antimony  also  are  exported. 
Foreign  trade  (1947):  imports  526,228,484  pe- 
setas; exports  168,174,275  pesetas.  Chief  exports 
are  cattle,  eggs,  and  iron  ore.  Flour,  sugar,  tea,  and 
wine  are  the  main  imports.  Most  of  the  trade  is 
with  Spain. 

Transportation.  There  are  less  than  200  miles  of 
railway,  the  most  important  line  being  that  from 
Fez  to  Tangier.  Good  roads  total  540  miles.  There 
is  telephone  service  between  Tangier  and  Madrid 
and  between  Tangier  and  Lisbon.  There  is  also  an 
official  trunk  line  between  the  French  and  Spanish 
zones. 

Government.  The  budget  for  1948  was  balanced 
at  214,723,715  pesetas.  The  Sultan's  deputy  in  the 
two  Spanish  Zones  of  the  Protectorate  is  the  Kha- 
lifa, nominally  chosen  by  and  responsible  to  him. 
In  reality  the  Spanish  High  Commissioner  at  Te- 
tuan exercises  full  powers,  subject  to  supervision 
from  Madrid.  British  and  American  citizens  are 
still  subject  to  their  own  consular  courts. 

Events,  1948.  In  general,  the  Franco  regime  has 
sought  to  appease  the  Moors  in  its  zone  of  Morocco 
without  acceding  to  the  more  drastic  demands  of 
the  nationalists.  In  the  long  run,  of  course,  the 
Moroccans'  aspirations  for  independence  were 
bound  to  collide  with  Spain's  determination  to 
hang  on  to  her  North  African  possessions. 

An  instance  of  this  inevitable  conflict  occurred 
early  in  February.  The  Spanish  authorities  had 
forbidden  two  nationalist  leaders  to  enter  their 
zone  from  Tangier.  As  a  result,  a  general  strike 
was  declared  in  Tetu&n,  the  chief  city  and  capital, 
and  on  February  8  an  attempt  by  demonstrators 
to  deliver  a  protest  to  the  Pasha's  house  was  re- 
sisted by  troops  with  force.  Several  persons  were 
killed  and  wounded  in  the  melee,  martial  law  was 
proclaimed,  and  fifty  or  more  natives  were  arrested. 
Naturally,  the  Spanish  government  was  concerned 
to  keep  this  outbreak  from  spreading,  particularly 
as  at  that  moment  an  Argentine  military  mission 
was  visiting  the  High  Commissioner  for  Spanish 
Morocco,  Gen.  Jose"  Varela. 

No  doubt  as  a  consequence  of  the  growing  na- 
tionalist agitation,  Gen.  Varela  established  in  mid- 
February  the  office  of  Grand  Vizier,  who  would 
assume  responsibility  for  the  conduct  of  native 


affairs,  and  would  be  assisted  by  Moorish  judges 
who  would  see  that  justice  was  done  among  the 
Moslem  population. 

Another  facet  of  Franco's  Arab  policy  was  his 
obviously  anti-Zionist  policy  in  the  Middle  East. 
His  motives  here  were  far  from  altruistic,  for  he 
wanted  among  other  things  the  support  of  the 
Arab  League  states  in  the  United  Nations.  A  New 
York  Times  despatch  from  Cairo,  dated  August  26, 
reported  that  the  Spanish  Minister  to  Egypt  had 
called  on  Abdul  Rahman  Azzam  Pasha,  Secretary- 
General  of  the  Arab  League,  to  inquire  about  ob- 
taining such  support  at  the  forthcoming  League 
Assembly.  Azzam  purportedly  replied  that  he 
would  be  glad  to  recommend  such  a  course  pro- 
vided Spain  modified  the  severity  of  its  policies  in 
Morocco,  allowed  Moroccan  exiles  to  return  home, 
and  released  political  prisoners  in  the  Spanish 
Zone. 

One  of  the  leaders  of  the  Nationalist  movement 
in  Spanish  Morocco,  Abd-el-Khaleq  Torrais,  an  or- 
ganizer of  the  North  African  Liberation  Committee 
set  up  in  Cairo  during  1947  by  the  former  rebel 
chieftain  Abd-el-Rrim,  returned  from  Egypt  to 
report  at  a  conference  of  North  African  independ- 
ence delegates  meeting  at  Tangier  late  in  March 
(see  TANGIER). 

In  November  the  authorities  in  the  Spanish  Zone 
in  effect  placed  a  blockade  on  foodstuffs  passing 
from  French  Morocco  to  Tangier  in  order,  it  was 
surmised,  to  force  the  International  Zone  within 
the  political  orbit  of  Spain  (see  TANGIER). 

— ROBERT  GALE  WOOLBERT 

MOTION  PICTURES.  The  industry  of  the  motion  pic- 
ture struggled,  muddled,  and  puzzled  through  the 
difficult  year  of  1948  and  into  1949  with  prospect 
of  a  continuing  period  of  adjustment,  internal  and 
external,  and  the  facing  of  some  revolutionary  de- 
velopments. 

The  art  of  the  screen  did  well  with  the  cus- 
tomers in  1948.  The  estimate  from  semiofficial 
sources,  including  informed  guesses  from  Wash- 
ington, indicated  that  the  year's  box  office  grosses, 
the  money  paid  by  the  buyers  of  seats,  would  be 
only  about  2%  percent  under  those  for  1947  with 
the  total  for  the  whole  country  $1,046  million. 

Seven  pictures  of  the  period  grossed  more  than 
$4  million  each  in  film  rental  paid  by  the  theaters, 
the  only  obtainable  and  reliable  index  to  the  suc- 
cess of  individual  productions,  the  commonly  re- 
leased figures  of  the  industry  being  as  elastic  as 
they  are.  A  list  of  the  important  productions 
follows : 

Unconquered — Paramount.  Produced  and  directed 
by  Cecil  B.  DeMille.  The  film  is  in  Technicolor. 
The  cast  includes  Gary  Cooper,  starred  in  many 
DeMille  pictures;  Paulette  Goddard;  Howard  De- 
Silva;  and  Boris  Karloff.  It  is  broadly  in  the  pattern 
of  the  DeMille  historical  spectacles.  The  story  is 
laid  in  1763  in  the  invasion  and  winning  of  the 
great  frontier  empire  west  of  the  Appalachians.  It 
is  rich  with  the  adventure  and  color  of  the  beglam- 
oured  rugged  colonial  period.  The  final  accounting 
may  show  it  to  have  been  the  top-grossing  box- 
office  picture  of  the  year. 

Green  Dolphin  Street — Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. 
Produced  by  Carey  Wilson  and  directed  by  Victor 
Saville.  The  cast  includes  Lana  Turner,  Van  Heflin, 
Donna  Reed^and  Richard  Hart.  It  is  utterly  and 
flamboyantly  "movie"  as  the  story  runs  around  the 
world,  a  four-angled  plot  of  loves,  kept  in  motion 
on  sea-tossed  schooners.  It  involves  an  earthquake 
in  New  Zealand  and  the  excitement  of  capture  by 
natives. 


MOTION  PICTURES 


349 


MOTION  PICTURES 


Cass  Timberlane — M-G-M.  Directed  by  George 
Sidney,  from  the  novel  of  the  same  title  by  Sinclair 
Lewis.  In  the  cast  are  Spencer  Tracy,  Lana  Turner, 
and  Zachary  Scott.  The  story  has  the  customary  so- 
ciological approach,  garbed  in  Mr.  Lewis*  fashion. 
It  is  strictly  adult  in  its  address  to  the  issues,  con- 
trasts, and  problems  of  life  on  "both  sides  of  the 
tracks,"  with  involvement  of  divorce,  temptation, 
fidelity,  and  orders  of  justice.  This  is  achieved 
however  within  the  proper  frame  of  family  enter- 
tainment. 

The  Bachelor  and  the  Bobby  Soxer — RKO-Radio. 
Dore  Senary  producer  and  Irving  Weis  director. 
Sheer  and  light  comedy  carried  into  the  ridiculous 
as  a  vehicle  to  exploit  the  personalities  of  Gary 
Grant,  Myma  Loy,  Shirley  Temple,  and  Rudy 
Vallee. 

Mother  Wore  Tights — Twentieth  Century-Fox. 
Produced  by  Lamar  Trotti  with  Walter  Lang  as 
director.  The  cast  includes  Betty  Grable,  Dan 
Dailey,  and  Mona  Freeman.  There  is  more  than  a 
touch  of  backstage  and  whitewashed  burlesque, 
and  considerable  song  and  dance. 

Road  to  Rio — Paramount.  Daniel  Dare  producer 
and  Norman  Z.  McLeod  director.  The  cast  in- 
cludes Bing  Crosby,  Bob  Hope,  and  Dorothy  La- 
mour.  It  is  a  galloping  story  of  a  vaudeville  team 
in  mad  escape  to  Rio  after  setting  a  carnival  on 
fire,  involvement  with  gangsters,  complications 
with  mesmerism,  and  assorted  madcap  adventures. 
All  in  fun. 

The  Treasure  of  Sierra  Madre — Warner  Brothers. 
Produced  by  Henry  Blanke  and  directed  by  John 
Huston,  from  a  novel  by  B.  Traven.  The  cast  in- 
cludes Walter  Huston,  Humphrey  Bogart,  and  Tim 
Holt.  The  background  is  that  of  prospecting  for 
gold  in  wildest  Mexico,  with  a  rugged  and  all  but 
womanless  cast,  action  in  the  rougn,  and  raw  real- 
ism. While  rated  fourth  among  *  the  ten  best"  by 
the  critics  of  the  nation,  this  picture  was  consid- 
ered the  best  English-speaking  picture  of  1948  by 
the  New  York  Film  Critics  at  their  annual  session 
of  judgment. 

Hamlet — Universal-International  release.  Two 
Cities  Films,  for  J.  Arthur  Rank.  Produced,  direct- 
ed, and  enacted  by  Laurence  Olivier,  under  the 
auspices  of  Filipo  Del  Gudice,  through  the  year 
under  promotional  road-show  type  and  special  se- 
lected audience  engagements  and  the  aegis  of  the 
Theatre  Guild  of  New  York,  institution  of  the 
stage,  not  screen.  Toplofty  critics  complained  of 
invasion  of  the  classic  status  by  too  much  cinema, 
and  others,  clinging  rather  to  the  motion-picture 
tradition,  held  that  Hamlet  on  film  was  still  not  mo- 
tion picture.  Hamlet  thus  became  a  significant 
manifestation  in  the  exploration  of  audiences  and 
the  stratification  and  classification  of  patronage — 
a  long  and  tediously  slow  process  of  the  years. 

Extravagant  box  office  figures  were  published  by 
euphemists.  The  indications  were  that  years  would 
pass  before  the  production  returned  a  profit  against 
its  true  costs.  The  picture  was  in  fact  made  in  an 
earlier  period  of  the  J.  Arthur  Rank  enterprises, 
when  he  was  seeking  to  make  an  imposing  impres- 
sion on  the  world  market,  especially  America.  That 
phase  had  passed,  in  the  course  of  evolving  inter- 
national relations,  before  Hamlet  reached  the 
American  screen. 

The  divergence  between  the  opinions  and  tastes 
of  the  majority  of  the  customers,  and  those  of  the 
critics,  reviewers  and  commentators  of  the  lay 
press  and  radio,  is  pointed  up  by  the  report  made 
by  Film  Daily,  New  York  journal  of  the  industry, 
addressed  to  500  persons.  Their  selection  of  "the 
ten  best  of  1948,"  which  does  not  include  any  of 


the  top-grossing  7  pictures  of  the  year,  follows: 

Gentleman's  Agreement — Twentieth  Century-Fox. 
Produced  by  Darryl  Zanuck,  directed  by  Elia  Ka- 
zan, from  the  novel  by  Laura  Z.  Hobson.  The  cast 
includes  Gregory  Peck,  Dorothy  McGuire,  John 
Garfield,  and  Celeste  Holm.  The  basic  theme  is 
anti-semitism. 

Johnny  Belinda — Warner  Brothers.  Produced  by 
Jerry  Wald  and  directed  by  Jean  Negulesco.  From 
the  stage  play  by  Elmer  Harris.  In  the  cast  are 
Jane  Wyman,  Lew  Ayres,  Charles  Bickford,  and 
Agnes  Moorehead.  Melodrama  with  tragic  nuances. 
Marked  by  scenic  beauty.  Not  for  children. 

I  Remember  Mama — RKO-Radio.  Produced  by 
Harriet  Parsons  and  directed  by  George  Stevens. 
From  Mama's  Bank  Account,  a  stage  play  by  John 
van  Druten.  In  the  cast  are  Irene  Dunne,  Barbara 
Bel  Geddes,  Oscar  Homolka,  and  Philip  Dorn.  A 
story  of  simple  family  life  with  its  adventures,  mis- 
haps, and  joys. 

The  Naked  City — Universal-International.  A  Mark 
Hellinger  production,  directed  by  Jules  Dassin.  In 
the  cast  are  Barry  Fitzgerald,  Howard  Duff,  Don 
Taylor,  and  Dorothy  Hart.  This  is  something  be- 
tween documentary  and  "movie"  in  its  effective 
style.  It  pertains  to  the  operations  of  the  New  York 
Police  Department  in  the  solution  of  a  society  dec- 
orator-beautiful model  murder,  jewel  robberies, 
and  what  happens  when  thieves  fall  out.  Well  ac- 
cepted by  critics  and  audiences  alike. 

Sitting  Pretty — Twentieth  Century-Fox.  Produced 
by  Samuel  G.  Engel;  Walter  Lang  director.  From 
a  screen  play  by  F.  Hugh  Herbert.  The  cast  in- 
cludes Robert  Young,  Maureen  O'Hara,  and  Clif- 
ton Webb.  A  domestic  comedy,  done  with  a  broad 
brush  as  indicated  by  the  casting  of  the  whimsical 
Webb  as  a  baby-sitter. 

State  of  fhe  Union — M-G-M,  from  Liberty.  Di- 
rected by  Frank  Capra,  from  the  Pulitzer  Prize 
play  by  Howard  Lindsay  and  Russel  Grouse.  The 
cast  includes  Spencer  Tracy,  Katherine  Hepburn, 
and  Angela  Lansbury.  A  tale  of  newspapering  and 
political  chicanery,  including  White  House  ambi- 
tions. It  is  light-footed  and  swift. 

Call  Northside  777— Twentieth  Century-Fox.  Pro- 
duced by  Otto  Lang  and  directed  by  Henry  Hatha- 
way. The  cast  includes  James  Stewart,  Richard 
Conte,  Kasia  Orazewski,  and  Lee  J.  Cobb.  A 
quasi-documentary  based  on  the  stories  of  a  Chi- 
cago murder  and  miscarriage  of  justice  recorded 
for  the  Chicago  Times  by  James  P.  McGuire,  re- 
porter. Vital  with  the  triumph  of  a  believing 
mother. 

The  Bishop's  Wife — RKO-Radio,  from  Samuel 
Goldwyn.  Directed  by  Henry  Koster.  The  cast  in- 
cludes Gary  Grant,  Loretta  Young,  David  Niven, 
and  Monty  Woolley.  This  is  a  fantasy  comedy, 
with  Grant  in  the  role  of  a  heavenly  messenger. 
Romance  reigns  and  happiness  triumphs  in  the 
end. 

Other  Pictures.  Among  the  other  productions  of 
the  year,  not  previously  described,  and  variously  of 
note,  were: 

The  Search — M-G-M.  Directed  by  Fred  Zinne- 
mann,  from  an  original  screen  play  by  Richard 
Sweizer.  This  is  the  story  of  a  war-waif  victim  of 
Europe's  aftermath.  Pictured  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland.  In  the  cast  are  Montgomery  Clift, 
Jamila  Novotna,  and  the  juvenile  star  Ivan  Jandl. 
As  telling  and  poignant  as  the  theme  suggests.  A 
piece  for  feeling. 

Louisiana  Story — Another  poetic  documentary  film 
from  Robert  Flaherty,  who  came  to  fame  with  his 
Nanook  of  the  North,  shown  years  before  and  re- 
cently reissued.  Like  Nanook  this  picture  was  un- 


MOTION  PICTURES 


350 


AfOHOW  PICTURES 


derwritten,  it  is  said,  by  influential  background  in- 
terest. In  die  case  of  Nanook  it  was  a  fur  company, 
in  the  instance  of  Louisiana,  it  was  anonymously 
an  oil  company  concerned  with  exploiting  the 
bayou  country.  The  telling  covers  the  experience 
of  a  boy,  one  Joseph  Boudreaux,  a  native  "cajun." 
It  is  a  cinema  collector's  piece,  with  an  appeal  of 
pensive  beauty. 

The  Red  Shoes — Eagle-Lion,  from  J.  Arthur  Rank. 
Written,  directed,  and  produced  by  Michael  Pow- 
ell and  Ernerich  Pressburger.  It  pertains  to  the 
world  of  the  ballet,  The  cast  includes  Anton  Wai- 
brook,  Marius  Goring,  Robert  Helpmann,  and  Le- 
onida  Massine.  It  is  rich  in  Technicolor,  smooth  in 
its  flow,  and  laden  with  an  over-all  rhythm. 

The  Snake  Pit — Twentieth  Century-Fox.  Under 
the  Darryl  Zanuck  administration.  Produced  by 
Anatole  Litvak  and  Robert  Bassler  and  directed  by 
Mr.  Litvak  from  a  novel  by  Mary  Jane  Ward.  The 
cast  includes  Olivia  De  Havilland,  Leo  Genn,  and 
Mark  Stevens.  The  trying  story  is  a  case  history 
from  a  mental  hospital;  bitter,  realistic,  tense,  and 
shocking.  Some  critics,  while  admiring  the  per- 
formance, questioned  its  fitness  as  public  enter- 
tainment. 

Paisan — Produced  and  directed  in  Italy  by  Ro- 
berto Rosselh'ni,  who  collaborated  on  the  screen 
play.  In  the  cast  are  Carmalia  Sazie  and  Gar 
Moore.  A  pungent,  sharp  piece  about  war-torn 
Italy.  Held  high  in  critical  esteem.  Sparsely  dis- 
tributed. 

S/mphonie  Pastorale — Pathe  Cinema,  in  France* 
From  a  story  by  Andre  Gide,  and  carrying  thereby 
a  special  degree  of  literati  attention.  Produced  by 
M.  Gide  and  directed  by  Jean  Delannoy.  The  cast 
includes  Michele  Morgan  and  Pierre  Blanchar.  It 
is  French  tragedy  in  the  ironic  Gide  manner. 

The  Fallen  Idol — Selznick  Releasing  Organization, 
from  Sir  Alexander  Korda,  Directed  by  Carol 
Reed,  of  fame  since  Odd  Man  Out  and  other  Brit- 
ish works.  In  the  cast  are  Sir  Ralph  Richardson, 
Michele  Morgan,  and  Bobby  Henrey.  It  is  a  child 
study  of  appeal  and  poignant  penetration.  Greeted 
as  the  film  sensation  of  the  year  in  Britain  by  the 
Film  Tribunal  of  the  London  Daily  Express,  a  dis- 
tinguished committee  of  authorities  in  art,  drama, 
and  literature.  At  year's-end  it  was  yet  to  reach 
American  audiences. 

Joan  of  Arc — RKO-Radio,  from  Walter  Wanger's 
Sierra.  Directed  by  the  late  Victor  Fleming.  From 
a  story  of  complex  literary  and  histrionic  origins, 
including  counsel  from  imported  Jesuit  authority 
with  access  to  Vatican  archives.  At  year's-end  it 
was  playing  concurrently  in  two  theaters  in  New 
York,  at  capacity.  The  title  role,  overshadowing 
all  others,  was  held  by  Ingrid  Bergman.  The  pic- 
ture, promising  to  occupy  a  dominant  position 
through  the  year  to  come,  was  primarily  a  spec- 
tacle, developed  in  the  feeling  and  manner  of  Mr. 
Fleming  who,  it  is  to  be  remembered,  so  ably 
brought  story  and  spectacle  together  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  classic  Gone  With  the  Wind.  Critical 
attention  was  in  general  somewhat  less  than  grand 
acclaim,  and  there  was,  among  the  critics,  an  im- 
pression that  there  was  more  picture  than  dramatic 
feeling.  The  public  response  was  in  an  unreasoned 
fashion  to  "something  big."  The  picture's  nega- 
tive cost  was  $4,600,000,  likely  the  highest  budget 
of  1948,  and  likely  the  highest  for  years  to  come. 
Showmen  considered  it  interesting  speculation. 

Film  Awards.  The  New  York  Fflrn  Critics,  a 
body  of  considerable  national  and  international 
weight,  after  much  travail  decided  that  The  Treas- 
ure of  Sierra  Madre  was  the  best  English-speaking 
picture  of  1948.  This  was  achieved  after  much 


consideration  of  Hamlet.  These  critics  were  unani- 
mous in  the  opinion  that  Olivia  De  Havilland  did 
the  best  female  acting  of  the  year  in  The  Snake  Pit. 
They  gave  an  award  to  the  Italian  Paisan  as  the 
best  foreign-language  picture  of  the  year. 

Out  in  the  West,  the  San  Francisco  Drama  Crit- 
ics Council,  the  only  organized  group  of  theater 
critics  in  the  United  States  outside  New  York,  se- 
lected Hamlet  as  the  best  English-language  film 
of  1948,  and  Jean  Cocteau's  Beauty  and  the  Beast 
as  the  best  of  the  foreign  offerings.  Somewhat 
gratuitously  they  decided  that  Mourning  Becomes 
Electra,  from  the  O'Neill  play,  was  the  year's 
worst.  That  one  was  made  to  please  the  cultural- 
society  program  of  an  executive's  wife.  It  had  not 
been  mentioned  for  months. 

The  National  Board  of  Review  of  Motion  Pic- 
tures annual  survey,  which,  despite  the  title,  is 
to  be  taken  as  another  New  York  metropolitan 
group,  with  300  film  reviewers  making  selections, 
specified  as  "on  the  basis  of  entertainment":  (1) 
Hamlet;  (2)  The  Search;  (3)  Sitting  Pretty;  (4) 
Gentlemen's  Agreement;  ( 5 )  Johnny  Belinda;  ( 6 ) 
Joan  of  Arc;  (7)  I  Remember  Mama;  (8)  The 
Bishop's  Wife;  (9)  The  Red  Shoes;  and  (10)  The 
Snake  Pit, 

The  Exceptional  Films  Committee  of  the  Na- 
tional Board,  a  sort  of  recognition  that  there  are 
at  least  two  levels  of  public,  decided  that  the  best 
film  of  the  year  was  Paisan,  from  Italy. 

Events,  1948.  In  the  interrogation  of  the  motion- 
picture  exhibitors  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
seeking  frorn^  some  16,000  theater  operators  report 
of  their  year's  experience  in  1948,  Motion  Picture 
Herald,  New  York  and  international  journal  of 
the  industry,  reported  the  "top  ten  money-makers" 
as:  Bing  Crosby  (fifth  time  topmost),  Betty  Gra- 
ble,  Abbott  &  Costello,  Gary  Cooper,  Bob  Hope, 
Humphrey  Bogart,  Clark  Gable,  Gary  Grant,  Spen- 
cer Tracy,  and  Ingrid  Bergman. 

In  the  same  survey  the  topmost  money-making 
stars  of  the  outdoor  Western  drama  were  again 
Roy  Rogers  and  Gene  Autry. 

The  decade-long  anti-trust  suit  entitled  The 
United  States  of  America  vs.  Paramount  Pictures, 
Inc.  et  al — including  as  defendants  the  "big  five" 
majors,  the  concerns  engaged  in  the  three  branches 
of  production,  distribution,  and  exhibition,  and  the 
"little  three,"  the  producer-distributors  without 
theater  affiliation — was  drawing  to  an  anti-climac- 
tic close  with  a  series  of  consent  decrees  and  vary- 
ing proposals  for  them.  It  was  the  culmination  of 
a  movement  for  control  and  disintegration  of  the 
motion-picture  monopoly  starting  with  the  Roose- 
velt Administration  and  initiated  with  the  devices 
of  the  short-lived  "Blue  Eagle"  code  of  the  Na- 
tional Recovery  Administration. 

Television,  whether  potential  friend  or  menace, 
was  rising  in  importance.  As  of  December  1,  it  was 
officially  calculated  that  there  were  650,000  tele- 
vision sets  in  homes  and  that  soon  there  would  be 
a  million.  There  was  promise  of  a  1^  million  more 
this  year,  in  homes.  There  was  evidence  of  slight 
panic  on  the  margins,  among  producers,  of  un- 
certain hold  on  the  motion  picture's  established 
channels,  to  rush  into  television  picture  production. 
Meanwhile  the  Hollywood  talent  pool,  which  had 
so  valiantly  and  so  ineffectively  sought  to  protect 
itself  against  radio  invasion  years  ago,  was  again 
seeking  to  hold  out  against  television.  The  end 
would  be  inescapably  the  sort  of  adjustment  which 
came  with  radio.  The  theater,  in  the  opinion  of  this 
writer,  would  continue  to  be  "some  place  to  go," 
and  the  people  are  "goers-out." 

In  the  process  of  stratification  of  audiences  there 


MOTQRBOATING 


351 


MOTOR  VEHICLES 


arose  conspicuously  the  Drive-In  theater,  the  es- 
tablishment where  automobile  customers  could 
without  leaving  their  cars  see  a  screen  perform- 
ance. The  development  was  sweeping  the  land  in 
1948,  especially  in  climatically  favoured  regions. 
At  the  turn  of  the  year  there  were  about  800  such 
theaters,  either  operating  or  under  construction. 
They  constituted  a  remarkable  development,  in- 
volving millions.  They  also  brought  problems  and 
rumblings  of  wide  criticism  and  promise  of  scandal 
about  "back  seats/*  and  conduct  therein.  There 
was  promise  that  this  would  be  the  next  big  up- 
roar about  the  morals  of  the  movies,  despite  the 
fact  that  it  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  screen. 

More  significantly  than  was  recognized  in  print, 
the  Eastman  Kodak  Company  quietly  announced 
a  new  non-inflammable  film  stock  of  a  quality  in 
performance  equal  to  the  old  standard  nitrocellu- 
lose stock,  which  is  to  be  increasingly  available  to 
the  industry.  — TERRY  RAMSAYE 

MOTORBOATING.  Honors  in  power-boat  racing  were 
more  or  less  divided  as  daredevil  drivers  continued 
their  never-ending  quest  for  new  records.  Danny 
Foster  repeated  his  1947  triumph  in  Gold  Cup  rac- 
ing at  Detroit  when  he  piloted  Miss  Great  Lakes, 
owned  by  Albin  Fallon,  to  victory  on  a  raging  De- 
troit River  in  August.  Guy  Lombardo,  the  band- 
leader, who  was  another  outstanding  man  all  sea- 
son, had  the  misfortune  of  wrecking  his  Tempo  VI 
and  breaking  an  arm  in  attempting  to  avoid  a  col- 
lision. 

Laurels  in  the  President's  Cup  regatta  on  the 
Potomac  went  to  the  Arena  brothers,  Dan  and 
Gene,  who  won  with  Such  Crust,  owned  by  Jack 
Schafer  of  Detroit.  Joe  Van  Blerck,  Jr.,  of  Free- 
port,  L.L,  scored  a  surprise  by  amassing  700  points 
to  capture  the  national  sweepstakes  on  the  North 
Shrewsbury  at  Red  Bank,  N.J.  Van  Blerck's  225- 
cubic  inch  Aljo  V  took  first  over  Lornbardo's 
Tempo  VI,  which  this  time  was  dogged  by  start- 
ing and  battery  trouble, 

A  record  field  of  181  started  in  the  136-mile 
Hudson  marathon  from  Albany  to  New  York,  the 
winner  being  John  R.  Whitehouse  of  Springfield. 
Mass.  Bill  Cantrell  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  annexed  the 
28-mile  race  around  Manhattan,  his  craft  So  Long 
finishing  six  minutes  ahead  of  Van  Blerck's  defend- 
ing champion  Aljo  V.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

MOTOR  VEHICLES.  United  States  automotive  plants 
in  1948,  on  the  basis  of  preliminary  figures,  pro- 
duced 5,282,000  cars,  trucks  and  buses — the  sec- 
ond year  in  history  that  total  production  exceeded 
five  million  vehicles. 

In  1929  an  all-time  high  of  5,358,420  motor  ve- 
hicles was  reached.  The  record  of  1948  was 
achieved  despite  limited  supplies  and  materials — 
principally  steel — that  restricted  output  through- 
out the  year. 

Total  production  for  1948,  however,  was  ap- 
proximately 10  percent  greater  than  the  4,797,820 
units  built  in  1947. 

Although  still  unable  to  produce  near  capacity, 
the  industry  nevertheless  established  a  number  of 
new  and  significant  records  in  1948.  Employment 
in  automotive  plants  averaged  a  new  high  of  978,- 
000  persons— a  gain  of  36,000  over  1947,  324,000 
over  1941,  and  101,000  over  the  war  peak  of  1944. 
The  industry's  780,000  hourly  rated  employees 
earned  about  $2,700  million  for  the  year.  Payrolls 
were  13  percent  above  1947  and  127  percent  over 
1941.  The  year's  output  of  about  3,911,000  pas- 
senger cars  was  10  percent  more  than  in  1947, 

Virtually  every  existing  peacetime  record  in  the 


trucking  field  was  smashed  during  1948.  Here  are 
a  few;  ( 1 )  Production  of  commercial  units — trucks 
and  buses—reached  a  total  of  1,371,000,  the  third 
time  in  history  that  output  topped  the  million 
mark.  It  exceeds  last  year's  previous  high  mark  by 
nearly  11  percent  and  1941  by  nearly  30  percent; 
(2)  Registrations  totaled  7,687,000  units,  a  10  per- 
cent gain  over  1947  and  nearly  50  percent  high- 
er than  1941.  For  the  first  time  in  history,  a  single 
year's  registrations  of  new  trucks  and  buses  ex- 
ceeded the  million  mark;  and  (3)  Wholesale  value 
of  the  industry's  truck  and  bus  production  reached 
$2,139  million  in  1948.  This  figure  is  25  percent 
higher  than  that  of  1947,  and  approximately  dou- 
ble 1941  output  value.  It  almost  equals  the  com- 
bined wholesale  value  of  both  passenger  car  and 
truck  production  in  1939. 

A  vast  increase  in  the  use  of  trucks  was  noted 
in  virtually  every  area  of  the  nation.  Eight  states 
show  an  increase  of  70  percent  or  more  in  truck 
and  bus  registrations  over  1941. 

A  new  record  was  set  in  replacement  parts  pro- 
duction, which  had  a  wholesale  value  of  about 
$2,600  million  for  1948—10  percent  above  1947 
and  about  four  times  the  prewar  rate. 

Wholesale  value  of  passenger  cars  produced  in 
1948  was  about  $4,800  million;  wholesale  value  of 
trucks  and  buses  was  $2,100  million. 

The  number  of  motor  vehicles  in  use  by  the  end 
of  1948  exceeded  41  million.  They  included  33.3 
million  passenger  cars  (3.7  million  more  than  in 
1941)  and  nearly  7.7  million  trucks  and  buses  (2.4 
million  more  than  in  1941). 

These  vehicles  rolled  up  about  400,000  million 
travel  miles  for  the  year,  or  20  percent  more  than 
in  1941  and  8  percent  more  than  in  1947. 

Special  motor  vehicle  taxes  also  reached  new 

peaks  in  1948,  totaling  nearly  $3,400  million.  They 

included  $2,100  million  in  state  gasoline  and  li- 

'  cense  taxes,  $1,100  million  in  Federal  taxes,  and 

$180  million  levied  locally. 

In  all,  442,000  motor  vehicles  were  exported  in 
1948.  This  was  nearly  14  percent  less  than  the 
512,333  units  sent  abroad  in  1947. 

The  442,000  vehicles  exported  included  240,000 
passenger  cars,  or  6  percent  of  the  3,911,000  cars 
turned  out,  and  202,000  trucks  and  buses,  or  ap- 
proximately 15  percent  of  the  1,371,000  trucks  and 
buses  made  in  the  U.S.  for  1948. 

Motor  vehicles  exported  in  1948  accounted  for 
8%  percent  of  the  year's  production,  as  against 
nearly  11  percent  of  total  production  in  1947  and 
approximately  14  percent  in  1929. 

S©uth  American  countries,  particularly  Brazil, 
Venezuela,  and  Argentina,  continued  among  the 
top  importers  in  the  truck  field.  Mexico  and  India 
also  were  among  the  leading  truck  importers. 

While  South  America  imported  more  trucks  than 
any  other  single  continent,  it  ranked  next  to  last 
among  the  continents  as  an  importer  of  passenger 
cars.  Largest  shipments  of  cars  went  to  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  Asia,  and  Oceania. 

In  Europe,  only  Belgium  and  Luxembourg  were 
important  importers  of  U.S.  motor  vehicles.  Be- 
cause of  the  move  to  conserve  national  currency  in 
foreign  nations,  American  automobile  exporters, 
toward  the  close  of  the  year,  were  being  forced  out 
of  several  large  markets,  notably  Sweden  and 
South  Africa. 

In  contrast  to  the  relatively  few  motor  vehicles 
exported  by  American  manufacturers  in  1948,  Brit- 
ain exported  7  out  of  every  10  passenger  cars  pro- 
duced and  nearly  half  of  the  trucks  and  buses 
manufactured.  Imports  of  new  cars  showed  a  sharp 
increase. 


MOZAMBIQUE 


352 


MUSIC 


Because  of  the  high  output  of  replacement  parts 
since  the  war,  about  24%  million  prewar  cars  re- 
mained in  service  in  1948.  Of  the  33.3  million 
passenger  cars  registered  in  the  nation,  about  9 
million  were  postwar  models,  10^  million  were 
cars  built  between  1939  and  1942,  and  nearly  14 
million  were  automobiles  built  before  1939. 

Since  the  average  car  was  scrapped  at  the  age 
of  10  before  the  war,  it  meant  that  nearly  14  mil- 
lion cars  in  1948  were  beyond  the  age  at  which 
cars  formerly  were  scrapped.  The  average  car  age 
in  1948  was  about  8.7  years,  compared  to  a  prewar 
average  of  5%  years. 

During  the  year  the  U.S.  automotive  industry 
produced  its  100  millionth  motor  vehicle.  This  sig- 
nificant milestone  was  marked  by  special  celebra- 
tions in  many  parts  of  the  nation  during  the  fall 
months. 

During  the  55  years  it  took  American  manufac- 
turers to  produce  100  million  motor  vehicles,  the 
remaining  countries  of  the  world  were  turning  out 
a  total  of  24  million  motor  vehicles. 

It  was  1925  before  the  U.S.  car,  truck  and  bus 
manufacturers  achieved  production  of  their  first 
25  million  vehicles.  The  next  25  million  were  made 
between  1925  and  1931,  an  era  of  high  output  It 
took  eight  more  years,  until  1939,  for  the  industry 
to  produce  its  third  25  million  vehicles.  The 
fourth  25  million  cars,  trucks  and  buses  took  nine 
years  to  build.  However,  nearly  four  of  those  years 
saw  the  U.S.  automotive  industry  entirely  devoted 
to  military  production — the  first  time  in  history 
that  car  assembly  lines  had  been  completely  sus- 
pended. 

During  the  past  year,  the  industry  moved  for- 
ward on  expansion  and  modernization  programs. 
Since  the  end  of  World  War  II,  42  major  new 
manufacturing  and  assembly  plants  have  been 
added  to  the  industry's  capacity.  U.S.  assembly 
plants  now  number  112.  They  are  located  in  80  ' 
cities  of  24  states. 

How  fully  the  industry  utilizes  production  ca- 
pacity in  1949  once  again  depends  upon  the  supply 
of  steel.  With  the  possibility  of  record  production 
of  steel  in  1949,  the  automotive  industry  is  hope- 
ful that  more  sheet  and  strip  steel  will  be  available 
and^  that  1949  will  prove  to  be  the  highest  auto- 
motive production  year  in  history. 

— WILLIAM  J.  CRONUST 

MOZAMBIQUE  (Portuguese  East  Africa).  A  Portuguese 
colonial  possession  in  southeast  Africa  comprising 
the  four  provinces  of  Sul  do  Save,  Manica  and  So- 
fala,  Zambesia,  and  Niassa.  Total  area:  302,700 
square  miles.  Population:  5,030,179  natives  (1940), 
60,115  non-natives  (1945),  and  31,221  Europeans, 
Estimated  1947  population:  6,116,000.  Capital: 
Lourengo  Marques  (pop.  47,390).  Education 
(1946):  878  primary  schools  with  132,291  pupils, 
1  high  school  with  744  students,  and  46  profession- 
al schools  with  4,768  students.  There  are  three 
colleges  with  122  students. 

Production,  etc.  Principal  products  (in  tons)  in 
1945  were:  sugar  42,573,  copra  40,395,  bananas 
24,619,  ground  nuts  20,141,  and  sisal  17,932.  Tim- 
ber, tea,  and  ivory  are  also  important. 

Mineral  output  includes  gold,  silver,  samarskite, 
and  coal.  During  1947,  6  uranium  and  3  asbestos 
deposits  were  discovered.  Foreign  trade  (1947;  9 
mos.  actual,  3  mos.  est):  imports  1,203,866,000 
escudos;  exports  1,092,000,000  escudos. 

Government.  Budget  estimates  (1946):  revenue 
892,904,000  escudos;  expenditure  839,871,000 
escudos.  A  Governor  General  heads  the  admin- 
istration of  the  colony  and  each  of  the  provinces 


is  headed  by  a  Governor.  There  is  a  Government 
Council  (composed  of  the  provincial  governors, 
official  elected  members,  and  the  commanding  gen- 
eral) and  an  Executive  Council.  Governor  Gen- 
eral: Commander  Gabriel  Teixeira. 

MUSCAT  and  OMAN.  An  independent  sultanate  in 
southeastern  Arabia.  Area,  82,000  square  miles;  es- 
timated population,  500,000,  mainly  Arabs,  but 
with  a  strong  infusion  of  Negro  blood  near  the 
coast.  Chief  towns:  Muscat,  the  capital,  4,200  in- 
habitants; Matrah,  the  chief  commercial  center, 
8,500.  On  the  northern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Oman 
is  the  port  of  Gwadur  which  is  a  possession  of  the 
sultanate.  Chief  products:  dates  (1945-46  export 
Rs8,4735200),  pomegranates,  limes,  and  dried  fish. 
Camels  are  raised  by  the  inland  tribes.  Trade 
(1946-47):  imports  Rsl8,530,300,  exports  Rsl7,- 
134,500.  Trade  is  mainly  with  India.  Rice,  sugar, 
wheat,  and  coffee  are  the  principal  imports.  Muscat 
is  the  only  port  of  call  for  steamers.  Pack  animals 
are  used  for  inland  transport.  There  is  a  motor  road 
connecting  Muscat  and  Matrah  and  extending  to 
Kalba.  Roads  suitable  for  motor  vehicles  join 
Hagar,  Bosher,  and  Qariyat  with  Matrah.  The  an- 
nual revenue  is  estimated  at  Rs700,000.  Sultan,  Sir 
Saiyid  Said  bin  Taimur. 

MUSIC.  Few  years  in  recent  memory  have  yielded 
so  rich  a  crop  of  new  musical  works  that  are  likely 
to  acquire  a  permanent  place  in  the  repertory.  The 
most  important  of  the  new  American  works  was 
heard  early  in  the  year  when  Serge  Koussevitzky 
and  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra  performed 
Walter  Piston's  Symphony  No.  3.  A  work  of  ex- 
traordinary communicative  power,  it  has  a  wider 
emotional  range  than  most  Piston  works,  passing 
from  an  almost  delicate  wit  to  a  pastoral-like  se- 
renity, from  introspective  calm  to  dramatic  inten- 
sity. Piston's  Symphony  was  not  slow  in  receiving 
the  acclaim  it  deserved.  Before  many  months  had 
passed  it  won  the  Boston  Symphony  Horblit  Award 
of  $1,000  and  the  Pulitzer  Prize  in  music. 

Another  Third  Symphony  proved  a  notable  con- 
tribution, that  of  Wallingford  Riegger.  More  mod- 
ern in  its  idiom  than  that  of  Piston,  this  work  has 
a  f orcefulness  of  speech,  a  passionate  sincerity,  and 
an  integration  of  form  which  singled  it  out  force- 
fully from  among  the  new  music  of  the  year.  In- 
deed, the  Music  Critics  Circle  of  New  York  se- 
lected it  as  tlie  most  important  new  work  heard 
during  the  1947-1948  concert  season. 

Igor  Stravinsky's  new  ballet,  Orpheus,  intro- 
duced by  the  Ballet  Society  of  New  York,  proved 
to  be  one  of  his  greatest  scores.  The  classic  story 
of  Orpheus  and  Euridice  inspired  him  to  write 
simply  and  directly,  to  achieve,  with  the  most 
sparing  strokes,  a  deeply  affecting  eloquence.  A 
high  degree  of  expressiveness,  an  almost  gentle 
melancholy,  brings  to  the  music  a  human  quality 
not  often  encountered  in  the  later  Stravinsky. 

A  work,  far  different  in  style  and  scope,  intro- 
duced a  new  creative  personality;  the  Symphony 
for  Classical  Orchestra  by  Harold  Shapero,  per- 
formed by  the  Boston  Symphony  under  Leonard 
Bernstein.  Austere  in  its  style  and  ultra-modern  in 
its  utilization  of  harmonic  and  rhythmic  resources, 
this  new  symphony  betrayed  an  inventiveness  of 
a  high  order  and  excellent  craftsmanship.  A  com- 
position, more  palatable  to  the  ear,  racy  in  its 
utilization  of  jazz  rhythms,  was  introduced  on  the 
very  same  day  (January  30)  in  another  city:  Hen- 
ry Brant's  Symphony  No.  1,  performed  by  the  Cin- 
cinnati Symphony  Orchestra  under  Thor  Johnson. 

Another  sympnony  worthy  of  special  attention 


U.S.S.  DES  MO/ISfES,  the  heaviest  "heavy"  cruiser  in  the  world,  which  was  commissioned  during  mid-November  of  1948. 


U.S.S.  NORTON  SOUND.  On  the 

stern  are  the  adjustable  rock- 
et launching  racks  which  are 
capable  of  launching  V-2  type 
rockets  as  well  as  the  slightly 
smaller  Aerobee.  In  her  capac- 
ity as  a  floating  laboratory, 
the  Norton  Sound  will  be  avail- 
able for  use  by  research  agen- 
cies of  all  three  branches  of 
the  Armed  Services— the  Army, 
the  Air  Force,  and  the  Navy. 


Official  U.S.  Navy  Photos 


U  S.S.  PERCH.  A  fleet-type  submarine  converted  to  a  troop  transport.  The  large  cylindrical  chamber  abaft  the  conn- 
ing tower  (right  center  of  photograph)  on  the  after  deck  is  o  water-tight  storage  space  for  landing  equipment, 


TEST  FIRE  14-TON  ROCKETS.  Close-up  view  of  the 
bridge  of  the  U.S.S.  Norton  Sound.  After  end  of  the 
foredeck  landing  platform  is  shown  in  the  foreground. 


U.S.S.  NEWPORT  NEWS,  a  17,000-ton  heavy  cruiser,  is 
equipped  with  nine  completely  automatic,  rapid  fir- 
ing, 8-inch  guns,  triple-mounted  in  three  turrets. 


Official  U.S.  Navy  Photos 

ROCKET  LAUNCHING.  A  close-up  view  of  the  special  rocket  launching  racks  installed  on  the  after  deck  of  the 
U.S.S.  Norton  Sound.  The  broad  seaplane  deck  was  covered  with  metal  sheathing  to  withstand  the  heat  created  by 
firing  the  rockets  from  their  vertical  cradle.  Also  installed  were  tanks  for  the  special  fuel  used  in  rockets. 


U.S.  NAVY  CARRIER.  An  artist's  drawing  of  the   U.S.  Navy's  authorized    65,000-ton  flush   deck  aircraft  carrier     Her 
over-all  length  will  be  1,090  feet,  waterline  beam  130  feet,  and  maximum  fixed  width  190  feet.  Speed:  about  33  knots. 


ROCKET  TESTS.  Bow  on  view 
of  the  U.S.S.  Norton  Sound, 
the  U.S.  Navy's  first  "Buck 
Rogers'*  ship— a  large  sea- 
plane tender  modified  to  per- 
mit the  experimental  firing  of 
14-ton  rockets  from  her  broad 
after  deck.  Her  basic  mis- 
sion is  to  widen  the  hori- 
zon of  upper  atmosphere  re- 
search through  rocket  firing 
experiments  far  out  at  sea. 


Official  U.S.  Navy  Photos 


LOAD  CARRYING  CHAMPION,  a  Martin  AM-1  Mauler,  the  Navy's  fastest  and   most  heavily  armed   carrier-based   dive 
bomber,  is  pictured  carrying  a  payload  of  more  than  9,000  Ib.— 3  full-size  torpedoes,  12  rockets,  and  4  aerial  cannon. 


TWIN  JET  FIGHTER,  the  Chance 
Vought  XF7U-1,  U.S.  Navy  twin-Jet 
fighter,  designed  for  carrier  opera- 
tions, has  successfully  completed  its 
Initial  flight  testing  at  the  Naval 
Air  Test  Center,  Patuxent,  Mary- 
land. This  tailless  plane  with  swept- 
back  wings  is  capable  of  speeds 
up  to  and  exceeding  600  m.p.h. 


Official  U,S.  Navy  Photos 


MARTIN    AM-1    MAULER,    an-  J 
other  view  of  the  U.S.  Navy's  :| 
Mauler.    The    payload    of    de- 
struction      pictured      on      the 
Mauler   (at   right)   is   consider- 
ably   less   than   the    maximum 
possible  for  the  single-engine, 
one-man     airplane,     which     is 
powered     by     the     3,250-h.p. 
Pratt  &  Whitney  Wasp  Major. 


MUSIC 


353 


MUSIC 


was  Frederick  Jacobi's  Symphony  No.  1,  which 
Pierre  Monteux  directed  with  the  San  Francisco 
Symphony  Orchestra.  It  has  pronounced  Oriental 
colorings,  with  fullsome,  buoyant  themes  and  a 
poignant  slow  movement. 

Other  new  works  by  composers  in  America 
which  were  creditable  contributions  to  the  year's 
music  were:  Samuel  Barber's  Knoxville:  Summer 
of  1915,  for  soprano  and  orchestra;  Henry  Cowell's 
Big  Sing;  David  Diamond's  Symphony  No.  4;  Harl 
McDonald's  Saga  of  the  Mississippi;  Douglas 
Moore's  Farm  Journal;  Nicolas  Nabokov's  The  Re- 
turn of  Pushkin,  for  high  voice  and  orchestra; 
Karol  Rathaus'  Vision  dramatique;  Virgil  Thom- 
son's The  Seine  at  Midnight;  and  Ernst  Toch's 
Hyperion. 

One  American  composer  was  a  victim  of  the  po- 
litical storms  and  stresses  of  the  year.  Hanns 
Eisler,  who  had  been  composing  music  in  Holly- 
wood for  the  past  six  years,  and  who  had  been 
summoned  in  1947  to  appear  before  the  House 
Committee  on  Un-American  Activities  on  suspi- 
cions of  being  a  Communist,  was  during  the  year 
convicted  for  contempt  of  Congress  and  for  pass- 
port fraud.  Despite  his  vehement  denials  that  he 
was,  at  the  present  time,  a  member  of  the  Commu- 
nist Party,  and  despite  his  protestations  that  his 
writing  of  revolutionary  songs  was  an  artistic  phase 
that  he  had  long  ago  abandoned,  Eisler  was  or- 
dered deported  by  the  Immigration  and  Naturali- 
zation service  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Justice. 
He  left  the  country  for  Paris  on  March  25.  His 
deportation  was  prefaced  by  concerts  of  his  works 
both  in  Los  Angeles  and  New  York  which  empha- 
sized that,  whatever  his  political  affiliations  may 
have  been  or  still  are,  he  is  a  brilliant  creative  per- 
sonality whose  utilization  of  the  atonal  style  is 
powerful  and  original. 

The  new  works  by  foreign  composers  heard  in 
this  country  during  the  year  were  equally  fertile 
in  number  and  no  less  significant  in  quality  than 
the  native  products.  The  year  was  inaugurated 
with  one  of  the  most  important  of  these  new  works, 
on  January  1,  when  the  New  York  Philharmonic, 
under  Charles  Muench,  presented  the  American 
premiere  of  Arthur  Honegger's  dramatic  oratorio, 
Jeanne  d'Arc  au  bucher.  The  Honegger  music 
caught  many  of  "the  symbolic  and  mystic  nuances 
of  the  Paul  Claudel  text;  a  great  measure  of  the 
artistic  success  of  this  work  is  due  to  the  felicitous 
union  achieved  between  the  poem  and  the  music. 

A  new  symphony  by  England's  foremost  com- 
poser, Ralph  Vaughan  Williams;  is  inevitably  an 
event  of  first  importance.  His  sixth  received  its 
premiere  in  London  on  April  21  under  Sir  Adrian 
Boult  and  was  introduced  in  this  country  a  few 
months  later  by  Serge  Koussevitzky  at  the  Berk- 
shire Music  Festival.  This  new  symphony  has 
closer  spiritual  kinship  with  its  immediate  prede- 
cessor, the  fourth,  than  to  any  other  Vaughan  Wil- 
liams symphonies.  Like  the  fourth,  a  mood  of  tran- 
quillity and  calm  are  maintained,  frequently  echo- 
ing spiritual  overtones.  The  work  has  the  wisdom 
and  mature  contemplation  of  ripe  old  age  which 
refuses  to  be  jarred  by  the  surrounding  turmoil 
and  chaos  but  finds  refuge  in  meditation.  Mastery 
of  writing  is,  of  course,  a  foregone  conclusion  with 
anything  by  Vaughan  Williams. 

A  new  symphony  by  still  another  major  Euro- 
pean composer  was  heard:  Malipiero's  fourth.  The 
world  premiere  took  place  in  Boston  under  Serge 
Koussevitzky.  It  is  a  deeply  moving  work  written 
ostensibly  in  memory  of  Koussevitzky's  late  wife 
Natalie,  but  actually  as  a  thernody  to  war-scarred 
Italy.  World  War  I  had  three  decades  ago  inspired 


Malipiero  to  write  his  masterpiece,  Pause  del  Si- 
lenzio;  and  it  appears  that  World  War  II  has  af- 
fected Malipiero  equally  profoundly  into  writing 
another  great  work. 

One  of  Richard  Strauss*  most  recent  works  was 
heard  in  this  country  for  the  first  time  by  virtue 
of  a  nation-wide  broadcast:  the  Concerto  for  Oboe 
and  Orchestra.  Nothing  of  recent  Strauss  vintage 
is  particularly  intoxicating,  but  the  new  concerto  is, 
though  hardly  momentous,  at  least^  ingratiating.  Its 
style  reaches  far  back  into  Strauss'  early  manhood 
when  he  was  influenced  by  the  post-romanticism 
of  Brahms.  It  is  melodious,  warmly  orchestrated, 
sensuously  harmonized.  While  adding  nothing  to 
Strauss'  stature,  it  is  at  least  a  welcome  addition 
to  the  none  too  prolific  literature  for  oboe. 

An  event  of  considerable  artistic  importance  took 
place  in  Philadelphia  on  March  19:  the  American 
premiere  of  the  First  Symphony  of  Serge  Rach- 
maninoff, long  lost.  Eugene  Ormandy  conducted 
the  Philadelphia  Orchestra.  Though  obviously 
early-Rachmaninoff,  the  symphony  reveals  little 
of  the  awkwardness  and  self-consciousness  which 
we  usually  find  in  first  symphonies.  It  has  consid- 
erable melodic  interest  and,  while  no  masterpiece, 
is  a  worthy  companion  to  the  familiar  second  and 
third  symphonies. 

Bohuslav  Martinu's  Fifth  Symphony,  heard  here 
for  the  first  time  in  a  broadcast  by  the  NBC  Sym- 
phony Orchestra  under  Ernest  Ansermet,  can,  on 
the  other  hand,  be  designated  as  a  great  symphonic 
work.  It  is  built  along  noble  and  spacious  lines 
and  is  permeated  with  an  engaging  charm. 

Charm,  too,  is  the  dominating  quality  of  the 
new  Khachaturian  Concerto  for  'Cello  and  Orches- 
tra, which  Edmund  Kurtz  performed  with  the  Bos- 
ton Symphony  Orchestra.  It  is  beautifully  written 
for  the  solo  instruments,  has  fascinating  contrasts 
of  color  and  mood,  and  is  rich  with  exotic  atmos- 
pheres. 

Concert  and  Operatic  Activity.  The  orchestral  pic- 
ture experienced  a  few  important  changes  during 
the  year.  One  of  these — possibly  the  most  impor- 
tant— will,  however,  not  become  effective  until  the 
fall  of  1949.  On  April  8,  Serge  Koiissevitzky  an- 
nounced that  at  the  termination  of  his  silver  jubi- 
lee season  of  1948-1949  he  would  retire  as  music 
director  of  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra.  At  the 
same  time  it  was  announced  that  his  successor 
would  be  Charles  Muench. 

Change,  too,  came  to  the  Chicago  Symphony 
Orchestra,  accompanied  by  controversy.  In  the  fall 
of  1947,  Artur  Rodzinski  had  become  the  new  mu- 
sic director.  But  not  many  weeks  passed  after  the 
assumption  of  his  duties  before  violent  disagree- 
ments arose  between  him  and  the  management 
His  repeated  indispositions,  necessitating  last-min- 
ute substitutions  at  the  podium,  his  indulgence  in 
expensive  opera  productions,  his  refusal  to  adhere 
to  advertised  programs,  his  frequent  demonstra- 
tions of  artistic  temperament,  all  proved  too  intol- 
erable to  the  conservative  management,  which  an- 
nounced with  finality,  on  January  13,  that  the  new 
conductor  would  not  be  re-engaged  for  the  1948- 
1949  season.  In  Rodzinskfs  place  there  appeared 
guest  conductors. 

Guest  conductors  replaced  Fritz  Reiner  on  the 
conductor's  platform  of  the  Pittsburgh  Symphony 
Orchestra  for  the  1948-1949  season.  Reiner,  who 
had  served  brilliantly  for  a  decade  in  Pittsburgh, 
had  decided  to  transfer  his  baton  to  the  Metro- 
politan Opera  House  in  New  York. 

Two  other  important  American  orchestras  had 
new  conductors  in  the  fall  of  1948.  Efrem  Kurtz, 
for  many  years  the  successful  director  of  the  Kan- 


MUSIC 


354 


MUSIC 


sas  City  Philharmonic,  went  to  the  Houston  Sym- 
phony, his  place  in  Kansas  City  being  assumed  by 
Hans  Schwieger,  formerly  of  the  Fort  Wayne  Sym- 
phony. 

Two  major  personalities  of  the  baton  made  then- 
reappearance  on  the  American  scene  during  the 
year.  Ernest  Ansermet,  one  of  Europe's  venerable 
conductors,  directed  several  concerts  with  the 
NBC  Symphony  and  appeared  as  guest  with  other 
major  American  orchestras — his  first  return  to  this 
country  in  II  years.  His  performances  revealed  his 
fine  intelligence,  taste,  and  mature  experience.  Vic- 
tor de  Sabata,  eminent  Italian  composer  and  con- 
ductor of  La  Scala  in  Milan,  appeared  with  the 
Pittsburgh  Symphony,  his  first  performances  in  this 
country  since  1927.  His  return  was  one  of  the  artis- 
tic events  of  the  season.  His  virtuosity  is  second  to 
none;  his  is  an  enviable  talent  to  bring  even  to 
thrice-familiar  classics  a  freshness  of  viewpoint 
and  an  originality  of  conception. 

For  a  brief  period,  the  storm  of  controversy 
raged  around  Leonard  Bernstein,  the  brilliant 
young  conductor  of  the  New  York  City  Symphony. 
Compelled  by  budgetary  considerations  to  curtail 
the  activities  of  the  New  York  City  Symphony  for 
die  1948-1949  season,  Bernstein  (who  receives  no 
pay  for  his  services)  finally  announced  that  he 
could  not  tolerate  retrenchment  and  would  resign 
his  post, 

The  matter  was  eventually  ironed  out,  with  the 
orchestral  management  guaranteeing  Bernstein 
that  the  funds  would  be  found  to  carry  out  the  ar- 
tistic plans  of  the  orchestra  in  full.  However,  since 
in  the  interim  Bernstein  had  accepted  the  post  of 
musical  adviser  of  the  Israel  Symphony  Orchestra 
for  1948,  it  was  announced  that  the  New  York  City 
Symphony  would  abandon  its  activities  for  one 
season,  but  would  return  in  1949-1950  under  Bern- 
stein's direction. 

In  the  world  of  opera,  the  major  news  of  the 
year  was  the  threatened  cancellation  of  the  1948- 
1949  season  by  the  Metropolitan  Opera  Associa- 
tion, brought  about  by  the  demands  of  the  unions 
for  higher  increases  in  the  salaries  of  all  employ- 
ees, demands  which  the  management  insisted  it 
could  not  meet.  Only  the  belated  consent  by  the 
unions  to  forego  their  pay  increases  for  the  time 
being  enabled  the  Metropolitan  to  reconsider  its 
original  decision.  However,  since  negotiations  were 
carried  on  up  to  Labor  Day,  the  management 
found  it  necessary  to  curtail  the  season  by  two 
weeks,  and  to  postpone  its  customary  early-Novem- 
ber opening  until  November  29. 

The  threatened  closing  of  the  Metropolitan  pre- 
cipitated heated  discussions  regarding  the  manage- 
ment and  its  policies.  The  severest  critic  was  Billy 
Rose,  the  showman,  who  offered  to  take  over  the 
direction  of  the  opera  house  and  to  guarantee  its 
financial  security.  Rose  also  devoted  a  week  of  col- 
umns, syndicated  throughout  the  country,  to  prove 
that  the  Metropolitan  was  burdened  artistically  and 
financially  by  its  stubborn  adherence  to  obsolete 
methods  and  policies.  The  officials  of  the  Metro- 
politan made  no  attempt  to  answer  these  charges; 
but  some  credence  was  given  to  the  validity  of 
Rose's  arguments  when  Edward  Johnson,  general 
manager  of  the  Metropolitan,  dispensed  with  the 
traditional  press  conference,  prior  to  the  opening 
of  the  season. 

The  Metropolitan  premiere  of  Benjamin  Britten's 
Peter  Grimes  (a  production  that,  though  carefully 
planned,  suffered  from  poor  dynamics,  sorry  dic- 
tion, and  anachronistic  staging  and  costumes),  the 
presentation  of  Wagner's  Ring  der  Nibelung  in  a 
completely  new  staging  and  with  effective  new  sets 


of  Lee  Simonson,  and  the  successful  Metropolitan 
debut  of  the  tenor  Giuseppe  Di  Stefano  were 
to  be  considered  among  the  major  items  of 
interest  at  the  Metropolitan  during  the  year.  On 
April  IS,  the  Metropolitan  visited  Los  Angeles  for 
the  first  time  in  42  years  and  achieved  such  an  un- 
precedented financial  and  artistic  success  during 
its  two-week  engagement  that  new  impetus  was 
given  to  the  movement,  begun  a  year  ago,  to  create 
a  new  opera  house  in  Los  Angeles  expressly  for  the 
future  annual  visits  of  this  company. 

Two  new  American  operas  were  heard  during 
the  year.  In  New  York  City,  Otto  Luening's  Evan- 
geline>  performed  at  Columbia  University,  was 
found  to  be  dramatically  weak,  though  it  did  pos- 
sess fine  moments  of  vocal  writing.  More  original 
and  more  appealing  esthetically  was  Kurt  WeilTs 
Down  in  the  Valley,  a  one-act  folk  opera,  intro- 
duced at  Indiana  University  in  Bloomington,  Ind. 
A  splendid  libretto  by  Arnold  Sundgaard,  which 
built  up  dramatic  action  through  a  series  of  effec- 
tive flash-backs,  combined  with  a  melodious  score, 
built  out  of  American  folk-music  materials,  made 
for  excellent  theater. 

An  important  opera  revival  took  place  during 
the  summer  at  the  Berkshire  Music  Festival.  It 
was  Rossini's  Turco  in  Italia  which  had  not  been 
heard  in  this  country  since  1826,  presented  by  the 
Opera  Department  of  the  Berkshire  Music  Center. 
Readapted  for  the  stage  and  boasting  a  new  li- 
bretto (in  English),  the  Rossini  opera  acquired  a 
new  lease  on  life.  The  score,  tampered  with  only 
in  negligible  details,  was  a  joy  throughout,  in  the 
best  traditions  of  the  opera  bufa,  sparkling  with 
wit  and  effervesence,  and  containing  some  of  the 
composer's  best  ensemble  writing.  Brightened  fur- 
ther by  a  sprightly  and  enthusiastic  performance, 
this  revival  was  one  of  the  operatic  delights  of  the 
year. 

There  were  several  new  operas  heard  in  Europe 
during  the  year,  but  two  seemed  to  appeal  most 
to  the  foreign  critics.  A  new  opera  by  Frank  Mar- 
tin, the  noted  Swiss  composer,  was  heard  at  the 
Salzburg  Festival — Le  Vin  herbe.  Based  on  the 
legend  of  Tristan  and  Isolde,  it  utilized  the  most 
economical  means — limited  stage  action  on  a  small 
stage,  and  an  accompanying  orchestra  of  11  musi- 
cians— to  achieve  its  artistic  ends.  In  Berlin,  there 
took  place  the  premiere  of  a  fairy-tale  opera  by 
Carl  Oroff,  Die  Kluge,  exploiting  a  primitive  style 
emphasizing  percussive  effects.  A  successful  op- 
eratic event^in  London  was  the  new  adaptation  of 
The  Beggar's  Opera  by  Benjamin  Britten. 

Among  the  notable  new  performers  heard  dur- 
ing the  year  in  this  country  were  Nicole  Heniot 
and  Arturo  Michelangelo,  pianists-r-the  one,  from" 
France,  the  other  from  Italy — -and  both,  by  coinci- 
dence introducing  themselves  with  musicianly  read- 
ings of  the  Schumann  Piano  Concerto.  Aksel  Schi- 
otz,  Danish  tenor — whose  fame  preceded  him  to 
this  country  through  his  remarkable  recordings — 
came  here  with  a  voice  greatly  impaired  by  a  re- 
cent serious  throat  operation.  But  the  aristocratic 
style  that  made  his  rendition  of  old  music  and 
Lieder  such  a  joy  on  records  was  still  in  evidence, 
and  made  for  a  pleasurable  evening  of  music-mak- 
ing. 

Ebe  Stignani,  also  long  known  to  us  through  rec- 
ords, made  her  American  debut  and  reaffirmed  the 
conviction  of  many  music  lovers  that  here  is  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  coloratura  voices  of  our  time. 
Among  prodigies,  the  most  significant  was  16-year 
old  Ervin  Laszlo,  a  native  of  Hungary,  who  gave 
astonishing  evidence  of  technical  powers  and  inter- 
pretative insight  in  his  debut  as  pianist.  Ferruccio 


MUSIC 


355 


MUSIC 


BUTCG,  the  8-year  old  conductor  who  had  created 
a  stir  in  Italy,  made  an  intensive  American  tour. 
He  has  a  clear  beat,  a  good  rhythmic  sense,  and 
a  familiarity  with  the  music  he  conducts;  his  scope 
is,  of  course,  limited,  and  within  that  scope  he  fails 
as  yet  to  give  any  convincing  indication  of  excep- 
tional musical  insight. 

Festivals.  The  festival  season  at  Tanglewood, 
under  the  artistic  direction  of  Serge  Koussevitzky, 
had  its  most  successful  returns  thus  far.  The  total 
attendance  for  all  the  festival  performances  was 
more  than  170,000,  representing  an  increase  of 
25,000  over  the  preceding  year.  It  was  a  distirj- 
guished  year  from  the  artistic  point  of  view  as  well, 
with  excellent  orchestral  and  chamber-music  con- 
certs, and  several  major  premieres  and  revivals. 
Of  these%the  American  premiere  of  Ralph  Vaughan 
Williams*  Sixth  Symphony  and  the  revival  of  Ros- 
sini's Turco  in  Italia  have  already  been  touched 
upon.  Significant,  too,  was  the  world  premiere  of 
Hindemith's  Sonata  for  *Cettoy  presented  by  Gre- 
gor  Piatigorsky. 

The  two  most  important  festivals  of  Europe 
were  no  less  successful.  In  Edinburgh,  the  second 
International  Festival  of  Music  and  Dance,  which 
closed  on  September  12,  attracted  more  than  250,- 
000  spectators  to  its  varied  program  of  activity. 
This  included  ballet  performances  by  the  Sadler 
Wells  Ballet  Company;  orchestral  concerts  by  some 
of  Europe's  leading  symphonic  organizations,  led 
by  Eduard  van  Beinum,  Charles  Muench,  Sir  Mal- 
colm Sargent,  John  Barbirolli,  Ian  Whyte,  and  Wil- 
helm  Furtwaengler;  solo  performances  by  Yehudi 
Menuhin,  Artur  Schnabet  Alfred  Cortot,  Gregor 
Piatigorsky,  and  other  world-famous  artists;  pres- 
entations of  Mozart  operas  by  the  Glyndebourne 
Opera  Company.  Both  in  the  wide  range  of  its 
activities  and  in  the  quality  of  its  presentations,  it 
has  earned  its  right  to  be  classified  as  the  cultural 
rival  to  Salzburg. 

In  Salzburg,  the  world  premiere  of  Martin's  Le 
Vin  herbe,  already  commented  upon,  was  the  nov- 
elty to  add  spice  to  the  customary  musical  fare. 
Performances  under  the  direction  of  Herbert  von 
Karajan  and  Wilhelm  Furtwaengler  brought  the 
artistic  quality  of  this  festival  back  to  its  lofty  pre- 
war standards. 

The  International  Music  Festival  at  Venice — re- 
stored after  an  interruption  of  six  years — placed 
considerable  emphasis  on  modern  opera,  present- 
ing as  it  did  Hmdemith's  Cardittac,  Milhaud's  Les 
Malheurs  d'Orphee,  Gian-Carlo  Menotti's  The  Tel- 
ephone, and  the  world  premiere  of  a  one-act  opera 
by  Ricardo  Nielsen,  L'Incubo.  Other  events  in- 
cluded an  evening  of  modern  ballet,  several  or- 
chestral and  chamber-music  concerts,  and  a 
program  of  15th,  16th,  and  17th  century  Italian 
sacred  and  secular  choral  music. 

Two  American  works  were  successfully  per- 
formed at  the  22nd  festival  of  th*e  International 
Society  for  Contemporary  Music  which  this  year 
took  place  in  Amsterdam:  Piston's  Sinfonietta  and 
Sessions*  S&cond  Symphony.  Of  the  new  works  re- 
vealed in  Amsterdam  considerable  interest  seemed 
to  be  inspired  by  the  Sonata  for  Two  Pianos 
by  Hans  Henkeman  and  the  Six  Symphonic  Studies 
by  Arthur  Malawski.  A  Ravel  evening,  a  mass  by 
Hendrik  Andriessen,  and  a  production  of  gamelan 
and  East-Indian  dances  were  other  attractions. 

Electronics.  The  field  of  electronics  made  some 
significant  contributions  to  music  during  the  year. 
On  March  18,  James  Caesar  Petrillo,  president  of 
the  American  Federation  of  Musicians,  signed  a 
new  three-year  agreement  with  the  radio  networks 
in  which  the  ban  long  placed  by  Petrillo  against 


the  use  of  musicians  in  television  was  finally  lifted. 
The  ink  was  hardly  dry  when  both  major  networks 
proceeded  to  make  radio  history  by  televising  or- 
chestral concerts.  On  March  20,  the  first  symphonic 
concert  to  be  televised  was  broadcast  over  the 
CBS-TV  network,  presenting  a  concert  of  the  Phil- 
adephia  Orchestra  under  Eugene  Ormandy.  A 
half  hour  later,  the  NBC  Symphony  under  Arturo 
Toscanini  was  seen  and  heard  over  WNBT  in  New 
York.  The  first  opera  ever  to  be  televised  from  the 
stage  of  a  regular  opera  house  was  Verdi's  OfeZJo, 
transmitted  over  WNBT  from  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House  on  November  29,  the  opening  night 
of  the  season. 

An  important  development  in  the  field  of  phono- 
graph recording  took  place  with  the  public  release 
of  the  Long  Playing  Record  by  Columbia  Records, 
Inc.  These  microgroove  recordings,  which  can  be 
utilized  only  on  turntables  making  33%  rpm  in- 
stead of  the  customary  78,  reproduce  approxi- 
mately 45  minutes  of  music  on  a  single  disc.  This 
innovation  represents  a  considerable  saving  not 
only  in  storage  space  of  records  and  in  price,  but 
are  even  an  improvement  in  the  quality  of  high- 
range  reproduction. 

Awards  and  other  Honors.  The  final  round  of  a 
national  piano-playing  contest  sponsored  by  the 
Rachmaninoff  Fund  two  years  ago,  took  place  at 
Carnegie  Hall,  New  York,  on  April  29.  The  winner, 
by  a  unanimous  decision  of  a  celebrated  jury  of 
musicians,  was  Seymour  Lipkin.  By  virtue  of  this 
much  publicized  award  he  is  being  launched  on  a 
successful  concert  career.  His  prize  is  said  to  be 
the  largest  ever  won  by  a  virtuoso  in  a  contest,  es- 
timated between  $25,000  and  $50,000,  and  in- 
cludes a  national  concert  tour  sponsored  by  two 
major  concert  bureaus,  guest  appearances  on  na- 
tionally sponsored  programs,  and  a  recording  con- 
tract with  RCA- Victor.  During  the  summer,  Lipkin 
appeared  as  soloist  with  the  Boston  Symphony 
under  Koussevitzky  at  Tanglewood,  giving  an  elec- 
trifying and  mature  rendition  of  the  Tchaikovsky 
Concerto  for  Piano  and  Orchestra. 

The  1948  Pulitzer  Prize  in  music  went  to  Wal- 
ter Piston  for  his  Symphony  No.  3.  Wallingford 
Riegger's  Symphony  No.  3  was  selected  by  the 
New  York  Music  Critics  Circle  as  the  most  dis- 
tinguished new  work  of  the  season,  with  Stravin- 
sky's Orpheus  receiving  a  special  citation. 

Dean  Dixon,  Negro  conductor,  was  the  recip- 
ient of  the  $1,000  Alice  M.  Ditson  Fund  Award 
for  the  most  distinguished  services  during  the  year 
to  American  music.  Eugene  Ormandy,  the  conduc- 
tor of  the  Philadelphia  Orchestra,  was  also  honored 
for  his  contributions  to  American  music,  with  a 
citation  from  the  National  Music  Council. 

The  Metropolitan  Auditions  of  the  Air  Awards — 
bringing  with  them  contracts  for  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House — were  won  by  Marilyn  Cotlow,  so- 
prano, and  Frank  Guarrera,  baritone. 

Obituaries.  During  the  year,  death  came  to  Franz 
Lehar,  the  celebrated  composer  of  operettas  in 
general  and  The  Merry  Widow  in  particular.  Lehar 
died  in  Vienna.  Death  took  three  other  composers: 
Oley  Speaks,  creator  of  more  than  250  songs, 
among  them  the  beloved  Sylvia  and  On  the  Road 
to  Mandalay;  Isidor  Achron,  pianist,  and  writer  of 
music  for  his  instrument;  and  the  Brazilian  com- 
poser, Oscar  Fernandez,  founder  and  director  of 
the  Brazilian  Conservatory  of  Music. 

Other  notable  musicians  who  died  during  the 
year  included:  Jacques  Gordon,  violinist  and 
founder  o£  the  Gordon  String  Quartet;  Olga 
SamarofP-Stokowski,  one-time  concert  pianist  and 
music  critic,  and  more  recently  famous  as  a  teacher 


NARCOTIC  DRUGS  CONTROL 


356 


NATIONAL  ACADEMY  Of  SCIENCES 


of  the  piano  and  lecturer  on  music  appreciation; 
Lynden  Behymer  and  Clarence  C.  Cappel,  cele- 
brated impresarios  of  music,  the  former  in  Los 
Angeles,  the  latter  in  Baltimore;  John  Avery  Lo- 
max,  famed  collector  of  American  folk  songs;  and 
Clara  Damrosch  Mannes,  wife  of  David  Mannes, 
and  with  him  a  co-director  of  the  Mannes  School 
of  Music.  — DAVID  EWEN 

NARCOTIC  DRUGS  CONTROL.  International.  The  Com- 
mission on  Narcotic  Drags  of  the  Economic  and 
Social  Council  of  the  United  Nations,  organized  in 
November,  1946,  held  its  third  annual  meeting  at 
Lake  Success,  New  York,  May  3  to  May  22,  1948. 
Mr.  Stane  Krasovec  (Yugoslavia)  presided,  and 
fifteen  nations  (the  full  membership)  were  pres- 
ent 

The  Commission  agreed  that,  although  a  number 
of  countries  have  declared  their  intention  to  abol- 
ish opium  smoking  monopolies  and  to  suppress 
opium  smoking  in  their  territories  in  the  Far  East, 
the  situation  in  some  Far  Eastern  territories  with 
respect  to  opium  smoking  has  shown  little  improve- 
ment. It  recommended  that  those  Governments 
which  have  declared  their  intention  to  suppress 
opium  smoking  prohibit  the  import  of  raw  opium 
into  their  territories  except  for  medical  and  scien- 
tific purposes. 

The  Commission  took  note  of  a  document  sub- 
mitted by  the  representative  of  the  United  States 
giving  full  infonnation  on  the  factory  built  by  the 
Japanese  authorities  in  Mukden  for  the  purpose  of 
manufacturing  narcotic  drugs  to  be  distributed  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Manchuria.  It  was  estimated 
this  factory  could  produce  50,000  kilograms  of 
heroin  annually,  an  amount  50  times  the  annual 
legitimate  needs  of  the  world  for  this  drug.  Be- 
cause narcotic  drugs  constituted,  and  may  consti- 
tute in  the  future,  a  powerful  instrument  of  the 
most  hideous  crime  against  mankind,  the  Commis- 
sion recommended  to  the  Economic  and  Social 
Council  that  it  ensure  that  the  use  of  narcotics  as 
an  instrument  of  committing  a  crime  of  this  na- 
ture be  covered  by  the  proposed  Convention  on  the 
Prevention  and  Punishment  of  Genocide. 

International  control  of  synthetic  drugs  having 
habit-forming  propensities  would  appear  to  be  as- 
sured, since  by  November  23,  1948,  a  total  of  48 
nations  had  signed  the  Protocol  bringing  such 
drugs  under  international  control. 

Colonel  C.  H.  L.  Sharman  ( Canada )  was  unani- 
mously appointed  by  the  Commission  a  member 
of  the  Drug  Supervisory  Body,  whose  main  func- 
tion is  to  examine  the  estimates  furnished  annually 
by  governments,  showing  their  legitimate  require- 
ments for  narcotic  drugs. 

Harry  J.  Anslinger,  Commissioner  of  Narcotics, 
U.S.  Treasury  Department,  attended  the  Commis- 
sion Sessions  as  the  American  delegate.  He  had  as 
advisors  John  W.  Bulkley,  Bureau  of  Customs, 
Treasury  Department,  and  George  A.  Morlock,  De- 
partment of  State.  The  Permanent  Central  Opium 
Board  and  the  Drug  Supervisory  Body,  set  up  un- 
der earlier  international  conventions,  were  repre- 
sented at  the  Commission  sessions  by  Herbert  L. 
May  (United  States). 

National  Control.  The  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1948,  saw  a  continuation  in  the  increase  of  seizures 
of  illicit  narcotics  from  Europe.  Customs  officers 
at  New  York  seized  9%  pounds  of  pure  heroin  from 
a  French  airplane  which  arrived  from  Marseilles. 
Combined  seizures  of  opium  and  its  derivatives  by 
Customs  officers  and  Narcotics  agents  amounted  to 
approximately  the  same  as  in  the  previous  year. 
Marihuana  seizures  increased  greatly,  being  about 


twice  as  much  as  in  the  preceding  like  period. 
Mexico  continued  to  be  an  important  source  of 
smoking  opium.  During  the  early  part  of  1948 
there  appeared  to  be  a  decrease  in  the  seizures  of 
smoking  opium  from  Mexico,  but  seizures  began 
to  increase  again  during  the  late  months  of  that 
year. 

Thefts  from  legitimate  supplies,  as  well  as  pre- 
scription frauds,  continued  a  major  problem  in  en- 
forcement of  the  Narcotics  laws.  Four  synthetic 
narcotic  drugs  are  now  covered  under  the  Federal 
narcotic  laws.  They  are:  Demerol,  Amidone  (Dolo- 
phine,  Methadon,  etc.),  Isoamidone  and  Keto- 
bemidone.  — HARRY  J.  ANSLINGER 

NARCOTICS,  Bureau  of.  A  Bureau  of  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  the  Treasury,  established  in  1930.  Com- 
missioner: Harry  J.  Anslinger,  See  NARCOTIC 
DRUGS  CONTROL. 

NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN.  An  organization  of 
American  artists,  founded  in  New  York  in  1825  by 
Samuel  Morse  and  incorporated  in  1828  for  the 
purpose  of  "cultivation  and  extension  of  the  arts  of 
design."  In  1906  the  Society  of  American  Artists 
merged  with  the  Academy. 

The  Academy  maintains  annual  exhibitions  of 
painting,  sculpture,  graphic  arts,  and  water  color 
to  which  all  artists  may  contribute,  subject  to  jury; 
various  prizes  are  awarded.  It  conducted  an  Art 
School  at  which  no  tuition  was  charged,  and  which 
has  been  discontinued  pending  the  erection  of  a 
suitable  building.  It  administers  the  Henry  W. 
Ranger  Fund  for  the  purchase  of  paintings  to  be 
presented  to  various  museums.  Membership  (391 
in  1948)  is  limited  to  professional  painters,  sculp- 
tors, workers  in  the  graphic  arts,  architects,  and 
aquarellists. 

Academicians  elected  during  the  year  1948 
were:  Painters — Armin  Hansen,  Jes  Schlaikjer, 
Zoltan  Sepeshy,  Ferdinand  E.  Warren;  Sculptors — 
John  Angel,  Cecil  Howard;  Graphic  Artist — Ste- 
phen Csoka;  Architects — Wallace  K.  Harrison,  Ed- 
ward S.  Hewitt,  Charles  D.  Lay,  William  Platt, 
Lawrence  G.  White;  Aquarellists —  Julius  Delbos, 
Eliot  O'Hara,  John  Pike,  Donald  Teague. 

Associates  elected  during  the  year  1948  were: 
Painters — Alexander  Brook,  Peter  Blume,  Louis 
Bpuche,  John  Carroll,  Edwin  Dickinson,  Ernest 
Fiene,  Henry  Mattson,  Henry  Lee  McFee,  Henry  V. 
Poor,  Zsissly;  Graphic  Artists — Fiske  Boyd,  How- 
ard N.  Cook,  Lewis  C.  Daniel,  Helen  W.  Heller, 
Edward  T.  Hurley,  Rockwell  Kent,  John  C.  Meni- 
han,  Hans  A.  Mueller,  Benton  Spruance,  Prentiss 
Taylor;  Sculptors — Jose  deCreeft,  Sylvia  S.  Judson, 
Henry  Kreis,  Ivan  Mestrovic,  Carl  Milles,  Eleanor 
Platt,  Carl  L.  Schmitz;  Architects — Theodore  E, 
Blake,  Arthur  F.  Brinckerhoff,  Otto  R.  Eggers,  Al- 
fred M.  Githens,  Andrew  H.  Hepburn,  Douglas  W. 
Orr,  Ralph  Walker;  Water  Colorists— Henry  Gas- 
ser,  Hardie  Gramatky,  Dong  Eangman,  Emil  J. 
Kosa. 

Officers:  President,  Hobart  Nichols;  First  Vice 
President,  John  Taylor  Arms;  Second  Vice  Presi- 
dent, Adolph  Weinman;  Corresponding  Secretary, 
Eliot  Clark;  Recording  Secretary,  Isabel  Bishop; 
Treasurer,  F.  Ballarcf  Williams.  Headquarters: 
1083  Fifth  Ave.?  New  York  28,  N.Y. 

NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES.  A  scientific  or- 
ganization that  originated  from  the  need  of  the  U.S. 
government  for  technical  scientific  advice  in  con- 
nection with  the  Civil  War.  Its  charter,  passed  by 
the  U.S.  Congress  and  approved  by  President  Lin- 
coln in  1863,  provides  that  it  shall  investigate,  ex- 


NATIONAL  ADVISORY  COMMHTEf 


357 


NATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 


amine,  experiment,  and  report  upon  any  subject  of 
science  or  art  whenever  called  upon  by  any  depart- 
ment of  the  government.  The  membership  of  the 
Academy  is  limited  to  450  citizens  of  the  United 
States  and  50  foreign  associates. 

The  Academy  and  the  National  Research  Coun- 
cil ( q.v. )  >  founded  by  the  Academy,  do  not  main- 
tain scientific  laboratories  but  function  through 
sponsorship  of  conferences,  technical  committees, 
surveys,  scientific  publications,  and  administration 
of  funds  for  research  projects  and  fellowships.  Ad- 
ministrative costs  of  the  Academy  and  Council  are 
charged  against  the  income  of  a  permanent  endow- 
ment given,  together  with  the  building,  by  the 
Carnegie  Corporation.  Financial  support  of  scien- 
tific projects  is  obtained  from  contracts  with  gov- 
ernmental and  private  agencies  and  from  special 
grants  from  foundations,  societies,  and  individuals. 

The  Academy  issues  the  Proceedings,  Scientific 
Memoirs  and  Biographical  Memoirs.  An  Annual 
Report  is  made  to  Congress  and  published.  Acad- 
emy officers:  Alfred  N.  Richards,  President;  Luther 
P.  Eisenhart,  Vice  President;  Detlev  W.  Bronk, 
Foreign  Secretary;  F.  E.  Wright,  Home  Secretary; 
William  J.  Robbins,  Treasurer;  Raymund  L.  Zwe- 
mer,  Executive  Secretary;  G.  D.  Meid,  Business 
Manager.  Headquarters:  2101  Constitution  Ave., 
Washington  25,  D.C. 

NATIONAL  ADVISORY  COMMITTEE  FOR  AERONAUTICS. 

The  government's  aeronautical  research  agency, 
reporting  directly  to  the  President  Its  main  Execu- 
tive Committee,  appointed  by  the  President,  is 
composed  of  17  members  selected  from  military 
and  other  government  aviation  agencies,  the  air- 
craft industry,  and  qualified  scientists.  All  branches 
of  aviation  are  represented  on  its  subcommittees. 
The  NACA  was  established  by  Congress  in  1915 
to  "supervise  and  direct  the  scientific  study  of  the 
problems  of  flight  with  a  view  to  their  practical 
solution"  and  to  "direct  and  conduct  research  in 
aeronautics."  The  NACA  operates  three  major  re- 
search laboratories:  Langley  Aeronautical  Labora- 
tory, Langley  Field,  Va.;  Ames  Aeronautical  Lab- 
oratory, Moffett  Field,  Calif.;  Lewis  Flight  Pro- 
pulsion Laboratory,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  In  addition, 
a  flight  research  station  is  maintained  at  Muroc 
Lake,  Calif .  and  a  pilotless  aircraft  research  station 
on  the  Virginia  coast.  The  NACA  provides  basic 
aeronautical  knowledge  through  the  medium  of 
technical  reports  to  the  entire  aviation  and  allied 
industries,  the  military  services,  educational  insti- 
tutions and  technical  libraries.  Chairman:  Jerome 
C,  Hunsaker. 

NATIONAL  ARCHIVES,  The.  An  independent  estab- 
lishment of  the  U.S.  Government,  created  in  1934, 
which  preserves  and  services  the  permanently  val- 
uable records  of  the  Government.  Holdings:  more 
than  850,000  cubic  feet,  described  in  Guide  to  the 
Records  in  the  National  Archives.  In  June  1948 
Dr.  Wayne  C.  Grover  succeeded  Dr.  Solon  J.  Buck 
as  Archivist  of  the  United  States. 

NATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS.  Established  in 
1901  by  Act  of  Congress,  the  National  Bureau  of 
Standards  is  the  principal  agency  of  the  Federal 
Government  for  basic  research  in  physics,  applied 
mathematics,  chemistry,  and  engineering.  It  has 
custody  of  the  national  standards  of  physical  meas- 
urement in  terms  of  which  all  working  standards 
in  research  laboratories  and  industry  are  calibrated, 
and  carries  on  necessary  research  leading  to  im- 
provement in  such  standards  and  measurement 
methods.  In  addition  to  its  general  responsibility 


for  fundamental  research  in  the  above  fields,  the 
Bureau  undertakes  specific  research  and  develop- 
ment programs  for  various  agencies  of  the  Govern- 
ment, develops  improved  methods  for  testing 
materials  and  equipment,  determines  physical  con- 
stants and  properties  of  materials,  tests  and  cali- 
brates standard  measuring  apparatus  and  reference 
standards,  develops  specifications  for  Federal  pur- 
chasing, and  serves  Government  and  the  Nation 
in  an  advisory  capacity  on  matters  relating  to  the 
physical  sciences. 

The  Bureau's  direct  appropriation  for  the  last 
fiscal  year  was  approximately  $7,900,000.  This  was 
supplemented  by  approximately  $8,900,000  in 
funds  transferred  by  the  Army,  Navy,  Atomic 
Energy  Commission,  and  other  Government  agen- 
cies to  support  special  projects  undertaken  for 
them.  Typical  projects  of  this  type  include  guided 
missiles,  proximity  fuzes,  optical  glass  develop- 
ment, and  automatic  electronic  computing  ma- 
chines. Most  of  the  Bureau's  work  was  conducted 
in  its  laboratories  at  Washington,  D.C.,  and  the 
balance  at  its  17  field  stations. 

One  of  the  most  significant  developments  of  the 
year  was  the  discovery  that  frictional  forces  be- 
tween solid  surfaces  and  certain  types  of  fluid 
media  can  be  controlled  by  means  of  a  magnetic 
field.  This  discovery  is  of  fundamental  scientific 
importance;  its  applications  promise  to  be  many. 
The  initial  application  has  been  the  design  and 
construction  of  a  new  revolutionary  clutch  which 
consists  essentially  of  a  driving  and  a  driven  plate 
or  cylinder  having  a  magnetic  fluid  of  iron  powder 
and  oil  between  them.  A  winding  incorporated 
into  the  structure  permits  a  strong  magnetic  field 
to  be  passed  through  the  fluid,  and  the  degree  of 
coupling  between  plates  is  determined  by  the  var- 
iation in  strength  of  the  current  through  the  coil. 
The  new  clutch  affords  ease  of  control,  high  effi- 
ciency, smooth  operation,  rapid  reversal,  long  life, 
and  simplicity  of  construction. 

The  development  of  what  is  probably  the  ulti- 
mate standard  of  length  was  another  striking  sci- 
entific accomplishment.  The  new  standard  is  the 
wave  length  of  the  green  radiation  of  an  isotope  of 
mercury  having  mass  198.  This  isotope  is  obtained 
by  transmuting  gold  into  mercury  198  by  neutron 
bombardment  in  an  atomic  pile.  In  precision,  re- 
producibility,  and  convenience,  the  green  line  of 
mercury  198  is  superior  to  both  the  standard  meter 
and  the  red  line  of  cadmium.  The  work  in  atomic 
and  molecular  physics  also  included  investigations 
of  nuclear  radiations  of  radioactive  isotopes.  Ac- 
curate determinations  of  the  energies  of  radiations 
from  radioactive  iodine  131  were  made.  Radiation 
standards  for  cobalt  60,  iodine  131,  and  phospho- 
rous 32  were  developed.  Research  was  in  progress 
on  standards  for  sodium  22  and  carbon  14. 

A  unified  program  was  planned  in  the  field  of 
electronic  computers  in  cooperation  with  the  Office 
of  Naval  Research,  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  the 
Army,  and  the  Air  Force.  In  addition  to  consum- 
mating a  contract  for  a  machine  for  the  Bureau  of 
the  Census,  plans  were  under  way  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  small-scale  computer,  to  be  known  as  the 
NBS  Interim  Computer.  Input  and  output  systems 
for  high-speed  machines  were  designed. 

An  important  achievement  in  standardization 
was  the  agreement  of  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  and  Canada  on  uniform  screw  threads.  The 
accord,  signed  at  the  Bureau  on  Nov.  18,  1948, 
marked  the  culmination  of  30  years  of  effort  by  the 
Bureau,  in  cooperation  with  other  government 
agencies,  standardization  bodies,  and  industry  in 
the  three  countries. 


NATIONAL  INVENTORS  COUNCIL 


358 


NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS  BOARD 


Fasteners — screws,  nuts,  and  bolts — enter  into 
almost  every  modern  product,  and  lack  of  uniform- 
ity lias  posed  serious  problems  in  replacement  of 
such  parts  in  exported  and  imported  goods.  Unifi- 
cation was  achieved  as  to  angle  and  thread  form, 
number  of  threads  per  inch,  and  tolerances  and  al- 
lowances, thus  permitting  interchangeability  of 
parts  among  the  three  nations.  The  most  important 
technical  decision  here  was  standardization  on  the 
60  degree  screw  thread  angle,  which  has  been  the 
standard  in  this  country. 

A  few  other  typical  projects  included  resistance 
measurements  of  high  precision,  investigation  of 
methods  for  testing  tapes  and  wires  for  magnetic 
recording,  measurement  of  insulating  properties 
of  plastics,  thermal  investigations  of  gases,  re- 
search in  superconductivity,  combustion  problems 
of  gas  turbines  and  jet  engines,  mechanics  and 
thermodynamics  of  lubrication,  x-ray  protection 
studies,  field  measurements  by  electron  microscopy, 
atomic  energy  levels,  diverse  studies  of  hydrocar- 
bons, turbulence  problems  in  aerodynamics,  the 
absorption  of  sound  by  acoustic  materials,  super- 
sonic and  ultrasonic  studies,  resin-bonding  of  pa- 
per, analysis  of  synthetic  rubbers,  the  mechanism 
of  fracture  of  metals,  studies  of  metal  corrosion, 
studies  of  the  physical  structure  of  concrete,  high- 
temperature  ceramics  for  special  applications,  elec- 
tronic miniaturization,  electron  tubes,  and  a  wide 
variety  of  topics  in  the  field  of  radio  propagation. 

The  test  work  of  the  Bureau  involved  over  250,- 
000  tests  and  calibrations,  having  a  total  fee  value 
of  approximately  $1,000,000.  This  activity  in- 
cluded such  diversified  projects  as  the  testing  of 
3,000  dry  cells  and  batteries;  the  sample- testing  of 
over  4  million  light  bulbs,  100,000  clinical  ther- 
mometers, and  5  million  barrels  of  cement;  testing 
of  a  million  dollars  worth  of  radium  preparations; 
tests  of  standard  electrical  instruments;  the  fur- 
nishing of  18,500  standard  chemical  samples  and 
of  samples  of  standard  oils  for  calibration  of  vis- 
cometers;  and  similar  services. 

The  results  of  the  Bureau's  research  were  made 
available  through  3  monthly  periodicals  (Journal 
of  Research,  Technical  News  Bulletin,  and  Basic 
Radio  Propagation  Predictions)  and  a  series  of 
non-periodical  publications.  An  indexed  list  of  pub- 
lications (Circular  460,  375  pages,  75  cents)  is 
available  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
U.S.  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington  25, 
D.C.  — HUGH  ODISHAW 

NATIONAL  INVENTORS  COUNCIL.  The  Council  was 
created  in  August,  1940,  by  the  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce, to  act  as  a  central  clearing  house  for  in- 
ventions and  suggestions  relating  to  the  national 
security  and  welfare.  In  addition  the  Council  seeks 
the  aid  of  inventors  and  engineers  on  specific  prob- 
lems confronting  the  Armed  Services.  Since  its 
creation,  more  than  250,000  inventions  have  been 
carefully  examined  and  evaluated,  a  surprisingly 
large  number  of  which  have  proved  meritorious 
and  useful.  Dr.  Charles  F.  Kertering,  retired  presi- 
dent of  the  General  Motors  Research  Corporation, 
is  Chairman,  and  other  members  include  eminent 
scientists,  inventors,  Government  officials,  and  busi- 
ness men  well  versed  in  the  application  of  new 
devices,  all  of  whom  serve  without  compensation. 
The  Council  is  assisted  by  a  group  of  engineers — 
each  a  specialist  in  his  own  field — furnished  by  the 
Office  of  Technical  Services  of  the  Department  of 
Commerce.  Secretary  of  the  Council:  Lawrence 
Langner.  Address:  Office  of  Technical  Services, 
U.S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.C. 

— JOHN  C.  GREEN 


NATIONAL  LABOR  RELATIONS  BOARD  (NLRB).  On  June 

25,  1947,  the  80th  Congress,  over  presidential  veto, 
passed  into  law  the  Labor  Management  Relations 
Act,  popularly  known  as  the  Taft-Hartley  Law. 
The  new  statute  greatly  amended  the  National  La- 
bor Relations  Act  of  1935  and  enlarged  its  scope 
of  activities. 

In  essence,  the  new  law  reaffirmed  the  right  of 
employees  to  self-organization  and  to  bargain  col- 
lectively through  representatives  of  their  own 
choosing.  It  retained  the  unfair  labor  practices  un- 
der the  Wagner  Act  which  proscribe  employer  in- 
terference, domination,  discrimination,  and  refusal 
to  bargain.  To  these  unfair  practices  were  added 
union  unfair  labor  practices  which  regulate  such 
union  practices  as  secondary  boycotts,  featherbed- 
ding,  excessive  dues,  etc. 

In  addition,  the  new  law  separated  the  pros- 
ecuting from  the  judicial  functions  by  vesting  final 
authority  for  investigation  and  prosecution  of  all 
unfair  labor  practice  cases  in  the  General  Counsel; 
enlarged  the  former  Board  from  three  to  five  mem- 
bers; provided  the  Board  with  injunctive  powers; 
and  added  four  new  types  of  elections  to  be  con- 
ducted by  the  Board  in  addition  to  Wagner  Act 
collective  bargaining  polls. 

Since  Aug.  22,  1947,  the  effective  date  of  the 
new  act,  through  Aug.  22,  1948,  more  than  42,000 
cases  were  filed  with  the  National  Labor  Relations 
Board.  Of  these,  30,964  were  petitions  for  union- 
shop  authorization  polls,  8,051  were  petitions  for 
various  types  of  representation  elections,  3,060  in- 
volved charges  of  unfair  labor  practices  filed 
against  employers,  and  915  concerned  charges  of 
unfair  labor  practices  filed  against  unions.  During 
the  same  period  the  Board  conducted  a  total  of 
27,558  elections  in  which  over  2}£  million  valid 
votes  were  cast 

Most  of  the  Board's  activities  during  the  year 
were  in  the  field  of  union-shop  elections.  It  con- 
ducted a  total  of  23,752  such  polls  in  which  2,248,- 
501  valid  votes  were  cast.  In  98  percent  of  these 
elections  employees  voted  "yes"  to  the  question: 
"Do  you  wish  to  authorize  (name  of  union)  to 
negotiate  with  your  employer  for  a  contract  re- 
quiring membership  in  the  (name  of  union)  as  a 
condition  of  employment?" 

At  the  same  time,  Board  officials  conducted 
3,677  representation  polls  to  determine  employee 
choice  of  bargaining  representatives.  134  of  these 
elections  were  held  at  the  request  of  employers. 
Of  the  total  3,677  polls  conducted,  labor  organiza- 
tions won  2,676  and  lost  1,001.  In  addition,  the 
Board  held  129  decertification  elections — polls  to 
determine  whether  or  not  groups  of  employees 
wished  to  unseat  a  labor  organization  which  had 
been  representing  them.  In  45  of  these  elections 
the  union  was  retained;  it  was  rejected  in  the  re- 
maining 84  ballotings. 

Of  the  3,060  charges  filed  against  employers 
1,778  were  filed  by  unions  and  1,257  were  filed  by 
individuals.  Employers  filed  522  of  the  914  charges 
against  unions,  inolividuals  filed  312  of  them  and 
other  unions  76.  The  most  common  charge  filed 
against  unions  was  that  of  secondary  boycott.  This 
charge  was  made  in  285  out  of  the  914  cases. 

To  use  the  Board's  facilities  in  any  type  of  case, 
a  labor  organization  must  file  non-communist  affi- 
davits for  all  of  its  officers,  and  the  union  itself 
must  file  financial  and  other  data  about  its  opera- 
tions. As  of  Nov.  30,  1948,  a  total  of  106,234  union 
officials  had  filed  the  required  non-comrnunist  affi- 
davits. As  of  that  date,  176  national  unions  and 
11,078  locals  were  in  full  compliance  with  both 
these  affidavit  and  financial  report  requirements. 


MAJIOMAL  MEDIATION  BOARD 


359 


NATIONAL  MILITARY  ISTABUSHMfWT 


During  the  12-month  period,  the  five-man  Board 
decided  a  total  of  2,626  cases.  The  bulk  of  Board 
rulings  were  made  in  representation  cases;  it  issued 
1?696  decisions  on  representation  questions  as 
against  217  rulings  on  unfair  labor  practices.  713 
other  decisions  concerned  union-shop  election  pe- 
titions. 

During  its  first  year,  the  Office  of  the  General 
Counsel  petitioned  Federal  District  Courts  for  27 
injunctions  under  the  mandatory  provisions  of  the 
law.  In  18  of  these,  injunctive  relief  was  granted; 
in  four  cases  it  was  denied;  three  were  withdrawn; 
and  two  are  pending.  All  but  one  was  based  upon 
charges  of  secondary  boycott.  The  remaining  one 
was  based  upon  a  charge  that  a  union  continued 
picketing  a  store  after  another  union  had  been  cer- 
tified as  bargaining  agent  there.  In  addition,  the 
General  Counsel  sought  six  injunctions  under  the 
Act's  discretionary  provisions.  Of  these,  3  were 
granted,  2  were  denied,  and  1  was  withdrawn  be- 
cause the  alleged  illegal  conduct  had  ceased. 

A  total  of  3,933  Wagner  Act  cases  were  pending 
on  the  Board's  docket  as  of  Aug.  22,  1947,  the  ef- 
fective date  of  the  Taft-Haitley  Act.  During  the 
following  year,  more  than  42,000  new  cases  were 
filed  with  the  agency.  By  the  end  of  August,  1948, 
one  year  later,  the  Board  had  disposed  of  more 
than  35,000  of  these  cases,  leaving  a  remainder  of 
10,371  pending  disposition  at  various  procedural 
levels.  Of  these  10,371  pending  cases,  728,  or  7 
percent  were  filed  before  Aug.  22,  1947.  A  total 
of  595  of  these  728  Wagner  Act  cases  involved 
charges  of  unfair  labor  practices  and  133  involved 
petitions  for  collective  bargaining  elections. 

Of  the  9,643  pending  cases  filed  after  Aug.  22, 
1947,  charges  of  unfair  labor  practices  accounted 
for  1,825  and  petitions  for  various  types  of  elec- 
tions 7,818  cases.  Of  the  7,818  election  cases  pend- 
ing on  August  31,  5,203  involved  petitions  for 
union-shop  polls;  2,473  were  petitions  for  collective 
bargaining  elections;  and  142  were  petitions  to  de- 
certify labor  organizations. 

With  certain  exclusions  the  Taft-Hartley  Act 
covers  the  same  area  the  Wagner  Act  did — em- 
ployees of  employers  whose  operations  affect  in- 
terstate commerce.  As  regards  employees,  excluded 
are  supervisors,  agricultural  laborers,  persons  hav- 
ing the  status  of  independent  contractors,  and  em- 
ployees subject  to  the  Railway  Labor  Act.  Employ- 
er groups  excluded  are  Federal  Reserve  Banks, 
wholly-owned  Government  corporations,  and  non- 
profit hospitals.  The  Board  has  its  headquarters  in 
Washington,  D.C.  and  maintains  28  regional  of- 
fices. — Louis  G.  SILVERBERG 

NATIONAL  MEDIATION  BOARD  (NMB).  A  nonpartisan 
independent  Board  of  the  U.S.  Government,  cre- 
ated by  amendment  of  the  Railway  Labor  Act  in 
1934.  Its  duty  is  to  determine  employee-representa- 
tion and  adjust  collective-bargaining  disputes  be- 
tween common-carrier  railroads,  airlines,  and  the 
express  and  Pullman  companies,  and  their  em- 
ployees. Headquarters:  Room  2018,  Federal  Works 
Agency  Building,  Washington  25,  D.C.  Chairman: 
Frank  P.  Douglass.  Secretary:  Robert  F.  Cole. 

NATIONAL  MILITARY  ESTABLISHMENT.  The  unification 
of  the  Armed  Services,  sought  by  the  President 
and  Congress  in  the  enactment  and  approval  ( July 
26,  1947 )  of  the  National  Security  Act,  had  its  first 
full  year  of  experimentation  in  1948.  It  was  marked 
by  progress  in  organization  and  closer  cooperation 
and  coordination,  with  much  more  progress  in 
prospect  from  the  studies  and  planning  begun  dur- 
ing the  year. 


However,  it  was  the  contrary  evidence  of  differ- 
ences between  the  Services  which  was  more  fre- 
quently in  the  public  eye.  Arising  out  of  the  pride 
and  self-confidence  of  the  individual  services,  these 
differences  loomed  large  in  the  public  mind  and 
aroused  wide-spread  doubts  as  to  the  success  of 
unification.  The  principal  differences  concerned  air 
power,  its  strength  in  relation  to  land  and  sea  pow- 
er, and  who  was  to  control  it. 

Throughout  the  Second  Session  of  the  80th  Con- 
gress, the  official  program  of  the  National  Military 
Establishment,  as  voiced  by  Mr.  James  Forrestal, 
the  Secretary  of  Defense,  was  built  on  what  he 
termed  the  "balanced  establishment/*  That  is,  he 
sought  to  give  relative  balance  of  strength  to  each 
of  the  services  within  the  range  of  the  total  appro- 

E nations  which  Congress  and  the  Administration 
sit  justified  to  make.  The  original  program  laid 
before  Congress  by  Secretary  Forrestal  provided  a 
strength  of  55  groups  for  the  Air  Force.  However, 
civilian  and  military  leaders  of  the  Air  Force,  with 
the  strong  backing  of  the  reports  of  the  President's 
Air  Policy  Commission  and  die  Congressional  Avia- 
tion Policy  Board,  worked  vigorously  for  higher  ap- 
propriations to  start  on  the  way  toward  attainment 
of  a  70-group  force.  Secretary  Forrestal,  supported 
by  Army  and  Navy  leaders,  contended  that  to  in- 
crease the  Air  Force  to  70  groups  and  not  give 
corresponding  increases  to  tie  Army  and  Navy 
would  throw  the  Establishment  out  of  balance. 
Such  an  Air  Force,  he  told  Congress,  would  require 
a  larger  Army  to  seize  and  hold  the  larger  bases 
from  which  the  Air  Force  must  operate,  and  a 
larger  Navy  to  keep  open  the  sea  lanes  to  supply 
them.  Subsequently  the  Secretary  met  with  the 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  and  agreed  to  a  plan  to  sup- 
port 66  groups  for  the  Air  Force.  Congress,  how- 
ever, was  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  'necessity 
for  a  greatly  enlarged  Air  Force  as  a  first  line  of 
defense,  and  by  overwhelming  majorities  voted  the 
funds  necessary  to  launch  the  larger  Air  Force  pro- 
gram. This  was  generally  viewed  by  the  public,  as 
well  as  by  Congress,  which  had  so  whole-heartedly 
encouraged  it,  as  a  major  break  of  one  service  away 
from  the  over-all  policy  and  control  of  the  legally 
unified  Military  Establishment. 

The  Navy,  on  the  other  hand,  strove  to  retain 
and  enhance  its  position  as  a  large-scale  operator 
of  air  power,  and  to  that  end  obtained  legislative 
authority  to  suspend  the  construction  of  a  number 
of  modern  vessels  so  as  to  divert  the  funds  thus 
saved  to  begin  construction  of  a  new  65,000  ton 
"super"  aircraft  carrier.  Air  Force  protagonists  re- 
torted that  this  contemplated  the  entrance  of  the 
Navy  into  the  Air  Force's  province  of  strategic  air 
warfare.  The  Navy  subsequently  announced  that 
it  would  take  some  3,000  obsolescent  aircraft  out 
of  storage  and  organize  them  into  units  so  as  to 
accelerate  attainment  of  the  14,500-plane  strength 
it  contended  it  needed.  Air  Force  advocates  con- 
tinued to  charge  that  the  Navy  was  engaged  in 
the  building  up  of  another  air  force  in  duplication 
of  the  U.S.  Air  Force. 

Fanning  the  fire  were  numerous  speeches  by  ar- 
dent Air  Force  and  Navy  advocates  making  broad 
claims  for  the  effectiveness  of  their  own  services 
and,  by  implication,  belittling  the  relative  effec- 
tiveness of  the  other.  These  reached  such  a  point 
that  Secretary  Forrestal  issued  an  order  that 
speeches  of  a  controversial  nature  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  his  office  for  clearance  before  delivery. 

The  Key  West  Conference.  As  early  as  March  Sec- 
retary Forrestal  sought  to  reconcile  the  differences 
and  stop  public  criticism  by  establishing  more 
clearly  the  functions  of  the  Armed  Forces  and  de- 


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NATIONAL  MIUTAKf  ESTABLISHMENT 


lineating  their  responsibilities.  To  that  end  he 
called  a  conference  with  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff. 
The  meeting  was  held  at  the  Naval  Station  at  Key 
West,  Florida,  and  resulted  in  the  promulgation 
of  a  paper,  "Functions  of  the  Armed  Forces  and 
the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff,"  which  subsequently  re- 
placed the  original  Presidential  Executive  Order 
(No*  9877)  issued  at  the  time  of  the  approval  of 
the  National  Security  Act.  In  making  this  paper 
public,  Secretary  Forrestal  said  that  there  had  been 
prior  agreement  on  many  of  the  issues  which  were 
controversial  when  the  original  law  was  enacted 
but  "there  remained  certain  differences  among  the 
services  which  had  not  been  reconciled  by  the  Joint 
Chiefs  of  Staff."  He  said  further,  "decisions  have 
now  been  reached  on  all  controversial  points  and 
\  believe  there  is  now  general  accord  on  practically 
all  matters  which  were  previously  unresolved/* 

In  general,  the  agreement  represented  little 
change  from  the  assignment  of  functions  originally 
determined  upon.  The  major  new  feature  was  the 
assignment  of  "primary"  and  "collateral"  functions 
to  each  service.  The  primary  functions  were  those 
in  which  a  specific  service  had  a  clear-cut  respon- 
sibility. These  were  the  ones  that  had  been  gener- 
ally recognized  as  such  before  the  conference.  The 
collateral  functions  assigned  to  each  service  per- 
mitted its  forces  to  be  employed  to  support  and 
supplement  the  other  Services  in  carrying  out  their 
primary  functions  "whenever  such  participation 
will  result  in  increased  effectiveness  and  wffl  con- 
tribute to  the  over-all  military  objectives." 

As  an  illustration  of  the  new  principle,  the  Sec- 
retary pointed  out  that  "strategic  air  warfare  has 
been  assigned  as  a  primary  function  of  the  Air 
Force,  and  the  Navy  is  assigned  as  a  primary  func- 
tion die  conduct  of  air  operations  necessary  for 
the  accomplishment  of  objectives  in  a  naval  cam- 
paign. Provision  has  been  made  for  naval  aviation 
to  participate  in  the  over-all  air  effort  as  directed 
by  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff.  Moreover,  an  under- 
standing was  reached,  which  does  not  appear  in 
the  'Functions'  paper,  that  the  Navy  will  not  be 
prohibited  from  attacking  any  targets,  inland  or 
otherwise,  which  are  necessary  for  file  accomplish- 
ment of  its  mission.  Similarly,  the  Navy  has  been 
assigned  the  primary  function  of  anti-submarine 
warfare,  while  the  Air  Force  has  been  assigned  that 
duty  as  a  collateral  function." 

The  Newport  Conference.  Subsequently,  late  in 
August  Secretary  Forrestal  called  the  Joint  Chiefs 
of  Staff  into  another  conference  with  him,  this  time 
at  the  Naval  Station  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island. 
Here,  as  before,  the  emphasis  was  on  settling  the 
divergent  opinions  of  the  Air  Force  and  the  Navy 
over  the  use  and  control  of  air  power. 

Following  the  Newport  conference  a  joint  meet- 
ing of  300  of  the  senior  officers  of  the  three  services 
was  held  in  Washington.  Explaining  the  agree- 
ments to  them  Secretary  Forrestal  said: 

"The  topics  discussed  at  Newport  included  .  «  . 
a  clarification  of  some  of  the  decisions  reached  at 
Key  West  last  March  in  the  field  of  assigned  func- 
tions of  each  service.  In  the  latter  area  there  was 
agreement  in  a  clarification  of  the  responsibilities 
of  the  Services  with  respect  to  their  primary  mis- 
sions. 

"Specifically,  this  clarifies  the  position  of  the 
Air  Force  in  die  field  of  strategic  air  warfare  and 
the  position  of  the  Navy  in  that  field. 

"Both  from  the  language  of  the  agreement  and 
exchange  of  oral  views  between  those  who  carry 
responsibilities  in  their  respective  services,  I  am 
convinced  that  at  the  top  command  levels  there 
is  a  clear  understanding  of  the  exclusive  role  of 


the  Air  Force  in  the  field  of  strategic  air  warfare 
and  conversely  the  intent  of  the  Air  Force  is  not 
merely  to  permit  but  to  seek  all  the  help  it  can 
get  from  the  Naval  Air  in  the  use  of  airpower, 
either  strategically  or  tactically. 

"Likewise,  the  Navy  is  assigned  the  exclusive 
role  in  the  field  of  anti-submarine  warfare;  and 
likewise  the  intent  of  the  Navy  is  also  to  invite 
aE  the  help  it  can  get  from  die  Air  Force  in  carry- 
ing out  this  mission. 

"However,  these  decisions  as  reached  and  the 
spirit  of  the  conversations  which  took  place  can 
only  have  force  and  meaning  if  they  are  followed 
through  with  the  aggressive  intent  to  build  and  not 
to  mar  mutual  confidence. 

"The  decisions  themselves  reflect  neither  a  vic- 
tory for  the  Navy  nor  a  defeat  for  the  Air  Force. 
They  do  reflect  my  views  and,  if  followed  through 
with  sincerity  and  tenacity,  will  mean  a  victory 
for  the  country." 

Giving  his  interpretation  to  the  same  gathering, 
Admiral  Louis  E.  Denfeld,  Chief  of  Naval  Opera- 
tions, and  a  member  of  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff, 
pointed  out  that  the  conference  reiterated  that 
strategic  air  warfare  is  a  primary  responsibility  of 
the  Air  Force,  which  remains  responsible  to  the 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  and  higher  authority  for  mak- 
ing plans  for  strategic  air  warfare. 

Admiral  Denfeld,  said,  however,  that  a  "signifi- 
cant addition"  had  been  made  at  Newport:  "The 
Air  Force  recognizes  that  the  Navy  will  be  able 
to  make  significant  contributions  to  any  strategic 
air  plan.  The  Air  Force  will  include  Naval  contri- 
butions in  all  strategic  air  plans  and  in  the  detailed 
estimates  of  over-all  force  requirements  therefor." 

Gen.  Hoyt  S.  Vandenberg,  Chief  of  Staff  of  the 
Air  Force,  and  also  a  member  of  the  Joint  Chiefs 
of  Staff,  ^discussed  the  conference  in  a  similar  vein, 
saying,  "I  believe  that  this  imposes  on  the  Air 
Force  the  requirement  not  only  to  consider  possi- 
ble contributions  of  other  services  to  Air  Force 
functions  but  also  to  seek  out  aggressively  such 
contributions  when  diey  will  add  to  the  effective- 
ness of  the  job  that  we  are  doing.  I  propose  to  be 
guided  by  that  understanding.  Each  service,  in 
my  opinion,  must  do  the  same,  I  confidently  ex- 
pect that  the  Army  and  the  Navy  will  seek  our 
assistance  wherever  and  whenever  we  can  add  to 
their  effectiveness  in  carrying  out  their  primary 
functions." 

Military  Air  Transport  Service.  A  tangible  result 
during  the  year  was  the  consolidation  of  the  Air 
Transport  Service  (an  Air  Force  agency)  and  the 
Naval  Air  Transport  Service.  The  new  organiza- 
tion, utilizing  facilities  and  personnel  of  both  the 
Air  Force  and  the  Navy  and,  at  times,  of  the  Ma- 
rine Corps,  operates  direcdy  under  the  Chief  of 
Staff,  U.S.  Air  Force.  Maj.  Gen.  Laurence  S.  Kuter, 
an  Air  Force  officer,  was  made  commander  of  the 
new  MATS,  and  Rear  Admiral  John  P.  Whitney, 
of  the  Navy,  was  selected  to  be  the  vice  com- 
mander. 

The  new  MATS  is  responsible  for  providing  do- 
mestic and  foreign  scheduled  air  transportation  for 
all  the  Departments  of  the  National  Military  Es- 
tablishment and  other  government  agencies  as  au- 
thorized, together  with  performing  certain  feeder 
line  service  and  non-scheduled  operations  (other 
than  tactical),  air  evacuation  of  hospital  patients, 
and  other  appropriate  tasks  as  assigned.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  year  Secretary  Forrestal  announced 
that  in  its  first  four  months  of  operation  MATS  pro- 
duced 54  percent  more  airlift  than  was  accom- 
plished by  the  Naval  and  Air  Force  components 
in  their  best  pre-merger  month.  This  was  achieved 


NATIONAL  MILITARY  ESTABLISHMENT 


361 


NATIONAL  MILITARY  ESTABLISHMENT 


by  a  two  percent  increase  in  transport  C-54's,  a 
four  percent  increase  in  transport  personnel,  and 
a  slight  decrease  in  total  MATS  personnel. 

Military  Sea  Transport.  In  December,  decision  was 
announced  to  consolidate  all  military  sea  transport 
under  the  Xavy,  This  action  was  taken  upon  rec- 
ommendation of  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff.  It  means 
that  the  entire  Army  water  transport  service,  com- 
prising about  260  vessels,  will  be  transferred  to 
the  control  of  the  Department  of  the  Navy,  which 
already  operates  about  95  such  ships  in  its  own 
transport  service.  At  the  same  time,  Secretary  For- 
restal  stated  that  the  next  logical  step  would  be 
the  consolidation  of  all  land  transport  under  the 
Army. 

Recruiting  Consolidation.  It  was  also  decreed  that 
the  recruiting  facilities  and  services  will  be  used 
jointly  by  all  three  Services.  This  step  contemplates 
joint  use  of  office  space,  consolidation  of  medical 
examining  facilities,  simplification  and  standardi- 
zation of  administrative  forms,  etc. 

Legislative  and  Budgetary  Procedures.  Progress  also 
was  made  in  the  intricate  process  of  coordinating 
the  legislative  and  budgetary  procedures.  Earlier, 
Secretary  Forrestal  had  ordered  that  legislation 
proposed  by  one  of  the  Departments  could  be 
sent  to  the  Bureau  of  the  Budget  or  to  Congress 
only  with  the  concurrence  of  the  two  other  depart- 
ments. Later,  he  appointed  Maj.  Gen.  Wilton  B. 
Persons  Director  of  Legislative  Liaison  to  direct 
the  central  agency  of  contact  between  the  National 
Military  Establishment  and  Congress.  The  Secre- 
tary ordered  that  all  bills  be  forwarded  through 
his  office,  where  after  clearance  each  will  be  as- 
signed to  one  of  the  Departments  or  Boards  to 
handle.  Congress  and  the  Bureau  of  the  Budget 
were  advised  to  address  requests  for  comments  to 
the  Office  of  the  Secretary  of  Defense  rather  than 
,to  one  of  the  Departments  as  in  the  past. 

The  1950  Budget  prepared  during  the  latter 
part  of  1948  for  submission  to  the  81st  Congress 
marked  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  Nation 
that  a  single  coordinated  budget  had  been  formu- 
lated for  all  the  Armed  Services.  It  represented  a 
stupendous  task  and  a  stride  forward,  for  "a  co- 
ordinated budget  must  assume  a  co-ordinated  pkn 
of  operations  based  on  integrated  military  require- 
ments. 

Coordinated  Procurement.  The  Munitions  Board, 
one  of  the  agencies  within  the  National  Military 
Establishment,  has  as  one  of  its  primary  responsi- 
bilities the  coordination  of  activities  with  regard 
to  industrial  matters,  including  procurement,  pro- 
duction, and  distribution  plans.  During  the  year 
it  reported  that  more  than  80  percent  of  the  dollar 
value  of  all  purchases  by  the  NME,  both  in  war 
and  peace,  has  been  assigned  to  single,  joint,  or 
collaborative  purchase  agencies.  Food  purchase 
for  all  the  services  is  now  the  function  of  the  Ar- 
my, the  Navy  buys  all  the  coal,  photographic  ma- 
terials are  procured  by  the  Air  Force,  and  so  on. 

Armed  Forces  Information  School.  As  the  result  of 
recommendations  made  by  a  joint  Army,  Navy, 
and  Air  Force  Committee,  a  single  Armed  Forces 
Information  School  was  recognized  for  all.  The 
Army  Information  School  at  Carlisle  Barracks,  Pa., 
became  the  Armed  Forces  Information  School.  The 
Air  Force  Information  School  at  Craig  Air  Base, 
Ala.,  closed  as  of  June  1,  the  students  going  there- 
after to  the  new  establishment  The  Navy,  which 
previously  did  not  have  a  school  of  its  own,  now 
sends  students  to  the  joint  school. 

Civilian  Components.  The  Board  for  Civilian  Com- 
ponents, popularly  known  as  the  Gray  Board  from 
its  chairman,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Army  Gor- 


don Gray,  submitted  its  jreport  in  August.  The 
Board  recommended  that  "the  structure  of  the  Re- 
serve forces  should  be  simplified  and  made  com- 
mon to  the  three  services/'  thus  carrying  forward 
the  principles  of  unification.  However,  its  princi- 
pal recommendation  was  that  each  service  have 
only  one  Federal  Reserve  Force.  To  carry  this  out 
it  recommended  that  the  National  Guard  be  taken 
from  the  States  and  combined  with  the  Organized 
Reserves  under  the  name  of  "The  National  Guard 
of  the  United  States,"  completely  under  Federal 
control,  and  that  the  Air  National  Guard  and  the 
Air  Reserve  be  combined  under  the  name  of  "The 
United  States  Air  Force  Reserve,"  also  a  complete- 
ly federalized  organization.  These  recommenda- 
tions aroused  immediate  and  vigorous  opposition 
of  the  leaders  of  the  National  Guard  and  the  gov- 
ernors of  various  States.  Subsequently,  Secretary 
Forrestal  recommended  to  President  Truman  that 
consolidation  of  the  Air  National  Guard  with  the 
Air  Reserve  be  effected. 

Other  recommendations  of  the  Gray  Board  for 
the  Reserves  of  all  the  Services  included: 

"The  organization,  administration,  training  and 
supply  of  the  reserve  forces  of  the  three  services 
should  be  completely  integrated  with  the  organi- 
zation, administration,  training  and  supply  of  the 
Regular  Establishments  under  the  direction  of  the 
respective  Secretaries  and  Chiefs  of  Staff,  or  Chief 
of  Naval  Operations,  and  the  Secretaries  and  Staffs 
of  the  three  services  should  hold  the  same  relation 
and  responsibilities  to  the  Reserve  forces  as  they 
do  to  the  Regular  establishments. 

"All  organizational,  administrative,  training  and 
supply  functions  of  the  Reserve  forces  should  be 
handled  by  the  staff  sections  which  handle  the 
same  functions  in  the  Regular  services  and  no  spe- 
cial organizational  structure  should  be  set  up. 

"The  reserve  forces  of  the  three  services  should 
be  fully  administered  and  supplied  through  nor- 
mal chains  of  command,  administration  and  supply 
utilizing  such  minimum  number  of  full  time  per- 
sonnel in  reserve  force  units  as  may  be  required. 

"The  Budget  Staff  of  the  Secretary  of  Defense 
should  make  periodic  reports  to  the  Secretary  stat- 
ing the  emphasis  placed  on  the  Reserve  forces  in 
the  Budgets  of  the  respective  services  and  setting 
forth  any  proposed  changes  or  transfers  in  the  ob- 
ligation and  utilization  of  funds  provided. 

"For  the  purpose  of  considering,  recommending 
and  reporting  to  the  Secretaries  of  the  Army,  Navy, 
and  Air  Force  on  Reserve  force  policy  matters, 
provision  should  be  made  in  each  Service  for  a 
policy  committee  at  least  half  of  the  members  of 
which  shall  be  officers  of  the  Reserve  forces.  From 
the  membership  of  these  three  service  committees 
there  should  be  established  a  Joint  Interservice 
Committee  to  consider,  recommend  and  report  to 
the  Secretary  of  Defense  on  Reserve  force  policies 
and  procedures  of  joint  or  common  interest  in  the 
Reserve  forces  of  all  the  services. 

"All  service  boards  authorized  in  connection 
with  the  promotion,  discharge,  appointment  or 
retirement  of  Reserve  force  personnel  should  be 
composed  of  at  least  50  percent  nonregulars. 

"For  the  duration  of  any  future  national  emer- 
gency or  war,  members  of  the  Reserve  forces 
should  be  members  of  the  respective  Regular 
forces/* 

Medical  and  Hospital  Services.  Organization  of  an 
Ad  Hoc  Committee  on  Medical  and  Hospital  Serv- 
ices of  the  Armed  Forces  was  completed  in  Janu- 
ary with  Maj.  Gen.  Paul  R.  Hawley,  a  retired  medi- 
cal officer  of  the  Army,  as  chairman.  This  com- 
mittee worked  throughout  the  year  and  some  tangi- 


NATIONAL  NUUTAXr  ESTABLISHMENT 


362 


NATIONAL  PARKS  AND  MONUMENTS 


ble  results  were  already  being  shown.  Greater  In- 
terchange of  hospital  facilities  between  the  various 
services  was  coming  into  evidence.  Application  of 
this  principle  in  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  permitted 
the  closing  of  two  of  the  six  hospitals  there  and 
led  to  better  utilization  of  the  medical  staffs  of 
the  three  services  through  the  creation  of  a  Pana- 
ma Area  Joint  Medical  Advisory  Committee.  The 
chairman  of  the  Joint  Advisory  Committee  serves 
as  Medical  Director  on  the  staff  of  the  Com- 
mander-m-Chief,  Caribbean  Command,  and  thus 
is  in  a  position  to  obtain  assignment  of  medical 
experts  of  any  of  the  three  services  for  special  duty 
in  any  medical  activity  where  their  skills  are  need- 
ed temporarily.  Hospitalization  of  the  personnel  of 
all  three  services  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Canal 
Zone  was  assigned  to  the  Navy,  while  their  hospi- 
taBzatlQn  on  the  Pacific  side  was  assigned  to  the 
Army.  Indications  pointed  to  further  extension  of 
such  practices. 

Uniform  Code  of  Justice.  In  July  Secretary  For- 
restal  appointed  another  Ad  Hoc  Committee  to 
prepare  a  "modern  and  uniform  code  of  military 
justice  for  the  Armed  Services,"  with  Professor 
Edmund  Morris  Morgan,  Jr.,  o£  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, as  chairman.  It  is  expected  that  this  committee 
will  prepare  for  submission  to  the  81st  Congress  a 
code  for  the  Army,  Navy,  and  Air  Force  to  super- 
cede  the  Army's  Articles  o£  War  and  the  Navy's 
Articles  for  the  Government  of  the  Navy. 

Joint  Use  of  Air  Bases.  Also  in  July  Secretary  For- 
restal  directed  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  to  make  a 
study  to  determine  the  feasibility  of  joint  use  of 
air  Bases  by  the  Air  Force  and  Naval  aviation. 

Hoover  Commission.  A  further  top-level  study  of 
the  National  Security  Organization  was  that  under- 
taken by  a  committee  of  the  Commission  on  Or- 
ganization of  the  Executive  Branch  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, which  was  created  by  an  Act  of  Con- 
gress approved  by  President  Truman  on  July  7, 
1947.  Former  President  Herbert  Hoover,  chairman 
of  the  Commission,,  appointed  Ferdinand  Eber- 
stadt,  a  New  York  investment  banker,  as  chairman 
of  the  committee  to  study  the  defense  structure 
with  a  group  of  retired  Army,  Navy,  and  Air  Force 
officers  as  advisers  on  military  questions. 

In  December  the  Eberstadt  Committee  made 
a  comprehensive  report  to  the  Hoover  Commission 
in  which  it  expressed  the  belief  that  "the  national 
security  organization,  established  by  the  National 
Security  -Act  of  1947,  is,  on  the  whole,  soundly 
constructed,  but  is  not  yet  working  well/'  The 
committee  announced  that  it  had  considered  and 
rejected  ( subject  to  dissenting  opinions  by  some  of 
its  members)  the  three  major  changes  frequently 
suggested  as  necessary  to  improve  the  new  organi- 
zation: (1)  A  single  Military  Chief  of  Staff  and 
General  Staff  over  all  three  military  services;  (2) 
merger  of  the  three  military  departments  into  a 
single  department;  and  (3)  merger  of  the  Naval 
air  arm  with  the  Air  Force. 

Specifically  the  Committee  recommended: 

"Its  investigations  convinced  the  committee  that 
there  are  six  major  areas  or  aspects  in  which  im- 
provement in  the  interest  of  greater  efficiency  and 
economy  is  both  possible  and  necessary. 

"They  involve:  (1)  Strengthening  central  au- 
thority in  the  military  establishment;  (2)  over- 
hauling the  military  budget;  (3)  improving  team- 
work throughout  the  national  security  organiza- 
tion; (4)  relating  scientific  research  and  develop- 
ment more  closely  to  strategic  planning;  (5)  expe- 
diting plans  for  civilian — including  economic,  in- 
dustrial, and  manpower — mobilization  in  case  of 
war,  and  providing  for  continuous  appraisal  of 


the  effect  of  all  national  security  programs  on  our 
national  resources,  both  human  and  material;  and 
(6)  making  adequate  provision  for — and  against 
— new  and  unconventional  means  of  warfare/* 
— LEROY  WHITMAN 

NATIONAL  OPINION  RESEARCH  CENTER.  An  institu- 
tion established  in  1941  by  the  Field  Foundation, 
Inc.,  of  New  York  City,  in  association  with  the 
University  of  Denver,  as  the  first  nonprofit,  non- 
commercial organization  in  the  United  States  de- 
voted to  ascertaining  public  opinion  and  to  de- 
vising and  testing  new  methods  of  attitude  and 
opinion  research.  Another  purpose  of  the  Center  is 
to  review  and  analyze  the  results  of  surveys  made 
by  other  polling  organizations,  both  in  the  United 
States  and  abroad.  The  Center's  findings  and  find- 
ings of  other  polls  in  the  United  States  and  abroad 
are  published  in  Opinion  News,  which  is  designed 
for  the  use  of  those  who  follow  closely  the  trends 
of  public  opinion.  In  October,  1948,  publication 
of  Opinion  News  was  suspended  in  order  that 
changes  in  its  scope,  character,  and  sponsorship 
might  be  worked  out. 

The  1948  program  of  the  Center,  in  addition  to 
specific  research  for  clients  into  attitudes  of  uni- 
versity alumni  toward  their  universities,  attitudes 
of  public  school  teachers,  medical  practitioners, 
and  people  generally  toward  the  use  of  live  animals 
for  medical  research,  attitudes  of  medical  men  to- 
ward various  types  of  public  medical  service,  in- 
cluded: (1)  continued  research  on  a  grant  from 
the  Rockefeller  Foundation  on  interviewer  bias 
and  the  handling  of  the  interview  situation  as 
sources  of  error  in  opinion  data;  ( 2 )  initiation  of  a 
three-year  program  of  research  financed  by  the 
Merrill  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Finan- 
cial Knowledge  and  done  in  cooperation  with  the 
Bureau  of  Business  and  Economic  Research  of  the 
University  of  Illinois  into  the  processes  by  which 
businessmen's  opinions  about  the  future  are 
formed,  changed,  and  incorporated  into  their  poli- 
cies and  practices;  and  ( 3 )  initiation  of  a  study  of 
intergroup  tensions  with  special  reference  to  eth- 
nic groups. 

During  1948  also  the  Center,  in  cooperation  with 
departments  and  other  research  units  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago,  began  the  development  of  an 
educational  program  for  the  training  of  advanced 
students  in  the  field  of  communications  and  public 
opinion. 

Director,  Clyde  W.  Hart;  Director  of  the  NORC 
Denver  affiliate  ( separately  incorporated  under  the 
name  of  Opinion  Research  Center),  Don  Cahalan. 
Headquarters:  University  of  Chicago,  4901  South 
Ellis  Ave.,  Chicago  15,  111.  Denver  affiliate:  Uni- 
versity of  Denver,  Denver  10,  Colo.  Eastern  office: 
Paul  B.  Sheatsley,  280  Madison  Ave.,  New  York 
16,  N.Y. 

NATIONAL  PARKS  AND  MONUMENTS.  Increased  pub- 
lic use  of  the  national  parks,  national  monuments, 
and  other  units  of  the  national  park  system;  the  ad- 
dition to  the  system  of  several  important  historical 
areas  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States;  Con- 
gressional authorization  for  the  establishment  of 
other  important  historical  areas;  and  acquisition  of 
land  for  the  Everglades  National  Park  in  Florida 
were  major  developments  of  the  year  1948. 

Nearly  30  million  persons  visited  the  public 
reservations  administered  by  the  National  Park 
Service  during  the  year.  Yellowstone  National 
Park  (Wyoming-Montana-Idaho),  the  world's  old- 
est national  park,  attracted  more  than  a  million 
visitors,  as  did  also  Rocky  Mountain  National  Park 


NATIONAL  PARKS  AND  MONUMENTS 


363 


NATIONAL  RESEARCH  COUNCIL 


(Colorado),  Great  Smoky  Mountains  National 
Park,  (North  Carolina-Tennessee),  Blue  Ridge 
Parkway  (Virginia-North  Carolina),  and  the  Lin- 
coln Memorial  in  the  Nation's  capital.  Lake  Mead 
Recreational  Area  (Arizona-Nevada)  had  nearly 
1%  million  visitors;  and  more  than  2  million  per- 
sons took  advantage  of  the  facilities  available  at 
Lake  Texoma  Recreational  Area  (Texas-Oklahoma). 

Three  historical  areas  were  added  to  the  national 
park  system  in  1948:  Saratoga  National  Historical 
Park,  lying  west  of  the  Hudson  about  25  miles 
north  of  Albany,  N.Y.,  and  containing  the  site  of 
the  battle  which  marked  the  turning  point  of  the 
Revolutionary  War;  Fort  Sumter  National  Monu- 
ment in  Charleston  Harbor,  S.C.,  site  of  the  open- 
ing military  engagement  of  the  War  Between  the 
States;  and  Hampton  National  Historic  Site,  near 
Towson,  Md.,  containing  a  fine  example  of  a 
Georgian  mansion  erected  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  1 8th  century.  The  Hampton  property,  desig- 
nated as  a  national  historic  site  following  its  acqui- 
sition by  the  Federal  Government  with  funds  pro- 
vided by  the  Avalon  Foundation,  is  maintained  by 
the  Society  for  the  Preservation  of  Maryland  An- 
tiquities. 

Laws  were  enacted  in  1948  for  the  establishment 
of  three  other  historical  areas  after  certain  condi- 
tions have  been  met.  Most  significant  is  the  law  au- 
thorizing establishment  of  Independence  National 
Historical  Park  to  include  certain  historic  structures 
and  properties  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  associated  with 
the  American  Revolution  and  the  founding  and 
growth  of  the  United  States.  This  law  authorizes 
the  appropriation  by  Congress  of  $4,435,000  for 
acquisition  of  the  properties  involved  and  the  ap- 
pointment by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  of  an 
advisory  commission  of  not  to  exceed  11  members. 

The  other  two  historical  areas  authorized  for 
establishment  in  1948  are  the  DeSoto  National 
Memorial  in  the  vicinity  of  Bradenton  and  Tampa, 
Fla.,  to  commemorate  the  discoveries  of  this  famous 
explorer,  and  Fort  Vancouver  National  Monument, 
in  the  State  of  Washington,  to  preserve  the  site  of 
the  original  Hudson's  Bay  Company  stockade. 

Maintenance  of  two  areas  under  National  Park 
Service  jurisdiction — Atlanta  Campaign  National 
Historic  Site,  marking  tibe  significant  points  on  the 
route  of  Sherman's  march,  and  New  Echota  Mark- 
er National  Memorial,  containing  the  site  of  the 
last  capital  of  the  Cherokee  Indians  in  Georgia — 
was  taken  over  by  the  Georgia  Department  of 
State  Parks.  Protection  of  another  unit  of  the  na- 
tional park  system — Devil  Postpile  National  Monu- 
ment, Calif.,  containing  a  series  of  symmetrical 
blue-gray  columns  believed  to  be  a  remnant  of  a 
basaltic  lava  flow— was  assumed  by  the  Forest 
Service  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The 
monument,  approximately  800  acres  in  extent,  is 
within  the  Sierra  National  Forest.  All  three  of 
these  areas,  however,  still  are  units  of  the  national 
park  system. 

At  tie  close  of  1948  the  system  had  a  total  of 
180  units,  classified  as  follows:  national  parks,  28; 
national  monuments,  86;  national  historical,  mili- 
tary, and  memorial  parks,  17;  national  battlefield 
parks  and  sites,  8;  national  historic  sites,  memorials, 
and  cemeteries,  31;  national  parkways,  3;  recrea- 
tional areas,  4;  recreational  demonstration  areas, 
2;  and  the  National  Capital  Parks  which  are  con- 
sidered as  one  unit.  The  national  park  system  cov- 
ers approximately  23,690,000  acres,  of  which  ap- 
proximately 813,000  acres  are  not  Federally  owned. 

Approximately  135,000  acres  were  purchased  in 
1948  from  the  Model  Land  Company  for  the  Ever- 
glades National  Park  in  southern  Florida.  This  ac- 


quisition was  the  third  to  be  made  from  the  $2  mil- 
lion fund  given  to  the  Federal  Government  for  the 
purpose  by  the  State  of  Florida  when  the  park  was 
established  in  June,  1947.  This  sub-tropical  wilder- 
ness park  has  extensive  water-courses,  saw-grass 
prairies,  mangrove  forests,  and  a  variety  of  Birds 
and  animals. 

Among  other  noteworthy  developments  of  the 
year  were  the  appropriation  by  the  Congress  of 
$500,000  for  the  improvement  of  the  Statue  of 
Liberty,  universal  symbol  of  freedom  and  democ- 
racy, on  Bedloe's  Island  at  the  entrance  of  New 
York  Harbor;  completion  of  a  comprehensive  sur- 
vey of  concession  operations  in  National  Park 
Sen-ice  areas  by  an  advisory  group  appointed  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  and  approval  by  him 
of  a  new  national  park  concessions  policy;  appoint- 
ment of  Bernard  DeVoto,  author  and  historian,  to 
membership  on  the  Advisory  Board  on  National 
Parks,  Historic  Sites,  Buildings,  and  Monuments; 
and  issuance  by  the  U.S.  Travel  Division  of  the  Na- 
tional Park  Service  of  a  monthly  magazine  entitled 
Travel  USA. 

A  policy  set  up  early  in  1948  for  the  Travel  Di- 
vision provides  that  its  activities  shall  be  supple- 
mentary to  those  of  established  State  and  private 
travel  organizations,  not  in  competition  with  or  a 
duplication  of  such  programs. 

As  in  past  years,  the  Sendee  had  the  aid  of  con- 
servationists throughout  the  Nation  in  opposing 
pressures  for  the  cutting  of  forests,  the  grazing  of 
meadows,  the  damming  of  streams  and  lakes,  and 
other  destructive  uses  of  the  national  parks. 

— NEWTON  B.  DKUEY 

NATIONAL  RESEARCH  COUNCIL  The  Council  was 
founded  by  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1916,  and  was  established  on  a  permanent  basis  on 
May  11,  1918,  by  Executive  Order  of  President 
Wilson,  in  order  to  promote  research  in  the  mathe- 
matical, physical,  and  biological  sciences,  and  in 
the  application  of  these  sciences  to  engineering, 
agriculture,  medicine,  and  other  useful  arts,  with 
the  object  of  increasing  knowledge,  of  strengthen- 
ing the  national  defense,  and  of  contributing  in 
other  ways  to  the  public  welfare.  The  membership 
of  the  Council,  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences,  is  composed  largely 
of  representatives  of  approximately  ninety  of  the 
major  scientific  and  technical  societies  of  the  coun- 
try, together  with  representatives  of  certain  other 
research  organizations,  representatives  of  govern- 
ment scientific  bureaus,  and  a  limited  number  of 
members  at  large.  Serving  on  Committees  of  the 
Council  are  approximately  1,800  outstanding  sci- 
entists. 

The  Council  does  not  maintain  scientific  labora- 
tories but  functions  through  sponsorship  of  con- 
ferences, technical  committees,  surveys,  scientific 
publications,  and  administration  of  funds  for  re- 
search projects  and  fellowships.  As  an  operating 
agency  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  (q.v.), 
the  Council  is  called  upon  frequently  by  agencies 
of  the  U.S.  Government  for  advice  and  assistance 
in  connection  with  many  problems  of  research.. 

Council  publications  include  a  series  of  Bulle- 
tins, Reprints,  and  Circulars.  Council  officers:  Det- 
lev  W.  Bronk,  Chairman;  Raymund  L.  Zwemer, 
Executive  Secretary;  G.  E>.  Meid,  Business  Man- 
ager. Headquarters:  2101  Constitution  Ave.,  Wash- 
ington 25,  D.C. 

NATIONAl  RESEARCH  COUNCIl  (Canada).  Founded  in 
1916  to  have  charge  of  all  matters  affecting  scien- 
tific and  industrial  research  in  Canada  which  may 


NATIONAL  SECURITY  CQIWCE 


364 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


be  assigned  to  it  by  the  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council  on  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research. 

In  October,  1948,  the  Council's  staff  of  2,670, 
including  those  employed  in  several  laboratory 
units  operated  outside  of  Ottawa,  was  grouped  in 
laboratory  divisions  of  applied  biology,  applied 
chemistry,  mechanical  engineering,  physics,  radio 
and  electrical  engineering,  atomic  energy,  infor- 
mation services,  building  research,  and  medical 
research.  Outside  activities  in  1948-49  included  a 
research  program  of  217  grants  for  work  under  the 
direction  of  committees,  including  medical  research 
in  various  hospital  centers,  the  granting  of  226 
scholarships  for  postgraduate  research,  and  the 
awarding  of  122  grants  in  aid  to  responsible  work- 
ers for  special  investigations. 

A  Crown  company,  the  Canadian  Patents  and 
Development,  Ltd.,  has  been  formed  to  make  avail- 
able to  industry  through  licensing  arrangements, 
inventions,  new  processes,  and  improvements  de- 
veloped by  scientific  workers  of  the  Council.  Mem- 
bership of  the  Council:  20.  Officers:  C.  J.  Macken- 
zie, President;  S.  P.  Eagleson,  General  Secretary. 
Headquarters:  National  Research  Building,  Ot- 
tawa, Canada. 

NATIONAL  SECURITY  COUNCIL  The  Council  was  es- 
tablished, pursuant  to  Public  Law  253,  title  I,  sec- 
tion 101,  Eightieth  Congress,  July  26,  1947,  to  ad- 
vise the  President  with  respect  to  the  integration 
of  domestic,  foreign,  and  military  policies  relating 
to  the  national  security  so  as  to  enable  the  military 
services  and  the  other  departments  and  agencies  of 
the  Government  to  cooperate  more  effectively  in 
matters  involving  the  national  security.  In  addi- 
tion to  performing  such  other  functions  as  the 
President  may  direct,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Council, 
subject  to  the  direction  of  the  President:  (1)  to 
assess  and  appraise  the  objectives,  commitments, 
and  risks  of  the  United  States  in  relation  to  our 
actual  and  potential  military  power,  in  the  inter- 
est of  national  security,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
recommendations  to  the  President  in  connection 
therewith;  and  (2)  to  consider  policies  on  matters 
of  common  interest  to  the  departments  and  agen- 
cies of  the  Government  concerned  with  the  na- 
tional security,  and  to  make  recommendations  to 
the  President  in  connection  therewith. 

Under  the  direction  of  the  Council  is  a  Central 
Intelligence  Agency  headed  by  a  Director  of  Cen- 
tral Intelligence. 

The  Council  is  composed  of  the  President,  the 
Secretaries  of  State,  Defense,  the  Army,  the  Navy, 
and  the  Air  Force,  the  Chairman  of  the  National 
Security  Resources  Board,  and  such  of  the  follow- 
ing officers  as  the  President  may  designate  from 
time  to  time:  The  Secretaries  of  the  executive  de- 
partments, the  Chairman  of  the  Munitions  Board, 
and  the  Chairman  of  the  Research  and  Develop- 
ment Board,  The  Council  is  assisted  by  a  Staff 
headed  by  a  civilian  executive  secretary  appointed 
by  the  President 

NATIONAL  SECURITY  RESOURCES  BOARD.  This  Board 
was  created  by  the  United  States  National  Security 
Act  of  1947  to  "advise  the  President  concerning  the 
coordination  ^of  military,  industrial,  and  civilian 
mobilization."  It  comprises  a  Chairman,  appointed 
from  civilian  life  by  the  President  and  confirmed 
by  the  U.S.  Senate,  and  such  other  heads  of  Gov- 
ernment departments  or  agencies  as  the  President 
may  designate.  Acting  chairman:  John  R.  Steel- 
man,  who  succeeded  Arthur  M.  HOI  on  Dec.  15> 
1948.  Board  members  include  the  Secretaries  of 
State,  Treasury,  Defense,  Interior,  Agriculture, 


Commerce  and  Labor.  The  chairman  of  the  Board 
is  also  ex  officio  member  of  National  Security  Coun- 
cil 

NSRB  is  the  chief  civilian  agency  charged  with 
the  duty  of  planning  for  most  effective  mobiliza- 
tion and  use  of  nation's  entire  resources — indus- 
trial, material  and  human — in  the  event  of  an  emer- 
gency. During  1948  the  Board  issued  staff  studies 
on  electric  power,  communications,  machine  tools, 
scrap  iron,  and  dispersion  of  industry.  Other  stud- 
ies were  nearing  completion,  and  an  over-all  re- 
port on  mobilization  policies  and  programs  was 
expected  to  be  submitted  to  the  President  early  in 
1949. 

NAURU  (Pleasant)  ISLAND.  An  atoll  in  the  mid-Pacific 
(166°  E.;  26  miles  south  of  the  equator).  Formerly 
a  mandate  of  the  League  of  Nations,  Nauru  be- 
came (Oct.  22,  1947)  a  United  Nations  Trust  Terri- 
tory under  the  joint  administration  of  Australia, 
Great  Britain,  and  New  Zealand.  Australia  contin- 
ued to  administer  the  island.  Area:  8  square  miles. 
Population  (1947):  2,794.  Phosphate  is  the  chief 
product,  a  total  of  102,400  tons  being  exported  in 
1946-47.  Administrator:  Mark  Ridgway. 

NAVAL  PROGRESS.  Advancement  of  the  United 
States  Navy  during  1948  and  an  indication  of  its 
future  development  result  from  decisions  reached 
by  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  at  conferences  in  Key 
West,  Fla.,  and  Newport,  R.I.  (see  NATIONAL  MIL- 
ITARY ESTABLISHMENT,  MILITARY  PROGRESS).  At 
these  sessions,  it  was  agreed  that  the  Navy  should 
have  exclusive  responsibility  in  the  field  of  anti- 
submarine warfare,  now  of  increased  significance 
as  a  result  of  improved  undersea  craft,  equipped 
with  schnorkel  breathing  devices.  Additionally,  the 
JCS  said  that  just  as  the  Air  Force  was  to  assist 
the  Navy  in  combating  submarines,  so  the  Navy 
was  given  the  collateral  task  of  aiding  the  Air 
Force  in  the  latter's  responsibility  for  conduct  of 
strategic  air  warfare. 

Because  of  its  importance  in  the  progress  of  the 
U.S.  Navy,  the  text  of  Section  V  of  the  JCS  agree- 
ment is  presented  here  in  its  entirety: 

"Within  the  Department  of  the  Navy,  assigned 
forces  include  the  entire  operating  forces  of  the 
United  .States  Navy,  including  naval  aviation  and 
tie  U.S.  Marine  Corps.  These  forces  are  organized, 
trained,  and  equipped  primarily  for  prompt  and 
sustained  combat  operations  at  sea,  and  for  air  and 
land  operations  incident  thereto.  Of  the  three  ma- 
jor Services,  the  Navy  has  primary  interest  in  all 
operations  at  sea,  except  in  those  operations  other- 
wise assigned  herein. 

A.  Primary  Functions:  1.  To  organize,  train,  and 
equip  Navy  and  Marine  Forces  for  the  conduct  of 
prompt  and  sustained  combat  operations  at  sea, 
including  operations  of  sea  based  aircraft  and 
their  land  based  naval  air  components.  Specifically: 
(a)  To  seek  out  and  destroy  enemy  naval  forces 
and  to  suppress  enemy  sea  commerce,  (b)  To  gain 
and  maintain  general  sea  supremacy,  (c)  To  con- 
trol vital  sea  areas  and  to  protect  vital  sea  lines  of 
communication,  (d)  To  establish  and  maintain  lo- 
cal superiority  (including  air)  in  an  area  of  naval 
operations,  (e)  To  seize  and  defend  advanced 
naval  bases  and  to  conduct  such  land  operations  as 
may  be  essential  to  the  prosecution  of  a  naval  cam- 
paign. 

2.  To  conduct  air  operations  as  necessary  for 
the  accomplishment  of  objectives  in  a  naval  cam- 
paign. 

3.  To  organize  and  equip,  in  coordination  with 
the  other  Services,  and  to  provide  Naval  forces,  in- 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


865 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


eluding  Xaval  close  air  support  forces,  for  the  con- 
duct of  joint  amphibious  operations,  and  to  be  re- 
sponsible for  the  amphibious  training  of  all  forces 
as  assigned  for  joint  amphibious  operations  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  policies  and  doctrines  of  the 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff. 

4.  To  develop,  in  coordination  with  the  other 
Services,  the  doctrines,  procedures,  and  equipment 
of  naval  forces  for  amphibious  operations,  and  the 
doctrines  and  procedures  for  joint  amphibious  op- 
erations. 

5.  To  furnish  adequate,  timely,  and  reliable  in- 
telligence for  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps. 

6.  To  be  responsible  for  naval  reconnaissance, 
anti-submarine  warfare,  the  protection  of  shipping 
and  for   mine  laying,   including  the   air  aspects 
thereof. 

7.  To  provide  air  transport  essential  for  naval 
operations, 

8.  To  provide  sea  based  air  defense  and  the 
sea  based  means  for  coordinating  control  for  de- 
fense against  air  attack,  coordinating  with  the  other 
Services  in  matters  of  joint  concern, 

9.  To  provide  naval  (including  naval  air)  forc- 
es as  required  for  the  defense  of  the  United  States 
against  air  attack,  in  accordance  with  joint  doc- 
trines and  procedures  approved  by  the  JCS, 

10.  To  furnish  aerial  photography  as  necessary 
for  naval  and  Marine  Corps  operations. 

1L  To  maintain  the  Marine  Corps,  which  shall 
include  land  combat  and  service  forces  and  such 
aviation  as  may  be  organic  therein.  Its  specific 
functions  are:  (a)  To  provide  Fleet  Marine  Forces 
of  combined  arms,  together  with  supporting  air 
components  for  service  with  the  Fleet  in  the  seizure 
or  defense  of  advanced  naval  bases  and  for  the 
conduct  of  such  land  operations  as  may  be  essen- 
tial to  the  prosecution  of  a  naval  campaign.  These 
functions  do  not  contemplate  the  creation  of  a 
second  land  army,  (b)  To  provide  detachments 
and  organizations  for  service  on  armed  vessels  of 
the  Navy  and  security  detachments  for  the  protec- 
tion of  Naval  property  at  naval  stations  and  bases. 

(c)  To  develop,  in  coordination  with  the  Army, 
Navy,  and  Air  Force  the  tactics,  technique,  and 
equipment  employed  by  landing  forces  in  amphib- 
ious operations.  The  Marine  Corps  shall  have  pri- 
mary interest  in  the  development  of  those  landing 
force  tactics,  technique,  and  equipment  which  are 
of  common  interest  to  the  Army  and  Marine  Corps. 

(d)  To  train  and  equip,  as  required,  Marine  forces 
for  airborne  operations,  in  coordination  with  the 
Army,  Navy,  and  Air  Force  in  accordance  with 
policies  and  doctrines  of  the  JCS.  (e)  To  develop, 
in  coordination  with  the  Army,   Navy,   and  Air 
Force  doctrines,  procedures,  and  equipment  of  in- 
terest to  the  Marine  Corps  for  airborne  operations 
and  not  provided  for  in  Section  IV,  Par.  A8. 

12.  To  provide  forces,  as  directed  by  proper 
authority  for  the  establishment  of  military  govern- 
ment, pending  transfer  of  this  responsibility  to 
other  authority. 

B.  Collateral  Functions:  The  forces  developed 
and  trained  to  perform  the  primary  functions  set 
forth  above  shall  be  employed  to  support  and  sup- 
plement the  other  Services  in  carrying  out  their 
primary  functions,  where  and  whenever  such  par- 
ticipation will  result  in  increased  effectiveness  and 
will  contribute  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  over- 
all military  objectives.  The  JCS  member  of  the 
Service  having  primary  responsibility  for  a  function 
shall  be  the  agent  of  the  JCS  to  present  to  that 
body  the  requirements  for  and  plans  for  the  em- 
ployment of  all  forces  to  carry  out  the  function. 
He  shall  also  be  responsible  for  presenting  to  the 


JCS  for  final  decision  any  disagreement  within  the 
field  of  his  primary  responsibility  which  has  not 
been  resolved.  This  shall  not  be  construed  to  pre- 
vent any  member  of  the  JCS  from  presenting  uni- 
laterally any  issue  of  disagreement  with  another 
Service.  Certain  specific  collateral  functions  of  the 
Navy  and  Marine  Corps  are: 

1.  To  interdict  enemy  land  and  air  power  and 
communications  through  operation  at  sea. 

2.  To  conduct  close  air  support  for  land  opera- 
tions. 

3.  To  furnish  aerial  photography  for  cartograph- 
ic purposes. 

4.  To  be  prepared  to  participate  in  the  over-all 
air  effort  as  directed  by  the  JCS/' 

Translated  into  terms  of  ships  and  men,  these 
decisions  mean  vigorous  emphasis  upon  develop- 
ment of  improved  submarines  and  simultaneously 
of  **hunter-killer"  task  units  to  destroy  enemy  un- 
dersea marauders  and  the  training  of  personnel  in 
new  concepts  of  naval  warfare.  Because  the  bat- 
tleship has  little  purpose  in  a  submarine  fight,  its 
importance  has  so  diminished  that  only  the  U.S.S. 
Missouri,  aboard  whose  decks  the  Japanese  sur- 
rendered in  August,  1945,  remains  of  the  dread- 
naughts  in  active  service.  Replacing  the  battleship 
as  the  capital  ship  of  the  Navy  is  the  aircraft  car- 
rier. During  World  War  II,  naval  aircraft  flying 
from  flattops  proved  their  effectiveness  against  sub- 
marines in  the  Battle  of  the  Atlantic.  Additionally, 
because  the  Navy  has  been  given  an  ancillary  role 
in  strategic  air  warfare,  its  plans  for  a  65,000-ton 
aircraft  carrier — storm  center  of  controversy — 
gain  new  significance. 

Navy  Commanders.  Directing  progress  of  the  Navy 
during  1948  were  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  John  L. 
Sullivan;  Under  Secretary  of  the  Navy  for  Air, 
John  N.  Brown;  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
Mark  E.  Andrews;  Chief  of  Naval  Operations, 
Adm.  Louis  E.  Denfeld;  and  Vice  Chief  of  Naval 
Operations,  Vice  Adm.  A.  W.  Radford. 

Other  top  admirals  include  Deputy  Chief  of 
Naval  Operations  (Administration),  Rear  Adm. 
Charles  Wellborn,  Jr.;  DCNO  (Air),  Vice  Adm. 
John  D.  Price;  DCNO  (Logistics),  Vice  Adm. 
Robert  P.  Carney;  DCNO  (Operations),  Vice  Adm. 
Arthur  D.  Struble;  DCNO  (personnel),  Vice 
Adm.  William  M.  Fechteler;  and  Chief  of  General 
Planning  Group,  Rear  Adm.  Maurice  E.  Curts. 

The  Naval  Establishment.  The  Department  of  the 
Navy,  alternatively  referred  to  as  the  Naval  Estab- 
lishment, consists  of  three  principal  parts:  Operat- 
ing Forces,  Navy  Department,  and  Shore  Estab- 
lishment. The  Operating  Forces  are  composed  of 
the  Atlantic  Fleet,  under  command  of  Adm.  W.  H. 
P.  Blandy,  and  the  Pacific  Fleet,  commanded  by 
Adm.  DeWitt  C.  Ramsey,  the  former  fleet  with  a 
subsidiary  force  under  Actm.  Richard  L.  Connolly 
in  the  Eastern  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean  and  the 
latter  with  a  secondary  group  of  ships  in  the  Far 
East,  commanded  by  Vice  Adm.  Russell  S.  Berkey. 
The  Navy  Department,  located  in  Washington^ 
D.C.,  is  the  executive  part  of  the  Naval  Establish- 
ment and  is  responsible  for  development  of  over- 
all policy,  command,  administrative  and  logistic 
direction  of  both  the  Operating  Forces  and  the 
Shore  Establishment.  Marine  Corps  Headquarters 
are  under  the  Navy  Department  Field  activities  of 
the  Navy  Department  are  pkced  under  the  Shore 
Establishment  and  include  activities  relating  to 
maintaining,  supplying,  equipping,  repairing,  over- 
hauling, and  rendering  similar  services  to  the  Op- 
erating Forces. 

It  is  upon  the  Operating  Forces*  roaming  the 
seas  of  the  world,  that  rests  the  broad  responsibil- 


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366 


HAVAl  PROGRESS 


ity  of  fulfilling  the  Navy's  role  in  National  Defense 
and  of  supporting  fundamental  national  policies 
and  interests.  Therefore,  both  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment and  Shore  Establishment  exist  for  the  purpose 
of  supporting  the  Operating  Forces. 

Atlantic  and  Pacific  Fleets.  To  achieve  its  Standing 
objective — control  of  the  seas — the  Navy  divides 
among  its  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Fleets  a  total  of 
776  active  combatant  and  non-combatant  ships. 
There  aie  one  battleship,  II  Midway  Class  carriers, 
3  light  carriers,  7  escort  carriers,  10  heavy  cruisers, 
15  light  cruisers,  6  anti-aircraft  cruisers,  147  de- 
stroyers, 13  destroyer  escorts,  80  submarines,  54 
mine  vessels,  50  patrol  vessels,  151  amphibious  and 
228  auxiliary  craft.  Relegated  to  the  "mothball"  or 
"zipper"  fleet  and  ready  for  service  in  event  of 
emergency  are  655  combatant  and  1,215  non-com- 
batant ships,  a  total  reserve  of  1,870  vessels.  At 
the  time  of  the  Japanese  surrender,  the  Navy  had 
approximately  1,300  combatant  ships  and  with 
auxiliary  vessels,  but  excluding  small  landing  craft, 
the  total  was  11,000  ships. 

Each  of  the  Navy's  fleets  contains  a  carrier  strik- 
ing force,  an  amphibious  force,  a  Fleet  Marine 
Force,  a  submarine  force,  units  required  for  naval 
reconnaissance  and  anti-submarine  warfare,  and 
the  necessary  carrier  air  groups  and  Fleet  Air 
Wings.  The  Atlantic  Fleet,  for  example,  has  in  ac- 
tive status  9  carriers,  4  escort  carriers,  16  cruisers, 
83  destroyers,  45  submarines,  and  8  destroyer  es- 
corts, plus  amphibious  lift  for  two  Marine  Corps 
Regimental  Combat  Teams. 

From  the  main  fleets,  naval  forces  rotate  on 
outpost  duty  in  the  Eastern  Atlantic  and  Mediter- 
ranean, in  the  Western  Pacific  and  Far  East.  De- 
ployment of  these  vessels  to  strategic  areas  is  ex- 
plained by  Admiral  Denfeld  as  part  of  "our  strat- 
egy for  peace."  Thus,  the  Navy  maintains  a  carrier 
and  supporting  ships  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
cruising  in  the  waters  off  China  is  a  task  group 
built  around  two  carriers. 

Carrier  Task  Group.  Described  by  Admiral  Den- 
feld as  the  "core  of  the  Navy's  striking  power,"  is 
the  fast  carrier  task  group.  Steaming  at  a  speed 
of  25  knots  or  faster,  its  ships  can  throw  up  6,000 
shells  per  second  or  200  tons  of  explosive  metal  per 
minute.  Navy  experts  maintain  that  per  square  foot 
of  target  area  no  other  installation  has  comparable 
defense  to  a  carrier.  Because  of  its  mobility,  the 
carrier  task  group  can  achieve  tactical  surprise, 
striking  a  target  at  Point  X  one  day  and  then  hit- 
ting Y  with  equal  force  600  miles  away  the  next 
day.  Admiral  Denfeld  has  said  that  "immediate 
and  effective  use  of  sea-air  power  may  well  be  a 
decisive  factor  in  a  war's  initial  stages/* 

The  fast  carrier  task  group  may  be  pictured  as 
three  series  of  enormous  circles,  with  each  circle 
representing  a  ring  of  ships  or  planes.  At  the  core 
of  the  inner  circle  typically  are  four  aircraft  car- 
riers, separated  from  each  other  by  more  than  two 
miles.  Aboard  each  carrier  are  approximately  2,000 
men.  Each  carrier  has  its  own  fighter,  dive  bomber, 
and  torpedo  planes  and  varied  shops  for  on-the- 
spot  aircraft  maintenance  and  repair.  Surrounding 
the  carriers  is  a  ring  of  heavy  ships,  usually  at 
least  four  or  five  cruisers,  providing  a  tremendous 
anti-aircraft  fire  potential.  Circling  far  outside  are 
about  25  destroyers  to  protect  the  task  group  from 
submarines.  The  group  is  spread  so  widely  that  de- 
stroyers on  the  opposite  flanks  often  are  out  of 
sight  of  each  other.  During  World  War  II,  such 
carrier  groups  dominated  the  air  in  actions  across 
the  Pacific. 

The  Navy's  Super  Carrier.  Given  an  auxiliary  role 
in  the  mounting  of  a  strategic  air  assault  against  an 


enemy,  and  claiming  the  carrier's  ability  to  hit  ini- 
tially with  surprise  and  force,  the  Navy  sped  ahead 
in  1948  with  final  plans  for  the  keel-laying  (early 
in  1949)  of  the  65,000-ton  flush-deck  aircraft  car- 
rier ILS.S.  United  States  to  be  built  by  the  Newport 
News,  Va.,  Shipbuilding  and  Drydock  Corporation 
at  an  estimated  cost  of  $124  million.  Designated  as 
the  CVA-58,  and  the  result  of  78  different  designs 
produced  since  October,  1945,  the  carrier  will  be 
1,030  feet  long,  10  feet  longer  at  the  waterline 
than  the  SS  Nomwndie,  and  ISO  feet  longer  than 
the  U.S.S.  Midway,  currently  the  Navy's  longest 
vessel.  Waterline  beam  of  the  new  carrier,  which 
will  require  approximately  four  years  to  build  un- 
less placed  on  "priority  order,"  will  be  130  feet, 
making  her  the  seventh  Navy  ship  too  wide  to  pass 
through  the  Panama  Canal.  Maximum  fixed  width 
above  the  waterline  is  190  feet,  but  temporary 
structures  hinged  in  place  will  make  her  255  feet 
wide.  The  carrier  will  have  an  approximate  speed 
of  33  knots  and  will  have  a  complement  of  about 
4,000  officers  and  men. 

The  ship  will  have  no  island  structure  to  impede 
landings  and  takeoffs;  her  flag  and  ship  bridges 
or  operation  and  control  centers  will  be  telescopic. 
Planes  weighing  as  much  as  100,000  pounds  will 
be  able  to  take  off  from  the  carrier  and  land  on 
its  reinforced  deck.  The  long-range  future  of  the 
carrier  is  reflected  in  the  fact  that  late  in  1948  the 
Navy  was  conducting  tests  with  the  22,000  pound 
Martin  Mauler,  one  of  the  heaviest  airplanes  ever 
designed  solely  for  carrier  duty.  The  CVA-58  will 
be  able  to  handle  planes  weighing  five  times  as 
much  as  the  Mauler. 

Largest  Blimp  Also.  To  further  its  anti-submarine 
program,  the  Navy  awarded  to  the  Goodyear  Air- 
craft Corporation  a  contract  for  construction  of  a 
type  "N"  blimp,  nearly  twice  the  size  of  Navy 
blimps  used  for  anti-submarine  patrol  during 
World  War  II.  The  patrol  airship  will  be  324  feet 
long,  71  feet  wide,  and  92  feet  high  at  the  tallest 
point  The  double-deck  87-foot  car  tinder  the 
blimp  will  house  crew,  controls  and  the  two  800- 
horsepower  air-cooled  engines.  Normal  crew  will 
be  14  officers  and  men.  Helium  capacity  will  be 
825,000  cubic  feet. 

Ship  Construction.  Concurrently  with  construction 
of  the  gigantic  carrier  and  "overstuffed"  blimp,  the 
Navy  is  strengthening  the  flight  decks  and  increas- 
ing the  catapult  and  elevator  capacity  of  two  27,- 
000-ton  earners,  the  U.S.S.  Essex  and  U.S.S.  Wasp. 
Ultimately  all  of  the  Essex  Class  carriers  will  be  so 
modified  to  extend  greatly  the  range  and  striking 
power  of  the  fast  carrier  task  forces. 

In  addition  to  the  carrier  phase  of  the  construc- 
tion and  conversion  program,  the  Navy  is  devel- 
oping high-speed,  deep-submergence  submarines, 
anti-submarine  vessels,  and  ships  equipped  for 
polar  and  picket  service.  With  regard  to  ship  con- 
struction, Vice  Adm.  Earle  E.  Mills,  Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ships,  has  described  the  Navy's  stra- 
tegic position  as  being  "unique"  in  that  "we  must 
pursue  with  equal  vigor  the  perfection  of  tactics, 
weapons  and  devices  utilized  in  both  phases  of 
undersea  warfare.  In  the  event  of  emergency,"  he 
explains,  "we  must  be  prepared  to  launch  a  sub- 
marine offensive  and,  at  the  same  time,  repel  any 
submarine  offensive  directed  towards  our  life 
lines." 

The  danger  of  such  a  submarine  offensive  is 
heightened  as  a  result  of  the  German  development 
during  World  War  II,  with  subsequent  improve- 
ment by  the  United  States  and  Russia,  of  the 
schnorkel  device.  This  is  a  pair  of  breathing  tubes 
which  admit  air  from  above  the  water's  surface  to 


MAVAL  PROGRSSS 


367 


NAVAL  PROGRESS 


permit  undersea  charging  of  submarine  batteries 
and  which  expel  exhaust  gases.  As  a  result,  new 
submarines  can  stay  under  water  indefinitely  and 
can  travel  at  greater  speeds  than  ever  before. 

In  addition  to  the  CVA-58,  the  Navy's  postwar 
construction  program  includes  2  anti-submarine 
cruisers,  4  destroyers,  6  high-speed  submarines, 
and  3  anti-submarine  submarines.  Simultaneously 
with  construction  of  the  16  new  vessels,  the  Navy 
will  convert  the  following  ships;  2  Essex  Class  fleet 
carriers  to  carry  newer,  heavier  planes;  2  light  car- 
riers for  anti-submarine  warfare;  twelve  2S  100-ton 
destroyers  to  destroyer  escorts;  six  2,200-ton  de- 
stroyers for  antisubmarine  warfare;  2  destroyer 
escorts  to  destroyer  escort  pickets;  2  submarines 
to  troop-carrying  submarines;  one  submarine  to  a 
cargo-carrying  submarine;  2  submarines  for  polar 
picket  service;  one  submarine  to  submarine  oiler; 
one  cargo  ship  for  polar  service;  and  2  landing 
ships  dock  for  polar  service.  In  a  year  when  rela- 
tions between  the  United  States  and  Russia  were 
strained,  the  emphasis  upon  ships  for  polar  duty 
is  not  surprising. 

Placed  in  commission  during  the  year  was  the 
U.S.S.  Des  Moines,  the  world's  most  powerful 
cruiser,  displacing  17,000  tons  and  equipped  with 
automatic,  rapid-fire  batteries  of  8-inch  guns — its 
weapons  fire  four  times  faster  than  any  guns  of 
the  same  or  larger  caliber.  The  ship's  armament 
includes  12  twin-mount  five-inch  guns,  20  twin- 
mount  three-inch  anti-aircraft  guns,  and  twelve 
20-mm  machine  guns.  To  divert  funds  for  more 
critical  needs  and  to  await  new  research  studies, 
the  Navy  suspended  work  on  the  guided-missile 
bombardment  ships,  the  U.S.S.  Kentucky  and 
U.S.S.  Hawaii.  Shelved  were  the  battleships  U.S.S. 
New  Jersey,  Wisconsin  and  Iowa,  while  the  U.S.S. 
Norton  Sound,  a  seaplane  tender,  became  the  first 
ship  specially  equipped  to  fire  14-ton  rockets. 

Naval  Air  Program.  Side  by  side  with  acceleration 
of  its  ship  construction,  the  Navy  has  set  its  sights 
on  realization  of  an  air  arm  of  14,500  planes  by 
July  1,  1949.  Originally,  defense  planning  called 
for  completion  of  this  expansion  by  1954.  To  reach 
the  14,500  figure,  of  which  about  10,000  planes 
will  be  ready  for  flight  assignments  at  any  given 
time,  the  Navy  will  withdraw  3,000  World  War  II 
type  planes  from  storage.  During  1949,  1,165  new 
planes  will  be  built  for  the  Navy,  of  which  576 
will  be  jet  fighters,  454  attack  aircraft,  82  patrol 
planes,  16  transports,  and  37  helicopters. 

Exercises  aboard  Navy  carriers,  particularly  the 
U.S.S.  Boxer  and  U.S.S.  Saipan,  proved  that  jet 
aircraft  are  practical  for  carrier  operations  and  tie 
Navy  has  ordered  complete  transition  to  jet  planes 
for  carriers  "as  rapidly  as  possible."  With  regard 
to  air  transport,  Navy  planes  were  ordered  to  Eu- 
rope to  assist  the  Air  Force  in  "Operation  Vittles," 
the  supplying  of  blockaded  Berlin  by  airlift  The 
huge  four-engined  Lockheed  XR60  Constitution, 
a  180-passenger,  92-ton  airplane,  successfully  com- 
pleted initial  flights.  The  Navy's  JRM-2  Caroline 
Mars,  largest  flying  boat  in  active  service,  set  a  new 
record  when  it  flew  non-stop  from  Honolulu  to 
Chicago,  the  4,200-mile  flight  being  the  longest 
ever  made  by  a  seaplane.  See  AVIATION,  MILITARY. 

Naval  Research.  To  keep  ahead  of  the  rest  of  the 
world  in  weapons  and  techniques,  the  Navy  is  de- 
voting particular  attention  to  research.  It  is  re- 
ported that  more  than  25  percent  of  all  research 
activities  is  now  being  devoted  to  aspects  of  sub- 
marine and  anti-submarine  warfare.  Navy  research 
contracts,  supervised  by  Rear  Adm.  T.  A.  Solberg, 
Chief  of  Naval  Research,  run  the  gamut  of  scien- 
tific fields — chemistry,  physics,  medical  sciences, 


nuclear  physics,  mathematics,  fluid  mechanics,  geo- 
physics, mechanics,  and  materials.  Among  promi- 
nent successes  of  naval  research  are:  achieve- 
ment of  an  air  speed  of  Mach  number  5.18,  or  5.18 
times  the  speed  of  sound,  in  the  captured  and  mod- 
ernized German  supersonic  wind  tunnels  now  at 
the  Naval  Ordnance  Laboratory,  White  Oak,  Md.; 
successful  completion  of  sustained  controlled  flights 
by  pilotless  aircraft  powered  by  ram-jet  engines 
at  the  Naval  Air  Missile  Testing  Center,  Point 
Mugu,  Cal.;  and  the  disclosure  that  there  are 
available  unmanned,  remote-control  craft  which 
can  be  loaded  to  capacity  with  explosives  and  are 
capable  of  being  dispatched  to  demolish  under- 
water beach  defenses  and  of  going  ashore  to^  blast 
beachhead  defenses.  In  this  program,  called  "Proj- 
ect Stinger/*  the  Naxy  readied  during  World  War 
II  drone  craft,  ranging  in  size  from  huge  cargo 
ships  to  small  amphibious  seasleds  for  critical  am- 
phibious missions. 

Marine  Corps.  Responsible  for  the  seizure  and  de- 
fense of  advanced  naval  bases,  the  Navy  directs 
the  activities  of  the  battle-famed  Marine  Corps, 
authorized  a  strength  of  108,200  officers  and  men. 
Appropriations  permit  a  strength  of  92,000,  and 
late  in  1948  actual  strength  was  7,017  officers  and 
76,196  enlisted  personnel,  plus  2,216  one-year  en- 
listees; a  total  of  85,425.  Of  this  number,  more  than 
60  percent  is  assigned  to  the  Operating  Forces, 
principal  combat  elements  of  which  are  the  Fleet 
Marine  Forces,  one  with  the  Atlantic  Fleet  and  one 
with  the  Pacific  Fleet. 

The  Fleet  Marine  Force,  Atlantic,  is  presently 
deployed  with  Force  Headquarters  at  Norfolk,  Va.; 
Second  Division  Headquarters  and  three  battalion 
teams  are  at  Camp  Lejeune,  N.C.,  and  the  equiv- 
alent of  one  battalion  landing  team  is  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. Aviation  and  service  elements  of  the 
Force  are  located  at  Cherry  Point,  N.G.,  and  at 
Camp  Lejeune. 

Units  of  the  FMF,  Pacific,  are  more  widely  de- 
ployed, with  Force  Headquarters  on  Oahu,  Ha- 
waii; First  Division  Headquarters  and  two  battal- 
ion landing  teams  at  Camp  Pendleton,  Cal.;  two 
battalion  landing  teams  at  Guam  under  a  provi- 
sional brigade  headquarters,  and  other  forces  at 
Tsingtao,  China,  under  a  provisional  force  head- 
quarters. Aviation  units  are  distributed  from  the 
West  Coast  to  China. 

Navy  Personnel  Strength.  In  addition  to  the  Marine 
Corps,  the  Navy  is  permitted  by  Public  Law  759 
to  reach  a  strength  of  490,000,  of  which  50,000 
may  be  officers,  410,000  enlisted  personnel,  and 
30,000  one-year  enlistees.  Actual  strength  on  Nov. 
30,  1948,  was  46,010  officers,  375,125  enlisted  men, 
and  8,782  one-year  enlistees;  a  total  of  429,917.  A 
nautical  precedent  was  established  when  women 
were  commissioned  as  Regular  officers  in  the  Navy 
and  Marine  Corps.  The  Women's  Armed  Service 
Act  permits  the  Navy  500  officers,  20  warrant  offi- 
cers and  6,000  enlisted  women  in  the  next  two 
years.  Present  strength  of  the  WAVES  is  431  offi- 
cers and  1,710  enlisted  women.  The  Marine  Corps 
is  authorized  110  commissioned  women  officers  and 
warrant  officers  and  1,000  enlistees  during  the  next 
two  years. 

Naval  Reserve.  For  the  first  time  in  history,  the 
peacetime  strength  of  the  Naval  Reserve  passed  the 
1  million  mark.  Assigned  to  764  activated  surface 
and  submarine  divisions  and  23  Naval  Reserve  air 
stations  on  October  31,  were  20,784  officers  and 
161,913  enlisted  personnel  of  the  Organized  Re- 
serve, 78  percent  of  the  quota  of  233,012.  These 
officers  and  enlisted  men  attend  weekly  drill  ses- 
sions and  take  annual  training  cruises.  Some  ships 


NAVAl  PROGRESS 


368 


NAVAL  RESEARCH 


are  manned  entirely  by  Reservists  on  the  summer 
cruises.  The  Volunteer  Reserve,  whose  members 
are  not  organized  into  units  but  who  are  qualified 
or  partially  qualified  for  prescribed  mobilization  as- 
signments, includes  283,132  officers  and  560,228 
enlistees.  The  Marine  Corps  Reserve  has  2,790  offi- 
cers and  34,906  enlistees  in  the  ORC,  and  24,758 
officers  and  55,355  enlistees  in  the  VRC,  an  over- 
all total  of  117,809  as  of  September  30. 

Foreign  Navies.  Australia;  Important  additions  are 
the  14,000-ton  carriers,  Sydney  and  Melbourne,  the 
latter  to  be  commissioned  in  1949. 
Belgium:  Added  to  the  fleet  of  2  despatch  vessels, 
8  minesweepers,  2  rapid  torpedo  vedettes,  and  a 
former  British  boom  defense  vessel  was  the  1,430- 
ton  American  frigate,  Sheboygan,  renamed  the  Lt. 
V.  Billet. 

Canada:  The  light  carrier  H.M.C.S.  Magnificent 
was  commissioned  in  April  and  the  H.M.  Warrior 
was  returned  to  England. 

China:  In  addition  to  American  vessels,  including 
destroyer  escorts,  the  Chinese  obtained  the  light 
cruiser  Aurora  and  the  destroyer  Mendip  from 
England.  The  U.S.  gave  China  126  vessels  under 
the  ECA  program,  mostly  landing  craft. 
France:  Construction  was  continued  on  the  16,700- 
ton  aircraft  carrier,  PA-28;  the  Jean  Bart,  bombed 
during  the  war,  was  being  completed  to  replace  the 
Richelieu*  t 

Great  Britain:  The  largest  sea  exercises  since  the 
war  were  held  during  the  summer.  The  famous 
battleship,  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  decommissioned. 
The  reserve  fleet  included  65  destroyers,  136  frig- 
ates, 2  monitors,  31  submarines,  51  minelayers 
and  3  fast  minelayers.  The  fleet  includes  4  battle- 
ships, 3  fleet  carriers,  5  light  fleet  carriers,  17  cruis- 
ers, 34  submarines,  52  destroyers,  and  43  frigates 
in  active  commission. 

India:  The  cruiser  Achilles  was  transferred  from 
the  British  Navy  to  the  Royal  Indian  Navy  and  was 
renamed  the  H.M.I.S.  Delhi. 
Italy:  Apportionment  of  ships  of  the  Italian  Navy 
under  terms  of  the  peace  treaty  is  as  follows:  Rus- 
sia, 27  warships;  France,  three  3,362-ton  cruisers 
and  a  light  "tropical  cruiser,"  4  destroyers,  2  sub- 
marines, 6  torpedo  ships,  and  27  auxiliaries;  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  renounced  their  allot- 
ments and  some  of  the  total  of  65  warships  and  62 
auxiliaries  went  to  Yugoslavia,  Greece,  and  Al- 
bania. 

Japan:  Scrapping  by  the  U.S.  Navy  of  the  14,000- 
ton  cruiser  Tone  closed  the  ledger  on  Japan's  large 
combat  vessels,  marking  destruction  of  34  ships, 
totaling  more  than  475,830  tons  since  January, 
1946. 

Netherlands:  To  succeed  the  Karen  Doorman,  re- 
turned to  England,  the  31,190-ton,  25-knot  ex-Brit- 
ish carrier  H.M.S.  Venerable  was  added,  while  2 
cruisers  and  8  destroyers  were  to  be  added  to  the 
cruisers  Tromp  and  Jacob  Van  Heemskerck.  Eight 
submarines  also  are  in  service. 
Russia:  Detailed  data  has  not  been  revealed  offi- 
cially. It  is  reported,  however,  that  the  former 
German  aircraft  carrier,  Graf  Zeppelin*  slated  for 
destruction  under  an  Aiiglo-American-Russian  na- 
val agreement,  is  in  "undetermined"  status.  Report- 
edly also  recently  completed  are  2  cruisers  and 
several  destroyers.  However,  naval  authorities  be- 
lieve that  the  real  potency  of  the  Russian  Navy  is 
in  its  submarines.  It  is  estimated  that  the  Russians 
have  more  than  250  submarines,  completed  or 
building,  many  of  them  equipped  with  the  schnor- 
kel device  and  with  other  improvements  made  by 
German  submarine  experts  now  assisting  the  Rus- 
sians. Return  of  31  American  ships  lend-leased  to 


Russia  during  the  war  was  promised  late  in  1948, 
including  the  cruiser  Milwaukee. 

— DANIEL  Z.  HENEOST 

NAVAl  RESEARCH,  Office  of.  The  Office  of  Naval  Re- 
search was  created  by  Public  Law  588,  signed  by 
the  President  Aug.  1,  1946.  To  it  were  transferred 
all  functions,  personnel,  property  and  contracts  of 
the  predecessor  agency,  the  Office  of  Research  and 
Inventions,  established  by  directive  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy  in  May,  1945. 

It  is  charged  with  the  duties  of  encouraging, 
promoting,  planning,  initiating,  and  coordinating 
naval  research,  and  conducting  naval  research  in 
augmentation  of  and  in  conjunction  with  the  re- 
search and  development  conducted  by  the  respec- 
tive bureaus  and  other  agencies  and  offices  of  the 
Navy  Department.  Patents,  inventions,  trademarks, 
copyrights,  and  royalty  payments  matters  are  also 
under  the  supervision  and  control  of  the  Office. 

It  is  headed  by  the  Chief  of  Naval  Research 
(Rear  Admiral  Thorvald  A.  Solberg,  July,  1948) 
appointed  by  the  President  and  confirmed  by  the 
Senate. 

The  Office  of  Naval  Research  is  composed  of 
three  major  subdivisions  in  Washington  and  six 
branch  offices  located  in  New  York  City,  Boston, 
Chicago,  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles,  and  London, 
England,  The  Naval  Research  Laboratory,  at  Ana- 
costia,  D.C.,  the  Special  Devices  Center  at  Port 
Washington,  Long  Island,  N.Y.,  and  the  Under- 
water Sound  Reference  Laboratory  at  Orlando, 
Fla.,  are  field  activities  under  its  direction, 

Basic  research  is  procured  under  contract  from 
university,  industrial,  and  government  laboratories. 
There  are  currently  355  contractors  conducting 
1,122  projects.  Approximately  75  percent  of  the 
contracts  are  with  universities  and  non-profit  insti- 
tutions. 

Research  programs  are  now  under  way  in  the 
following  physical  sciences:  nuclear  physics,  phys- 
ics, chemistry,  electronics,  mechanics  and  materi- 
als, geophysics,  fluid  mechanics,  and  mathematics. 
Research  in  the  Medical  Sciences  includes:  physi- 
ology, biochemistry,  microbiology,  psychopnysiol- 
ogy,  psychology,  human  ecology,  biophysics,  and 
dentistry.  Naval  Sciences  covered  are  undersea, 
amphibious  and  air  warfare,  power,  and  armament. 

Considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  the 
second  phase  of  ONR's  responsibility  for  research, 
namely,  the  bringing  of  results  to  direct  applica- 
tion to  Navy  needs.  The  program  at  the  Naval  Re- 
search Laboratory  has  increased  emphasis  on  basic 
and  applied  research.  Important  contributions  have 
been  made  and  a  high  standard  of  accomplishment 
maintained  in  carrying  developments  from  the  re- 
search stage  to  application.  The  Special  Devices 
Center  emphasizes  the  development  of  synthetic 
training  devices  for  a  number  of  applications,  and 
has  become  a  unique  establishment  for  considera- 
tion of  the  highly  important  field  of  human  engi- 
neering. This  field  recognizes  the  necessity  of  con- 
sidering the  inter-relation  between  man  and  the 
machine  or  weapon  he  operates  or  uses. 

In  addition  to  active  research  programs,  ONR 
during  the  past  year  began  the  development  of  a 
technique  of  scientific  analysis  for  research  and 
development  programs  known  as  "program  re- 
search." Program  research  is  the  detailed  study  and 
analysis  of  all  scientific  fields  bearing  on  the 
achievement  of  a  stated  naval  operational  objec- 
tive. It  involves  reducing  the  objective  to  its  major 
components,  and  then  evaluating  all  scientific  fields 
which  bear  on  each  of  the  components.  In  mis 
process,  gaps  and  bottlenecks  will  become  easily 


NAVY 


369 


NECROLOGY 


apparent.  Such  analyses  will  help  provide  the 
Chief  of  Naval  Operations  and  the  Material  Bu- 
reaus with  factual  and  quantitative  bases  for  use 

in  planning  their  research  and  development  pro- 
grams. 

NAVY,  Deportment  of  the.  See  The  Naod  Establish- 
ment under  NAVAL  PROGRESS. 

NAZARENE,  Church  of  the.  A  holiness  group  organ- 
ized in  Chicago,  in  1907,  and  emphasizing  the 
doctrine  of  entire  sanctification.  Its  4,160  ministers 
serve  3,390  churches  with  217,106  members  in 
the  United  States,  Canada,  British  Isles,  and  Aus- 
tralia. In  addition,  there  are  about  25,000  members 
or  foreign  mission  fields  under  the  care  of  190  mis- 
sionaries. Eight  educational  institutions  have  an 
enrollment  of  4,774  students  while  422,832  are 
enrolled  in  Sunday  schools.  The  1948  income  from 
contributions  was  $22,096,555;  the  value  of  church 
property  increased  to  $56,935,285.  A  Mid-Century 
Crusade  for  Souls  with  a  goal  of  1,000  new 
churches  within  four  years  was  launched  by  the 
General  Assembly  which  met  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in 
June,  1948.  Headquarters:  2923  Troost  Ave., 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 

NEBRASKA.  A  west  north  central  State.  Area:  77,- 
510  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  1,301,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  3,784,664.  Chief 
cities:  Lincoln  (capital),  81,984  inhabitants  in 
1940;  Omaha,  223,844.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCA- 
TION, MINERALS  ANB  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVER- 
SITIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $57,853,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $60,601,000.  , 

Elections.  While  the  6  electoral  votes  went  to 
Dewey,  his  popular  majority  over  Truman  was 
only  about  half  as  large  as  in  1944.  Governor  Val 
Peterson,  Republican,  was  reelected  for  another 
term.  In  Congressional  races,  Kenneth  S.  Wherry, 
Republican,  was  reelected  to  the  Senate,  but  the 
Republicans  won  only  3  of  the  4  House  seats  for 
a  loss  of  one.  Other  State  officials  elected  were: 
Lieutenant  Governor — Charles  J.  Warner;  Secre- 
tary of  State — Frank  Marsh;  Attorney  General — 
James  H.  Anderson;  Auditor — Ray  C.  Johnson; 
Treasurer — Edward  Gillette;  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction — Wayne  O.  Reed. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Val  Peterson;  Lieut.  Gov- 
ernor, Robert  B.  Crosby;  Secretary  of  State,  Frank 
Marsh;  Attorney  General,  Walter  R.  Johnson;  State 
Treasurer,  Edward  Gillette;  State  Auditor,  Ray  C. 
Johnson;  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Wayne  O. 
Reed. 

NECROLOGY.  The  following  is  a  list  of  notable  per- 
sons who  died  during  the  year  1948. 

Achron,  Isidor  (b.  Warsaw,  Poland,  Nov.  24,  1892 — 
d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  May  12,  1948).  Composer,  pianist,  and 
accompanist  for  Heifetz,  1923-33.  Made  New  York  debut 
at  Town  Hall,  1923;  his  last  New  York  recital  was  in  1946 
when  he  played  several  of  his  own  works. 

Adalbert  Ferdinand  Berengar  Victor,  Prince  of  Prussia  {b. 
Potsdam,  Germany,  July  14,  1884 — d.  Montreux,  Switzer- 
land, Sept.  22,  1948).  Naval  officer  and  third  son  of  the 
late  Kaiser  Whelm  H.  Since  1939,  he  had  lived  with  his 
family  in  Switzerland  under  the  name  of  Count  von  Lingen. 

Alexander,  Edward  Albert  (b.  Georgetown,  S.C.,  Jan.  30, 
1873— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Dec.  17,  1948).  Constitutional 
lawyer,  noted  for  his  prominent  role  in  legal  moves  leading 
to  repeal  of  the  18th  Amendment.  An  advocate  of  inter- 
national army  for  the  maintenance  of  peace  and  author  of 
World  Government  Versus  Constitution. 

Alien,  Viola  (b.  Huntsville,  Ala.,  Oct.  27,  1869— d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  May  9,  1948).  Famous  classical  and  Shake- 
spearean actress  who  made  her  debut  in  the  title  role  of 
Esmeralda  in  1882.  Leading  lady  at  Charles  Frohman's 
Empire  Theater,  1893-98;  retired  from  the  stage  in  1918. 


Alonso  Lopez,  Francisco  (b.  Granada,  Spain,  May  9, 
1887 — d.  Madrid,  Spain,  May  18,  1948).  Orchestra  con- 
ductor and  Spain's  foremost  composer  of  operettas  and 
musical  comedies  (zarzuelas).  His  more  than  60  woiks 
include  Marriage  of  a  Wanderer,  A  Cigarette  and  My  Wife, 
and  the  popular  one  act  Las  Corsarias. 

Anderson,  Isabel  Weld  Perkins  (b.  Boston,  Mass.,  Mar. 
29,  1876 — d.  Brookline,  Mass.,  Nov.  3,  1948).  Author  of 
fiction,  plays,  and  poetry;  philantropist;  and  world  traveler. 
She  was  the  widow  of  Larz  Anderson,  sometime  United 
States  ambassador  to  Japan.  Her  writings  include  The  Great 
Sea  Horse.,  Captain  Ginger  Series,  The  Spell  of  Japan,  and 
other  travel  books. 

Andrews,  Adolphus  (b.  Galveston,  Tex.,  Oct.  7,  1879 — 
d.  Houston,  Tex.,  June  19,  1948).  Vice  admiral,  ITSN 
(retired);  commanding  officer  of  the  Eastern  Sea  Frontier, 
1942-43;  commander  of  the  Fleet  Scouting  Force,  1938- 
41.  He  served  as  naval  aide  to  three  presidents:  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  Harding,  and  Coolidge. 

Angelesco,  Constcmfin  (b.  Craiova,  Rumania,  1869 — 
d.  Bucharest,  Rumania,  Sept,  14,  1948).  Physician,  diplo- 
mat, statesman;  first  Rumanian  Minister  to  the  United 
States,  1918;  and  Premier  of  Rumania,  1933-34.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  Liberal  Party,  he  held  many  cabinet  posts  and 
was  a  senator  from  1901-33. 

Arce  y  Ochoioreim,  Manuel  {b.  Pamplona,  Spain,  1879? 
— d.  Barcelona,  Spain,  Sept.  16,  1948).  Archbishop  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Diocese  of  Tarragona  since  1938,  and  a 
cardinal  since  1946. 

Arinkin,  Mikhail  Innokentyevich  (b.  Tshita,  Siberia,  Rus- 
sia, 1876 — d.  Reported  by  Moscow,  Sept.  9,  1948).  Scien- 
tist widely  known  for  his  work  in  the  field  of  hematology. 
Faculty  member  of  the  Medical  Military  Academy,  Moscow, 
and  the  author  of  some  40  volumes  on  hematology, 

Armat,  Thomos  (b.  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  Oct.  26,  1866 — 
d.  Washington,  D.C.,  Sept.  30,  1948).  Engineer,  inventor, 
and  pioneer  in  the  motion  picture  industry.  His  invention 
of  the  Vitascope  (patented  in  1896)  was  the  forerunner  of 
present-day  projection  machines. 

Ashfield,  Albert  Henry  Stanley,  1st  Baron  of  Southwell 
(b.  Derby,  England,  Nov.  8,  1874 — d.  London,  England, 
Nov.  4,  1948).  Transportation  expert;  creator  and  chairman 
of  the  London  Passenger  Transportation  Board,  1933-47; 
since  then  chairman  of  the  British  Transport  Commission. 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  (1916-19);  an  MJP., 
1916-20;  and  from  1919-33,  managing  director  of  the 
Underground  Group  of  Companies.  Raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1920. 

Atherton,  Gertrude  Franklin  (b.  San  Francisco,  Calif,, 
Oct.  30,  1857— d.  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  June  14,  1948). 
Author  of  numerous  historical  and  biographical  novels,  of 
which  The  Conquerors  and  Black  Oxen  were  most  success- 
ful. 

Atkinson,  Joseph  E.  (b.  Newcastle,  Ont.  Canada,  Dec. 
23,  1865 — d.  Toronto,  Canada,  May  8,  1948).  Publisher 
and  owner  of  The  Toronto  Daily  Star  and  The  Toronto 
Star  Weekly. 

Ayers,  Harry  Morgan  (b.  Montclair  Heights,  NJ,,  Oct. 
6,  1881 — d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Nov.  19,  1948).  Scholar, 
educator,  and  a  member  of  the  Columbia  University  faculty 
since  1908;  director  of  the  Summer  Session,  1939;  acting 
director,  1942-46,  since  director  of  University  Extension; 
and  director  of  Casa  Italiana  since  1940.  His  published 
works  include  Beowulf,  Carroll's  Alice. 

Boggot,  King  (b.  St.  Louis,  Mo.»  1880 — d.  Hollywood, 
Calif.,  July  11,  1948).  Motion  picture  director  and  leading 
actor  of  the  silent  screen.  In  a  film  career  which  began  in 
1909  he  appeared  in  such  pictures  as  The  Scarlet  Letter, 
Dr.  JekyU  and  Mr.  Hyde,  and  Ivanhoe. 

Bailey,  Carl  Edward  (b.  Bemie,  Mo.,  Oct.  8,  1894— d. 
Little  Rock,  Ark.,  Oct.  23,  1948).  Lawyer,  politician,  and 
governor  of  Arkansas,  1937-41. 

Baker,  Lee  (b.  Ovid,  Mich.,  1876— d.  Los  Angeles,  Calif., 
Feb.  24,  1948).  Well  known  character  actor  who  made  his 
debut  as  Menas  in  Anthony  and  Cleopatra  (1909).  Ap- 
peared  in  Strange  Interlude,  Mourning  Becomes  Electro* 
Song  of  Songsf  Richard  II,  and  High  Tor.  He  last  appeared 
in  The  Little  Foxes. 

Baldomir,  Alfredo  (b.  Montevideo,  Uruguay,  Aug.  27, 
1884 — d.  Montevideo,  Uruguay,  Feb.  25,  1948).  Soldier, 
statesman,  and  president  of  Uruguay,  1938—42. 

Balke,  Clarence  William  (b.  Auburn,  Ohio,  Mar.  29,  1880 
— d.  Highland  Park,  HI.,  July  8,  1948).  Metallurgist,  in- 
ventor, and  research  director  of  the  Fansteel  Metallurgical 
Company,  1916-46.  Holder  of  some  30  patents,  he  was 
developer  of  tantalum,  a  rare  metal  used,  during  World 
War  II. 

Barnes,  George  Emerson  (b.  Hersey,  Mich.,  May  269  1882 
— d.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Dec.  29,  1948).  Clergyman  and 
nationally  known  leader  in  the  Presbyterian  ministry.  A 
Rhodes  Scholar  (1904-07),  he  served  as  Moderator  of  the 
Michigan  Synod,  1915-16;  of  the  Philadelphia  Presbytery, 
1936-38. 

Barrington-Ward,  Robert  McGowan  (b.  England,  1891 — 
d.  Dar-es-Salaam,  E.  Africa,  Feb.  29,  1948).  Editor  of  the 
London  Times  since  1941,  and  associated  with  that  paper 
since  1913.  From  1919-27  he  was  assistant  editor  of  the 
Observer. 

Baskett,  James  (b.  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  Feb.  16,  1904 — 
6L  Hollywood,  Calif.,  July  9,  1948).  Negro  actor  of  the 


NECROLOGY 


370 


NECROLOGY 


stage,  screen,  and  radio;  best  known  for  portrayal  of  Uncle 
Remus  In  Disney's  Song  of  the  South,  for  which  he  won  a 
special  Oscar.  On  the  radio  he  created  the  role  of  Gabby 
in  Amos  *n'  Andy. 

Batemonr  George  Frederick  (b.  Halifax,  England,  July  4, 
1876— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Jan.  29,  1948).  Mechanical 
engineer;  with  Cooper  Union  since  1907  and  dean  of  its 
school  of  engineering  since  1933.  President  of  the  Electrical 
Society,  1944-46,  director,  1940-47, 

Beard,  Charles  Austin  (D.  near  Knightstown,  Ind.,  Nov. 
27,  1874— d.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Sept.  1,  1948).  Histo- 
rian and  author;  on  the  faculty  of  Columbia  University, 
1907-17;  director  of  the  Training  School  for  Public  Serv- 
ice, 1917-22.  Author  of  some  30  volumes  on  American 
history,  including  History  of  the  United  States  and  Rise  of 
American  Civilization  (with  his  wife);  American  Govern- 
ment and  Politics.,  American  Foreign  Policy  in  the  Making: 
1932-41,  etc. 

Beorsted,  Walter  Horace  Samuel,  Second  Viscount  (b. 
England,  Mar.  13,  1882 — d.  Banbury,  Oxfordshire,  Eng- 
land, Nov.  8,  1948).  Financier,  philanthropist,  art  collector, 
and  board  chairman  of  the  Shell  Transport  and  Trading 
Company  (retired).  A  leader  in  oil  trading  and  a  director 
in  52  companies  of  the  Shell  Royal  Dutch  Group.  His  fa- 
mous art  collection,  housed  in  a  15th  century  dwelling,  was 
recently  bequeathed  to  the  British  nation. 

Beckman,  Francis  Joseph  (b.  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  Oct.  25, 
1875— d.  Chicago,  111.,  Oct.  17,  1948).  Roman  Catholic 
prelate;  Archbishop  of  Dubuque,  Iowa,  1930-46.  Ordained 
in  1902,  consecrated  a  bishop  in  1925,  he  became  assistant 
to  the  Papal  Throne  in  1928  with  the  title  of  Roman  count. 

Belo,  Antonio  (b.  Taranto,  Italy,  Feb.  14,  1857 — d. 
Huntington,  L.I.,  New  York,  July  16,  1948).  Noted  sculp- 
tor whose  work  was  chiefly  devoted  to  religious  subjects. 
Altars,  statues,  and  monuments  are  in  the  United  States, 
Argentina,  and  Italy, 

Benedict,  Ruth  Fulton  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  June  5,  1887 
— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Sept.  17,  1948).  Noted  anthropolo- 
gist; on  the  faculty  of  Columbia  University  since  1923; 
director  of  a  prefect — Research  in  Contemporary  Cultures. 
In  her  special  field  of  behavior  patterns  her  researches 
guided  morale  and  propaganda  offensives  during  World 
War  II.  She  undertook  several  field  trips  for  the  study  of 
American  Indians.  Among  her  published  works  are  Patterns 
of  Culture,  Tales  of  the  Cochiti  Indians,  Zuni  Mythology, 
Science  and  Politics,  and  The  Chrysanthemum  and  the 
Sword. 

Benes,  Eduard  (b.  Kozlany,  Bohemia,  May  28,  1884 — 
d.  Sestimovo  Usti,  Czechoslovakia,  Sept.  3,  1948).  Political 
economist,  statesman,  and  president  of  the  Czechoslovak 
Republic,  1935-38,  1945-48.  He  was  minister  for  foreign 
affairs,  1918-35,  and  premier,  1921-22.  Following  his 
resignation  in  1938,  he  taught  at  the  University  of  Chicago, 
returning  to  Prague  in  1945.  Reelected  to  a  7-year  term 
as  president  in  1946,  he  resigned  on  June  7,  1948,  thus 
ending  his  efforts  to  pursue  a  pro-Russian  foreign  policy 
while  retaining  his  country's  multi-party  system.  Author 
of  numerous  books  on  Central  European  politics,  including 
Democracy:  Today  and  Tomorrow,  My  War  Memoirs,  etc. 

Benet,  Laurence  Vincent  (b.  West  Point,  N.Y.,  Jan.  12, 
1863 — d.  Georgetown,  Md.,  May  21,  1948).  Engineer  and 
inventor  of  international  repute,  who  perfected  the  Hotchkiss 
gun.  He  was  vice  president  and  director  of  La  Societe 
Hotchkiss  &  Cie,,  Paris,  1885-1936. 

Berdyaev,  Nikolai  Aleksandrovich  (b.  Russia,  1874 — d. 
Clamart,  France,  Mar.  24,  1948).  Religious  philosopher, 
author,  and  teacher*  The  Meaning  of  Creativeness,  an  Essay 
in  Justification,  is  considered  his  most  important  work.  He 
ilso  wrote  Solitude  and  Society,  The  Destiny  of  Man,  Free- 
dom of  the  Spirit, 

Beractdotte  of  Wisborg,  Count  Folke  (b.  Stockholm,  Swe- 
den, Jan.  2,  1895 — d.  Jerusalem,  Palestine,  Sept.  17,  1948). 
United  Nations  mediator  in  Palestine  since  May  21,  1948, 
assassinated  by  what  was  believed  to  be  members  of  the 
Stern  group  of  extremists.  A  nephew  of  King  Gustaf  V,  of 
Sweden,  he  had  been  trained  as  a  soldier  but  devoted  his 
life  to  the  furtherance  of  humanitarian  causes.  He  headed 
the  Swedish  Boy  Scouts,  the  Swedish  Red  Cross,  the  Swed- 
ish equivalent  of  the  USO;  and  in  1945  acted  as  a  Red 
Cross  go-between  when  Himmler  sought  to  negotiate  a 
separate  peace  with  the  Western  powers. 

Bernanos,  Georges  (b.  Paris,  France,  1888 — d.  Paris, 
France,  July  5,  1948 ) .  Novelist,  essayist,  and  author  of  the 
famous  Journal  d'un  Cure  de  Campagne.  As  a  political 
writer  he  had  been  associated  with  the  Royalist  newspaper 
Action  Francaise,  and  later  became  a  supporter  of  the  de 
Gaulle  movement. 

Berry/  George  Leonard  (b.  Lee  Valley,  Hawkins  County, 
Tenn.,  Sept.  12,  1882 — d.  Pressmen's  Home,  Term.,  Dec. 
4,  1948).  Union  official,  politician,  prospector,  and  since 
1907  president  of  the  International  Printing  Pressmens  and 
Assistants  Union.  Variously  served  as  United  States  Sen- 
ator, 1937—38;  assistant  administrator  of  NRA;  coordinator 
for  Industrial  Cooperation;  on  the  Social  Security  Board; 
and  on  the  first  National  Labor  Board.  He  established 
Pressmen's  Home,  a  combined  trade  school  and  home  for 
indigent  printers, 

Beyerf  Otto  Sternoff  (b.  Woodbridge,  N.J.,  Sept.  18, 
1886— d.  Washington,  D.C.,  Dec.  8,  1948).  Industrial 
consultant,  engineer,  and  a  pioneer  in  labor-management 


relations.  Sometime  chairman  of  the  National  Mediation 
Board  (1936-43);  consultant  to  the  Tennessee  Valley 
Authority,  the  U.S.  Maritime  Commission,  etc.  From  1942- 
44  he  served  as  a  member  of  the  War  Manpower  Commis- 
sion. 

Biddle,  Anthony  J(oseph)  Drexel  (b.  West  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Oct.  1,  1874 — d.  Syosset,  Long  Island,  N.Y.,  May  27, 
1948).  Author,  lecturer,  and  outstanding  teacher  of  military 
gymnastics.  Founded  movement  called  Athletic  Christian- 
ity. He  wrote  A  Dual  Role,  All  Around  Athletics,  Do  or 
Die,  etc. 

Biggar,  Oliver  Mowat  (b.  Toronto,  Canada,  Oct.  11, 
1876 — d.  Ottawa,  Canada,  Sept.  4,  1948).  Lawyer  and 
Judge  Advocate  General  of  Canada;  member  of  the  Joint 
Board  of  Defense,  1940-45;  director  of  censorship,  1942- 
44;  and  chief  electoral  officer  for  Canada,  1920-27. 

BUmanis,  Alfred  (b.  Riga,  Latvia,  Feb.  2,  1887 — d.  Re- 
hoboth  Beach,  Del.,  July  26,  1948).  Diplomat,  editor,  and 
author;  Latvian  minister  to  the  United  States,  since  1935; 
to  the  U.S.S.R.,  1932-35,  Sometime  editor  of  Briua  Zeme; 
the  author  of  History  of  Poland,  History  of  Sweden,  etc. 
Black,  George  Fraser  (b.  Stirling,  Scotland,  Mar.  10, 
1865 — d.  Lyndhurst,  New  Jersey,  Sept.  7,  1948 ) .  Librarian, 
bibliographer,  linguist,  and  authority  on  gypsy  lore  and 
witchcraft.  Associated  with  the  New  York  Public  Library, 
1896-1931. 

Blau,  Thomas  (b.  Riga,  Latvia,  Aug.  5,  1884 — d.  near 
Canal  Zone,  Nov.  29,  1948).  Shipping  official,  assistant  to 
the  vice  president  in  charge  of  operations  of  the  Grace 
Line,  and  commandant  of  the  United  States  Maritime  Serv- 
ice since  1942.  During  World  War  II  he  saw  active  service 
with  the  Navy,  being  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commodore 
in  1945.  As  commander  of  33  convoys  he  never  lost  a  ship 
through  enemy  action.  Awarded  Navy  Cross. 

Block,  Car!  Elis  Daniel  (b.  oksnevaUe,  Sweden,  Feb.  12, 
1874 — d.  Gothenberg,  Sweden,  Oct.  8,  1948).  Ecclesiastic 
and  Lutheran  Bishop  of  the  Diocese  of  Gothenburg  since 
1929.  Ordained  in  1898,  he  was  one  of  Sweden's  most 
influential  church  leaders  and  took  active  part  in  social 
welfare  work. 

Blue,  Rupert  (b.  Richmond  County,  N.C.,  May  30,  1868 
— d.  Charleston,  S.C.,  Apr.  12,  1948).  Sanitation  authority 
and  surgeon  general  of  the  United  States  Public  Health 
Service,  1912-20. 

Blumenfeld,  Ralph  David  (b.  Watertown,  Wise.,  Apr*  7, 
1864 — d.  Dunmow,  Essex,  England,  July  17,  1948).  News- 
paperman, author,  and  editor  of  The  London  Daily  Express, 
1904-32.  Sometime  associated  with  the  Chicago  Tribune, 
The  World,  The  Herald,  and  the  United  Press. 
Boex,  Seraphim  Justin  Francois.  See  Rosny,  J.  H. 
Boisson,  Pierre  Fran?cis  (b.  June  19,  1894-—d.  Le  Vesi- 
net,  France,  July  21,  1948).  Governor  General  of  French 
West  Africa,  1940-43;  of  Brazzaville,  1939.  A  member  of 
Darlan  Imperial  Council  ( 1942 )  he  was  deprived  of  French 
nationality  by  Vichy,  and  arrested  on  treason  charge  at 
Algiers,  1943. 

Booth,  Maud  Ballington  Charlesworth  (b.  Limpsfield, 
Surrey,  England,  Sept.  13,  1865 — d.  Great  Neck,  Long 
Island,  N.Y.,  Aug.  26,  1948 ) .  Reformist;  national  president 
of  the  Volunteers  of  America,  to  which  post  she  succeeded 
her  husband  in  1940.  Served  with  the  Y.M.C.A.  in  France 
and  Germany  during  World  War  I;  co-founder  of  Parent- 
Teachers  Association;  and  active  in  prison  reform  work 
and  the  rehabilitation  of  ex-convicts. 

Borenius,  Tancred  (b.  Viborg,  Finland,  1885 — d.  Salis- 
bury, England,  Sept.  3,  1948).  Author,  philosopher,  and 
leading  authority  on  art  and  archaeology;  since  1922,  pro- 
fessor at  University  College,  London.  Editor  of  The  Bur- 
lington Magazine,  1940-45;  he  wrote,  or  edited,  many 
volumes  on  art,  including  a  new  edition  of  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  North  Italy,  St.  Thomas  Becket  in  Art,  etc. 

Bornschein,  Franz  Carl  (b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  Feb.  10, 
1879— d.  Baltimore,  Md.,  June  8,  1948).  Composer,  musi- 
cologist, and  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  Peabody  Conserv- 
atory of  Music,  since  1905.  His  compositions  embrace 
orchestral  works,  chamber  music,  chorals,  and  the  operetta 
The  Willow  Plate. 

Bowen,  Arnold  Everett  (b.  Lowell,  Mass.,  1901 — d.  East 
Stroudsburg,  Pa.,  Oct.  15,  1948).  Research  engineer,  radar 
expert,  and  pioneer  in  the  development  of  microwave  de- 
vices. During  World  War  II  he  had  charge  of  the  Air 
Forces  Airborne  Radar  Equipment  Board. 

Bradford,  Roark  (b.  Lauderdale  County,  Tenn.,  Aug.  21, 
1896 — d.  New  Orleans,  La.,  Nov.  13,  1948).  Newspaper- 
man and  humorist,  best  known  for  his  Negro  dialect  stories, 
for  which  he  received  the  O.  Henry  Memorial  Award,  1927. 
He  was  the  author  of  OZ*  Man  Adam  an9  his  Chillun,  on 
which  Green  Pastures  was  based. 

Bradley,  John  Jewsbury  (b.  Chicago,  HI.,  Apr.  20,  1869 
— d.  Detroit,  Mich.,  May  21,  1948).  Army  officer  and 
lawyer.  A  veteran  of  the  Boxer  campaign  and  of  World 
War  I,  he  graduated  from  West  Point  in  189 1  and  became 
a  Brigadier  General  in  1926. 

Braithwaite,  Dame  Lillian  (b.  Ramsgate,  England,  Max. 
9,  1873— d.  London,  England,  Sept.  17,  1948).  Actress, 
noted  for  her  beauty  and  versatility  in  roles  ranging  from 
Shakespeare  to  Noel  Coward.  She  made  her  stage  debut 
in  1897  and  her  London  debut  in  1900,  as  Celia  in  As 
You  Like  It*  Last  appeared  in  Arsenic  and  Old  Lace  dur- 
ing its  three-year  run. 


NECROLOGY 


371 


NECROLOGY 


Brande,  Dorothea  (b.  Chicago,  HI.,  1893 — d.  Boston, 
Mass.,  Dec.  17,  1948).  Novelist,  short-story  writer,  lec- 
turer, and  author  of  the  1936  best-seller  Wake  Up  and 
Live.  In  private  life  she  was  Mrs.  Seward  B,  Collins. 

Brann,  Louis  Jefferson  (b.  Madison,  Me.,  July  8,  1876 — 
d.  Falrnouth,  Me.,  Feb.  3,  1948).  Lawyer,  politician,  and 
twice  Democratic  governor  of  Republican  Maine,  1933-37. 

Broucliltsch,  (HeinricSi  Alfred  Hermann)  Walther  von  (b. 
Berlin,  Germany,  Oct.  4,  1881 — d.  Hamburg,  Germany, 
Oct.  18,  1948).  Field  marshal  (1940)  and  commander 
in  chief  of  the  German  armies,  1938-41.  He  led  the  in- 
vasion of  Sttdetenland,  conquered  Poland,  and  in  1941, 
following  Ms  disastrous  campaign  in  Russia,  was  retired, 
for  "reasons  of  health/*  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
awaiting  trial  for  war  crimes. 

Brcarley,  Harry  (b.  1871 — d.  Torquay,  England,  July 
14,  1948).  Metallurgist  and  discoverer  of  stainless  steel, 
which  he  patented  in  1916. 

Brian,  Donald  Francis  (b.  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  Feb. 
17,  1880— -d.  Great  Neck,  Long  Island,  N.Y.,  Dec.  22, 
1948).  Actor  and  singer;  gained  fame  as  Prince  Danilo  in 
original  American  production  of  The  Merry  Widow  ( 1907). 

Bridges,  Charles  Higbee  (b.  Whitehall,  HI.,  Mar.  1,  1873 
— d.  Sandwich,  Mass.,  Sept.  11,  1948).  Major  General, 
USA,  and  Adjutant  General,  1929-43  (retired).  A  veteran 
of  the  Spanish-American  War,  the  Philippine  Insurrection, 
and  World  War  I,  he  was  the  custodian  of  Aguinaldo, 
1901-02. 

Erifrauli,  Robert  Stephen  {b.  London,  England,  1876 — 
d.  London.,  England,  Dec.  11,  1948).  Noted  anthropolo- 

fist,  novelist,  and  onetime  surgeon.  Following  World  War  I 
e  left  medicine  and  turned  to  anthropology,  his  most  im- 
portant work  in  this  field  being  The  Mothers.  His  first  novel, 
Europa,  appeared  in  1935  and  was  an  international  success. 

Brill,  Abraham  Arden  (b.  Austria,  Oct.  12,  1874 — d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  Mar.  2,  1948).  Eminent  psychiatrist  and 
analyst  who  introduced  the  teachings  and  writings  of  Freud 
to  the  English-speaking  world.  Sometime  lecturer  at  various 
universities.  Author  of  Psychoanalysis — Its  Theories  and 
Practical  Application,  Fundamental  Conceptions  of  Psycho- 
analysis, Freud's  Contribution  to  Psychiatry,  etc. 

Brillouira,  (Louis)  Marcel  (b.  Saint-Martin-de-Melle, 
France,  Dec.  19,  1854 — d.  France,  June  16,  1948).  Mathe- 
matician, physicist,  and  former  professor  in  the  College  de 
France.  Famous  for  his  fundamental  researches  in  pure 
physics;  a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences  (1921); 
and  the  author  of  Stabilite  des  aeroplanes  and  Quantites  de 
mouvements  et  actions  mutuettes. 

Brooks,  Peter  Anthony  (b.  Watertown,  Wis.,  June  14, 
1893— d.  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  May  16,  1948).  Roman  Catho- 
lic priest;  president  of  Marquette  University  since  1944; 
and  head  of  the  Missouri  Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
1937-43. 

Brown,  AJiee  (b.  Hampton  Falls,  N.H.,  Dec.  5,  1857 — 
d.  Boston,  Mass.,  June  21,  1948).  Novelist,  poet,  and  play- 
wright of  the  New  England  scene.  A  play,  Children  of 
Earth,  won  her  the  $10,000  Winthrop  Ames  Prize  in  1915. 

Brown,  Charles  D.  (b.  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa,  July  1, 
1887— d.  Hollywood,  Calif.,  Nov.  25,  1948).  Character 
actor  of  the  stage  and  screen  who  scored  one  of  his  great- 
est successes  as  Hatchways  in  The  Commodore  Marries 
( 1929 ) 

Brown,  Marshall  Stewart  (b.  Keene,  N.H.,  Nov.  6,  1870 
— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Sept.  18,  1948).  Educator,  dean  of 
the  faculties  of  New  York  University,  1917-40  (retired), 
and  a  member  of  the  faculty  since  1894.  Author  of  Epoch- 
Making  Papers  in  the  History  of  the  United  States. 

Brown,  Mordecai  Peter  Centennial  (b.  1887 — d.  Terre 
Haute,  Ind.,  Feb.  14,  1948).  One  of  the  greatest  pitchers 
in  major-league  baseball;  he  won  239  games  and  lost  131 
between  1903-16.  Famous  for  his  pitching  duels  with 
Christy  Mathewson  of  the  Giants. 

Brown,  Preston  (b.  Lexington,  Ky.,  Jan.  2,  1872 — d. 
Vineyard  Haven,  Mass.,  June  80,  1948).  Major  General, 
USA  (retired);  he  rose  from  the  ranks  to  Major  General 
(1925),  and  in  World  War  I  led  the  Third  Division  of 
the  AEF  in  the  Meuse-Argonne  Battle. 

Brown,  Sidney  George  (b.  Chicago,  DL,  July  6,  1873 — d. 
Sidmouth,  Devon,  England,  Aug.  7,  1948).  Electrical  en- 
gineer and  inventor;  instrumental  in  development  of  teleph- 
ony, telegraphy,  and  the  gyroscopic  compass.  Holder  of 
more  than  1,000  patents,  he  served  on  the  Admiralty  Ord- 
nance Council  during  World  War  II. 

Browning,  Albert  Jesse  (b.  Ogden,  Utah,  Sept.  27,  1899 
— d.  Detroit,  Mich.,  July  2,  1948).  Business  executive  and 
army  officer;  since  1946,  vice  president  of  the  Ford  Motor 
Company.  With  the  temporary  rank  of  Brigadier  General,  he 
served  as  special  assistant  to  Donald  B.  Nelson,  Officer  of 
Production  Management;  director  of  Purchase  Division, 
ASF,  1942-46;  and  as  Assistant  Secretary  of  Commerce  un- 
der Henry  Wallace. 

Bruins,  Gijsbert  Weijer  Jan  (b.  1883 — d.  Washington, 
D.C.,  Mar.  22,  1948).  Executive  director  of  the  Interna- 
tional Monetary  Fund;  formerly  Royal  commissioner  of  the 
Netherlands  Bank,  and  international  commissioner  of  the 
German  Reichsbank,  under  the  Dawes  Plan. 

Bulgakov,  Leo  (b.  Moscow,  Russia?  Mar.  22,  1889 — d. 
Binghampton,  N.Y.,  July  20,  1948).  Actor  and  producer,  a 
member  of  the  Moscow  Art  Theater,  1911-26.  When  that 
company  visited  New  York  in  1923  he  was  seen  in  The 


Brothers  Karamasov*  The  Lower  Depths,  and  Uncle  Vanya. 
Later  directed  The  Cherry  Orchard  (1928)  and  The  Sea 
Gull  (1929). 

Byrton,  Eli  Franklin  (b.  Green  River,  Ont.,  Feb.  14,  1879 
— d.  Toronto,  Canada,  July  6,  1948),  Physicist  and  inter- 
nationally known  scientist,  noted  for  his  development  of  the 
electron  microscope.  A  faculty  member  at  the  University 
of  Toronto  since  1902,  he  headed  the  department  of  physics 
since  1932.  His  researches  dealt  with  the  radioactivity  of 
crude  petroleum,  superconductivity,  and  colloidal  arsenic 
treatments  for  cancer. 

Bosh,  Irving  T.  (b.  Ridgeway,  Mich.,  July  12,  1869 — 
d.  New  York,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  21,  1948).  Transportation  expert, 
and  founder  and  president  of  the  Bush  Terminal  Company 
(1902). 

Bushfield,  Harlan  John  (b.  Atlantic,  Iowa,  Aug.  6,  1882 
— d.  Miller,  S.D.,  Sept.  27,  1948).  Lawyer,  politician,  and 
Republican  senator  from  South  Dakota  since  1943;  gov- 
ernor of  South  Dakota,  1939-42,  inclusive.  He  was  a  lead- 
ing isolationist  and  bitter  foe  of  Roosevelt;  also  an  opponent 
of  OP  A,  and  a  member  of  the  farm  bloc. 

Carpenter,  George  Lyndon  (b.  New  South  Wales,  Aus- 
tralia, June  20,  1872— d.  Sydney,  Australia,  Apr.  9,  1948). 
Salvation  Army  general  who  succeeded  Evangelinte  Booth 
as  international  commander  (1939-46). 

Carroll,  Earl  (b.  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Sept.  16,  1893— d. 
Mount  Carmel,  Pa.,  June  17,  1948).  Theatrical  producer 
and  song  writer.  Famous  for  his  Earl  Carroll  Vanities  staged 
at  his  own  theater  in  New  York,  1922-36,  and  in  Holly- 
wood. 

Carter,  George  Henry  (b.  Mineral  Point,  Wis.,  Sept.  10, 
1874—d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  23,  1948).  Engineer,  for- 
mer newspaperman,  and  Public  Printer  of  the  United 
States,  1921-34. 

Cellier,  Frank  (b.  Surbiton,  England,  Feb.  23,  1884 — d. 
London,  England,  Sept.  27,  1948).  Noted  character  actor, 
manager,  and  producer.  He  made  his  stage  debut  in  Sweet 
Lavender  (1905),  his  London  debut  as  actor-manager  of 
Cheer  Boys,  Cheer  (1914),  and  was  last  seen  as  Arthur 
Winslow  in  The  Winslow  Boy. 

Cesare,  Oscar  Edward  (b.  Linkoping,  Sweden,  1885 — d. 
Stamford,  Conn.,  July  24,  1948).  Artist  and  political  car- 
toonist whose  interview-sketch  stories  appeared  in  leading 
newspapers  and  magazines.  He  was  a  regular  contributor 
to  the  New  York  Times  since  1920. 

Chamberlain,  John  Loomis  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Jan.  20, 
1858— d.  Washington,  D.C.,  Nov.  4,  1948).  Major  Gen- 
eral AUS  (since  1926)  and  Inspector  General  of  the  U.S. 
Army,  1917-21. 

Chase,  William  Bunton  (b.  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  1872 — d. 
Whitefield,  N.H.,  Aug.  25,  1948).  Music  critic;  music 
editor  of  the  New  York  Times,  1916-35;  of  the  New  York 
Sun,  1896-1916. 

Chettiar,  Rajah  Sir  Annamalai  of  Chittinad  (b.  Adyar, 
India,  Sept.  30,  1881— d.  Madras,  India,  June  15,  1948). 
Banker,  industrialist,  founder  and  pro-chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Annamalai.  He  also  established  a  conserva- 
tory, hospital,  and  other  educational  institutions. 

Christiansen,  Theodore   (b.  Lac  qui  Parle,  Minn.,   Sept. 

12,  1883 — d.  Dawson,  Minn.,  Dec.  9,  1948).  Lawyer;  po- 
litical leader;  governor  of  Minnesota,  1925-31;  and  repre- 
sentative in  Congress,   1933-37.  Sometime  editor  of  the 
Dawson  Sentinel  (1909-25). 

Clements,  Colin  Campbell  (b.  Omaha,  Neb.,  Feb.  25, 
1894 — d.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan.  29,  1948).  Famous  play- 
wright and  short  story  writer;  author  of  Harriet  and  Strange 
Bedfellows.  Many  novels,  stories,  and  screen  plays  were 
written  with  his  wife,  Florence  Ryerson,  among  them  Blind 
Man's  Buff,  Shadows,  and  First  Person  Singular. 

CHve,  Sir  Robert  Henry  (b.  Whitfield,  Herefords,  Eng- 
land, Dec.  27,  1877 — d.  Forest  Row,  Sussex,  England,  May 

13,  1948).  British  diplomat,  ambassador  to  Japan,  1934- 
37,  and  to  Belgium,  1937-39. 

Cochin,  Sri  Kerala  Varma,  Maharajah  of  (b.  India,  July, 
1870— d.  Ernakulam,  India,  July  8,  1948).  Ruler  of  the 
princely  state  of  Cochin  in  southwestern  India.  He  ascend- 
ed the  Musnad  in  1946;  succeeded  by  Srirama  Varma. 

Cockerel!,  Theodore  Dru  Alison  (b.  Norwood,  England, 
Aug.  22,  1866 — d.  San  Diego,  Calif.,  Jan.  26,  1948).  Zo- 
ologist, educator,  author,  and  a  member  of  the  faculty  of 
the  University  of  Colorado,  1904-34  (emeritus).  Some- 
time curator  of  the  Public  Museum,  Kingston,  Jamaica 
(1891-93),  In  the  field  of  entomology  he  devoted  much 
study  to  the  classification  of  bees.  His  researches  also  in- 
cluded conchology,  fossils,  and  evolution. 

Cohen,  S(olomon)  Solis  (b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  1, 
1857— d.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  12,  1948).  Physician  and 
noted  diagnostician;  on  the  faculty  of  Jefferson  Medical 
College,  1885-1927;  and  a  consultant  at  several  hospitals. 
Also  well  known  as  an  author,  translator,  editor,  and  poet; 
he  was  founder  and  member  of  the  publishing  committee 
of  the  Jewish  Publication  Society  and  a  founder  of  the 
Jewish  Theological  Seminary. 

Co(e,  Percival  Richard  (b.  Muswellbrook,  New  South 
Wales,  May  18,  1948 — d.  Sydney,  Australia,  Aug.  7, 
1948),  Scholar,  educator,  and  principal  of  Sydney  Teach- 
ers College,  1910-41;  Australian  representative  of  the  Car- 
negie Endowment  for  International  Peace;  visiting  Car- 
aegie  professor  in  the  United  States,  1929,  1936-37;  and 
a  lecturer  at  Columbia  University,  1908-10.  He  was  the 


NECROLOGY 


372 


NfCRQIOGY 


author  of  Crimes  and  Morals,  A  Neglected  Educator ;  etc. 

Collins,  Mrs.  Seword  B.  See  "Brandy  Dorothea, 

Con  ant,  Ernest  Lee  (b.  Dudley,  Mass.,  Sept.  11,  1857 — d. 
Stamford,  Conn.,  Nov.  29,  1948).  Lawyer,  realtor,  and 
authority  on  Cuban  affairs.  Variously  served  as  legal  ad- 
viser to  the  American  Evacuation  Commission  in  Cuba 
(1898),  as  counsel  to  the  military  governor  (1899),  and 
as  confidential  adviser  to  President  McKinley. 

Cone,  Frederick  Preston  (b.  Benton,  Fla.,  Sept.  28,  1871 
— d.  Lake  City,  Fla.,  July  28,  1948).  Lawyer,  politician, 
and  governor  of  Florida,  1937-41. 

Coningham,  Sir  Arthur  (b.  Brisbane,  New  Zealand,  1895 
— d.  At  sea,  Jan.  30,  1948).  British  Air  Marshal  (1946); 
commander  of  the  2d  Tactical  Air  Force  in  the  Normandy 
invasion  (1944-45);  and  of  the  8th  Army  in  North  Africa. 
Died  in  air  crash  on  flight  from  Azores  to  Bermuda. 

Cortnell,  Norreys.  See  O'Riordan,  Conal  Holmes  O'Con- 
nell. 

Conyers,  Sir  James  Reginald  (b.  Hamilton,  Bermuda, 
Sept.  3,  1879— d.  Hamilton,  Bermuda,  July  26,  1948). 
Lawyer,  parliamentarian,  and  speaker  of  the  Bermuda 
House  of  Assembly  since  1933.  A  member  of  the  House 
since  1904;  chairman  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  1925-27; 
he  was  knighted  in  1944. 

Cortissoz,  Royal  (b.  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Feb.  10,  1869 — d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  17,  1948).  Art  critic,  lecturer,  au- 
thor, and  since  1891  art  editor  of  the  Herald  Tribune  and 
its  predecessor  the  Tribune.  Author  of  Augustus  St.  Gait- 
dens,  John  La  Farge,  Art  and  Common  Sense,  American 
Artists,  etc. 

Cotton,  Lucy  (b.  Houston,  Tex.,  1892 — d.  Miami  Beach, 
Fla.»  Dec.  12,  1948).  Former  actress  who  rose  to  stardom 
in  Up  in  Mabel's  Room.  Her  fifth  and  last  husband  was 
Prince  Vladimir  Eristavi-Tchitcherine. 

Coftrell,  Frederick  Gardner  (b.  Oakland,  Calif.,  Jan.  10, 
1877— d.  Berkeley,  Calif.,  Nov.  16,  1948).  Scientist,  in- 
ventor, and  founder  (1912)  of  Research  Associates.  Besides 
his  outstanding  invention,  the  Cottrell  electrical  precipi- 
tator,  he  did  research  on  thermal  fixation  of  atmospheric 
nitrogen,  and  perfected  a  process  for  low-priced  helium. 
Cottrell  served  with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, 1922-43;  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  1911-20;  and  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  1928-29. 

Cowles,  Eugene  Chase  (b.  Stanstead,  Quebec,  Canada, 
Jan.  17,  1860-^d.  Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  22,  1948).  Opera 
and  concert  singer  who  appeared  with  the  Bostonians, 
1888-98,  and  as  leading  man  in  the  Neilson  Opera  Com- 
pany, 1898.  His  best  known  roles  were  those  of  Will  Scar- 
let in  Robin  Hood  and  as  the  leading  basso  in  Chu  Chin 
Chow. 

Creighton,  Frank  Whittington  (b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Dec. 
3,  1879 — d.  Washington,  D.C.,  Dec.  24,  1948).  Bishop  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Diocese  of  Michigan,  1940-48 
(retired);  Suffragen  Bishop  of  Long  Island,  1933-37;  and 
the  last  non-Mexican  Bishop  of  Mexico,  192&-33.  He  was 
the  author  of  Our  Heritage,  Mexico,  and  Christianity  is  Life* 

Crenier,  Henri  {b.  Paris,  France,  Dec.  17,  1873-—-d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  1,  1948).  Noted  sculptor,  represented  in 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  and  in  many  private  col- 
lections. His  work  of  bas-reliefs,  fountains,  and  portrait 
busts  includes  Boy  and  Turtle,  Fenimore  Coopef  Memorial, 
etc. 

Cromwell,  William  Nelson  (b.  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  1854— d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  July  19,  1948).  Corporation  lawyer  and 
a  director  in  many  corporations.  Successfully  reorganized 
numerous  large  companies  and  negotiated  treaties  leading 
to  the  transfer  of  the  Panama  Canal  site  to  the  United 
States. 

Cross,  Wilbur  Lucius  (b,  Mansfield,  Conn.,  Apr*  10,  1862 
— d.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  5,  1948).  Scholar,  educator, 
politician,  and  governor  of  Connecticut,  1931—39*  On  the 
faculty  of  Yale  University  from  1894-1930;  Stirling  pro- 
fessor of  English  since  1922,  and  dean  of  the  Graduate 
School  since  1916.  Edited  the  Yale  Review  (1911-40)  and 
the  Yale  Review  Anthology.  Author  of  Life  and  Times  of 
Laurence  Sterne,  History  of  Henry  Fielding,  An  Outline  oj 
'Biography,  and  an  autobiography,  Connecticut  Yankee. 

Crowefl,  James  R.  (b.  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  1894 — d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  Jan.  18,  1948).  Author,  journalist,  and  maga- 
zine writer.  Sometime  foreign  correspondent  for  the  New 
York  Herald  Tribune;  news  editor,  later  sports  editor  for 
the  New  York  Telegram.  His  published  work  includes 
Down  the  Stretch,  The  Spell  of  the  Turf,  I  Had  a  Hunch, 
and  The  Fifth  Estate. 

Gumming,  Hugh  Scott  (b.  Hampton,  Va.,  Aug.  17,  1869 
— d.  Washington,  D.C.,  Dec.  20,  1948).  Internationally 
known  public  health  officer;  Surgeon  General  of  the  U.S. 
Public  Health  Service,  1920-36. 

Curtius,  Julius  (b*  Duisburg,  Germany,  Feb.  7,  1877— 
d.  Heidelberg,  Germany,  Nov*  12,  1948).  Lawyer,  poli- 
tician, and  a  German  People's  Party  representative  in  the 
Reichstag,  1920-32.  He  held  the  cabinet  posts  of  Foreign 
Minister  (1929-31)  and  Reich  Minister  for  Economic  Af- 
fairs (1926-29).  From  1930-31  lie  served  as  German 
member  of  the  League  of  Nations  Council. 

Dalnoky-Mikloi,  Be  la  (b.  Hungary,  1891— d.  Budapest, 
Hungary,  Nov.  24,  1948)-  Army  general,  sometime  military 
attach^,  and  Prime  Minister  of  the  Hungarian  Provisional 
government,  1944-45, 


Daly,  Thomas  Augustine  (b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  May  28, 
1871 — d.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  4,  1948).  Internationally 
known  newspaperman,  poet,  and  lecturer.  Since  1929  his 
feature  column  "Rhymes  and  Ripples"  appeared  in  the 
Philadelphia  Evening  Bulletin.  Notable  among  his  Italian, 
dialect  verse  was  McAroni  Ballads}  also  Canzani,  Madri- 
gali,  Songs  of  Wedlock,  etc. 

Daniel,  John  Franklin,  III  (b.  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  1910 
— d.  Ankara,  Turkey,  Dec.  17,  1948).  Noted  archaeologist, 
on  the  staff  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  Museum,  and 
editor  in  chief  of  the  American  Journal  of  Archaeology. 

Daniels,  Josephus  (b.  Washington,  N.C.,  May  18,  1862 
— d.  Raleigh,  N.C.,  Jan.  15,  194"8).  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
1913-21;  ambassador  to  Mexico,  1933-42;  and  editor  and 
publisher  of  the  Raleigh,  N.C.,  News  and  Observer,  1885- 
1948. 

Dann,  William  John  (b.  Bath,  England,  Nov.  9,  1904 — 
d.  Durham,  N.C.,  Dec.  5,  1948).  Physician  of  national 
repute  and  recognized  authority  on  nutrition  and  vitamins. 
Chief  researches  were  on  pellagra  and  related  diseases. 
Since  1935  he  was  professor  at  Duke  University  School  of 
Medicine. 

Darton,  Nelson  Horatio  (b.  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Dec.  17, 
1865— d.  Chevy  Chase,  Md.,  Feb.  28,  1948).  Interna- 
tionally known  oil  geologist;  with  the  United  States  Geolog- 
ical Survey  1886-1910,  1913-36;  and  with  the  Bureau  of 
Mines,  1910-13.  Inventor  of  a  ^  sugar  process;  researcher 
in  tannic  acids  and  water  analysis.  Author  of  The  Story  of 
the  Grand  Canyon,  Geologic  Guide  to  the  Santa  Fe  Rail- 
road, etc. 

Delaney,  Jack  (b.  St.  Francis,  Alberta,  Canada,  Mar.  19, 
1900— -d.  Katonah,  N.Y.,  Nov.  27,  1948).  Former  light 
heavyweight  boxing  champion  whose  real  name  was  Oliva 
Chapdelaine.  Between  1919  and  1928  he  won  60  of  70 
bouts,  35  of  them  knockouts. 

Delcmey,  John  J.  (b.  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Aug,  21,  1878 — 
d.  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Nov.  18,  1948).  Lawyer,  politician,  and 
Democratic  representative  to  Congress,  1917—19,  and  since 
1931. 

Denham,  George  Edward  Wentworth  Bowyer,  1st  Baron, 
of  Weston  Underwood  (b.  Olney,  Bucks,  England,  Jan.  16. 
1886 — d.  London,  England,  Nov.  30,  1948).  Lawyer,  poli- 
tician, and  vice  chairman  or  the  Conservative  Party,  1930— 
35.  A  member  of  Parliament,  1918-37,  and  of  the  House 
of  Lords,  since  1937,  he  served  as  Conservative  Party 
Whip,  1925-35,  and  1945-47. 

D*  Oro,  Alfred  (b.  Cuba,  1856 — d.  North  Pelham,  N.Y., 
Apr.  23,  1948).  Former  world  champion  of  pocket  bil- 
liards, who  won  his  first  crown  in  1887  and  retained  it 
almost  continually  for  30  years. 

Derby,  Edward  George  VHIIers  Stanley,  17th  Earl  of  (b. 
London,  England,  Apr.  4,  1865— d.  Knowsley,  Lanes., 
England,  Feb.  4,  1948).  British  statesman,  diplomat,  and 
owner  of  famous  racing  horses.  He  was  Secretary  of  State 
for  War,  1916-18,  1922-24;  and  Ambassador  to  France, 
1918-20. 

Devine,  Edward  Thomas  (b.  Union,  Iowa,  May  6,  1867 — 
d.  Chicago,  EGL  Feb.  27,  1948).  Author,  lecturer  and  wel- 
fare official.  Variously  editor  and  assistant  editor  of  the 
Survey,  1897-1921;  general  secretary,  Charity  Organiza- 
tion Society,  1896-1917;  dean  of  the  Graduate  School, 
American  University,  1926-28. 

Diamond,  Harry  (b.  Quincy,  Mass.,  Feb.  12,  1900 — d. 
Washington,  D.C.,  June  21,  1948).  Radio  engineer,  chief 
of  the  electronics  division  of  the  National  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards, and  with  the  Bureau  since  1927.  Co-inventor  of  the 
proximity  fuse,  the  Number  Two  secret  weapon  of  World 
War  II. 

Dickey,  Herbert  Spencer  (b.  Highland  Falls,  N.Y.,  Feb. 
24,  1876 — d.  Huigra,  Ecuador,  Oct.  28,  1948).  Physician, 
explorer,  and  author.  His  many  expeditions  in  South  and 
Central  America  included  5  treks  across  the  Ecuadorean 
Andes,  the  first  "dude**  expedition  down  the  Amazon 
(1932),  a  journey  to  the  land  of  the  headhunters  (1926), 
and  the  discovery  of  an  unrecorded  tribe  in  Colombia 
(1928).  Author  of  My  Jungle  Book,  The  Misadventures  of 
a  Tropical  Medico  (with  D.  Hawthorne),  and  articles  to 
the  New  York  Times. 

Dobie,  J.  Gilmour  (b.  Hastings,  Minn.,  Jan.  31,  1879 — 
d.  Hartford,  Conn.,  Dec,  24,  1948).  Famous  football  coach, 
retired  in  1938,  who  as  "Gloomy-Gil"  spent  30  years 
coaching  spectacularly  successful  teams.  He  scored  180 
victories,  15  ties,  and  45  losses  in  his  lifetime. 

Donoughmore,  Sir  Richard  Walter  John  Hely-Hutchinson, 
6th  Earl  of  (b.  Ireland,  Mar.  2,  1875— d.  Clonmel,  Ireland, 
Oct.  20,  1.948).  Chairman  of  Committees  and  deputy 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Lords,  1911—33;  sometime  Under- 
secretary of  State  for  War;  and  since  1933,  chairman  of 
the  National  Radium  Commission. 

Dorr,  Rheta  Childe  (b.  Omaha,  Neb,,  1866— d.  New 
Britain,  Pa.,  Aug.  8,  1948).  Author,  war  correspondent, 
and  feminist.  She  was  editor  of  the  woman's  department 
of  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  1902-06;  and  author  of 
A  Woman  of  Fifty,  What  Eight  Million  Women  Want,  In- 
side the  Russian  Revolution;  and  The  Life  of  Susan  B. 
Anthony. 

Doublier,  Francis  (b.  Lyon,  France,  Apr.  11,  1878 — d. 
Englewood,  N.J.,  Apr.  3,  1948).  Pioneer  technician  in  the 
motion  picture  industry;  vice  president,  Major  Film  Labora- 
tories, Inc.,  and  charter  member  of  Picture  Pioneers,  IDC* 


373 


NECROLOGY 


Doumenc,  Joseph  Edouard  (b,  Grenoble,  France,  Nov.  16, 
1880 — d.  Blanc  Glacier,  France,  July  21,  1948).  Army 
general  who,  as  minister  of  National  Reconstruction  under 
Pe"tain,  directed  the  demobilization  of  the  French  army. 

Dowling.  Henry  Taylor  (b.  Lowndes  County,  Ga.,  Jan. 
19,  1849 — d.  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Nov.  6,  1948).  The  last  of 
Atlanta's  Confederate  veterans,  General  Dowling  was  Com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  United  Confederate  Veterans,  1945- 
47. 

D'Oyly  Carte,  Rupert  (b.  Hampstead,  England,  Nov.  8, 
1876— -a.  London,  England,  Sept.  12,  1948).  Owner-man- 
ager of  the  famous  D'Oyly  Carte  Opera  Company,  since 
1913;  and  chairman  of  the  Savoy  group  of  hotels. 

Dukeston,  Charles  Dukes,  1st  Baron  of  Warrington  (b. 
1881 — d.  London,  England,  May  14,  1948).  One  of  Great 
Britain's  foremost  labor  leaders;  president  of  the  Trades 
Union  Congress,  1945-46;  Labour  M.P.,  1923-24,  1929- 
31;  and  a  member  of  the  court  of  the  Bank  of  England. 

Dunn,  John  Randall  (b.  Massillon,  Ohio,  1878 — d.  Cen- 
terville,  Mass.,  Dec.  22,  1948).  Editor  of  the  Christian  Sci- 
ence Journal,,  Sentinel  and  Herald,  since  1943,  and  Presi- 
dent of  the  Mother  Church,  1942-43. 

Du  Pont,  A.  Felix  (b.  Wilmington,  Del.,  Apr.  14,  1879— 
d.  Rehoboth  Beach,  Del.,  June  29,  1948 ) .  Industrialist,  and 
director  and  former  vice  president  of  E.  I.  du  Pont  de 
Nemours  &  Co.  An  aviation  enthusiast,  he  was  particu- 
larly interested  in  gliding. 

Duranf,  Mrs.  Kenneth.  See  Taggard,  Genevieve. 

Duryea,  Mrs,  Peter  E.  C.  See  Allen,  Viola. 

Du  Toit,  Alexander  Logie  (b.  South  Africa,  Mar.  14,  1878 
-7-d.  Capetown,  South  Africa,  Feb.  25,  1948).  Interna- 
tionally known  geologist  and  explorer;  leader  of  scientific 
expeditions  to  Africa,  South  America,  etc.  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  (1943).  Author  of  A  Geological  Comparison 
of  South  America  with  South  Africa  and  Our  Wandering 
Continents. 

Edwards,  Edward  B.  (b.  Columbia,  Pa.,  Feb.  8,  1873 — 
d.  Hasbrouk  Heights,  N.J.,  Feb.  16,  1948).  Book  designer, 
illustrator,  and  author.  Founder  and  former  director  of  the 
Institute  of  Graphic  Arts. 

Egan,  Joseph  L  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Aug.  9,  1886 — d. 
Monte  Carlo,  Monaco,  Dec.  6,  1948).  Lawyer,  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company  since  1945. 
Regarded  as  one  of  the  world's  foremost  authorities^  on 
communication,  he  had  been  with  Western  Union  since 
1912. 

Egbert,  James  Chfdesfer  (b.  New  York,  N.T.,  May  3, 
1859— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  July  17,  1948).  Educator, 
author,  and  professor  of  Latin  at  Columbia  University, 
1906-42.  He  was  director  of  University  Extension,  1910- 
42;  director  of  Summer  Sessions,  1902-19;  and  director, 
1916-31,  dean,  1931-32,  of  the  School  of  Business.  Also 
president  of  the  Long  Island  College  Hospital,  1917-30, 
and  president  of  the  Long  Island  College  of  Medicine, 
1930-31.  Author  and  editor  of  works  on  classical  subjects, 
general  editor  of  Macmillan's  Series  of  Latin  Classics,  and 
contributor  of  articles  to  Funk  and  Wagnalls  New  Interna- 
tional Encyclopedia. 

Eisensfein,  Sergei  Mikhailovich  (b.  Russia,  1898 — d. 
Moscow,  U.S.S.R,,  Feb.  10,  1948).  Famous  Soviet  film 
producer  and  director;  head  of  the  State  Institute  of  Cine- 
matography since  1929.  Besides  Patemkin,  he  directed 
Thunder  over  Mexico,  Alexander  Nevsky,  and  Ivan  the 
Terrible. 

EJ-Gemayet  Pasha,  Antoun  (b.  Beirut,  Lebanon,  1887 — 
d.  Cairo,  Egypt,  Jan.  13,  1948).  Writer,  philologist,  and 
editor  in  chief  of  Al-Ahram,  largest  newspaper  in  the  Mid- 
dle East,  since  193L  Sometime  editor  of  the  literary  re- 
view Az  Zouhour;  member  of  the  Arabic  Academy;  and 
onetime  Egyptian  Senator. 

Elliott,  Maud  Howe  (b.  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  9,  1854 — d. 
Newport,  R.L,  Mar.  19,  1948).  Lecturer  and  author,  who 
with  sister  ( Laura  E.  Richards )  received  the  Pulitzer  Prize 
(1917)  for  The  Life  of  Julia  Ward  Howe,  their  famous 
mother.  She  also  wrote  "Uncle  Sam  Ward  and  his  Circle, 
This  Was  My  Newport,  etc. 

Elsberg,  Charles  Albert  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Aug.  24, 
1871 — d.  Stamford,  Conn.,  Mar.  18,  1948).  Noted  brain 
surgeon  and  discoverer  of  scent  detector  of  tumors.  Co- 
founder  of  the  Neurological  Institute  at  Presbyterian  Hos- 
pital, and  professor  emeritus  of  neurological  surgery  at  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons. 

Ely,  Robert  Erskine  (b.  Bmghampton,  N.Y.,  Sept.  13, 
1861— d.  Scarsdale,  N.Y.,  July  13,  1948).  Educator,  lec- 
turer, co-founder,  and  former  director  of  Town  Hall,  Inc. 
Also  clirector  of  the  League  for  Political  Education,  1901- 
37. 

Ent,  Uzal  G.  (b.  Northumberland,  Pa.,  Mar.  3,  1900— 
d.  Denver,  Col.,  Mar.  5,  1948).  Major  General,  USA  (re- 
tired 1946);  leader  of  the  9th  Bomber  Command  which 
raided  the  Ploesti  oil  fields  in  August,  1943. 

Eve,  Arthur  Stewart  (b.  Silsoe,  Bedfordshire,  England, 
Nov.  22,  1862—d.  Surrey,  England,  Mar.  24,  1948).  In- 
ternationally known  physicist:  on  the  faculty  of  McGill 
University  since  1903,  and  dean  of  its  graduate  school, 
1930-35.  A  collaborator  of  Lord  Rutherford,  he  specialized 
in  research  of  radioactivity  of  the  earth  and  atmosphere. 

Farquhar,  S(ilas)  Edgar  (b.  Near  Evansville,  Ind.,  Oct. 
1887— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Mar.  21,  1948).  Editor  of  the 
Grolier  Encyclopedia  since  1944;  editor  Quanie  Corpora- 


tion, 1931-40;  Midland  Press,  1923-30.  He  was  also  edi- 
tor of  The  New  Human  Interest  Library,  World  Book  En~ 
cyclopedia,  Childcraft,  etc. 

Fearon,  Percy  Hutfon  (b.  Shanghai,  China,  Sept.  6,  1874 
— d.  London,  England,  Nov.  5,  1948).  Political  cartoonist 
who  as  "Poy"  drew  more  than  10,000  cartoons  which  ap- 
peared in  the  London  Evening  News,  1913-35;  and  The 
Daily  Mail,  1935-38, 

Fechet,  James  Edmond  (b.  Fort  Ringgold,  Tex.,  Aug.  31, 
1877—4.  Washington,  D.C.,  Feb.  11,  1948).  Major  Gen- 
eral, AUS  (retired).  He  served  as  chief  of  the  Air  Corps, 
1927-31,  and  was  recalled  to  active  staff  duty,  1942-46. 

Feng  Yu-Hsiang  (b.  Anhwei  Province,  China,  1882 — d. 
Black  Sea,  Sept.  4,  1948).  War  lord  known  as  the  "Chris- 
tian General."  Gained  reputation  as  a  military  administrator 
and  was  created  a  Field  Marshal  in  1923.  Often  expelled 
and  reinstated  as  member  of  the  Kuommtang  Central  Ex- 
ecutive Committee;  he  broke  with  Chiang  Kai-shek  in  1947. 

Fenton,  Francis  Patrick  (b.  Boston,  Mass.,  Mar,  11,  1895— 
d.  Washington,  D.C.,  Aug.  9,  1948).  Labor  leader  and  in- 
ternational representative  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor. 

Ferdinand  I  (Maximilian  Charles  Leopold  Marie),  King  of 
Bulgaria  (b.  Vienna,  Austria,  Feb.  26,  1861 — d.  Coburg, 
Germany,  Sept.  10,  1948).  A  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg,  he 
was  elected  to  the  throne  of  Bulgaria  in  1887,  and  assumed 
the  title  of  king,  or  czar,  in  1908.  Following  World  Wai  I, 
he  abdicated  (1918)  in  favor  of  his  son.  Crown  Prince 
Boris.  Twice  married:  (1)  Marie  Louise,  Princess  of  Parma, 
and  (2)  Eleonore,  Princess  of  Reuss. 

Fernandez,  Oscar  Lorenzo  (b.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil, 
Nov.  4,  1897— d.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  Aug.  27,  1948). 
Composer,  conductor,  and  founder  and  director  of  the  Bra- 
zilian Conservatory  of  Music  (1936).  A  recurring  folk 
theme  distinguished  his  more  than  a  hundred  compositions. 

Feyder,  Jacques  (b.  Brussels,  Belgium,  1888 — d,  Rives 
de  Prangins,  Vaus,  Switzerland,  May  25,  1948).  Noted 
French  motion  picture  producer  and  director,  whose  real 
name  was  Frederix.  His  most  successful  picture  was  Carni- 
val in  Flanders;  others  were  Mother  Mine,  Faces  of  Chil- 
dren., and  Portrait  of  a  Woman. 

Fisher,  Sir  (Norman  Fenwick)  Warren  (b.  London,  Eng- 
land, Sept.  22,  1879-rd.  London,  England,  Sept,  25, 
1948).  One  of  Great  Britain's  foremost  administrators  and 
a  director  of  several  banks,  etc.  He  joined  the  civil  service 
in  1903,  and  in  1919  was  appointed  permanent  secretary 
to  the  Treasury  and  official  head  of  the  civil  service. 

Fisher,  William  Arms  (b.  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  Apr.  27, 
1861 — d.  Brookline,  Mass.,  Dec,  18,  1948).  Composer, 
author,  and  editor-manager  of  the  Oliver  Ditson  music  pub- 
lishing firm,  1897-1937.  His  many  compositions  include 
songs,  anthems,  a  volume  of  Negro  spirituals,  etc.  Also 
edited  the  Musician's  Library  and  the  Music  Student's  Li- 
brary. Author  of  Notes  on  Music  in  Old  Boston,  Ye  Old 
New  England  Psalm  Tunes,  Music  Festivals  in  the  United 
States, 

Flanagan,  Edward  Joseph  (b.  Roscommon,  Ireland,  July 
13,  1886 — d.  Berlin,  Germany,  May  15,  1948).  Roman 
Catholic  priest;  ordained  as  a  Jesuit  in  1912;  rnonsignor 
in  1937.  Internationally  known  as  founder  and  director 
of  Father  Flanagan's  Boys  Home,  Boys  Town,  Nebraska 
(1917). 

Force,  Juliana  (b.  Doylestown,  Pa.,  1881 — d.  New  York, 
N.Y.,  Aug.  28,  1948).  Nationally  known  leader  in  the 
world  of  art  and  a  champion  of  young  artists.  Associated 
with  Mrs.  Whitney  for  more  than  40  years,  she  was  di- 
rector of  the  Whitney  Museum  of  American  Art  since  its 
inception  in  193L 

Fournier,  Alexis  Jean  (b.  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  July  4,  1865— 
d.  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  Jan.  20,  1948).  Landscape  painter  of  the 
homes  and  haunts  of  the  Barbizon  masters.  Founder  of 
the  Minneapolis  Art  League  and  author  of  The  Homes  of 
the  Men  of  1830  and  Among  the  Cliff  Dwellings  in  San 
Juan  Country. 

Freimann,  Aron  (b.  Filehne,  Germany,  Aug.  5,  1871 — 
d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  June  6,  1948).  Hebrew  scholar,  au- 
thor, and  bibliographer.  Professor  of  Jewish  History  and 
Literature  at  Yeshiva  College  (since  1939).  Formerly  act^ 
ing  director  of  the  Frankfurt  Library,  Germany,  and  presi- 
dent of  that  city's  Jewish  community.  For  many  years 
editor  of  Zeitschrift  fur  Hebrseische  Bibliographic;  co- 
author (with  I.  Kracauer)  of  History  of  the  Jews  of  Frank- 
furt. 

Frefinghuysen,  Joseph  Sherman  (b.  Raritan,  N.J.,  Mar. 
12,  1869— d.  Tucson,  Ariz.,  Feb.  8,  1948).  Politician; 
sometime  acting  governor  of  New  Jersey;  and  Republican 
United  States  Senator,  1917-23. 

Frew,  William  <b.  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Nov.  24,  1881— d. 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Jan.  31,  1948).  Lawyer;  president  Car- 
negie Institute,  since  1943;  and  chairman  of  the  board., 
Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology, 

Friedman,  Ignaz  (b.  Padgorze,  Poland,  Feb.  14,  1882 — 
d.  Sydney,  Australia,  Jan.  26,  1948).  Concert  pianist  and 
composer  who  gave  more  than  2,000  concerts  all  over  the 
world.  His  compositions  include  works  for  piano,  cello, 
and  voice.  Editor  of  the  Breitkopf  and  Hartel  edition  of 
Chopin's  works. 

Gallon,  Jorge  Eliecer  (b.  Bogota,  Colombia,  Jan,  20, 
1902 — d.  Bogota,  Colombia,  Apr,  9,  1948).  Lawyer,  edu- 
cator, and  politician;  popular  leader  of  the  opposition  Lib- 


NECROLOGY 


374 


NECROLOGY 


eral  Party  whose  assassination  touched  off  a  serious,  bloody 
liot.  Dr.  Gaitan  was  professor  of  Penal  Law  and  rector 
of  the  Free  University  of  Bogota,  and  also  on  the  faculty 
of  the  National  University, 

Gallatin,  Alberta  (b.  Cabel!  County,  W.  Va.,  1861 — d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  Aug.  25,  1948).  Character  actress;  ap- 
peared with  Jefferson,  Mansfield,  Otis  Skinner,  etc.,  and 
was  last  seen  on  Broadway  in  Cain,  in  1925.  She  founded 
( 1920 )  the  Edgar  Allan  Poe  Society  and  was  its  president 
until  1937.  In  private  life  she  was  Mrs.  Edwin  O.  Childe. 

Gandhi,  Hiralal  Mohandas  (b.  1887— d.  Bombay,  In- 
dia, June  19,  1948).  Religious  leader,  responsivist,  and 
oldest  son  of  the  late  Mahatma  Gandhi.  Long  opposed  to 
his  father's  work,  he  created  a  sensation  by  embracing 
the  Moslem  faith  (1936),  which  he  later  renounced. 

Gandhi,  Mohandas  Karamchand  (b.  Porbandar,  India, 
Oct.  2,  1869— d.  Xew  Delhi,  India,  Jan.  30,  1948).  Hindu 
nationalist  and  reformer,  called  Mahatma  by  his  followers. 
Controlling  force  of  the  Indian  National  Congress,  and  its 
president  1924726,  1940-41.  In  1919  he  organized  Satya- 
graha,  a  politico-religious  movement  of  non-cooperation 
with  the  British  government  in  India.  His  advocacy  of  pas- 
sive resistance  and  civil  disobedience  frequently  caused  his 
imprisonment.  Met  his  death  by  assassination.  He  was  the 
author  of  Indian  Home  Rule,  Universal  Dawn,  Young  In- 
dia, etc. 

Gaskilf,  Clarence  i.  (b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1892— d.  Staten 
Island,  N.Y.,  Apr.  29,  1948).  Composer  and  writer  of 
song  hits  since  1912.  Best  known  of  his  hundreds  of  songs 
are  Minnie  the  Moocher  and  Prisoner  of  Love.  Also  wrote 
the  Vanities  songs  in  1925  and  1926. 

Gates,  Thomas  Sovereign  (b.  Germantown,  Pa,,  Mar.  21, 
1873 — d.  Osterville,  Mass.,  Apr.  8,  1948).  Lawyer,  banker, 
and  educator.  President  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
1930-44,  chairman  since  1944;  partner  in  Drexel  &  Co., 
1918-30,  and  J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co.,  1921-30.  Also  a  member 
of  the  National  Committee  of  UNESCO. 

Gent,  Sir  (Gerard)  Edward  James  (b.  England,  1895 — 
d.  near  London,  England,  July  4,  1948).  Parliamentarian, 
colonial  administrator,  and  since  Feb.  1,  1948,  High  Com- 
missioner of  the  Federation  of  Malaya.  He  had  served  as 
Governor  and  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Malay  Union, 
1946-48;  and  as  Assistant  Under-Secretary  of  State,  1942- 
46. 

Gerard,  Richard.  See  Husch,  Richard  Gerard. 

Gerstenberg,  Charles  William  (b.  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  May 
25,  1882 — d.  Setauket,  Long  Island,  N.Y.,  Sept.  15,  1948). 
Lawyer,  educator;  co-founder  and  sometime  chairman  of 
the  board  of  the  publishing  firm  of  Prentice-Hall.  Author 
of  Commercial  Law,  Materials  of  Corporation  Finance, 
American  Constitutional  Law,,  etc. 

Gifafc,  Henry  William  Phelan  (b.  AJbwick,  Northumber- 
land, England,  1870 — d.  High  Wycombe,  England,  Oct. 
25,  1948).  Controversial  painter,  represented  in  the  Tate 
Gallery  by  Street  Scene.  Besides  shows  in  London  and 
Paris,  he  held  two  shows  in  New  York  in  1909. 

Gilbert,  George  Blodgefi  (b.  Randolph,  Vt.,  Jan.  23, 
1872 — d.  Middletown,  Conn.,  Feb.  20,  1948).  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman  and  author  of  the  best-selling  book 
Forty  Years  a  Country  Preacher. 

GiHmore,  W5SIi0m  Eugene  (b.  Ohio,  Nov.  29,  1876 — d. 
Washington,  B.C.,  Nov.  7,  1948).  Brigadier  General, 
USA  (retired),  and  assistant  chief  of  the  Army  Air  Force, 
1926-30. 

Giordano,  Umfaerto  (b.  Foggia,  Italy,  Aug.  27,  1867 — 
d.  Milan,  Italy,  Nov.  12,  1948).  Composer,  whose  most 
famous  opera,  Andrea  Chenier,  had  its  world  premiere  in 
Milan  in  1896.  Other  works  include:  Madame  Sons-Gene, 
Fedora,  Cena  del  Beffe. 

Gtagolin,  ioris  (b.  Russia,  1878 — d.  Los  Angeles,  Calif., 
Dec,  12,  1948).  Veteran  actor,  producer,  and  director.  For 
more  than  20  years  leading  man  of  the  Literary  Art  Theater 
in  Moscow,  later  director  of  State  Theaters  in  the  Ukraine, 
and  chief  director  of  the  Moscow  Theater  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1927  as  director  for 
the  Yiddish  Art  Theater;  later  was  associated  with  the  Wis- 
consin Players  in  Milwaukee. 

Glaspell,  Susan  (b,  Davenport,  Iowa,  July  1,  1882 — d. 
Provincetown,  Mass.,  July  27,  1948).  Novelist,  playwright, 
and  with  her  first  husband,  George  Cram  Cook,  founder 
of  the  Provincetown  Playhouse,  where  Eugene  O'Neill's 
plays  were  first  presented.  Awarded  Pulitzer  Prize  for  her 
play  Alison's  House  (1930).  Other  works  include  Fidelity, 
Brook  Evans,  Norma  Ashe,  and  Judd  Rankings  Daughter. 
She  was  the  wife  of  Norman  Matson,  author  and  critic. 

Goldthwait,  James  Walter  (b.  Lynn,  Mass.,  Mar.  22, 
1880 — d.  Hanover,  N.H.,  Jan.  1,  1948).  Internationally 
known  geologist  and  professor  of  geology  at  Dartmouth 
College  since  1908.  Participant  in  many  geological  sur- 
veys and  the  author  of  technical  books  and  papers. 

Gomez,  Laurecno  (b.  Bogota,  Colombia,  Feb.  20,  1889 — 
d.  Bogota,  Colombia,  Apr.  9,  1948).  Engineer,  diplomat, 
and  statesman.  Leader  of  the  Conservative  Party,  Foreign, 
Minister  since  March,  1948,  and  head  of  the  Colombian 
delegation  to  the  Inter-American  Conference  at  Bogota. 
Sometime  Minister  to  Argentina  and  to  Germany,  and  a 
national  deputy,  1911-18,  1921-23. 

Gordon,  Jacques  (b.  Odessa,  Russia,  1899? — d.  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  Sept  15,  1948).  Noted  violinist  and  com- 


poser; founder  of  the  Gordon  String  Quartet  (1921)   and 
of  the  Gordon  Musical  Association  (1930). 

Granard,  Bernard  Arthur  William  Patrick  Hastings  Forbes, 
8th  Earl  of  (b.  Sept.  17,  1874 — d.  London,  England,  Sept. 
10,  1948).  Statesman,  soldier,  and  public  servant;  member 
of  the  Irish  senate,  1921-34;  sometime  deputy  speaker  of 
the  House  of  Lords,  director  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  and 
member  of  the  Council  of  State  in  Ireland. 

Gray,  Clifton  Daggett  (b.  Somerville,  Mass.,  July  27, 
1874— d.  Kennebunk,  Me.,  Feb.  21,  1948).  Baptist  pastor, 
educator,  and  president  of  Bates  College  (1920-44).  Edi- 
tor of  The  Standard,  1912-19,  and  sometime  editor  of 
The  Baptist.  He  was  the  author  of  Youth  on  the  March 
and  Shamash  Religious  Texts. 

Greenwood,  Hamot,  1st  Viscount  Greenwood  of  Hoi- 
bourne  (b.  Whitby,  Ont.,  Canada,  Feb.  7,  1870 — d.  Lon- 
don, England,  Sept.  10,  1948).  Lawyer,  businessman,  and 
politician;  treasurer  of  the  Conservative  Party,  1933—38;  a 
member  of  Parliament,  1906-29:  and  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland,  1920-22. 

Gregg,  John  Robert  (b.  Rockcorry,  Ireland,  June  17, 
1867— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  23,  1948).  Author  and 
publisher  and  inventor  of  the  Gregg  system  of  shorthand. 

Griffin,  James  Aioysius  (b.  Chicago,  Inn,,  Feb.  27,  1883 
— d.  Springfield,  HI.,  Aug.  5,  1948).  Bishop  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Diocese  of  Illinois  since  1924,  the  year  of  his  con- 
secration. Ordained  in  1909  upon  graduation  from  the 
Propaganda  University  in  Rome;  instituted  numerous  social 
welfare  programs  in  his  diocese. 

Griffith,  David  Warlc  (b.  La  Grange,  Ky.,  Jan.  22,  1875— 
d.  Hollywood,  Calif.,  July  23,  1948).  Pioneer  motion  pic- 
ture producer  and  co-founder  of  United  Artists  (1919).  Of 
the  nearly  500  pictures  which  he  produced,  the  Birth  of  a 
Nation,  America.,  Intolerance.,  Abraham  Lincoln,  and  The 
Struggle^  were  the  most  outstanding. 

Grzesinski,  Albert  C.  (b.  Treptow  am  Tollensee,  Germany, 
July  28,  1879— d.  Queens,  L.L,  Jan.  1,  1948).  Politician, 
trade  union  official,  and  police  president  of  Berlin,  1925— 
26,  1930-33.  A  leader  in  the  Social  Democratic  Party  and 
a  strong  supporter  of  the  Weimar  Republic,  he  served  as 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  1926-30. 

Guerry,  Alexander  (b.  Lincolnton,  N.C.,  Oct.  17,  1890 
— d.  Knoxvffie,  Tenn.,  Oct.  19,  1948).  Educator,  civic 
leader,  and  vice  chancellor  and  president  of  the  University 
of  the  South  since  1938.  Sometime  president,  University 
of  Chattanooga  (1929-38)  and  headmaster  of  Baylor 
School  (1919-29). 

Gunther,  Ernest  Ludolph  (b.  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  7,  1887 
— d.  Menlo  Park,  Calif,,  Mar.  27,  1948).  Hear  Admiral, 
USN,  who  led  the  offensive  in  the  Solomons  campaign  as 
air  commander  of  the  Pacific  Fleet. 

Hcgenbeck,  Carl  Lorenr  (b.  Hamburg,  Germany,  1908 — 
d.  Hamburg,  Germany,  Nov.  27,  1948).  Head  of  the 
world-famous  circus  in  Hamburg,  Germany,  where  wild 
animals  are  shown  in  their  natural  habitat  instead  of  in 
cages.  More  than  a  hundred  zoological  gardens  and  circuses, 
including  Bamum's,  were  supplied  with  wild  animals  by 
the  firm. 

Hagood,  Johnson  (b.  Orangeburg,  S.C.,  June  16,  1873 — 
d.  Charleston,  S.C.,  Dec.  22,  1948).  Major  General  AUS 
(retired),  and  the  author  of  several  books  and  many 
articles  on  the  Army  and  Army  life.  During  World  War  I 
he  served  as  supply  chief  in  France  and  in  1936  was 
disciplined  for  criticism  of  the  WPA. 

Homes,  Charles  Grove  <b.  Lineboro,  Md.,  Sept.  20,  1879 
—^d.  Laguna  Beach,  Calif.,  Dec.  27,  1948).  Political 
scientist,  educator,  and  nationally  known  authority  on 
American  jurisprudence.  Since  1925  a  faculty  member  at 
the  University  of  California;  1914-25  at  the  University  of 
Texas;  and  sometime  visiting  lecturer  at  Harvard.  Author 
of  The  American  Doctrine  of  Judicial  Supremacy,  Prin- 
ciples and  Problems  of  Government  Revival  of  Natural 
Law  Concepts,  etc. 

Hall,  Wesfon  Bert  (b.  1886—d.  Fremont,  Ohio,  Dec.  6, 
1948 ) .  Soldier  of  fortune,  flier,  and  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  famous  Lafayette  Escadrille  (1914).  Variously  flew 
for  Turkey,  Bulgaria,  Russia,  and  as  "General  Chang** 
commanded  the  Chinese  Air  Force.  He  was  co-author  of 
One  Man's  War. 

Hambleden,  William  Henry  Smith,  3d  Viscount  (b.  Eng- 
land, July  25,  1903 — d.  London,  England,  Mar.  31,  1948). 
Governing  director  of  W.  H.  Smith  &  Son,  Ltd.,  the 
world's  largest  booksellers. 

Hammerstein,  Elaine  (b.  1898 — d.  Tia  Juana,  Mexico, 
Aug.  13,  1948).  Actress  of  the  silent  films  (1918-26).  She 
was  seen  in  the  following  motion  pictures:  The  Girl  from 
Nowhere,  Reckless  Youth,  Greater  than  Fame,  etc.  In 
private  life  the  wife  of  James  W.  Kays. 

Hardy,  Charles  Oscar  (b.  Island  City,  Mo.,  May  2,  1884 
— d.  Washington,  D.C.,  Nov.  30,  1948).  Noted  economist, 
educator,  author,  and  banker.  Since  1947  he  served  as  staff 
director  for  the  Joint  Congressional  Committee  on  the 
Economic  Report;  as  a  member  of  the  Brookings  Institu- 
tion research  staff,  1924-43,  he  was  a  frequent  adviser  to 
the  Government  on  economic  problems.  From  1943-46  he 
was  vice  president  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank  of  Kansas 
City.  He  had  taught  at  various  universities  and  was  the 
author  of  Risk  and  Risk  Bearing,  1$  There  Enough  Gold?, 
and  War  Time  Control  of  Prices,  etc. 

xr  ^arCls'xrBel5iI   (b-  Pullman,  HL,  Oct.  31,  1889— - d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  June  18,  1948).  Chairman  of  the  board,  United 


NEC&OIOGY 


375 


NHCROIOGY 


States  Lines,  since  1945;  president,  1942—45;  partner  in 
Roosevelt  Steamship  Company,  1923—39;  and  a  director  of 
American  Merchant  Marine  Institute,  1943-45.  Served  as 
assistant  secretary  of  the  Treasury,  1939-40. 

Harrison,  Mary  Scott  lord  (b.  Honesdale,  Pa.,  Apr.  30, 
1858 — d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Jan.  5,  1948).  Widow  of  the 
late  President  Benjamin  Harrison,  to  whom  she  was  mar- 
ried on  Apr.  6,  1896. 

Hausegger,  Siegmund  von  (b.  Graz,  Austria,  Aug.  16, 
1S72 — a.  Munich,  Germany,  Oct.  14?,  1948).  Composer 
and  conductor;  director  of  the  Akadernie  der  Tonkunst, 
1920-34;  conductor  of  the  Hamburg  Philharmonic  Con- 
certs, 1910-20;  and  sometime  conductor  at  Frankfurt  am 
Main  and  Berlin.  He  composed  two  operas,  two  symphonic 
poems,  and  several  songs  including  seven  Lieder  der  Liebe. 

Healey,  Arthur  Daniel  (b.  Somerviile,  Mass.,  Dec.  29, 
1889 — d.  SomerviEe,  Mass.,  Sept.  16,  1948).  Lawyer; 
judge  of  the  United  States  District  Court  for  Massachusetts, 
since  1942;  and  representative  to  Congress,  1933-42.  He 
was  a  New  Dealer,  a  member  of  the  Dies  Committee,  and 
co-sponsor  of  the  Walsh-Healey  Act. 

Heelan,  Edmond  (b.  Elton,  County  Limerick,  Ireland, 
Feb.  5,  1868— d.  Des  Monies,  Iowa,  Sept.  20,  1948). 
Bishop  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Diocese  of  Sioux  City,  Iowa, 
since  1920;  and  since  1940  assistant  to  the  Pontifical 
Throne. 

Heine,  Thomas  Theodor  (b.  Leipzig,  Germany,  Feb.  28, 
1867 — d.  Stockholm,  Sweden,  Jan.  27,  1948).  Painter,  po- 
litical cartoonist  and  co-founder  and  director  of  the  famous 
periodical  Simplicissimus. 

Helena  Victoria  (Louise  Sophie),  Princess  (b.  Windsor, 
England,  May  3,  1870 — d.  London,  England,  Mar.  13, 
1948).  Daughter  of  Prince  Frederick  Christian  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein  and  Princess  Helena  of  Great  Britain,  3d  daughter 
of  Queen  Victoria. 

Hersey,  Henry  Blanchard  (b.  Wffilamstown,  Vt.,  July  28, 
1861— d.  Sierra  Madre,  Calif.,  Sept.  24,  1948).  Colonel, 
AXIS  (retired),  meteorologist,  and  pioneer  balloonist.  With 
General  Lahm,  won  the  Gordon  Bennett  cup  in  the  interna- 
tional balloon  race  at  Paris  in  1906.  He  served  with  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau,  1885-1932;  with  the  Bal- 
loon Division  in  France,  1918-19;  and  with  the  Roosevelt 
Rough  Riders  in  the  Spanish-American  War. 

Hershbein,  Peretz  (b.  KLetshell,  Lithuania,  1881 — d.  Los 
Angeles,  Calif.,  Aug.  16,  1948).  Noted  Hebrew  author, 
lecturer,  and  playwright.  His  play  Green  Fields  was  adapted 
to  the  screen;  other  plays  were  Once  Upon  a  Time  and 
Child  of  the  World;  Erez  Israel 

Herzfeld,  Ernst  Emil  (b.  Hanover,  Germany,  July  23, 
1879 — d.  Basle,  Switzerland,  Jan.  21,  1948).  International- 
ly famous  archaeologist  and  authority  on  Babylonian  his- 
tory, who  led  several  expeditions  to  the  site  of  ancient 
Babylonia,  where  he  made  valuable  excavations.  Sometime 
professor  at  the  Institute  for  Advanced  Study  at  Princeton 
(1936-44)  and  at  the  University  of  Berlin  (1920-35). 
Author  of  Iran  in  the  Ancient  East,  Iranische  Denkmseler, 
Zoroaster  and  His  World,  etc. 

Hidayatallah,  Khan  Bahadur  Shaik  Ghoiam  Hussain  (b. 
India,  January,  1879 — d.  Karachi,  Pakistan,  Oct.  4,  1948). 
Lawyer,  politician,  and  governor  of  the  province  of  Sind 
since  August,  1947.  Since  the  constitution  of  1935,  he  was 
a  leading  force  in  the  province,  serving  as  Prime  Minister 
in  1937-38  and  1942-46.  Sometime  member  of  the  execu- 
tive council,  1928-34;  minister  in  the  government  of  Bom- 
bay, 1921—28;  and  in  the  Bombay  legislative  council, 
1912-20. 

Hill,  Louis  Warren  (b.  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  May  19,  1872— 
d.  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Apr.  27,  1948).  Railway  official;  suc- 
ceeded his  father  James  J.  Hill  as  president,  later  chairman 
of  the  board  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway,  1907-29. 

Hill,  Sir  George  Francis  (b.  Berhampur,  India,  Dec.  22, 
1867 — d.  London,  England,  Oct.  20,  1948).  Scholar, 
author,  and  director  of  the  British  Museum,  1931-36.  A 
member  of  the  museum  staff  since  1893  and  a  leading 
authority  in  the  field  of  mnnismatics.  A  fellow  of  the 
British  Academy,  he  edited  the  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies, 
1898-1912;  and  the  Numismatic  Chronicle,  1912-30.  His 
writings  include  Corpus  of  Italian  Medals  before  Cellini, 
History  of  Cyprus,  Treasure  Trove*  etc. 

Hilton,  Henry  Hoyf  (b.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Apr.  17,  1868 
— d.  N.  Tewksbury,  Mass.,  Apr.  10,  1948).  A  member  of 
the  publishing  firm  of  Ginn  &  Co.,  1890-1946,  variously 
serving  as  president  and  chairman  of  the  board. 

Hinds,  Samuel  Southey  (b.  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Apr.  4,  1875 
— d.  Pasadena,  Calif.,  Oct.  13,  1948).  Lawyer,  character 
actor,  and  co-founder  of  the  Pasadena  Community  Play- 
house. His  best  known  film  roles  were  in  Little  Women, 
You  Can't  Take  It  with  You,  Call  Northside  777,  and  The 
Boy  with  Green  Hair. 

Hiroia,  Koki  (b.  Fukwoka-ken,  Japan,  February,  1878 — 
d.  Tokyo,  Japan,  Dec.  23,  1948).  Diplomat,  ambassador 
to  the  U.S.S.R.,  1930-32;  Prime  Minister,  1936-37;  For- 
eign Minister,  1937-38.  Given  the  death  sentence  by  the 
International  Military  Tribunal  on  Nov.  12,  1948,  he  was 
hanged  as  a  war  criminal. 

Hjort,  Johan  (b.  Oslo,  Norway,  Feb.  18,  1869— -d.  Oslo, 
Norway,  Oct.  7,  1948).  Internationally  known  marine 
biologist;  director  of  fisheries,  1900-17;  and  professor  of 
marine  biology  at  the  University  of  Oslo  since  1921.  He 
held  honorary  degrees  from  several  universities  and  was  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Great  Britain. 


Hloncf,  August  (b.  Breckowicz,  Poland,  July  5,  1881 — 
d.  Warsaw,  Poland,  Oct.  22,  1948 ) ,  Cardinal,  Metropolitan 
of  Warsaw,  and  Primate  of  Gniezno.  Ordained  1905,  ele- 
vated to  bishop,  1922;  to  Primate  of  Poland,  1926,  and 
elected  to  the  Sacred  College  in  1927.  An  outspoken  foe  of 
dictators,  he  was  interned  by  the  Germans  in  1944,  lib- 
erated by  the  American  9th  Army,  1945,  and  reinstated  in 
July,  1945.  In  1931  he  was  named  Spiritual  Protector  of 
Polish  Emigrants  Abroad. 

Hofmeyr,  Jon  Hendrik  {b.  Capetown,  South  Africa,  Mar. 
20,  1894 — d.  Pretoria,  South  Africa,  Dec.  3,  1948). 
Statesman,  educator,  and  a  leading  Liberal.  A  member  of 
the  Union  House  of  Assembly  since  1929;  minister  of 
Finance  and  Education  since  1939;  minister  of  Mines, 
1936-38;  minister  of  the  Interior,  1933-36;  and  admin- 
istrator of  Transvaal,  1924-29.  Sometime  professor  at  the 
University  of  Wirwatersrand  (1917-24),  principal  (1919- 
24),  and  chancellor  since  1938. 

Hope,  Walter  Ewing  (b.  Bristol,  Pa.,  Sept.  15,  1879 — 
d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Aug.  16,  1948).  Lawyer,  politician, 
and  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  1929-31.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  New  York  State  Banking  Board,  since  1945; 
president  of  the  Princeton  Club,  1924-27;  of  the  University 
Club,  1934-39;  and  active  in  Republican  Party  affairs. 

Howell,  Julius  Franklin  (b.  Jan.  17,  1846 — d.  Bristol, 
Va.,  June  19,  1948).  Former  Commander-in-chief  of  the 
United  Confederate  Veterans;  presumed  last  survivor  of 
General  Longstreet's  command. 

Hughes,  Charles  Evans  (b.  Glens  Falls,  N.Y.,  Apr.  11, 
1862— d.  Ostervffle,  Mass.,  Aug.  27,  1948).  Lawyer, 
statesman,  and  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  1930-41. 
During  his  long  public ,  service  he  was  governor  of  New 
York,  1907-10;  Secretary  of  State,  1921-25;  member  of 
the  Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration,  1926-30;  and  judge 
of  the  Permanent  Court  of  International  Justice,  1928-30. 
In  1916  he  was  the  Republican  nominee  for  president, 
losing  the  election  to  Woodrow  Wilson,  277  to  254. 

Huidobro,  Vicente  (b.  Santiago,  Chile,  Jan.  27,  1893 — 
d.  Santiago,  Chile,  Jan.  2,  1948).  Diplomat,  poet,  and 
writer;  European  war  correspondent,  1943.  Founder,  in 
Paris,  of  the  reviews,  Nord-Sud  and  Creation  (1916);  in 
Chile,  of  the  daily  newspaper  Accion  (1919).  Author  of 
poetry,  short  stories,  etc. 

Hume,  Robert  Ernest  (b.  Ahmednagar,  India,  Mar.  20, 
1877-yd.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Jan.  4,  1948).  Internationally 
recognized  authority  on  living  religions  and  author  of  The 
World's  Living  Religions.  Ordained  a  Congregational  min- 
ister in  1905;  professor  at  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
1914-43. 

Hunter,  Merlin  Harold  (b.  Chandlersville,  Ohio,  Aug.  29, 
1887 — d.  Chicago,  111.,  May  31,  1948).  Economist,  tax  ex- 
pert, author,  and  head  of  the  department  of  economics  at 
the  University  of  Illinpis  since  1938.  He  wrote  Outlines  of 
Public  Finance;  Outline  of  the  Economic  History  of  the 
United  States;  Economics,  Condensed-Applied;  etc. 

Huseh,  Richard  Gerard  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  1876— d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  July  2,  1948).  Lyricist  who  under  the 
name  of  Richard  Gerar  composed  the  popular  Sweet  Ade- 
laine. 

Husseini,  Abdel  Kader  el  (d.  Kastel,  Palestine,  April, 
1948,  aged  40).  Arab  soldier,  chief  of  the  Palestine  Arab 
Nati9nal  Guard,  killed  in  week-old  battle  for  Kastel.  A 
cousin  of  the  exiled  Mufti,  he  had  served  with  the  British 
Mandate  government  in  Palestine;  participated  in  the 
Iraqi  revolt  in  1941;  and  joined  the  Mufti  in  Egypt  in 
1946. 

Hymer,  Warren  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  25,  1906— d. 
Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  Mar.  26,  1948).  Motion  picture  actor 
since  1928.  His  best  known  roles  were  those  in  Little  Miss 
Marker,  Meet  John  Doe,  Three  is  a  Family,  and  Gentleman 
Joe  Palooka. 

Imam  Yahia.  See  Yahya  Muhammad  Hamid  ed  Din. 

Imamyra,  Akitsune  (b.  Kagoshima-ken,  Japan,  June,  1870 
— d.  Seijo  Setagaya,  Japan,  Jan.  2,  1948).  Famous  seis- 
mologist, a  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy,  and  pro- 
fessor at  the  University  of  Tokyo. 

Irvine,  E.  Eastman  (b.  Cresco,  Iowa,  Mar.  6,  1883 — d. 
Staten  Island,  N.Y.,  Sept.  23,  1948).  Newspaperman,  and 
since  1937,  editor  of  the  World  Almanac.  Sometime  news 
editor  of  the  World  Telegram  and  editor  of  the  Philadelphia 
Public  Ledger. 

Irwin,  Will(iam)  Henry  (b.  Oneida,  N.Y.,  Sept.  14,  1873 
— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  23,  1948).  Newspaperman, 
author,  and  playwright.  War  correspondent  for  the  Satur- 
day Evening  Post,  1916-18.  He  wrote  Old  Chinatown,, 
The  House  of  Mystery.,  A  Reporter  in  Armageddon,  The 
Making  of  a  "Reporter,  etc.  The  Thirteenth  Chair  (with 
B.  Veiller)  was  his  most  successful  play. 

Isaacs,  Sir  Isaac  Alfred  (b.  Melbourne,  Australia,  Aug.  6, 
1855 — d.  Melbourne,  Australia,  Feb.  11,  1948).  Lawyer, 
statesman,  and  Governor  General  of  Australia,  1931—36. 
He  variously  served  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  1892- 
1901;  in  the  Commonwealth  Parliament,  1901-06;  as  At- 
torney General,  1905-06;  Justice  of  the  High  Court,  1906- 
30;  Chief  Justice,  1930-31. 

Jackson,  Holbrook  (b.  Liverpool,  England,  Dec.  31,  1874 
— d.  Bournemouth,  England,  June  16,  1948).  Author, 
journalist,  and  editorial  director  of  the  National  Trade 
Press,  1917-45.  Noted  for  his  critical  and  historical  studies 
of  literature,  including  a  study  and  bibliography  of  Fitz- 
gerald's Omar  Khayyam;  a  biography  of  Bernard  Shaw.,  in 


NECROLOGY 


376 


which  he  coined  the  word  "Shavian**;  and  a  life  of 
Morris.  Also  wrote  All  Manner  of  Fo!&,  The  Anatomy  of 
Bibliomania,  The  Reading  of  Boofe,  etc. 

Jackson,  John  long  (b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  Mar.  28,  1884 

—  d.    Winchester,   Va.,    Sept.    3,    1948).    Bishop    of   the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Diocese  of  Louisiana,  since  1940. 

Jccoby,  Josephine  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  1875  —  d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  Nov.  13,  1948).  Contralto,  sometime  member 
of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  Company.  Her  roles  included 
those  of  Maddalena  in  Rigoletto,  Amneris  in  Aida,  Suzuki 
in  Madame  Butterfly,  and  Siebel  in  Faust* 

JorvSs,  Anna  M.  b.  Grafton,  W.  Va.,  May  I,  1864  —  d. 
West  Chester,  Pa.,  Nov.  24,  1948).  Founder  of  Mother's 
Day  observance.  Following  its  official  adoption  IB  1914>  she 
fought  bitterly  against  the  encroachment  of  commercialism 
upon  a  day  which  she  regarded  with  great  sentimentality. 

JJnnah,  Mahomed  AH  (b.  Bombay,  India,  Dec.  25,  1876 

—  d.   Karachi,   Pakistan,    Sept.    11,    1948).   Lawyer,   poli- 
tician, and  Governor  General  of  Pakistan  since  its  estab- 
lishment,   Aug.    15,    1947.   The    "Quaid-i-Azam"    (Great 
Leader)  was  president  of  the  Moslem  League,  1916,  1920, 
and  1934—48,  and  fought  for  partition  since  first  announc- 
ing his  plan  before  the  Moslem  League  in  1940.  He  was  a 
delegate  to  the  Round  Table  Conference,  1930,  and  the 
author  of  Pakistan. 

Jofenson,  Charles  Henry  (b.  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Oct.  13, 
1870—  d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  28,  1948).  Social  worker 
and  New  York  State  Commissioner  of  Welfare,  1916-32. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  State  Welfare  Board  {  1933-41  ) 
and  served  as  deputy  warden  of  Sing  Sing  Prison  (1914— 
15).  A  33°  mason,  he  was  past  Grand  Master  of  New  York 
State  (1930-32),  and  had  held  nearly  every  office  in  the 
Grand  Lodge. 

Jones,  Claud  Ashton  (b.  Fire  Creek,  W,  Va.,  Oct.  7, 
1885—  d.  Charleston,  W.  Va.?  Aug.  8,  1948).  Rear  Ad- 
miral USN  (retired).  At  various  times  attached  to  the 
Bureau  of  Engineering,  Washington,  D.C.,  and  lastly  di- 
rector of  the  Naval  Engineering  Experimental  Station  at 
Annapolis  (1944-46). 

Jones,  Guy  Carleton  (b.  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  1888—  ^d. 
Johannesburg,  South  Africa,  Dec.  3,  1948).  Metallurgist, 
chairman  of  the  Transvaal  Chamber  of  Mines,  and  until 
his  retirement  in  1947,  director  of  the  Consolidated  gold- 
fields. 

Jones,  Rufus  Mafhew  (b.  South  China,  Me.,  Jan.  25, 
1863  —  d.  Haverford,  Pa.,  June  16,  1948).  Quaker  edu- 
cator and  author;  founder  and  chairman  of  the  Friends 
Service  Committee,  1917-27,  1934-44.  He  was  professor 
of  philosophy  and  ethics  at  Haverford  College,  1904—34. 
Internationally  known  authority  on  mysticism  and  the 
author  of  many  books  on  Quaker  history  and  religion, 
among  them:  The  World  Within,  The  New  Quest,  The 
Luminous  Trail. 

Kohti,  Florence  Prag  (b.  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  1866  — 
d.  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  Nov.  16,  1948).  Republican 
congresswoman  from  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  1925—37,  and 
the  first  woman  member  of  the  Military  Affairs  Committee 
and  of  the  Appropriations  Committee. 

Karabekir,  Kazim  (b.  Istanbul,  Turkey,  1882  —  d.  An- 
kara, Turkey,  Jan.  26,  1948).  Army  general,  leader  Re- 
publican People's  party,  and  since  1946,  president  of  the 
National  Assembly. 

Kelley,  Francis  Clement  (b.  Vernon  River,  Canada,  Oct. 
23,  1870—  d.  Oklahoma  City,  Okla.,  Feb.  1,  1948).  Roman 
Catholic  bishop  of  Oklahoma  City  and  Tulsa  since  1930. 
Ordained  a  priest  in  1893  and  consecrated  a  bishop  in 
1924.  Founder  (1905)  and  president  of  the  Catholic 
Church  Extension  Society  in  the  U.S.A. 

Kennedy,  Edgar  (b.  Monterey  County,  Calif.,  1890  —  d. 
San  Fernando,  Calif,,  Nov.  9,  1948).  Film  comedian  and 
one  of  the  original  Keystone  cops.  Since  his  debtit  in  The 
Better  "Ole  in  1926,  he  had  played  in  some  500  films,  in- 
cluding: Kid  Millions,  A  Star  is  Born,  Son  of  the  Border, 
Anchors  Aweigh,  and  the  Mr.  Average  Man  series. 

Kheir,  Hcshim  Pasha  (d.  Amman,  Transjordan,  Aug.  31, 
1948).  Politician  and  minister  of  the  Interior  of  Trans- 
Jordan.  Sometime  member  of  the  Senate  and  son  of  the 
first  mayor  of  Amman. 

Kikuchi,  Kan  (b.  Takamutsu,  Japan,  December,  1889  — 
d.  Tokyo,  Japan,  Mar.  6,  1948).  Publisher,  playwright, 
novelist,  and  leader  of  neo-realistic  group.  Founder  of  a 
monthly  review  Bungei  Shunju-sha  (1923);  sometime  on 
the  editorial  staff  of  Osaka  Mainichi  and  Jiji. 

Kirkr  John  (b.  Wilmington,  Del.,  1862  —  d.  New  York, 
N.Y.»  May  23,  1948).  Veteran  character  actor  who  created 
th^e  role  of  Judge  Gaffney  in  Harvey,  a  role  he  had  played 
since  1944.  Toured  the  vaudevIEe  circuit  with  his  wife 
Fay  Baker. 

Klatzkin,  Jacob  (b.  Lithuania,  1882  —  d.  Vevey,  Switzer- 
land, Mar.  26,  1948).  Philosopher,  author,  and  professor  of 
the  College  of  Jewish  Studies,  Chicago.  Co-founder  of 
Eschkol  publishing  house  in  Berlin  (1923)  and  chief 
editor  of  the  Encyclopedia  Judaica.  Author  of  a  score  of 


. 

books  in  Hebrew,  German,  and  English  including  mj; 
his  Life,  Work  and  Teachings;  In  Praise  of  Wisdom;  and 
Judenfrage  der  Gegenwart. 

Kmetko,  Karol  (b.  Dolne  Drzkovce,  Czechoslovakia,  Dec. 
12,  1875—cL  Nitra,  Czechoslovakia,  Dec,  22,  1948). 
Roman  Catholic  archbishop  of  Nitra  since  1921.  Ordained 
in  1899  and  consecrated  a  bishop  in  1921,  he  worked  for 
a  union  of  the  Oriental  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 


Knight,  Louis  Aston  (b.  Paris,  France,  1873 — d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  May  8,  1948).  Landscape  painter  represented 
in  many  European  and  American  collections,  including  the 
Luxembourg,  Honfleur,  Toledo,  Newark,  etc. 

Knipp,  Charles  Tobias  ( b.  Napoleon,  Ohio,  Aug.  13,  1869 
— d.  Ames,  Iowa,  July  6,  1948).  Physicist,  inventor,  and 
professor  emeritus,  University  of  Illinois,  1900—1937.  He 
invented  an  alpha-ray  track  apparatus,  a  cold-cathode 
rectifier,  etc. 

Knudsen,  Signtus  Wilhelrn  Fowl.  See  Knudsen,  William  S. 

Knudsen,  William  S.  (b.  Copenhagen,  Denmark,  Mar.  25, 
1879 — d.  Detroit,  Mich.,  Apr,  27,  1948).  Industrialist;  di- 
rector of  production,  War  Department,  1942—45;  and  presi- 
dent (since  1937),  former  vice  president  (1933-37),  of 
the  General  Motors  Corporation.  Mr.  Knudsen,  who  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1899,  was  regarded  as  a  production 
genius. 

Koch,  Fred  Conrad  (b.  Chicago,  HI.,  May  16,  1876— d. 
Chicago,  111.,  Jan.  26,  1948).  Biochemist,  pioneer  in  hor- 
mone experiments,  and  research  chemist  with  Armour  &  Co., 
since  1942.  Associated  with  the  University  of  Chicago, 
1912-41,  being  chairman  of  the  Department  of  Biochem- 
istry, 1926-41. 

Koczalski,  Raou!  Armano*  G.  (b.  Warsaw,  Poland,  Jan.  3, 
1885— d.  Warsaw,  Poland,  Nov.  25,  1948).  Concert  pi- 
anist and  composer.  Toured  Europe  as  a  child  prodigy;  ap- 
peared in  London  in  1893;  and  gave  a  total  of  some  4,000 
concerts.  Compositions  include  two  operas,  and  works  for 
piano. 

Kolodny,  Anatole  (b.  Kazan,  Russia,  Nov.  23,  1892 — d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  July  8,  1948).  Surgeon  and  internationally 
known  diagnostician,  famous  for  his  work  in  bone  anatomy 
and  pathology.  Sometime  associated  with  the  Berlin  Patho- 
logical Institute,  Rockefeller  Institute,  University  of  Iowa 
Medical  School,  and  the  University  of  Illinois. 

Krech,  William  Warren.  See  William,  Warren. 

Kronfeld,  Robert  (b.  Vienna,  Austria,  190& — d.  Alton, 
Hampshire,  England,  Feb.  12,  1948).  Squadron  leader  in 
the  RAF  and  the  world's  foremost  gliding  authority.  He  was 
the  first  man  to  glide  over  the  English  Channel  both  ways 
and  during  World  War  II  helped  plan  many  glider  opera- 
tions. Death  resulted  from  a  glider  crash. 

KBJz,  Wilhelm  (b.  Borna,  Germany,  Feb.  18,  1875— d. 
Berlin,  Germany,  Apr.  10,  1948).  Statesman  and  politician. 
Co-founder  and  leader  of  the  Liberal  Democratic  Party  in 
the  Russian  zone  of  Germany,  1945.  Minister  of  the  In- 
terior, 1926;  with  the  League  of  ^  Nations,  1927-31. 

Kufch,  Maharai  Kumar  Shri  Viiayraiji.  Maharao  of  (b. 
Kutch,  1885— d.  Bhuj.  Kutch,  Feb.  27,  1948).  Ruler  of 
Kutch.  and  bead  of  the  Jadeja  clan.  He  ascended  the  Gadi 
in  1942,  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  and  was  noted  for 
his  progressive  administration.  With  the  rank  of  Lieu- 
tenant Colonel  he  was  a  member  o£  the  National  Defense 
Council  of  India,  1944-45. 

Laird,  Thomas  Gold  (b.  Galesburg,  HI.,  Feb.  17,  1866— 
d.  Mount  Vernon,  N.Y.,  Feb.  13,  1948).  Lawyer,  author, 
and  founder  of  the  Camp  Fire  Girls  (1910).  He  wrote 
The  French  Constitution  of  1793y  New  "fork  Corporations, 
Federal  Income  Tax.,  etc. 

Laird,  Warren  Powers  (b.  Winona,  Minn.,  Aug.  8,  1861 
— d.  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  Feb.  18,  1948).  Architect  and  first 
dean  of  the  School  of  Fine  Arts,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
1920-32.  He  represented  the  United  States  at  3d  Pan  Amer- 
ican Congress  of  Architects,  1927;  and  served  as  chairman 
of  the  jury  for  art  competition,  luth  Olympiad,  1932. 

lake,  Everett  John  (b.  Woodstock,  Conn.,  Feb.  8,  1871 
— d.  Hartford,  Conn.,  Sept.  16,  1948).  Business  executive; 
Governor  of  Connecticut,  1921—23;  Lieutenant  Governor, 
1907-09;  and  since  1900  active  in  Republican  state  poli- 
tics. 

Lamb,  Gene  (b.  Washington,  D.C.,  1894 — d.  Los  An- 
geles, Calif.,  Aug.  19,  1948).  Explorer,  author,  and  lec- 
turer, who  spent  nearly  30  years  in  China  and  Tibet.  In 
northern  Tibet  he  mapped  previously  unknown  areas,  and 
in  1923-28,  crossed  part  of  the  Ala  Shan  desert  in  Mon- 
golia. In  1931  he  led  an  expedition  which  made  the  first 
successful  ascent  of  a  24,000  ft.  peak  in  the  Himalayas. 

Lomond,  Frederic  (b.  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Jan.  28,  1868 — 
d.  Stirling,  Scotland,  Feb.  21,  1948).  Concert  pianist  and 
composer;  pupil  of  Liszt;  made  his  debut  in  Berlin,  1885, 
and  in  London,  1886.  Famed  as  interpreter  of  Beethoven's 
later  compositions.  His  works  include  a  symphony,  sonatas, 
overtures. 

Lamont,  Robert  Patterson  (b.  Detroit,  Mich,,  Dec.  1,  1867 
— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  19,  1948).  Civil  engineer, 
business  executive,  and  secretary  of  Commerce,  1930-32. 
He  headed  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  1932-33; 
and  the  American  Steel  Foundries,  1919-29. 

Lamont,  Thomas  William  (b.  Claverack,  N.Y.,  Sept.  30, 
1870 — d.  Boca  Grande,  Fla.,  Feb.  2,  1948).  Financier; 
chairman  of  the  board,  J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co.,  since  1943  and 
associated  with  that  firm  since  1911.  Owned  the  New  York 
Evening  Post,  1918-20.  Frequently  represented  the  United 
States  in  financial  matters  with  foreign  powers.  Author  of 
My  Boyhood  in  a  Parsonage  and  Henry  P.  Davison,  The 
Record  of  a  Useful  Life. 

Landi,  Elissa  (b.  Venice,  Italy,  Dec.  6,  1904 — d.  Kings- 
ton, N.Y.,  Oct.  21,  1948).  Stage,  screen,  and  radio  actress 
whose  real  name  was  Elizabeth  Marie  Christine  Zanardi- 
Landi.  She  made  her  London  stage  debut  in  Storm  <  1924), 
later  playing  in  Laoendar  Ladies,  The  Constant  Nymph, 


WECROIOGT 


377 


NECROLOGY 


etc.  The  feminine  lead  in  Farewell  to  Arms  (1930),  was 
her  first  Broadway  appearance;  and  Body  and  Soul  her  first 
screen  contract  in  America. 

Landis,  Carole  Cb.  FaircMid,  Wise.,  Jan.  1,  1919 — d. 
Hollywood,  Calif--,  July  5,  1948).  Film  actress  who  gained 
star  'billing  in  1940,  in  One  Million  B.C.  Most  recently 
seen  in  Four  Jills  in  a  Jeep,  Behind  Green  Lights,  etc.  Her 
real  name  was  Frances  Lillian  Mary  Ridste. 

Lane,  Alfred  Church  (b.  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  29,  1863 — 
d.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Apr.  16,  1948).  Geologist,  educator, 
and  pioneer  nuclear  physicist;  professor  at  Tufts  College, 
1909-35.  Associated  with  the  National  Research  Council, 
since  1922. 

Lapg,  Georgi  Flodorovich  (b.  Petrograd,  Russia,  July  16, 
1875 — d.  Leningrad,  U.S.S.R.,  July  26,  1948).  Leading 
Soviet  therapeutist  and  director  of  the  clinic  for  internal 
diseases,  Pavlov  Medical  Institute,  since  1924. 

Lang,  (Alexander}  Mafheson  (b.  Montreal,  Canada,  May 
15,  1879 — d.  Bridgetown,  Barbados,  Apr.  11,  1948).  Fa- 
mous Shakespearean  actor-producer  who  made  his  London 
debut  in  1900,  in  Henry  V.  Later  seen  with  Ellen  Terry 
and  Lilly  Langtry.  Toured  America  and  Canada,  1926-27, 
in  the  Wandering  Jew. 

Lotto,  Maurice  C.  (b.  Westmoreland  Co.,  Pa.,  Oct.  13, 
1869 — d.  Washington,  B.C.,  Apr.  3,  1948).  Executive 
clerk  at  the  White  House  since  1900,  he  served  under 
nine  presidents. 

Lauber,  Joseph  (b.  Westphalia,  Germany,  1854 — d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  18,  1948).  Mural  painter,  etcher,  illustra- 
tor, sculptor,  and  a  founder  of  the  National  Society  of 
Mural  Painters.  He  designed  more  than  a  score  of  stained 
glass  windows,  and  between  1931—34,  taught  at  Columbia 
University. 

Lawler,  John  J.  (b.  Rochester,  Minn.,  1862 — d.  Rapid 
City,  S.D.,  Mar.  11,  1948).  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of 
Rapid  City  since  1930;  bishop  of  Lead,  S.D.  1916-30.  Or- 
dained in  1885;  consecrated  in  1916. 

Lawrence,  Richard  Wesley  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  May  7, 
1878 — d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  7,  1948).  Corporation  of- 
ficial; board  chairman  of  the  Aeolian  American  Corpora- 
tion; board  chairman  and  sometime  president  of  the  Print- 
ers Ink  Publication  Corporation;  and  chairman  of  the  board 
of  YMCA. 

Leahey,  George  A.,  Jr.  (b.  May  23,  1902 — d.  Lowell, 
Mass.,  Nov.  22,  1948).  Rear  Admiral,  USN  (retired), 
served  as  executive  officer  on  the  Iowa  in  World  War  U, 
and  was  skipper  of  Roosevelt's  yacht  the  "Potomac,  during 
secret  wartime  meeting  with  Winston  Churchill. 

Lebedev-PoUansky,  Pavel  Ivanovkh  (b.  Russia,  1882 — d. 
Moscow,  U.S.S.R.,  Apr.  7,  1948).  Soviet  politician,  literary 
critic,  and  director  of  the  Institute  of  Literature.  Sometime 
censor,  Department  for  Supervision  of  Literature  and  Publi- 
cations; professor  of  Literature,  Moscow  University,  1923- 
25;  and  a  member  of  the  presiding  council,  People's  Com- 
missariat for  Education,  1917-31. 

Ledoux,  Louis  Vernon  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  June  6,  1880 
— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  25,  1948).  Author  and  art 
collector;  owner  of  one  of  the  finest  collections  of  Japanese 
prints  in  America.  In  1932  he  donated  collection  of  Jap- 
anese robes  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum.  He  wrote  Songs 
from  the  Silent  Land,  The  Shadow  of  Etna,  The  Art  of 
Japan,  Harunobu  and  Shunsho,  etc.  President,  Society  for 
Japanese  Studies. 

Lee,  Edwin  F.  (b.  Eldorado,  Fayette  Co.,  Iowa,  July  10, 
1884 — d.  Rochester,  Minn.,  Sept.  14,  1948).  Methodist 
bishop  of  Singapore  and  Manila,  1928-48;  he  entered  the 
missionary  field  in  1911  after  having  served  various  par- 
ishes in  the  United  States.  Served  as  chaplain  in  the  U.S. 
Army,  1917-19,  and  in  1944,  became  director  of  Protestant 
work  for  Army  and  Navy  chaplains. 

Lee,  William  C.  (b.  Dunn,  N.C.,  Mar.  17,  1895— d. 
Dunn,  N.C.,  June  25,  1948).  Major  General,  USA,  re- 
tired; commander  of  airborne  troops,  1942—45;  and  inter- 
nationally known  for  his  role  in  the  invasion  or  Europe. 

Lehar,  Franz  (b.  Komaxom,  Hungary,  Apr.  30,  1870 — d. 
Bad  IschI,  Austria,  Oct.  24,  1948 ) .  Conductor,  band  leader, 
and  composer  of  operettas.  Besides  the  world-sweeping 
Merry  Widow,  first  produced  in  Vienna  in  1905,  and  since 
performed  more  than  5,000  times  throughout  the  world,  he 
composed  Gypsy  Love,  Paganini,  The  Land  of  Smiles,  etc. 

Lener,  Jeno  (b.  Szabadka,  Hungary,  June  24,  1871 — d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  Nov.  4,  1948).  Violinist,  founder  and 
leader  of  the  world-famous  string  quartet  bearing  his  name. 
Until  1918  he  was  a  soloist  with  the  Budapest  Philhar- 
monic; in  1919  the  ensemble  made  its  debut  in  Budapest, 
later  concerting  all  over  the  world. 

Leonard,  Robert  (b.  Poland,  Feb.  22,  1888— d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  Jan.  5,  1948).  Actor  and  vaudevillmn;  the 
Mawruss  of  the  Potash  and  Perlmutter  team.  Made  London 
debut  in  1914,  and  was  an  immediate  success.  He  was  also 
seen  in  Golden  Boy;  Wonder  Botj;  Red,  Hot,  and  Blue; 
and  Abie's  Irish  Rose. 

Lewis,  George  William  (b.  Ithaca,  N.Y.,  March  10,  1882 
-^d.  Lake  Winola,  Pa.,  July  12,  1948).  Aeronautical  en- 
gineer, since  1919  director  of  the  National  Advisory  Com- 
mittee for  Aeronautics.  Awarded  the  Daniel  Guggenheim 
Medal  ( 1936 )  for  his  contribution  to  aeronautical  research. 

Lewis,  Ira  F.  (b.  Lexington,  N.C.,  Aug.  25,  1884 — d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  Aug.  28,  1948).  Publisher  of  the  Pitts- 
burgh  Courier,  since  1940,  and  associated  with  that  paper 
since  1914. 


Lewfsohft,  Edna  May  Peftie.  See  May,  Edna. 

Liebman,  Joshua  Loth  (b.  Hamilton,  O.,  Apr.  7,  1907  — 
d.  Boston,  Mass.,  June  9,  1948).  Rabbi,  educator,  and 
author  of  the  widely-read  Peace  of  Mind.  Ordained  in 
1930,  he  served  as  rabbi  of  Temple  Israel,  Brookline,  Mass.; 
visiting  professor  of  Jewish  philosophy  at  Andover-Newton 
Theological  Seminary,  since  1944;  lecturer  at  Bangor  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  1945.  His  weekly  radio  broadcasts  (1939- 
46)  were  on  a  national  hook-up. 

Lindiey,  Werner  Lipschuetz  (b.  Berlin,  Germany,  Mar,  28, 
1892  —  d.  Pearl  River,  N.Y.,  Feb.  1,  1948).  Internationally 
known  biochemist  and  pharmacologist;  researcher  with  the 
American  Cyanide  Company,  1940-47;  director,  Institute 
of  Biochemistry,  University  of  Istanbul,  1933-38;  and  chief, 
department  of  pharmacology,  University  of  Frankfurt  (Ger- 
many), 1923-33. 

Lindsay,  Anna  Robertson  Brown  (b.  Washington,  0.C., 
Feb.  20,  1864—  d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  28,  1948). 
Author  of  religious  books  and  the  first  woman  to  receive  a 
Ph.D.  degree  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Trustee 
of  Wellesley  College,  1906-18.  Her  many  books  include 
What  Is  Worth  While?,  Culture  and  Reform,  The  Warriors, 
etc. 

Lindsey,  Julian  R.  (b.  Georgia,  Mar.  16,  1871—  d.  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  June  27,  1948).  Major  General,  USA;  com- 
mander at  Fort  Knox,  Ky.,  1932-34. 

Lingen,  Count  von.  See  Adalbert  Ferdinand  Berengar 
Victor,  Prince  of  Prussia. 

Littlefieid,  Walter  (b.  Boston,  Mass.,  Mar.  17,  1867—  d. 
New  Canaan,  Conn.,  Mar.  25,  1948).  Author,  journalist, 
and  sometime  foreign  editor  of  the  New  "York  Times,  with 
which  paper  he  was  associated  from  1897-1942.  Authority 
on  the  Dreyfus  case  and  author  of  The  Truth  about  Drey- 
fus, The  Men  of  Silence  (with  L.  Forgkme),  etc. 

Livingston,  Burton  Edward  (b.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich., 
Feb.  9,  1875—  d.  Baltimore,  Md.,  Feb.  8,  1948).  Inter- 
nationally known  botanist  associated  with  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  1909-40;  from  1913-40,  director  of  the  labora- 
tory of  plant  physiology.  Invented  and  improved  many 
scientific  instruments  and  contributed  widely  to  scientific 
journals. 

Ljungsfrom,  Birger  (b.  Odevalla,  Sweden,  June  4,  1872  — 
d.  Stockholm,  Sweden,  Nov.  22,  1948).  Mechanical  en- 
gineer, inventor,  and  designer  of  the  first  steam  turbine.  Ex- 
periments began  in  1894  and  in  1913  he  established  the 
renowned  Swedish  Turbine  Company  Ljungstrom.  Some- 
time associate  of  Alfred  Nobel.  Awarded  Adelskiold  Medal 
of  the  Swedish  Academy  of  Science  (1914)  which  until 
then  had  only  been  awarded  to  Thomas  A.  Edison. 

Lockridge,  Ross  Franklin,  Jr.  (b.  Bloomington,  Ind.,  Apr. 
25,  1914  —  d.  Bloomington,  Ind.,  Mar.  6,  1948).  Educator 
and  author  of  the  bestseller  Raintree  Country  which  re- 
ceived the  MGM  semi-annual  novel  award  for  1947. 

Lomax,  John  Avery  (b.  Goodman,  Miss.,  Sept.  23,  1867 

—  d.  Greenville,  Miss.,  Jan.  26,  1948).  Author  and  folk- 
lorist.  Since  1934  honorary  curator  and  honorary  consultant, 
Library  of  Congress;   president  of  the  American  Folklore 
Society,  1912,  1913;  founder  of  the  Texas  Folklore  Society. 
With  Alan  Lomax,  author  of  American  Ballads  and  Folk 
Songs,  Negro  Folk  Songs,    Our  Singing  Country.   Author 
also  of  Cowboy  Songs,  Adventures  of  a  Ballad  Hvnter,  etc., 
and  associate  editor  of  Southwest  Review  since  1943. 

Loomis,  Francis  Butler  (b.  Marietta,  Ohio,  July  27,  1861 

—  d.  Burlingame,  Calif.,  Aug.  4,  1948).  Diplomat,  states- 
man,  and  first  assistant  secretary  of  State,   1902—05.  He 
variously  served  as  minister  to  Venezuela,  Portugal,  and 
as  envoy  extraordinary  to  Japan. 

Loring,  Richard  Turtle  (b.  Newton,  Mass.,  Feb.  7,  1900  — 
d.  Springfield,  111.,  Apr.  16,  1948).  Bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Diocese  of  Springfield  (HI.)  since  1947;  rector 
of  St.  David's  Church,  Baltimore,  Md.,  1937-47. 

Lowe,  Percy  Roycroft  (b.  Stamford,  Linconshire?,  Jan.  2, 
1870  —  d.  England,  Aug.  18,  1948).  Internationally  known 
ornithologist,  sometime  president  of  the  British  Ornitholo- 
gist Union,  and  chairman  of  the  British  and  European  Sec- 
tions, International  Committee  for  the  Preservation  of 
Birds.  Made  6  expeditions  to  collect  island  forms  of  birds; 
was  keeper  in  charge  of  Ornithology  at  the  British  Museum; 
and  the  author  of  A  Naturalist  on  Desert  Islands. 

Ludwig,  Emil  (b.  Breslau,  Germany,  Jan.  25,  1881  —  d. 
Ascona,  Switzerland,  Sept.  17,  1948).  Novelist,  political 
essayist,  and  poet;  best  known  as  the  biographer  of  Goethe, 
Napoleon,  Beethoven,  Bolivar,  Abraham  Lincoln,  etc.  He 
also  wrote  The  Nile,  Genius  and  Character,  and  Three 
Titans. 

Lumiere,  Louis  (b.  Besancon,  France,  Oct.  5,  1864  —  d. 
Bandol,  France,  June  6,  1948).  Industrialist,  who  with  his 
brother  Auguste  is  credited  with  the  invention  of  motion 
pictures,  first  shown  in  1895.  Pioneer  in  color  photography 
and  other  photographic  processes.  Member  of  Academie  des 
Sciences. 

Lunn,  George  Richard  (b.  Lenox,  Iowa,  June  23,  1873  — 
d.  Schenectady,  N.Y.,  Nov.  27,  1948).  Clergyman,  poli- 
tician, and  Democratic  representative  to  the  Congress, 
1917—19.  Achieved  prominence  when  elected  first  Socialist 
mayor  of  Schenectady,  1912-17,  1920-23.  Sometime  lieu- 
tenant governor  of  New  York  (1923)  and  Public  Service 
Commissioner  (1925-42). 

McCabe,  Francis  Xavier  (b.  New  Orleans,  La.,  Feb.  6, 
2,  1948).  Ecclesiastic  of 


1872  —  d.  New  Orleans,  La.,  Jul 
the  order  of  the  Vincentian  Fa 


president  of  DePaul 


NECROIOGY 


378 


NECROLOGY 


University,  1910-20;  and  widely  known  as  an  educator 
and  orator. 

McCarey,  Raymond  (b.  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  Sept.  6,  1904 
— d.  Hollywood,  Calif.,  Dec.  1,  1948).  Film  director, 
former  script  writer.  Since  1932  a  director  of  features  in- 
cluding Millions  in  the  Air,  Three  Cheers  for  Loce,  Danger- 
ous Journey,  etc. 

McCiure,  Samuel  Grant  (b.  Wayne  County,  Ohio,  Aug.  9, 
1963 — d.  Santa  Monica,  Calif.,  Dec.  25,  1948).  Newspa- 
perman, publisher-owner  of  the  Santa  Monica  Evening 
Outlook  since  1932.  Sometime  manager  of  the  Ohio  State 
Journal  (1896-1906),  publisher  of  The  Youngstown  (Ohio) 
Telegram  (1906-22),  and  president  of  the  Copley  news- 
papers. 

Maccoil,  Dugald  Sutherland  (b.  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Mar. 
10,  1859-rd.  London,  England,  Dec.  21,  1948).  Art  critic, 
author,  painter,  sometime  keeper  of  the  Wallace  Collection 
(1911-24)  and  trustee  of  the  Tate  Gallery  (1917-27), 
keeper  from  1906-11.  A  contributor  to  the  Saturday  Re- 
view; editor  of  the  Architectural  Review,  1901-05;  and  art 
critic  for  the  Spectator,  1890-95.  His  written  works  in- 
clude; Nineteenth  Century  Art,  Confessions  of  a  Keeper 
&nd  other  Papers,  Wilson  Steer,  and  Poems. 

McConaughy,  James  Lukens  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  21, 
1887 — d.  Hartford,  Conn.,  Mar.  7,  1948).  Educator,  poli- 
tician, and  Republican  governor  of  Connecticut,  since  Janu- 
ary, 1946,  He  variously  served  as  president  of  Wesleyan 
University,  1925-43,  and  of  Knox  College,  1918-25. 

McCraeken,  John  Henry  (b.  Rochester,  Vt.,  Sept.  30, 
1875 — d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  1,  1948).  Educator  and 
president  of  Lafayette  College,  1915-26.  He  was  acting 
chancellor  of  New  York  University,  1910—11,  and  professor 
of  politics*  1903-15.  A  leader  in  World  Conference  of 
Churches. 

McCune,  George  M.  (b.  Pyongyang,  Korea,  June  16,  1908 
— d.  Martinez,  Calif.,  Nov.  5,  1948).  Educator  and  noted 
authority  on  Far  Eastern  economic  and  political  questions; 
professor  of  Far  Eastern  studies  at  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia. During  World  War  II  he  variously  served  with  the 
OSS,  with  the  FEA,  and  as  a  Korean  Affairs  specialist  with 
the  Department  of  State  ( 1944-45 ) . 

Macfie,  John  William  Scott  (b.  New  Ferry,  Cheshire,  Eng- 
land, Sept.  16,  1879— d.  England,  Oct.  11,  1948).  Physi- 
cian, authority  on  malaria,  and  researcher  with  the  West 
African  Medical  Staff,  1910-23.  From  1923-25  he  lectured 
at  the  Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  from 
1927-31,  at  the  Medical  Research  Council.  During  World 
War  IT  he  worked  as  a  field  rnalariologist  in  the  Near  East; 
and  with  an  ambulance  unit  in  Abyssinia,  1935—36. 

McGovick,  Alexander  Joseph  (b.  Fox  Lake,  HI.,  Aug.  22, 
1863 — d.  La  Crosse,  Wise.,  Aug.  25r  1948).  Bishop  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Diocese  of  La  Crosse,  since  1921.  Or- 
dained in  1887,  he  was  consecrated  in  1899. 

McGmw,  James  H.  (b.  Panama,  N.Y.,  Dec.  17,  1860 — 
d.  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  Feb.  21,  1948).  Dean  of  indus- 
trial publishers;  founder  of  McGraw-Hill  Publishing  Com- 
pany (1916);  variously  its  president  and  chairman  of  the 

Macintosh,  Douglas  Clyde  (b.  Breadalbane,  Ont.,  Can- 
ada, Feb.  18,  1877 — d.  Hamden,  Conn.,  July  6,  1948). 
Baptist  clergyman,  author,  and  educator.  A  member  of  the 
Yale  University  faculty,  1909-42,  he  was  chairman  of  the 
department  of  religion,  1920-38.  Widely  known  as  a  lec- 
turer and  as  author  of  The  Problems  of  Religious  Knowl- 
edge, The  Reasonableness  of  Christianity,  and  Social  Re- 
ligion, etc. 

Melnryre,  Alfred  Robert  (b.  Hyde  Park,  Mass.,  Aug.  22, 
1886 — d.  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  28,  1948).  Noted  book  pub- 
lisher and  president  of  Little,  Brown  &  Company  since 
1926,  a  member  of  the  firm  since  1907. 

McKay,  Claude  (b.  Jamaica,  W.L,  Sept,  15,  1890— d. 
Chicago,  HL,  May  22,  1948).  Poet  and  novelist  whose 
Home  to  Harlem  ( 1928 )  was  an  immediate  success.  Asso- 
ciate editor  and  contributor  to  the  Liberator,  1919-22; 
more  recently  research  worker  with  the  Catholic  Youth 
Organization.  Also  wrote  Harlem  Shadows,  Songs  of  Ja- 
maica, Harlem,:  Negro  Metropolis,  and  A  Long  Way  from 
Home. 

Mackoy,  Edward  J.  (b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1874— d.  Eliz- 
abeth, N.J.,  Dec.  26,  1948).  Actor-manager  and  director 
of  some  early  films.  Best  known  roles  were  those  of  Jona- 
than in  The  Shepherd  King,  Marco  in  The  Light  Eternal* 
Orlando  in  As  You  Like  It,  and  George  Osborne  in  Becky 
Sharp. 

Magnes,  Judah  Leon  (b.  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  July  5, 
1877--d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  27,  1948).  Rabbi,  Zionist, 
and  since  1935  president  of  the  Hebrew  University  in  Jeru- 
salem, which  he  helped  found  in  1925.  From  1912—20  he 
headed  the  Society  for  the  Advancement  of  Judaism  and 
between  1909—22,  was  chairman  of  the  executive  committee 
of  the  Jewish  Community  of  New  York  City. 

Mallet-Prevost,  Severe  (b.  Zacatecas,  Mexico,  Oct.  8, 
1860— -d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Dec.  10,  1948).  Lawyer,  one- 
time mining  engineer,  and  a  founder  (1912)  and  president 
(1921-27)  of  the  Pan  American  Society  of  the  United 
States.  His  services  were  often  requested  in  important  litiga- 
tions involving  the  United  States  and  foreign  governments, 
notably  the  case  of  title  to  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 

Maloney,  Russell  (b.  Brookline,  Mass.,  1910? — d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  Sept.  3,  1948).  Humorous  writer,  on  the  staff 
of  the  New  Yorker,  1934-45,  and  head  of  its  "Talk  of  the 


Town"  section.  More  recently  he  was  a  radio  book  critic. 
Author  of  It's  Still  Maloney,  Our  Own  Baedeker  (with  E. 
Kinkhead),  and  with  his  wife,  Sleepy  Hollow. 

Mann,  Alexander  (b.  Geneva,  N.Y.,  Dec.  2,  1860 — d. 
Geneva,  N.Y.,  Nov.  15,  1948).  Clergyman;  bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Diocese  of  Pittsburgh,  1923-43  (re- 
tired). 

Mannes,  Clara  Dararoseh  (b.  Breslau,  Germany,  Dec.  12, 
1869 — d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Mar.  16,  1948).  Concert  pianist 
and  musicologist;  co-founder  with  her  husband,  David 
Mannes,  of  the  Mannes  Music  School  (1916). 

Mantle,  (Robert)  Burns  (b.  Watertown,  N.Y.,  Dec.  23, 
1873 — d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  9,  1948).  Drama  critic 
for  the  Daily  News,  1922-44;  the  Evening  Mail,  1911-22; 
drama  correspondent,  Chicago  Tribune,  since  1911.  Author 
of  American  Playwrights  of  To-day;  Contemporary  Amer- 
ican Playwrights;  and  A  Treasury  of  the  Theatre  (with 
John  Gassner).  Editor  of  a  yearly  collection  of  Best  Plays 
(1899-1945). 

Marburg,  Otto  (b.  Roemerstadt,  Austria,  May  25,  1874 — 
d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  June  13,  1948).  Noted  neurologist, 
author,  and  outstanding  teacher.  Since  1939,  clinical  pro- 
fessor of  neurology,  Columbia  University.  Formerly  director 
of  the  Neurological  Institute,  University  of  Vienna,  1919— 
38.  Mikroskopisch-topographischer  Atlas  des  Menschlichen 
Zentralneroensystems  and  Handbuch  der  Neurologie  des 
Ohres  are  regarded  as  the  most  important  of  his  many 
scientific  books  and  papers. 

Marchetti  di  Muriagfio,  Count  Alberto  (b.  Italy,  1891 — 
d.  Rome,  Italy,  Oct.  5,  1948).  Diplomat,  entered  the  for- 
eign service  in  1914,  and  served  as  minister  to  Mexico 
from  1935  until  his  forced  resignation  during  World  War 
II.  He  was  counselor  at  the  Embassy  in  Washington  in 
1927,  minister  plenipotentiary  in  1933,  and  onetime  am- 
bassador to  Turkey. 

Marcin,  Max  (b.  Posen,  Germany,  May  6,  1879 — d.  Tuc- 
son, Ariz.,  Mar.  30,  1948).  Dramatic  author  and  producing 
manager  for  stage,  screen,  and  radio.  Author  of  Are  You 
My  Wife  (with  Roy  Atwell),  The  House  of  Glass,  Three 
Live  Ghosts,  etc.  His  radio  writings  include  the  Crime  Doc- 
tor and  The  F.B.L  in  Peace  and  War  serials. 

Marcus,  David  (b.  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Feb.  22,  1902— d. 
Jerusalem,  Palestine,  June  11,  1948).  Soldier,  lawyer,  and 
supreme  commander  of  the  Israeli  forces.  A  West  Point 
graduate  ( 1924),  he  served  with  the  rank  of  Colonel  in  the 
judge  advocate's  department  during  World  War  II.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  United  States  delegation  to  the  Teheran, 
Yalta,  and  Potsdam  conferences.  In  1940  he  served  as  Com- 
missioner of  Correction  in  New  York  City. 

Masaryk,  Jan  Garrigue  (b.  Prague,  Czechoslovakia,  Sept. 
14,  1886 — d.  Prague,  Czechoslovakia,  Mar.  10,  1948). 
Statesman,  diplomat,  and  son  of  the  founder  and  first  pres- 
ident of  the  Czech  republic.  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
since  1940;  sometime  president  of  the  Czech  National 
Council;  and  head  of  Czech  delegation  to  the  San  Francisco 
Conference,  1945.  He  began  his  diplomatic  career  in  1919, 
his  last  post  being  that  of  minister  to  Great  Britain,  1925— 
38.  Reportedly  a  suicide. 

Mason,  Alfred  Edward  Woodley  (b.  Dulwich,  England, 
1865 — d.  London,  England.  Nov.  22,  1948).  Novelist  and 
playwright  who  as  A.  E.  W.  Mason  published  many  best- 
sellers, including  The  Four  Feathers  and  The  House  of  the 
Arrow.  Other  works  were  The  Broken  Road  and  a  play, 
Miranda  of  the  Balcony,  produced  in  New  York  in  1901. 

Mafson,  Mrs.   Norman,   See   Glaspell,  Susan. 

Maxon,  James  Matthew  (b.  Bay  City,  Mich.,  Jan.  1,  1875 
— d.  Memphis,  Tenn.,  Nov.  8,  1948 ) .  Bishop  of  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Diocese  of  Tennessee,  1922—47  (retired); 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  the  South  since  1942;  and 
president  of  Margaret  College,  Versailles,  Ky.,  1910-17. 

Maxwell,  Edwin  (b.  Dublin,  Ireland,  1890?— d.  Hyannis, 
Mass.,  Aug.  13,  1948).  Well-known  character  actor  of 
stage  and  screen;  sometime  associate  director  of  the  Theatre 
Guild;  more  recently  associated  with  Cecil  B.  deMille.  His 
Broadway  appearances  included  roles  in  Doctor's  Dilemma, 
The  Donovan  Affair,  etc.  He  played  in  such  pictures  as 
All  Quiet  on  the  Western  Front,  President  Wilson,  and  The 
Jolson  Story. 

May,  Edna  (b.  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  Sept.  2,  1878 — d.  Lau- 
sanne, Switzerland,  Jan.  2,  1948).  Musical  comedy  star 
who  made  her  New  York  debut  in  1896,  London  debut  in 
1898,  and  retired  from  the  stage  in  1906,  following  her 
marriage  to  Oscar  Lewisohn.  Best  known  role  was  The 
Belle  of  New  York. 

Mayer,  Walther  (b.  Graz,  Austria,  Mar.  11,  1887 — d. 
Princeton,  N.J.,  Sept.  10,  1948).  Mathematician;  educa- 
tor; and  a  member  of  the  faculty,  Institute  for  Advanced 
Study,  Princeton,  N.J.,  since  1933.  In  1931  the  new  Ein- 
stein-Mayer unified-field  theory  was  made  public,  the  re- 
sult _of  a  collaboration  begun  in  1930.  Until  1933  a  profes- 
sor in  Vienna,  his  contribution  to  science  was  chiefly  in  the 
fields  of  relativity,  topology,  and  group  theory. 

Meinzer,  Oscar  Edward  (b.  near  Davis,  El.,  Nov.  28, 
1876 — d.  Washington,  D.C.,  June  15,  1948).  Interna- 
tionally known  geologist;  president  of  the  American  Geo- 
physical Union;  with  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
1906-46,  since  1912  as  chief  of  ground  water  division. 
Author  of  Our  Water  Supply,  Hydrology  in  Relation  to 
Economic  Geology,  etc. 

Merrick,  Marlowe  M.  (b.  1894—d.  Near  Salt  Lake  City, 
Utah,  Mar.  4,  1948).  Brigadier  General  (retired),  assistant 


MECROLOGY 


379 


NECRO£0GY 


chief  of  staff  to  Genera!  Arnold  in  World  War  II.  General 
Merrick  had  flown  for  Poland  (1021-22),  for  Yugoslavia, 
and  for  China. 

Meynell,  Wilfred  (b.  Yorkshire,  England,  1852 — d.  Pul- 
boroush,  Sussex,  England,  Oct.  20,  1948).  Journalist,  poet, 
and  biographer,  who  with  Ms  poet  _  wife,  Alice  Thompson, 
formed  a  literary  partnership  in  which  they  discovered  and 
later  edited  the  works  of  Francis  Thompson.  They  also 
edited  the  Catholic  Weekly  Register,  1881-98,  and  Merry 
England,  1883-95.  Meynell  was  the  author  of  Benjamin 
Disraeli,  Samuel  Johnson.,  Journals  and  Journalism,  and 
Rlwmes  with  Reason,  etc. 

Micheli,  Gutseppe  (b,  Castelnuovo,  Italy,  1876 — d.  Rome, 
Italy,  Oct.  17,  1948).  Politician,  minister  of  the  Navy  in 
the  second  de  Gasperx  cabinet,  and  minister  of  Public 
works,  1921—22.  He  was  an  early  leading  figure  in  the 
Christian  Democrat  Party. 

Michelson,  Charles  (b.  Virginia  City,  Nev.,  1870 — d. 
Washington,  D.C.,  Jan.  8,  1948).  Newspaperman,  ghost 
writer,  and  publicity  director  for  the  Democratic  National 
Committee,  1929-40.  Following  30  years  with  the  Hearst 
papers  he  became  chief  Washington  correspondent  for  The 
New  York  World,  1917-29.  He  wrote  The  Ghost  Talks. 

Mil!is,  Harry  Alvin  (b.  Paoli,  Ind.,  May  14,  1873— d. 
Chicage,  HI.,  June  25,  1948).  Economist;  chairman  of  the 
National  Labor  Relations  Board,  1940-45;  and  professor 
emeritus  of  economics,  University  of  Chicago  (1916—38). 

Mills,  John  (b.  Morgan  Park,  El.,  Apr.  13,  1880 — d. 
Rochester,  N.Y.,  June  14,  1948).  Electrical  engineer,  in- 
ventor, and  author.  Associated  with  Bell  Telephone  Labo- 
ratories, 1915-45,  he  was  director  of  publication  since 
1325.  He  wrote  Within  the  Atom;  Electricity,  Sound  and 
Light,  etc. 

Milne,  George  Francis,  1st  Baron  (b.  Aberdeen,  Scotland, 
Nov.  5,  1866— d.  London,  England,  Mar.  23,  1948). 
British  field  marshal,  chief  of  the  Imperial  General  Staff, 
1926-33;  governor  of  the  Tower  of  London,  1933-38; 
commander  of  British  Forces  in  Macedonia  during  World 
War  I. 

Minobe,  Totsukichi  (b.  Japan,  1873 — d.  Tokyo,  Japan, 
May  24,  1948).  Educator,  statesman,  and  privy  councillor 
( since  1946 ) .  A  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy;  leading 
legal  authority  on  the  Japanese  constitution;  consultant  on 
the  drafting  of  the  new  constitution. 

Mitchell,  Charles  Ainsworth  (b.  Thetford,  Norfolk,  Eng- 
land, Nov.  20,  1867; — d.  London,  England,  Jan.  5,  1948). 
Forensic  chemist,  scientific  author,  and  editor  of  The  Ana- 
lyst. Variously  president  of  the  Medico-Legal  Society 
(1935-37),  vice  president,  Royal  Institute  of  Chemistry 
(1937-40),  etc.  He  was  the  author  of  Science  and  the 
Criminal,  The  Evidence  of  the  Casket  Letters,  Inks,  Flower 
Cameos,  A  Scientist  in  the  Criminal  Courts,  etc. 

Mitchell,  James  McCormick  <b.  Washington,  D.C.,  Sept. 
6,  1873^d.  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  Oct.  14,  1948).  Lawyer,  an 
authority  on  tax  and  constitutional  law,  and  a  member  of 
the  American  Law  Institute  since  1922. 

Mitchell,  Samuel  Chiles  (b.  Coffeeville,  Miss.,  Dec.  24, 
1864 — d.  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Aug.  20,  1948).  Educator,  historian, 
and  professor  of  history  and  government  at  the  University 
of  Richmond,  1920-45.  Sometime  president  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  South  Carolina  (1908-13),  the  Medical  College  of 
Virginia  (1913-14),  and  of  Delaware  College  (1914-20). 

Mitchell,  Wesley  Clair  (b.  RushviUe,  HI.,  Aug.  5,  1874— 
d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  29,  1948).  Internationally  known 
economist,  author,  and  professor  (emeritus)  at  Columbia 
University,  1913-44.  A  founder  and  director  (1920-45) 
of  the  National  Bureau  of  Economic  Research;  director  at 
the  New  School  for  Social  Research  (1919-31);  and  a 
member  of  many  Government  boards,  including  "The  Pres- 
ident's Research  Committee  on  Social  Trends  (1929-33), 
National  Planning  Board  (1933),  and  the  National  Re- 
sources Board  (1934—35).  Author  of  Business  Cycles,  Re- 
cent Social  Trends,  and  Measuring  Business  Cycles, 

Moldenhawer,  Julius  Valdemar  (b.  Tavastehus.  Finland, 
1877— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Mar.  31,  1948).  Pastor  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York,  since  1930,  he  was 
known  as  an  outstanding  preacher.  Moderator  of  the  Pres- 
bytery, 1936-38,  and  a  director  of  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary.  Author  of  Fairest  Lord  Jesus  and  The  Voice  of 
Books. 

Mbller,  (John)  Christmas  (b.  Denmark,  Apr.  3,  1894 — 
d.  Copenhagen,  Denmark,  Apr.  13,  1948).  Politician,  lead- 
ing conservative,  and  a  member  of  the  Folketing,  1920-41 
and  1945-47.  As  a  leader  of  the  Free  Danes  he  headed  the 
Danish  Council  in  London,  1942-45,  and  served  as  Foreign 
Minister  in  the  liberation  cabinet  (1945). 

Montani,  Nicola  Aloysius  (b.  Utica,  N.Y.,  1880^-d.  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.,  Jan.  11,  1948).  Composer  of  liturgical  music 
and  prominent  as  a  teacher.  Founder  (1914)  of  the  Society 
of  St.  Gregory  of  America  and  organizer  of  the  Palestrina 
Choir  (1915).  Sometime  editor  in  chief  of  the  liturgical 
music  department  of  G.  Schirmer,  and  author  of  The  Art  of 
A  Cappella  Singing.,  etc. 

Montero  Rodriguez,  Juan  Esteban  (b.  Santiago,  Chile. 
Feb.  12,  1879— d.  Santiago,  Chile,  Feb.  25,  1948).  Law- 
yer, educator,  and  president  of  Chile,  1931-32. 

Moonje,  Balkrishna  Sheoram  (b.  India,  January,  1872-^— 
d.  Bombay,  India,  Mar.  4,  1948).  Leading  eye  specialist 
and  politician.  President  of  Mahasabha,  a  Hindu  organiza- 
tion, banned  following  the  death  of  Gandhi. 


Moore,  John  Monroe  (b.  Morgantown,  Ky.,  Jan.  27,  1867 
— d.  Dallas,  Tex.,  July  30,  1948).  Noted  Methodist  clergy- 
man, ordained  1894,  elected  bishop  1918,  and  retired  in 
1938.  A  leader  in  church  unity,  member  of  the  Lausanne 
Conference  on  World  Faith  and  Order  (1927),  and  of  the 
Edinburgh  Conference  (1937).  Sometime  chairman  of  the 
executive  committee  of  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches 
(1924-28).  Editor  of  the  Christian  Advocate,  1906-09, 
and  author  of  The  South  Today,  Brazil — An  Introductory 
Study,  and  Methodism  in  Belief  and  Action. 

Moreno,  Marguerite  (b.  France,  1871 — d.  Touzac, 
France,  July  14,  1948),  Famous  actress  of  the  stage  and 
screen  who  as  Lucie  Monceau  joined  the  Comedie  Fran- 
gaise  in  1890.  Last  stage  appearance  was  in  Folle  de  Chail- 
lot  (1948)  in  which  she  scored  a  great  hit.  Besides  her 
notable  success  in  the  film  Le  Sex  Faible,  she  appeared  in 
Amphytrion,  La  Dame  de  Pique,  Carmen,  The  Idiot,  etc. 

Morley,  Sy!vanus  Griswoid  (b.  Chester,  Pa.,  June  7, 
1883— ^i.  Santa  Fe,  N.M.,  Sept.  2,  1948).  Archaeologist, 
specialist  on  Maya  hieroglyphics,  and  director  of  the  Chi- 
chen  Itza  project  for  the  Carnegie  Institution,  1924—40. 
Sometime  leader  of  expeditions  to  Central  America  and 
Mexico  for  the  School  of  American  Archaeology  (1909—14). 

Munch,  Peter  de  Rochegune  (b.  Redsted,  Jylland,  Den- 
mark, July  25,  1870 — d.  Copenhagen,  Denmark,  Jan.  12, 
1948).  Statesman;  held  various  cabinet  posts  before* serv- 
ing as  foreign  minister,  1929-40.  One  of  Europe's  leading 
pacifists,  member  of  the  League  of  Nations  Council,  1933— 
36,  and  president  of  its  Disarmament  Committee.  He  wrote 
many  works  on  history  and  economics,  and  was  editor  of 
Det  Nye  Aarhundrede,  1903-19. 

Murray,  Maxwell  (b.  West  Point,  N.Y.,  June  19,  1885 — 
d.  Siasconset,  Mass.,  Aug.  4,  1948).  Major  General,  AUS 
(retired);  during  World  War  II,  commanding  officer  in  the 
South  Pacific  area,  with  headquarters  at  Noumea.  He  served 
as  military  aide  to  the  governor  general  of  the  PHlippines, 
1928-31. 

Myers,  Victor  Caryl  (b.  Buskirk  Bridge,  N.Y.,  Apr.  13, 
1883 — d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  7,  1948).  Noted  biochemist 
and  professor  of  clinical  biochemistry  at  Western  Reserve 
School  of  Medicine,  since  1927.  An  authority  on  clinical 
biochemistry  and  author  of  Essentials  of  Pathological  Chem- 
istry, Practical  Chemical  Analysis  of  Blood.,  and  Laboratory 
Directions  in  Biochemistry.  He  was  associate  editor  of  the 
Encyclopedia  of  Medicine. 

Nashr  Charles  W.  (b.  DeKalb  County,  HI.,  Jan.  28,  1864 
— d.  Beverly  Hills,  Calif.,  June  6,  1948).  Automobile  man- 
ufacturer; organized  the  Nash  Motors  Company,  1916, 
served  as  its  president  until  1930,  when  he  became  chair- 
man of  the  board.  Sometime  president  of  the  Buick  Motor 
Company,  1910—16,  and  of  the  General  Motors  Company, 
1912-16. 

Nestor,  Agnes  (b.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  1880 — d.  Chi- 
cago, HI.,  Dec.  8,  1948 ) .  Outstanding  woman  labor  leader; 
president  o£  the  Women's  Trade  Union  League  (Chicago) 
since  1938;  and  director  of  Research  and  Education  of  the 
International  Glove  Workers  Union  (AFL)  since  1913. 
She  also  served  on  numerous  Government  and  State  advi- 
sory committees. 

Newton,  John  Henry  (b.  Fittston,  Pa.,  Dec.  13,  1881 — 
d.  Fort  Ord,  Calif.,  May  3,  1948).  Naval  officer;  Vice  Ad- 
miral (retired),  and  inspector  general  of  the  Pacific  Fleet 
in  World  War  II. 

Niblo,  Fred  (b.  York,  Neb.,  Jan.  6,  1874-H3U  New  Or- 
leans, La.,  Nov.  11,  1948).  Motion  picture  director,  actor, 
and  vaudevillian.  Began  his  stage  career  in  1897,  played 
the  vaudeville  circuit,  1900—10,  returned  to  the  stage,  and 
in  1918  began  his  film  career.  He  directed  some  of  the 
leading  pictures  of  the  silent  era,  including  Blood  and  Sand, 
Ben  Hur,  Three  Musketeers.,  etc. 

NSokrashy  Pasha,  Mahmoud  Fahmy  (b.  Alexandria,  Egypt, 
1888 — d.  Cairo,  Egypt,  Dec.  28,  1948).  Politician,  Saadist 
Party  leader,  and  Premier  of  Egypt  since  December,  1946. 
His  varied  cabinet  posts  included  the  ministries  of  Com- 
munications (1930,  1936-37);  Interior  (1938-39);  Ed- 
ucation (1939—40),  Supporter  of  a  non-compromise  stand 
against  the  state  of  Israel,  his  assassination  by  a  university 
student,  belonging  to  an  outlawed  Moslem  Brotherhood, 
was  due  to  his  failure  to  produce  a  victory  in  Palestine. 

Northcote,  Sir  Geoffry  Alexander  Stafford  (b.  Feb.  9, 
1881-7- d.  Sanderstead,  Surrey,  England,  July  10,  1948). 
Colonial  official;  speaker  of  the  East  African  Assembly;  He 
spent  most  of  his  life  in  Kenya.  He  served  as  governor  of 
Hong  Kong,  1937-41,  and  of  British  Guiana,  1935-36. 

Noyes,  Frank  Brett  (b.  Washington,  D.C.,  July  7,  1863 — 
d.  Washington,  D.C.,  Dec.  1,  1948).  Newspaper  publisher, 
board  chairman  and  former  president  of  The  Evening  Star 
Newspaper  Company,  and  president  of  The  Associated 
Press,  1900-38.  Sometime  editor  and  publisher  of  The 
Record-Herald  (Chicago),  and  manager  of  The  Washing- 
ton Star. 

Oftedat,  Sven  (b.  Stavanger,  Norway,  1905 — d.  Oslo, 
Norway,  June  23,  1948).  Physician,  politician,  and  minister 
of  social  welfare,  since  1945.  He  greatly  extended  and  re- 
vised existing  social  legislation  in  Norway.  Arrested  as  hos- 
tage in  1941.  he  was  credited  with  saving  the  lives  of 
hundreds  of  fellow  prisoners  in  Sachsenhausen  concentra- 
tion camp. 

Ogg,  Alexander  (b.  Scotland,  1871 — d.  South  Africa, 
Feb.  23,  1948).  Noted  physicist;  director  of  the  Govern- 
ment Magnetic  Observatory,  Harmanus,  1936-46;  professor 


380 


NECROLOGY 


of  physics  in  the  University  of  Capetown,  1920-36;  and 
a  Fellow  of  the  Koyal  Society  of  South  Africa. 

Oman,  Charles  Maiden  (b.  Columbia  County,  Pa.,  Oct. 
23,  1878^-d.  Beacon,  N.Y.,  Nov.  1,  1948).  Rear  Admiral, 
USN  (retired),  and  commandant  of  the  Naval  Convales- 
cent Hospital  at  Harrison,  1942-45.  He  joined  the  naval 
medical  corps  in  1902,  being  promoted  to  Rear  Admiral  in 
1936.  He  served  as  American  Red  Cross  delegate  to  inter- 
national congress  for  the  revision  of  the  Hague  Convention, 
1937. 

Opel,  Wiihelm  von  (b.  Riisselsheim,  Germany,  May  15, 
1871  —  d.  Wiesbaden,  Germany,  May  2,  1948).  Industrial- 
ist and  founder  of  the  Opel  automobile  works  (1897). 
Since  1946  the  plant  has  been  controlled  by  the  General 
Motors  Corporation. 

O'Riordlan,  Conai  Holmes  O'ConneSI  (b.  Dublin,  Ireland, 
Apr.  29,  1874-7-d.  London,  England,  June  18,  1948). 
JNovelist,  playwright,  and  director  of  the  Abbey  Theatre, 
Dublin,  since  1909.  Between  1891-1920,  he  was  known 
under  the  pen-name  of  Norreys  Connell.  Founder  (1907) 
and  president  of  the  Square  Club,  and  since  1937,  president 
of  the  Irish  Literary  Society.  Among  his  most  successful 
plays  were  Shakespeare's  End  and  Rope  Enough. 

Orfon,  Samuel  Torrey  (b.  Columbus,  Ohio,  Oct.  15,  1879 
-~d.  Poughkeepsie,  N.Y.,  Nov.  17,  1948).  Neuropsychia- 
trist  and  a  leading  authority  on  speech  disorders.  He  was 
professor  of  Neurology  at  Columbia  University,  1930—36; 
neuropathologist  at  the  Neurological  Institute,  1929-36; 
and  had  been  associated  with  various  other  hospitals. 

Osborn,  Sidney  Preston  (b.  Phoenix,  Ariz.,  May  17,  1884 

—  d.  Phoenix,  Ariz.,  May  25,  1948).  Governor  of  Arizona 
for  the  4th  consecutive  term  (since  1941);  first  secretary 
of  state,  1912-19;  and  a  leader  in  State  Democratic  politics. 
He  was  editor  and  owner  of  Dunbar's  Weekly,  1925-41. 

Overton,  John  Holmes  (b.  Marksvffle,  La.,  Sept.  17,  1875 
-yd.  Bethesda,  Md.»  May  14,  1948),  Lawyer  and  politi- 
cian; United  States  Senator  from  Louisiana  since  1933, 
and  representative  in  the  Congress,  1931-33, 

Owens,  Thomas  Leonard  (b.  Chicago,  HI,  Dec.  21,  1897 

—  d.  Bethesda,  Md.,  June  7,  1948).  Lawyer,  Republican 
representative  to  Congress,  from  Illinois,  since  1947.  Active 
in  labor  relations,  he  helped  frame  the  Taft-Hartley  Act. 

Pachaehi,  Hamdi  el  (b.  1886  —  d.  Baghdad,  Iraq,  Mar. 
27,  1948).  Foreign  Minister  of  Iraq,  1948;  active  in  the 
Iraqi  independence  movement  and  the  revolution;  more 
recently  active  in  the  Arab  League  and  opposed  to  partition 
of  Palestine. 

Paiketf,  Aloysius  de  (b.  Nagyszombat,  Hungary,  May  31, 
1866  —  d.  Budapest,  Hungary,  Oct.  19,  1948),  Statesman, 
author,  and  under-secretary  of  State,  1926-32.  A  supporter 
of  the  League  of  Nations,  associate  founder  of  the  League 
of  Nations  Union,  and  author  of  A  Covenant  of  World 


Patterson,  Eleanor  Medill  (b.  Chicago,  111.,  Nov.  7,  1884 
—  d.  Marlboro,  Md.,  July  24,  1948),  Owner-publisher  and 
editor  of  The  Washington  Times-Herald  which  she  pur- 
chased from  Hearst  in  1939.  Sometime  chairman  of  the 
board  of  the  News  Syndicate  Company  and  a  director  or" 
The  Chicago  Tribune.  Twice  married:  (1)  Count  Joseph 
Gizycki,  and  (2)  Elmer  Schlesinger. 

Paxson,  Frederic  logon  (b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Feb.  23, 
1877  —  d.  Berkeley,  Calif.,  Oct.  24,  1948).  Historian,  au- 
thority on  western  United  States,  and  professor  at  the 
University  of  California,  1932-^7  (retired).  Besides  the 
Pulitzer  Prize-winning  History  of  the  American  Frontier 
(1924)  he  also  wrote  The  Last  American  Frontier,  The 
New  Nation,  and  Recent  History  of  the  United  States, 

Pedler,  Margaret  Bass  (b.  Teignmouth,  Devon,  England, 
n,d.  —  d.  London,  England,  Dec.  28,  1948).  Author  of 
romantic  fiction.  Following  the  publication  of  The  Splendid 
Folly  (1918)  she  wrote  28  novels  in  30  years,  the  last 
being  "Unless  Two  Be  Agreed. 

Peng,  Hsueh-pei  (b.  1898  —  d.  Basalt  Island,  near  Hong 
Kong,  China,  Dec.  21,  1948).  Diplomat,  United  Nations 
delegate,  and  since  1947  member  o£  the  Political  Commit- 
tee of  the  Executive  Yuan.  His  many  cabinet  posts  included 
the  Ministry  of  Information  (1946-47). 

Pennock,  Herbert  Jeffries  (b.  Kenneth  Square,  Pa.,  Feb. 
19,  1895—  d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Jan.  30,  1948).  Baseball 
player  and  general  manager  of  the  Philadelphia  Phillies 
since  1943.  He  was  a  star  pitcher  with  the  Yankees  in  the 
Ruth-Gehrig  era. 

Perak,  Abdul  Aziz  AI'Muktassim  Billon  Shah,  Sultan  of 
(b.  1887  —  d.  Perak,  Federation  of  Malaya,  Mar.  29,  1948). 
Installed  in  1931  as  the  31st  Sultan  of  Perak,  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  treaty  negotiations  leading  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Federation  of  Malaya. 

Perez  Martinez,  Hector  (b.  Campeche,  Mexico,  May  21, 
1905  —  d.  Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  Feb.  1%  1948).  Politician, 
author,  and  dentist;  Secretary  of  the  Interior  since  1946; 
and  governor  of  the  state  of  Campeche,  1939.  Besides 
poetry  he  also  wrote  Imogen  de  nadie;  Judrez  el  impasible; 
and  Cuauhtemoc,  vida  y  muerte  de  una  cultura. 

Pershing,  John  Joseph  (b.  Linn  County,  Mo.,  Sept.  13, 
1860—  d.  Washington,  D.C,,  July  15,  1948).  Cavalry  offi- 
cer and,  since  1919,  General  of  the  Armies  of  the  United 
States.  From  the  time  of  his  graduation  from  West  Point  in 
1886,  until  his  retirement  in  1924,  he  had  seen  active  serv- 
ice in  Cuba,  the  Philippines,  and  Mexico.  When  America 
entered  World  War  I,  he  became  commander  in  chief  of 
the  American  Expeditionary  Forces,  1917-19;  and  served 


as  chief  of  staff,  1921-24.  Awarded  the  Pulitzer  Prize  for 
history  in  1932,  for  My  Experiences  in  the  World  War. 

PefrofF,  Sfrcshimir  Alburfus  (b.  Varna,  Bulgaria,  Aug. 
20,  1883 — d.  Greenville,  S.C.,  Nov.  26,  1948).  Physician, 
pioneer  in  tuberculosis  research,  and  reputedly  the  first 
person  to  isolate  the  T.B,  bacillus.  Associated  with  the 
Tradeau  Sanatorium,  1909-35. 

Pettie,  Edna  May.  See  MflV,  Edna, 

Peyraud,  Frank  Charles  (b.  Bulle,  Canton  Fribourg, 
Switzerland,  June  1,  1858 — d.  Highland  Park,  HL,  May 
31,  1948).  Landscape  painter  represented  in  museums  in 
America  and  Europe.  His  paintings  of  midwestern  scenes 
brought  him  many  awards  and  prizes. 

Phelps,  Shelton  Joseph  (b.  Nevada,  Vemon  Co.,  Mo., 
Oct.  7,  1884— d.  Ponte  Vedra  Beach,  Fla.,  Apr.  8,  1948). 
Educator,  author,  and  president  of  Winthrop  College,  S.C., 
1934-43.  He  was  a  member  of  the  White  House  Confer- 
ence on  Child  Health  and  Protection,  1920-30.  Author  of 
textbooks  and  educational  surveys,  and  associate  editor  of 
the  Journal  of  Educational  Research. 

Phillips,  J(ay)  Campbell  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  27, 
1873— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Sept.  24,  1948).  Portrait  painter 
represented  in  museums  throughout  the  country.  His  por- 
traits were  mostly  of  celebrities,  statesmen,  etc.,  including 
William  McAdoo,  Carter  Glass,  Bernard  Baruch,  and  others. 

Pierson,  Reginald  Kirshaw  (b.  England,  Feb.  9,  1891 — 
d.  Cranleigh,  England,  Jan.  10,  1948).  Chief  aircraft  de- 
signer for  Vickers  Armstrong,  Ltd.,  since  1917.  He  de- 
signed the  Wellington  bomber,  also  the  first  plane  to  be 
flown  across  the  Atlantic  (1919). 

Pignatelli  di  Belmonte,  Gennaro  Granito  (b.  Naples, 
Italy,  Apr.  10,  1851 — d.  Vatican  City,  Italy,  Feb.  16, 
1948).  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals  since  1930, 
and  a  cardinal  since  1911.  Sometime  Papal  nuncio  in  Aus- 
tria and  in  Belgium. 

Pinner,  Max  (b.  Berlin,  Germany,  Nov.  28,  1891 — d. 
Berkeley,  Calif.,  Jan.  7,  1948).  Physician,  authority  on 
tuberculosis,  and  clinical  professor,  Columbia  University, 
1939-46.  From  1938-45  he  was  chief  of  the  division  of 
pulmonary  diseases  at  Montefiore  Hospital.  He  wrote  nu- 
merous scientific  papers  and  since  1940  was  editor  of  The 
American  Review  of  Tuberculosis. 

Plunketr,  George  Noble  (Papal  and  hereditary),  Count 
(b.  Dublin,  Ireland,  Dec.  3,  1851— d.  Dublin,  Ireland, 
Mar.  12,  1948).  Scholar,  and  leading  Irish  patriot;  active 
in  the  rebellion  of  1916.  Director  of  the  Dublin  National 
Museum,  1907—16;  sometime  minister  of  Fine  Arts;  presi- 
dent, Academy  of  Christian  Art;  and  the  editor  of  Early 
Christian  Art  in  Ireland.  Member  of  Parliament,  1917-22 
and  1927;  Sinn  Fein  delegate  to  Paris  Peace  Conference, 
1919. 

Ponce,  Manuel  M.  (b.  Fresnillo,  Mexico,  Apr.  24,  1886 — 
d,  Mexico  City,  Mexico,  Apr.  24,  1948).  Pianist  and  com- 
poser of  Mexican  folksongs,  concertos,  and  chamber  music. 
His  best  known  work  is  Estrellita. 

Powell,  Sir  (George)  Allan  (b.  England,  1878 — d.  Ger- 
rard's  Cross,  England,  Jan.  24,  1948).  Lawyer,  adminis- 
trator, and  chairman  of  the  board  of  the  British  Broadcast- 
ing Corporation,  1939-46. 

Prendergast,  Charles  (b.  Boston,  Mass.,  May  27,  1869 — 
d.  Norwalk,  Conn.,  Aug.  20,  1948).  Woodcarver,  painter, 
and  noted  maker  of  gesso  panels.  His  work  is  represented 
in  the  Whitney  Museum  or  American  Art,  the  Museum  of 
Modern  Art,  the  Newark  Museum,  etc. 

Prentice,  Bernon  Sheldon  (b.  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  May  12, 
1882 — d.  Hot  Springs,  Va.»  June  13,  1948).  Investment 
banker  and  sportsman;  former  chairman  of  the  American 
Davis  Cup  Committee,  and  non-playing  captain  of  the 
team. 

Price,  Harry  (b.  Shrewsbury,  England,  Jan.  17,  1881 — 
d.  Pulborough,  England,  Mar.  29,  1948),  Noted  psychical 
researcher,  author,  lecturer,  and  founder-director  of  the 
National  Laboratory  for  Psychical  Research  (1925),  later 
the  London  Council  for  Psychical  Investigation.  Chairman, 
National  Film  Library,  1935-41. 

Pryanishnikov,  Dmitri  Nikolaevich  (b.  Kaakhta,  Russia, 
Oct.  25,  1865 — d,  Moscow,  U.S.S.R.,  May  3,  1948).  Fore- 
most Russian  agricultural  chemist,  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  and  sometime  director  of  the  Timiryazev 
Institute  of  plant  physiology. 

Pulsifer,  Harold  Trowbridge  (b.  Manchester,  Conn.,  Nov. 
18?  1886 — d.  Sarasota,  Fla.,  Apr.  8,  1948).  Poet;  author; 
editor  of  the  Outlook,  1923-28;  president,  Poetry  Society 
of  America,  1931-32;  and  the  author  of  Mathers  and  Men, 
Harvest  of  Time,  Elegy  for  a  House,  etc. 

Ralston,  James  Layton  (b.  Amherst,  N.S.,  Sept.  27,  1881 
-yd.  Montreal,  Canada,  May  21,  1948).  Lawyer,  poli- 
tician, and  Canadian  Minister  of  Defense,  1926-30,  1940- 

Ramzin,  Leonid  Konstantinovich  (b.  Sosnovka,  Trarabov, 
Russia,  Oct.  14,  1887— d.  Moscow,  U.S.S.R.,  June  30, 
1948).  Noted  scientist  and  engineer  who  designed  a  fuel- 
saving  uniflow  boiler  (1931).  Denounced  in  1930  for 
plotting  military  attack  on  Russia  in  conjunction  with  Al- 
lied leaders.  Later  rehabilitated  and  awarded  the  Order  of 
Lenin  and  the  Stalin  Prize. 

Rathbun,  Henry  Howe  (b.  Las  Vegas,  N.M.,  May  12, 
1891 — d.  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  Sept.  30,  1948).  Agricul- 
turist, lecturer,  and  one  of  Ainerica's  foremost  farm  lead- 
ers. Since  1945,  president  of  the  Dairymen's  League  Co- 


NECROLOGY 


381 


NECROLOGY 


operative  Association  and,  since  1947,  president  of  the  Na- 
tional Council  of  Fanner  Cooperatives. 

Reeves,  Joseph  Mason  (b.  Tampico,  HI.,  Nov.  20,  1872 
— d.  Bethesda,  Md.,  Mar.  25,  1948).  Admiral,  USN  (re- 
tired); commander  in  chief  of  the  Pacific  Fleet,  1984-36. 
During  World  War  II  he  was  the  Navy  Department's  Lend- 
Lease  liaison  officer  and  senior  member  of  the  Munitions 
Assignment  Board. 

Reid,  Edward  Waymoufh  (b.  Canterbury,  England,  Oct. 

11,  1863 — d.  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  Mar.  10,  1948).  Pio- 
neer  in   physiology   and  professor   at   University   College, 
Dundee,   1889-1935.  Fellow  of  the  Royal   Society  since 
1889;   frequent  contributor  to  scientific   journals,  and  to 
Schafer's  Textbook  of  Physiology, 

Reilly,  Sir  Charles  Herbert  (b.  1874 — d.  London,  Eng- 
land, Feb.  2,  1948).  Famous  architect  who  as  head  of  the 
School  of  Architecture,  Liverpool  University  (1904-33), 
made  it  one  of  the  foremost  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  Origi- 
nated Great  Britain's  modern  town  planning  and  cam- 
paigned for  better  living  conditions. 

Reinhardt,  Aurelia  Henry  (Mrs.  George  F.  Reinhardt,  b. 
San  Francisco,  Calif.,  Apr.  1,  1877 — d.  Palo  Alto,  Calif., 
Jan.  28,  1948).  Educator;  president  of  Mills  College, 
1916-43;  president,  American  Association  of  University 
Women,  1923—27.  First  woman  to  serve  as  moderator  of 
the  Unitarian  churches  in  the  United  States  (1940-42). 

Reifler,  Joseph  (b.  Vienna,  Austria,  Dec.  25,  1883 — d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  Mar.  12,  1948).  Professor  of  music  and 
music  critic  of  the  Vienna  Neue  Freie  Presse,  1907-36. 
Founder  and  director  of  the  New  Vienna  Conservatory 
(1915),  and  co-founder  of  the  Salzburg  Festival.  Recently 
member  of  the  Opera  Workshop,  Hunter  CoEege,  N.Y. 

Renaud,  Ralph  Edward  (b.  Washington,  D.C.,  Feb.  27, 
1881— d.  Port  Chester,  N.Y.,  Aug.  10,  1948).  Newspaper 
executive;  editorial  writer  for  the  New  York  Times  since 
1935;  and  sometime  editorial  writer  for  the  Post,  World, 
and  Tribune. 

Rentschler,  Gordon  Sohn  (b.  Hamilton,  Ohio,  Nov.  25, 
1885 — d.  Havana,  Cuba,  Mar.  3,  1948).  Banker  and  chair- 
man of  the  board,  National  City  Bank  of  New  York.  Joined 
the  bank  as  a  director  in  1923  and  became  its  president  in 
1929. 

Repiogle,  Jacob  Leonard  (b.  Bedford  County,  Pa.,  May 
6,  1876— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Nov.  25,  1948).  Industrial- 
ist and  a  leader  in  the  steel  industry.  During  World  War  I 
he  headed  the  steel  division  of  the  War  Industries  Board 
and  was  a  member  of  Baruch's  '"business  cabinet/* 

Reynolds.  James  Burton  (b.  Saratoga  Springs,  N.Y.,  Feb. 
17,  1870— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  7,  1948).  Banker, 
politician,  former  secretary  of  the  Republican  National 
Committee,  and  assistant  secretary  of  the  Treasury,  1905- 
09.  As  a  member  of  the  United  States  Tariff  Board,  1909- 

12,  he  supported  high  tariffs. 

Richards,  Franklin  Thomas  Grant  (b.  Oxford?,  England, 
Oct.  21,  1872 — d.  Monte  Carlo,  Monaco,  Feb.  24,  1948). 
Book  publisher  and  author;  launched  his  own  firm  in  1897, 
and  was  credited  with  discovery  of  authors  like  Alec  Waugh 
and  Thomas  Burke.  Early  in  career  he  published  Samuel 
Butler's  The  Way  of  All  Flesh  and  A.  E.  Housman's  poems; 
he  was  the  latter's  friend  and  biographer.  He  wrote  Author 
Hunting,  Memories  of  a  Misspent  Youth,  etc. 

Richards,  Grant.  See  "Richards*  Franklin  Thomas  Grant. 

Rickey,  Harry  Morris  (b.  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1871-^-d. 
Winter  Park,  Fla.,  Aug.  27,  1948).  Newspaperman,  editor 
in  chief  of  all  Scripps-Howard  newspapers,  and  an  execu- 
tive with  that  organization  from  1892-1930.  Also  original 
trustee  of  the  UP  and  NEA. 

Ridste,  Frances  Lillian  Mary.  See  Landis,  Carole. 

Richer,  Frank  (b.  PlacerviUe,  Calif.,  Mar.  12,  1890— d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  June  30,  1948).  Geophysicist  and  in- 
ventor; director  of  the  Rieber  Laboratory,  since  1932;  and 
inventor  of  special  apparatus  for  geophysical  research  and 
seismic  exploration. 

Roberts,  George  Evan  (b.  Delaware  County,  Iowa,  Aug. 
19,  1857 — d.  Larchmont,  N.Y.,  June  6,  1948),  Fiscal  au- 
thority; twice  director  of  the  United  States  Mint,  1898- 
1907,  1910—14;  and  vice  president  and  economic  adviser 
of  the  National  City  Bank  of  New  York,  1914-40.  Some- 
time newspaper  publisher  and  owner  of  the  Des  Moines 
Register;  also  active  as  a  political  pamphleteer. 

Roberts,  Michael  (b.  England,  1902 — d.  London,  Eng- 
land, Dec.  13,  1948).  Poet,  critic,  educator,  and  principal 
of  the  College  of  St.  Mark  and  St.  John  (London),  since 
1945.  His  writings  include  Critique  of  Poetry,  Newton  and 
the  Origin  of  Colours,  Poems,  The  Modern  Mind,  etc.  He 
was  the  editor  of  Elizabethan  Prose,  The  Faber  Book  of 
Modern  Verse,  and  The  Faber  Book  of  Comic  Verse. 

Robertson,  W(alford)  Graham  (b.  London,  England,  July 
8,  1866 — d.  Witley,  Surrey,  England,  Sept.  4,  1948). 
Painter,  illustrator,  author,  and  art  collector;  his  work  was 
strongly  influenced  by  the  pre-Raphaelites.  Pinkie  and  the 
Fairies  and  The  Fountain  of  Youth  were  two  of  his  many 
plays  produced  in  London.  In  his  autobiography,  Time  Was* 
he  drew  a  sparkling  picture  of  the  Victorian  era. 

Robinson,  Josephine  (Josie)  de  Mott  (b.  I860?— d.  Gar- 
den City,  Long  Island,  NX,  Mar.  8,  1948).  Regarded  as 
queen  of  circus  equestriennes  around  1900.  She  appeared 
with  Barnum  and  Bailey  in  the  I880*s  and  made  a  come- 
back in  1906. 

Robinson,  Paschal  (b.  Dublin,  Ireland,  1870 — d.  Dublin, 
Ireland,  Aug.  27,  1948).  Archbishop  of  the  Roman  Cath- 


olic Diocese  of  Tyana,  since  1927,  and  the  first  Papal 
Nuncio  to  Ireland  in  300  years.  Onetime  lawyer  and  news- 
paperman, ie  joined  the  Franciscan  order  in  1896,  was  or- 
dained in  1901,  and  entered  the  diplomatic  service  of  the 
church  in  1919.  He  taught  at  the  Catholic  University,- 
Washington,  D.C.,  and  was  associate  editor  of  the  North 
American  Review,  1892-95. 

Robsion,  John  Marshall  (b.  Bracken  County,  Ky.,  Jan.  2, 
1878— d.  Barbourvffie,  Ky.,  Feb.  17,  1948).  Lawyer  and 
Republican  congressman  from  Kentucky,  1919-29,  1935- 
48.  He  filled  a  vacancy  as  Senator,  1930-31. 

Rockefeller,  Abby  Greene  Aldrich  (b.  Providence,  R.I., 
Oct.  26,  1874 — d.  New  York,  NX,  Apr.  5,  1948).  Wife  of 
John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  in  whose  philantropies  she  took  an 
active  part.  As  an  art  patron  she  was  co-founder  of  the 
Museum  of  Modern  Art  (1929)  and  donated  more  than 
2,000  items  to  its  collections. 

Roosevelt,  Edith  Kermit  Carow  (b.  Norwich,  Conn.,  Aug. 
6,  1861-— d.  Oyster  Bay,  Long  Island,  N.Y.,  Sept,  30, 
1948).  Widow  of  the  late  president,  Colonel  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  whom  she  married  in  1886.  To  a  marked  degree 
she  had  shared  her  husband's  activities  and  interests,  and 
until  recently  had  remained  active  in  Republican  Party 
ait  airs. 

Rosny,  J.  ft,  the  younger  (pseudonym  for  Seraphim 
Justin  Fxangois  Boex,  b.  Brussels,  Belgium,  1859 — d.  St. 
Brieuc,  France,  June  16,  1948),  Novelist  and  charter  mem- 
ber of  the  Goncourt  Academy,  of  which  he  was  president 
in  1940.  He  wrote  more  than  50  books  in  addition  to  some 
30  volumes  in  collaboration  with  his  brother. 

Rossi,  Rafaele  Carlo  (b.  Pisa,  Italy,  Oct.  28,  1876— d. 
Bassano  del  Grappa,  Italy,  Sept.  17,  1948).  Cardinal; 
titular  archbishop  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Diocese  of  Thes- 
salonika,  since  1930;  and  secretary  of  the  Consistorial 
Congregation. 

Roussy,  Gustave  (b.  Vevey,  Switzerland,  Nov.  24,  1874 
-y-d.  Paris,  France,  Sept.  30,  1948).  Medical  scientist,  par- 
ticularly in  the  fields  of  neurology,  endocrinology,  and 
cancer.  Recently  relieved  of  his  post  as  rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  and  dean  of  its  faculty  of  sciences  following 
charges  of  illegal  currency  manipulations. 

Roxas  y  Acuna,  Manuel  (b.  Capiz,  Philippine  Islands, 
Jan.  1,  1892 — d.  Clark  Field,  Pampagna,  Philippine  Is- 
lands, Apr.  15,  1948).  Lawyer,  statesman,  and  president 
of  the  Republic  of  the  Philippines  since  1946.  Attained  the 
rank  of  Brigadier  General  during  World  War  II  and  served 
as  an  aide  to  General  McArthur.  He  headed  several  Philip- 
pine Independence  Missions  to  the  United  States  and 
strove  to  orient  his  country  towards  America. 

Ruggiero,  GuJdo  de  (b.  Naples,  Italy,  Mar.  23,  1888 — d. 
Rome,  Italy,  Dec.  29,  1948).  Philosopher,  author,  and 
historian  whose  best  known  work  is  a  16- volume  history 
of  philosophy.  He  was  a  professor  at  the  University  of 
Rome;  vice  president  of  the  Italian  Delegation  to  UNESCO; 
and  minister  of  Education  in  the  -post-liberation  cabinet. 
His  most  recent  work  to  be  published  in  English  was 
Existentialism,  Disentegration  oj  Man's  Soul.  Other  works 
include:  History  of  European  Liberalism,  Modern  Philos- 
ophy, and  Myths  and  Ideals. 

Rumanceff,  Nicholas  A.  (b.  Moscow,  Russia,  1875— d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  May  21,  1948).  Physician  and  actor,  one 
of  the  12  original  owner-members  of  the  Moscow  Art 
Theater,  where  he  made  his  debut  in  1902,  He  brought 
the  group  to  the  United  States  in  1922  and  1926. 

Ruppert,  George  E.  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Mar.  18,  1875 
— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Nov.  5,  1948).  Board  chairman  of 
the  Ruppert  Brewery  since  1945,  and  president  from 
1939-45. 

Roth,  George  Herman  (b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  Feb.  7,  1895— 
d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Aug.  16,  1948).  A  leading  figure  in 
professional  baseball,  and  the  Idol  of  American  youngsters, 
'''Babe*'  Ruth  starred  in  10  world  series  and  set  54  major 
league  records  between  1914—38.  He  began  his  major 
league  career  with  the  Boston  Red  Sox  (1914)  and  was 
bought  by  the  N.Y.  Yankees  in  1920  for  a  reported 
$125,000. 

Ryan,  Tommy  (b.  Redwood,  N.Y.,  1870 — d.  Granada 
Hills,  Calif.,  Aug.  3,  1948).  Boxer,  former  welterweight 
and  middleweight  champion,  and  a  veteran  of  some  200 
bouts.  He  retired  from  the  ring  in  1907,  undefeated. 

Rybolko,  Pavel  Semyonovich  (d,  U.S.S.R.,  Aug.  28, 
1948).  Marshal  in  the  Soviet  army  and  commander  in 
chief  of  the  armored  tank  and  mechanized  troops,  twice 
proclaimed  a  hero  of  the  Soviet  Union. 

Rylands,  Sir  (William)  Peter  (b.  Thelwall,  Cheshire,  Eng- 
land, Oct.  23,  1868— d.  Thelwall,  England,  Oct.  24,  1948). 
Lawyer,  manufacturer,  and  founder  and  twice  president 
of  the  Federation  of  British  Industries,  1919-21.  He  held 
directorships  in  many  industries  and  was  president  of  the 
Iron,  Steel  Wire  Manufacturers  Association  (since  1900), 
and  sometime  president  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute 
(1926-27). 

Salomon,  Alice  (b.  Berlin,  Germany,  Apr.  19,  1872 — d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  Aug.  30,  1928).  Pioneer  sociologist,  lec- 
turer, and  author.  She  organized  and  directed  the  first 
German  school  of  social  work  (1899-1925),  was  a  fre- 
quent delegate  to  international  conferences,  and  received 
high  honors  for  her  work  in  the  fields  of  public  health  and 
women  and  children  in  industry.  Her  writings  included 
works  on  economy,  civics,  and  social-work  problems. 


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NECROLOGY 


SomarofF,  (Lucy  Mary)  OSgct  Hiekenlooper  (b.  San  An- 
tonio, Tex.,  Aug.  8,  1882 — d.  New  York,  N.Y,,  May  17, 
1948).  Concert  pianist,  teacher,  lecturer,  and  author.  Fol- 
lowing her  New  York  debut  in  1905,  she  toured  America 
and  Europe.  She  was  on  the  faculty  of  the  Juilliard  Grad- 
uate School  of  Music  (since  1925)  and  of  the  Philadelphia 
Conservatory.  Founded  the  Schubert  Memorial,  Inc. 
(1927),  the  Layman's  Music  Course,  and  co-founded  the 
Musicians  Emergency  Fund  (1931).  Her  writings  include 
The  Layman's  Music  Book,  The  Magic  World  of  Music, 
and  An  American  Musician's  Story.  Divorce  terminated 
her  marriage  to  Leopold  Stokowski  in  1911. 

Sonkey,  John,  1st  Viscount  of  Moreton  (b.  Moreton, 
England,  Oct.  26,  1866-— d.  London,  England,  Feb.  6, 
1948).  Statesman,  lawyer,  and  Lord  Chancellor  of  Great 
Britain,  1929—35.  Sometime  chairman  of  the  Federal 
Structure  Committee;  High  Steward  of  Oxford  University; 
Lord  Justice  of  Appeal ;  and  since  1930  a  member  of  the 
Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration  at  The  Hague. 

Savitt,  Jan  (b.  Leningrad,  Russia,  1913 — d.  Sacramento, 
Calif.,  Oct.  4,  1948).  Violinist,  composer,  and  orchestra 
leader;  widely  known  as  band  leader  who  evolved  the 
shuffle  rhythm.  Sometime  first  violinist  with  the  Phila- 
delphia Orchestra  and  organizer  of  the  Savitt  String  Quar- 
tet. 

Sow,  U  (b.  Burma,  n.d. — d.  Rangoon,  Burma,  May  8, 
1948).  Politician,  premier  of  Burma,  1940-41,  hanged  for 
complicity  in  the  murder  (July,  1947)  of  Premier  U  Ang 
San  and  6  other  cabinet  members.  U  Saw  was  a  member 
of  the  Burmese  delegation  to  the  London  conference  in 
January,  1947,  at  which  he  refused  to  sign  agreement  for 
Constituent  Assembly. 

Schweigardf,  Frederick  William  (b.  Wuerttemberg,  Ger- 
many, May  3,  1885— d.  Albany,  N.Y.,  Sept.  21,  1948). 
Sculptor  widely  known  for  his  heroic  busts  of  famous  men, 
including  Roosevelt,  Einstein,  McArthur,  etc.  He  also  exe- 
cuted a  fountain  group,  Youth  Triumphant,  and  miniature 
models  of  the  Taj  Mahal  and  the  Minaret.  Represented  in 
several  European  and  American  museums. 

Schwel'enbach,  Lewis  Baxter  (b.  Superior,  Wise.,  Sept. 
20,  1894— d.  Washington,  D.C.,  June  10,  1948).  Lawyer, 
banker,  and  Secretary  of  Labor  since  1945.  During  his 
term  as  United  States  Senator,  1935-40,  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Senate  Foreign  Relations  Committee.,  a  staunch  sup- 
porter of  President  Roosevelt,  and  a  foe  of  Huey  Long.  A 
liberal  Democrat,  he  was  a  vigorous  spokesman  for  labor's 
rights.  Between  1940-45  he  served  as  a  Federal  judge. 

Schwimmer,  Rosika  {b.  Budapest,  Hungary,  Sept.  11, 
1877— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Aug.  3,  1948).  Feminist,  paci- 
fist, and  guiding  spirit  of  the  Ford  "peace  ship"  in  World 
War  I.  Following  participation  in  the  bloodless  Hungarian 
revolution  she  became  Hungarian  minister  to  Switzerland 
(1918). 

Sebredits,  Joseph  Marce!  Alphonse  (b.  Willebroeck,  Bel- 
gium, Feb.  11,  1885 — d.  Bruges,  Belgium,  Mar.  28,  1948). 
Physician,  internationally  known  as  a  scientist  and  prac- 
titioner. He  was  president  of  the  Royal  Flemish  Academy 
of  Medicine;  professor  at  the  University  of  Louvain;  and 
director  of  the  municipal  hospitals  in  Bruges. 

Selig,  William  Nicholas  (b.  Chicago,  HI.,  Mar.  14,  1864 
-yd.  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  July  16,  1948).  Pioneer  motion 
picture  producer  who  made  his  first  commercial  film  in 
1896.  Established  the  Selig  Picture  Company,  1909,  and 
invented  many  technical  appliances,  including  the  Selig 
polyscope.  His  early  pictures  included  The  Jungle  (1906), 
The  Count  of  Monte  Christo  (1907),  The  Garden  of  Allah, 
and  Coming  of  Columbus. 

Serot,  Andre  Pierre  (b.  Cregny,  Vosges,  France,  1896 — 
d.  Jerusalem,  Palestine,  Sept.  17,  1948).  Army  officer  and 
chief  French  observer  in  Palestine,  assassinated  together 
with  Count  Foike  Bernadotte.  During  World  War  II  he 
was  a  leader  in  the  French  resistance  movement. 

Sheppord,  Samuel  Edward  (b.  Hither  Green,  Kent,  Eng- 
land, July  29,  1882— d.  Rochester,  N.Y.,  Sept.  29,  1948). 
Internationally  known  research  scientist  in  the  field  of 
photochemistry,  colloids,  and  photography;  associated  with, 
the  Eastman  Kodak  Company,  1912-48.  He  held  some  90 
patents,  alone  or  jointly;  was  the  author  of  some  100  scien- 
tific papers  and  many  technical  books. 

Shiber,  Etta  Kahit  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Jan.  20,  1878— 
d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Dec.  23,  1948).  Author  of  the  best- 
seller Parts — Underground,  in  which  she  related  her  ex- 
periences in  France  during  "World  War  II. 

Shilloto,  Edward  (b.  1872- — d.  Buckhurst  Hill,  Essex, 
England,  Mar.  11,  1948).  Congregational  clergyman,  poet, 
and  religious  journalist.  Editor  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society's  periodicals;  London  correspondent  of  the  Chris- 
tian Century;  and  author  of  Life  ana  Work,  The  Christian 
Year  in  Wartime^  Poetry  and  Prayer,  etc. 

Sibilia,  Enrico  (b.  Anagni,  Italy,  Mar.  17,  1861 — d. 
Rome,  Italy,  Aug.  4,  1948).  Senior  member  of  the  College 
of  Cardinals  (since  1935).  He  had  served  as  Papal  Nuncio 
in  various  South  American  countries,  in  Spain,  and  lastly 
in  Austria  (1923-35). 

Stdgreoves,  Sir  Arthur  Frederick  (b.  England?,  June,  1882 
— d.  London,  England,  June  7,  1948).  Industrialist,  man- 
aging director  of  Rolls-Royce,  1929-46,  and  associated  with 
the  firm  since  1920.  Credited  with  responsibility  for 
"shadow  factory"  for  aircraft  motors. 

Sidi  Mohammed  AI-Mounsaf,  Pasha  Bey  (b.  La  Monouba, 
Mar.  4,  1881 — d.  Pau,  France,  Sept.  1,  1948).  Moslem  Bey 


of  Tunis,  1942-43.  Forced  to  abdicate  by  the  French,  he 
was  succeeded  on  May  15,  1943,  by  Sidi  Mohammed  al- 
Amiin,  his  cousin. 

SiJfaersfein,  Ludwtk  (b.  Poland,  1873? — d.  Rochester, 
N.Y.,  Jan.  17,  1948).  Physicist,  authority  on  relativity,  and 
a  critic  of  Einstein *s  theory,  for  which  he  evolved  a  testing 
method  (1921).  He  was  the  author  of  The  Theory  of  Rela- 
tivity, The  Size  of  the  Universe,  Causality,  etc. 

Silvers,  Earl  Reed  (b.  Jersey  City,  N.J.,  Feb.  22,  1891 — 
d.  Sarasota,  Fla.,  Mar.  26,  1948).  Educator,  author,  and 
dean  of  men  at  Rutgers  University,  since  1944.  Besides 
The  Editor  Accepts — How  To  Write  Short  Stories  That 
Magazines  Buy  and  Son  of  Tomorrow,  he  wrote  numerous 
books  for  boys,  including  Dick  Arnold  of  Raritan  College; 
Ned  Beats,  Freshman;  and  Code  of  Honor. 

Simone,  G.  F.  Edgardo  (b.  Brindisi,  Italy,  June  20,  1890 
— d.  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  Dec.  19,  1948).  Internationally 
known  sculptor;  creator  of  some  30  monuments  in  26 
countries  since  1919.  Also  noted  for  portrait  busts  and  for 
sculptures  for  motion  pictures,  especially  for  The  Song  of 
Bernadette. 

Simons,  Gerard  J.  M.  (b.  Bergen  op  Zoom,  Holland,  1877 
— d.  Franklin  Lakes,  N.J.,  May  25,  1948).  Dutch  news- 
paper correspondent  in  the  United  States  and  co-founder 
of  the  Foreign  Press  Association. 

Sisson,  Edgar  Grant  (b.  Alto,  Wise.,  Dec.  23,  1875 — d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  Mar.  12,  1948).  Author  and  journalist. 
He  had  variously  been  editor  (1914—17),  city  editor 
(1909-11),  and  assistant  city  editor  (1903-09),  of  Cosmo- 
politan magazine  and  managing  editor  (1911—14)  of  CoZ- 
lier's  Weekly.  Author  of  A  Hundred  Red  Days — A  Per- 
sonal Chronicle  of  the  Bolshevik  Revolution. 

Slattery,  James  M.  (b.  Chicago,  HI.,  July  29,  1878 — d. 
Lake  Geneva,  Wise.,  Aug.  27,  1948).  Lawyer  and  poli- 
tician; United  States  Senator  from  Illinois,  1939-40;  and 
chairman  of  the  Illinois  Commerce  Commission,  1936—39. 

Smith,  Percy  John  Delf  (b.  England,  1882 — d.  London, 
England,  Oct.  30,  1948).  Noted  etcher,  painter,  and  typo- 
graphical designer.  His  work,  represented  in  the  British 
Museum,  The  Library  of  Congress,  and  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum,  includes:  The  Dance  of  Death,  The  Three 
Scythes,  and  drypoint  illustrations  for  Wuthering  Heights. 

Smith,  Sir  (Charles)  Aubrey  (b.  London,  England,  July 
21,  1863— d.  Beverly  Hills,  Calif.,  Dec.  20,  1948).  Distin- 
guished character  actor  of  stage  and  screen;  best  known  for 
his  portrayals  of  British  aristocrats.  His  stage  roles  in- 
cluded parts  in  The  Notorious  Mrs.  Ebbsmith,  Hamlet, 
The  Light  that  Failed,  The  Constant  Wife.  In  a  screen 
career  which  began  in  1915  he  appeared  in  such  films  as 
Madame  Curie,  A  Bill  of  Divorcement,  Waterloo  Bridge, 
Rebecca,  Clung  Brown,  High  Conquest,  etc. 

Smith,  Sydney  Talbot  (b.  Kensington,  Australia,  Apr.  21, 
1861 — d.  Adelaide,  Australia,  November  1948).  Noted  au- 
thority on  literature  and  drama,  president  of  the  Public 
Library  of  Adelaide,  and  of  the  Adelaide  Repertory  Theatre. 
Sometime  chairman  of  the  advisory  committee  of  the  Com- 
monwealth Literary  Fund,  president  of  the  National  Gallery 
and  Museum  of  Adelaide,  and  for  some  20  years  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Council  of  the  university.  A  writer  of  distinc- 
tion, he  was  drama  and  art  critic  of  the  Bulletin,  leader 
writer  for  the  Advertiser,  and  the  author  of  verse  and  essays. 

Smithy,  Horace  Gilbert,  Jr.  (b.  Norfolk,  Va.,  July  19, 
1914 — d.  Charleston,  S.C.,  Oct.  28,  1948).  Noted  surgeon 
and  assistant  professor  of  surgery  at  the  South  Carolina 
State  Medical  College  since  1940.  He  performed  the  first 
successful  operation  on  the  heart  valve  and  helped  perfect 
the  operative  technique. 

Sohlman,  Ragnar  (b.  Stockholm,  Sweden,  Feb.  26,  1870 
— d.  Stockholm,  Sweden,  July  9,  1948 ) .  Chemical  engineer, 
inventor,  and  director  of  the  Royal  Board  of  Trade,  1929— 
36.  A  life-long  friend  and  assistant  of  Alfred  Nobel,  some- 
time director  of  the  Nobel  Bofors  Powder  Company  ( 1898— 
1919),  and  the  executor  of  Nobel's  will.  He  was  chairman 
of  the  board,  Nobel  Foundation,  1929-46. 

Sorrells,  John  Henry  (b.  Pine  Bluff,  Ark.,  Mar.  31,  1896 
— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  25,  1948).  Executive  editor  of 
the  Scripps-Howard  newspapers,  since  1930;  president 
and  publisher  of  The  Memphis  Commercial  Appeal,  since 
1936. 

Soyeshima,  Michimasa,  Count  (b.  Japan,  October,  1871 
— d.  Tokyo,  Japan,  Oct.  13,  1948).  Industrialist,  statesman, 
and  sometime  chamberlain  to  the  Emperor  of  Japan.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  international  Olympic  Committee  in 
1934,  a  director  in  several  companies,  and  a  member  of 
the  House  of  Peers. 

Speaks,  Oley  (b.  Canal  Winchester,  Ohio,  June  28, 
1876— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Aug.  27,  1948).  Concert  bari- 
tone and  song  composer.  The  most  popular  of  his  more 
than  one  hundred  compositions  were:  Sylvia,  On  the  Road 
to  Mandalay,  To  You,,  When  the  Boys  Come  Home,  and 
Morning. 

Spielmann,  Marion  Harry  Alexander  (b.  London,  Eng- 
lancL  May  22,  1858-^-d.  Folkestone,  England,  Oct.  3, 
1948).  Writer,  art  critic,  and  a  leading  Shakespearean 
scholar.  Besides  contributing  articles  to  leading  newspa- 
pers and  periodicals  he  was  sometime  editor  of  the  Maga- 
zine of  Art,  editor  of  the  art  section  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  (10th  Edition),  and  part  editor  of  the  New 
Art  Library.  Among  his  works  on  art  and  artists  were: 
History  of  Punch,  Millais  and  his  Works,  John  Ruskin> 
British  Portrait  Painting,  and  The  Portraits  of  Shakespeare. 


NECROLOGY 


383 


WfCKOlQGY 


Sqwler,  J{oSin)  Bentley  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Nov.  6,  1873 

-d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Mar.  1,  1948).  Eminent  urological 


surgeon  of  world  renown.  Co-founder  of  the  College  o£ 
Surgeons,  and  its  president,  1932-38;  professor  of  urology 
at  Columbia  University  since  1917,  and  the  N.Y,  Post 
Graduate  Medical  School,  1909-24. 

Sfesllyfarass,  WiSiiam  Teuion  Swan  (b,  England,  Nov.  22, 
1883— d.  Iver,  Bucks.,  England,  Oct.  28,  1948).  Educator, 
lawyer,  vice  chancellor  of  Oxford  University;  principal  of 
Brasenose  College  since  1936,  and  vice  president,  1914— 
36.  He  was  also  honorary  master  of  the  Bench  of  Inner 
Temple,  and  the  author  of  books  and  papers  on  juris- 
prudence. Other  writings  include  The  Pocket  Emerson, 
Pros  and  Cons,  The  Society  of  States,  and  editorship  of  the 
Oxford  Magazine  (1914-19)  and  Oxford  (1940-46). 

Sfrander,  Henricus  Johannes  (b-  Georgetown,  South  Africa, 
June  21,  1894 — d.  Scarsdale,  N.Y.,  May  2,  1948).  Pro- 
fessor of  obstetrics  and  gynecology  at  Cornell  University 
since  1929,  and  director  of  all  teaching  and  clinical  activi- 
ties at  New  York  Hospital-Cornell  Medical  Center  since 
1932.  Author  of  Flotation  Process,  Williams  Obstetrics,  and 
A  Textbook  of  Obstetrics. 

Stearns,  Joyce  Ciennam  (b.  Meadville,  Mo.,  June  23, 
1893 — d.  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  June  11,  1948).  Physicist,  active 
in  atomic  research,  and  since  1945,  dean  of  faculties, 
Washington  University.  On  the  faculty  of  the  University 
of  Chicago,  1942-45;  and  variously  professor,  head  of  de- 
partment, and  director  of  High  Altitude  Cosmic  Ray  Lab- 
oratory, University  of  Denver,  1930-42. 

Stebbins,  Rowland  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  1882— d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  Dec.  12,  1948).  Stockbroker,  theatrical  pro- 
ducer, and  Pulitzer  Prize  winner  for  his  production  of 
Green  Pastures  (1930).  Other  plays  which  he  produced 
included  The  Patriots,,  Lost  Horizon,  White  Horse  Inn,  and 
Springtime  for  Henry, 

Stephens©**,  Marjory  (b.  England,  Jan.  24,  1885 — d. 
Cambridge,  England,  Dec.  12,  1948).  Bacteriologist,  and 
a '  pioneer  in  chemical  microbiology.  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  (1945),  on  the  scientific  staff  of  the  British  Med- 
ical Research  Council,  and  on  faculty  of  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity. 

Sternroyd,  Vincent  (b.  Highgate,  England,  Oct.  8,  1857 
— d.  London,  England,  Nov.  3,  1948).  Veteran  character 
actor;  made  his  London  debut  in  1879,  and  his  last  stage 
appearance  in  Henry  V,  in  1938.  First  New  York  appear- 
ance in  One  of  Our  Girls  (1885).  His  last  of  many  trips 
to  the  United  States  was  made  in  1923.  He  played  with 
most  of  the  great  actors  of  the  English  stage  in  a  wide 
repertoire  including  Shakespeare,  Rostand,  Ibsen,  and 
Shaw. 

Stimson,  Julia  Catherine  (b.  Worcester,  Mass.,  May  26, 
1881— d.  Poughkeepsie,  N.Y.,  Sept.  30,  1948).  Colonel, 
AUS  (retired),  and  superintendent  of  the  Army  Nurse 
Corps,  1919-37.  She  was  chief  of  the  American  Red  Cross 
in  France,  1918;  director  of  the  nursing  service  of  the 
AEF,  1918-19;  president  of  the  American  Nurses  Associa- 
tion, 1938—44;  and  chairman  of  the  Nursing  Council  on 
National  Defense,  1940-42.  Returned  to  active  duty,  1943- 
44,  she  was  assigned  to  the  recruiting  of  nurses. 

Stirling,  W.  Edward  (b.  Birmingham,  England,  May  26, 
1891 — d.  Jan.  12,  1948).  Actor-manager  and  author;  per- 
formed in  37  countries.  Made  London  debut  in  Anna  Ka- 
renina  (1914);  directed  The  English  Players  (1922-40); 
did  broadcasting  for  BBC  (1941-44);  was  general  man- 
ager of  ENS  A  Allied  Entertainment  in  Paris  (1944-45); 
attached  to  Radiodiffusion  Francaise  (1946).  Appeared  in 
New  York  (1939)  in  This  Brave  New  World.  Author  of 
Captain  Swing  (with  Frances  Brett  Young),  Crepe  de 
Chine,  The  New  WiU,  and  Something  To  Declare. 

Stirling,  Yatesr  Jr.  (b.  Vallejo,  Calif.,  Apr.  30,  1872— 
d.  Baltimore,  Md.,  Jan.  27,  1948).  Rear  Admiral,  USN  (re- 
tired), and  former  commandant  of  the  Third  Naval  District, 
New  York.  Nicknamed  ** stormy  petrel**  for  his  many  contro- 
versial articles  on  military,  naval,  and  international  affairs. 

Stoddard,  Lauis  E.  (b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1870 — d.  Los 
Angeles,  Calif.,  Mar.  9,  1948).  Sportsman,  regarded  as 
one  of  the  world's  foremost  polo  players.  He  served  as 
chairman  of  the  Board  of  Governors,  U.S.  Polo  Association, 
1922-36. 

Stokowskt,  Olga  SamarofF.  See  Samaroff,  Olga. 

Strauss,  Joseph  (b.  Mount  Morris,  N.Y.,  Nov.  16,  1861 
— d.  Bethesda,  Md.,  Dec.  30,  1948).  Admiral  USN  (retired 
1925)  and  commander  of  the  Asiatic  Fleet,  1920-21.  One 
of  the  Navy's  foremost  ordnance  experts,  he  was  named 
chief  of  the  Navy  Bureau  of  Ordnance  in  1913.  During 
World  War  I  he  commanded  the  mine  force  of  the  At- 
lantic Fleet. 

Streeter,  George  Unius  (b.  Johnstown,  N.Y.,  Jan.  12,  1873 
— d.  Gloversville,  N.Y.,  July  27,  1948).  Noted  embryologist 
and  director  of  the  department  of  biology,  Carnegie  Institu- 
tion, 1918—40.  Sometime  faculty  member  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University  and  of  the  University  of  Michigan. 

Strom,  Fredrik  Otto  (b.  Simlangsdalen,  Sweden,  1880 — 
d.  Hultafors,  Sweden,  Nov.  23,  1948).  Author,  journalist, 
and  politician.  A  radical  and  a  Socialist,  he  edited  the 
powerful  newspaper  Social-Demokraten,  1904—05  and 
1930-39.  Served  as  Town  Councillor  1912-42  (Chairman 
1938-42).  He  was  a  member  of  Gustaf  Adolfs  Akademi; 
chairman,  Swedish  Author's  Society;  head  of  the  theater 
society  Skadebanen.  His  written  works  include  The  People 


in  Simlangsdalen,  The  Rebels,  The  Swedes  in  their  Proverbs, 
History  of  Russia,  etc. 

Strong,  George  Templeton  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  May  26, 
1856 — d.  Geneva,  Switzerland,  June  27,  1948).  Composer 
and  teacher  brought  to  American  attention  when  Tosca- 
nini  performed  his  Die  Nacht  with  the  NBC  Symphony,  in 
1939.  The  same  orchestra  gave  his  Paraphrase  on  a  Chorale 
by  Bossier  in  1948.  Other  works  include  three  symphonies, 
sonatas,  tone  poems,  etc. 

Strong,  Richard  Pearson  (b.  Fortress  Monroe,  Va.T  Mar. 
18,  1872 — d.  Boston,  Mass.,  July  4,  1948).  Internationally 
known  authority  on  tropical  diseases  and  epidemics;  pro- 
fessor o£  tropical  medicine  at  Harvard  Medical  School, 
1913-25,  and  at  the  University  of  the  Philippines,  1907- 
13,  Author  of  Diagnosis,  Prevention  and  Treatment  of 
Tropical  Diseases. 

Strunsky,  Simeon  (b.  Vitebsk,  Russia,  July  23,  1879 — d. 
Princeton,  New  Jersey,  Feb.  5,  1948).  Author,  editorial 
writer,  associated  with  The  New  York  Times  since  1924. 
Previously  with  the  New  York  Evening  Post  ( 1906-24 )  and 
departmental  editor  of  the  New  International  Encyclopedia 
(1900-06).  He  wrote  The  Patient  Observer,  Post-Im- 
pressions, The  Living  Tradition,  No  Mean  City,  etc. 

Subbarow,  Yeiiapragrada  (b.  Madras,  India,  July  1,  1896 
-yd.  Pearl  River,  N.Y.,  Aug.  10,  1948).  Physiologist  and 
director  of  research  at  the  Lederle  Laboratories,  since  1940. 
He  was  a  fellow  at  Harvard,  1925-30,  and  on.  the  faculty, 
1930-40.  Noted  for  his  drug  researches. 

Sullivan,  Dan  J.  (b.  Boston,  Mass.,  1876 — d.  Boston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  16,  1948).  Composer  of  popular  songs,  scores, 
and  lyrics  for  musicals.  Hit  songs  included  You're  as  Wel- 
come as  the  Flowers  in  May,  Sweet  Girl  of  My  Dreams,  and 
Stealing. 

Suzuki,  Kantaro,  Baron  (b.  Osaka-fu,  Japan,  Dec.  24, 
1867 — d.  Chiba,  Japan,  Apr.  17,  1948).  Admiral,  states- 
man, and  premier  of  Japan  in  1945.  Sometime  director  of 
the  Naval  Academy;  supreme  war  councillor;  president  of 
the  Privy  Council,  1944-45;  and  Grand  Chamberlain, 
1930-36.  Several  attempts  were  made  on  his  life  for  his 
opposition  to  World  War  II. 

Swebelius,  Carl  Gustave  (b.  Sweden,  1879 — d.  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  18,  1948).  Firearms  inventor,  vice 
president  of  High  Standard  Manufacturing  Corporation,  and 
sometime  director  of  experimental  work  at  the  Marlin  plant, 
where  he  developed  the  Marian  aircraft  gun. 

Swift,  Josiah  Otis  (b.  Farmington,  Me.,  Mar,  1,  1871 — d. 
Hastings-on-Hudson,  N.Y.,  May  14,  1948).  Nature  editor 
of  The  New  York  World-Telegram  since  193 1»  and  of  The 
New  York  Morning  World,  1904-31.  His  daily  column 
"News  Outside  the  Door"  has  appeared  since  1922,  the 
year  in  which  he  founded  the  Yosian  Brotherhood. 

Szarvasy,  Frederick  Alexander  (d.  London,  England,  July 
3,  1948).  Leading  financier  and  industrialist;  chairman  of 
the  Amalgamated  Anthracite  Collieries  and  of  the  British 
Anthracite  Sales  Ltd.  He  was  chief  backer  of  the  Covent 
Garden  Opera  Syndicate  and  active  in  Gaumont  Ltd. 

Taggard,  Gensvleve  (b.  Waitsburg,  Wash.,  Nov.  28, 
1894— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Nov.  8S  1948).  Noted  poet, 
educator,  and  distinguished  biographer  of  Emily  Dickinson. 
Variously  taught  at  Sarah  Lawrence  College  (1935-46)., 
Bennington  (1932-35),  and  Mount  Holyoke  (1929-31). 
She  was  a  founder  and  editor  of  the  poetry  journal  Measure 
(1920—26),  a  contributor  to  the  Masses*  and  a  compiler 
of  several  volumes  of  poetry.  The  first  volume  of  her  po- 
etry, For  Eager  Lovers  (1922),  was  in  the  lyrical  mood; 
later  volumes  were  metaphysical,  and  lastly,  radical.  Among 
these  were  Not  Mine  to  Finish,  Long  View,  Falcon,  Origin 
Hawaii,  and  Collected  Poems,  1918-38.  The  words  for 
Prologue  by  W.  Schuman  and  for  the  Lark  by  Copland 
were  also  written  by  her. 

Takach,  Basil  (b.  Czechoslovakia,  Oct.  27,  1879 — d.  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  May  13,  1948).  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  or- 
dained 1902,  and  consecrated  Bishop  of  the  Pittsburgh 
Greek  Rite  Diocese,  1924. 

Talbot,  Marion  (b.  Thun,  Switzerland,  July  31,  1858 — 
d.  Chicago,  HI.,  Oct.  20,  1948).  Educator,  pioneer  in  co- 
education in  colleges,  and  the  University  of  Chicago's  first 
Dean  of  Women,  1892-1925.  Sometime  president  of  Con- 
stantinople Woman's  College;  a  founder  of  the  American 
Association  of  University  Women;  charter  fellow  of  the 
American  Public  Health  Association. 

Tarbell,  Martha  (b.  1862— d.  East  Orange,  N.J.,  Oct.  26, 
1948).  Author  of  religious  books,  Bible  guides,  and  lan- 
guage textbooks.  Her  best  known  work  is  Teacher's  Guide 
to  the  International  Bible  Lessons  for  Christian  Teaching, 
which  has  appeared  annually  since  1906. 

Tarkhanov,  Mikhail  (b.  Moscow,  Russia,  18 — ? — d.  Mos- 
cow, U.S.S.R.,  Aug.  18,  1948).  Leading  character  actor, 
and  one  of  the  oldest  members  of  the  Moscow  Art  Theater, 
where  he  made  his  debut  in  1922.  A  Stalin  Prize  winner 
and  a  People's  Artist,  he  was  on  the  faculty  of  the  State 
Institute  of  Theater  Art.  His  family  name  was  Moskvin. 

Tauber,  Richard  (b.  Linz,  Austria,  May  16,  1892 — d. 
London,  England,  Jan.  8,  1948).  Internationally  known 
operatic  tenor,  composer,  conductor,  and  actor.  He  various- 
ly sang  with  the  Dresden,  Vienna,  and  Berlin  State  operas. 
Concerted  throughout  Europe,  America,  and  Australia,  and 
conducted  orchestras  all  over  the  world.  Appeared  in  sev- 
eral Lehar  operettas;  also  in  many  films.  Composer  of  Der 
Singende  Traum  and  Old  Chelsea. 


NICROIOGY 


384 


NECROLOGY 


Taussig,  Charles  William  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Awg.  9, 
1896— d.  Bay  Shore,  Long  Island,  N.Y.,  May  10,  1948). 
Chairman  and  president  of  the  American  Molasses  Com- 
pany; close  friend  of  the  late  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt,  and 
one  of  six  original  "brain  trustees. "  He  served  as  adviser 
to  the  United  States  delegations  to  the  World  Economic 
Conference,  1933,  and  to  the  UN  Charter  Conference, 
1945.  Sometime  member  of  the  Committe  on  Dependent 
Areas,  U.S.  Department  of  State,  and  frequent  representa- 
tive of  the  President  in  Caribbean  matters;  was  chairman 
of  the  Anglo-American  Caribbean  Commission,  1942; 
chairman  of  the  United  States  Section,  Caribbean  Com- 
mission, 1946;  and  special  adxiser  to  the  Secretary  of  State, 
1947.  He  was  the  author  of  Book  of  Radio;  Rum,  Romance 
and  Rebellion;  American  Etchers;  and  many  magazine 
articles. 

Thefaauli,  Georges  (b.  France — d.  St.  Cloud,  France,  Dec. 
19,  1948).  Soldier,  aviator,  and  commander  of  the  Lafa- 
yette Escadrille  from  the  time  of  its  formation  until  its  ab- 
sorption into  the  A.E.F.  (1917).  Served  as  military  at- 
tache" in  Washington,  1923-33.  Author  of  Colonel  The- 
bault:  the  Story  of  the  Lafayette  Escadrille. 

Thoma,  Ritter  Wilhelm  von  (b.  Germany,  1891 — d. 
Starenberg,  Germany,  Apr.  30,  1948).  Army  general,  field 
commander  of  the  Afrilca  Korps,  1940-42;  taken  prisoner 
near  Alamein.  Recognized  as  a  tank  expert,  he  led  the 
tank  forces  in  the  Spanish  civil  war. 

Thompson,  Alexander  Mattock  (b.  Karlsruhe,  Germany, 
Max.  9,  1861 — d.  London,  England,  Mar.  25,  1948). 
Drama  critic,  journalist,  and  co-founder  of  the  Laborite 
weekly  The  Clarion  (1891).  Author  of  Dangle's  Mixture., 
Dangle's  Guide  to  Paris,  Here  I  Lie  (autobiography),  and 
co-author  of  librettos  for  The  Arcadians,  The  Dairymaids, 
Tom  Jones,  etc. 

Thompson,  Sir  d'Arcy  Weniworth  (b.  Galway,  Eire,  1860 
— d.  1948).  Greek  scholar,  biologist,  and  professor  of 
natural  history  at  St.  Andrews  University  since  1884.  His 
Hellenic  studies  include  Glossary  of  Greek  Birds,  On 
Growth  and  Form,  Glossary  of  Greek  Fishes,  etc. 

Tie/Ice/,  David  Boer  (b.  Moliv,  Russia,  1900— d.  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  May  28,  1948).  Hebrew  scholar,  author,  and 
sometime  editor  of  the  Philadelphia  Jewish  Day.  He  was  a 
leading  Zionist  and  had  been  president  of  the  Philadelphia 
Zionist  Organization  and  of  the  Hebrew  Literary  Society. 
Author  of  Songs  of  David  and  The  Juvenile  Stage. 

Tinker,  Joseph  (Joe)  Bert  (b.  1880 — d.  Orlando,  Fla., 
July  27S  1948).  Baseball  player;  Chicago  Cubs  shortstop 
(1902-12)  in  the  famous  Tinkers-to-Evers-to-Chance  in- 
field. 

Tojo,  Hideki  (b.  Tokyo,  Japan,  Dec.  30,  1884 — d.  Tokyo, 
Japan,  Dec.  23,  1948).  Army  officer  and  politican,  hanged 
as  war  criminal  together  with  6  other  Japanese  war  lords. 
Death  sentence  was  pronounced  by  the  International  Mili- 
tary Tribunal  of  the  Far  East,  on  Nov.  12,  1948.  Tojo,  a 
lieutenant  general,  was  chiet  of  staff  of  the  Kwantung 
Army,  1987-38;  Vice  Minister  of  War,  1938-39;  and  Min- 
ister of  War  and  Prime  Minister  in  1941. 

Tolman,  Richard  Chace  (b.  West  Newton,  Mass.,  Mar,  4, 
1881 — d.  Pasadena,  Calif.,  Sept  5,  1948).  Atomic  scientist 
and  one  of  the  world's  foremost  mathematical  physicists. 
Professor  since  1922,  and  dean  of  the  Graduate  School 
since  1935,  California  Institute  of  Technology.  During 
World  War  II  he  worked  on  the  Manhattan  Project  and  on 
the  UN  Atomic  Energy  Commission.  Author  of  The  Theory 
of  the  Relativity  of  Motion;  Relativity,  Thermodynamics  and 
Cosmology;  The  Principles  of  Statistical  Mechanics,  etc. 

Traedai,  Nils  (b.  Sunndal,  Norway,  Nov.  29,  1879 — d. 
Oslo,  Norway,  October,  1948).  Ecclesiastic  and  politician. 
A  member  of  Parliament,  1934-36,  and  since  1946;  min- 
ister of  Church  and  Public  Instruction,  1931-33;  and  chair- 
man of  the  Agrarian  Party. 

Treharne,  Bryceson  (b.  Merthyr  Tydfil,  South  Wales,  May 
SO,  1879— d.  Woodside,  L.I.,  Feb.  4,  1948).  Composer, 
pianist,  educator,  and  editor  for  the  Boston  Music  Company 
and  the  Willis  Music  Company.  His  compositions  include 
two  cantatas,  two  operas,  and  more  than  200  songs. 

Tresidder,  Donald  Bertrand  (b.  Tipton,  Ind.,  Apr.  7, 
1894— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Jan.  28,  1948).  Physician,  edu- 
cator, and  president  of  Stanford  University,  California, 
since  1943. 

Tunnecliffe,  Thomas  (b.  Ascot,  Victoria,  Australia,  July 
13,  1869— d.  Victoria,  Australia,  Feb.  2,  1948).  Politician, 
Journalist,  and  author.  He  variously  served  as  Speaker  of 
the  Victoria  Legislative  Assembly  (1937-40);  minister  of 
Railways  (1927-28);  leader  of  the  State  Labour  Party 
(1932-37).  Sometime  editor  of  Stead's  Review  (1925- 
27);  Public  Service  Journal  (1921-24);  and  author  of 
Socialism:  Its  Aim  and  Object;  Women  Suffrage;  Problem 
of  Poverty;  The  Fallacy  of  Price  Fixing. 

Tut,  U  Tin  (b.  Burma,  Feb.  1,  1895 — d.  Rangoon,  Burma, 
Sept.  19,  1948).  Lawyer,  statesman,  and  soldier.  A  cabinet 
member  since  1947,  he  resigned  as  finance  minister  to  be- 
come inspector  general  of  the  Burmese  Auxiliary  Force.  He 
was  a  British  civil  servant  in  Burma  and  India,  1921-33, 
and  adviser  in  India  in  1946.  Sometime  high  commissioner 
in,  and  ambassador  designe  to  Great  Britain,  he  was  killed 
by  an  assassin.  The  Burmese  Review,  was  founded  and 
edited  by  him. 

UHman,  Frederic,  Jr.  (b.  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  Apr.  19,  1903— 
d.  Beverly  Hills,  Calif.,  Dec.  26,  1948).  Motion  picture 
producer  and  president  of  RKO-Path6,  1942-47.  Since 


1944  he  directed  the  RKO  Television  Corporation.  Recently 
completed  first  full-length  film,  The  Window. 

Vambery,  Rustem  (b.  Budapest,  Hungary,  Feb.  29,  1872 
— d.  Queens,  New  York,  Oct.  24,  1948).  Lawyer,  author, 
diplomat,  and  Hungarian  minister  to  the  United  States, 
1947-48.  Sometime  professor  of  criminal  law  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Budapest  and  vice  chairman  of  the  Bourgeois 
Radical  Party.  He  lectured  at  the  New  School  of  Social 
Research,  1939-44,  and  edited  Hare  (1941-46),  organ  of 
the  American  Federation  of  Democratic  Hungarians.  A 
frequent  contributor  to  European  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines, and  the  author  of  Marriage  in  Criminal  Law;  From 
War  to  Peace;  Hungary,  To  Be  or  Not  To  Be. 

Van  der  BijI,  Hendrik  Johannes  (b.  Pretoria,  South  Africa, 
Nov.  23,  1887 — d.  Johannesburg,  South  Africa,  Dec.  3, 
1948).  Physicist  and  leading  industrialist;  internationally 
recognized  for  discoveries  which  led  to  development  of 
radio  telephony.  Researcher  with  the  American  Telephone 
&  Telegraph  Company  and  the  Western  Electric  Company, 
1913-20;  technical  adviser  to  the  South  African  Govern- 
ment since  1920.  Founder  (1923)  and  director  of  the 
Electricity  Supply  Commission  and  the  South  African  Iron 
and  Steel  Industrial  Corporation  (1928);  chairman  and 
managing  director  of  the  African  Metals  Corporation  since 
1937,  chairman  of  the  Industrial  Development  Corporation, 
1940-44;  director  general  of  supplies  (1943-46). 

Voge,  Richard  George  (b.  Chicago,  111.,  May  4,  1904 — 
d.  Port  Chester,  N.Y.,  Nov.  17,  1948).  Rear  Admiral,  USN 
(retired),  and  a  specialist  in  submarine  warfare.  Graduated 
from  Annapolis  in  1925,  served  as  operations  officer  of  sub- 
marine fleets  in  the  Pacific  during  World  War  II,  and  won 
many  naval  awards  for  heroism. 

Vogiie,  Louis,  Marquis  de  (b.  1868 — d.  Paris,  France, 
Mar.  2,  1948).  Chairman  of  the  Suez  Canal  Company 
since  1927,  president  of  the  French  agricultural  society, 
and  a  director  in  the  Bank  for  International  Settlements. 

Vollmoeller,  Karl  G.  (b.  Germany,  May  7,  1878 — d.  Hol- 
lywood, Calif.,  Oct.  18,  1948).  Playwright,  novelist,  and 
screen  writer;  author  of  the  famous  play,  The  Miracle, 
which  starred  his  former  wife,  Maria  Carmi.  Other  plays 
include  Early  Gardens,  Giulia,  The  German  Count,  Anti- 
gone, and  Wieland, 

Wachsmem,  Zvi  H.  (b.  Mrshmar  Hayarten,  Palestine, 
1904— ;d.  Montreal,  Canada,  Sept.  13,  1948).  Author, 
journalist,  and  correspondent  for  several  Jewish  newspapers. 
Member  of  the  executive  board  of  the  Federation  of  Polish 
Jews  and  vice  chairman  of  Palestine  Pioneers  Foundation. 
A  linguist  and  author  of  books  in  several  languages. 

Wallace,  George  Barclay  (b.  Detroit,  Mich.,  Sept.  21, 
1874— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Jan.  15,  1948).  Physician,  edu- 
cator, and  researcher  noted  for  his  work  on  the  biological 
effects  of  stimulants  and  anaesthesia.  Professor  emeritus  on 
the  faculty  of  New  York  University  College  of  Medicine, 
1902-46,  and  founder  of  the  school's  Department  of 
Pharmacology. 

Wallace,  Nellie  (b.  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Mar.  18,  1870 — 
d.  London,  England,  Nov.  24,  1948).  Music-hall  comedi- 
enne and  one  of  Great  Britain's  best-loved  troupers.  Be- 
ginning her  career  at  the  age  of  12  as  a  clod-hopper,  she 
made  her  last  appearance  in  a  Royal  Variety  Program  this 
fall. 

Wallenberg,  Ernst  (b.  Berlin,  Germany,  1879? — d.  New 
York,  N.Y.,  Aug.  21,  1948).  Journalist,  foreign  correspond- 
ent, and  editor  of  the  XJUstein  publishing  house,  Berlin, 
1906-33.  Sometime  editor  in  chief  of  B.  Z.  Am  Mittag, 
Vossische  Zeitung,  and  Tempo;  American  correspondent 
for  Ullstein  papers,  1904,  1931;  and  author  of  the  well- 
known  language  textbook  series  1000  Words. 

Wassonf  Thomas  Campbell  (b.  Great  Falls,  Mont.,  Feb.  8, 
1896— d.  Jerusalem,  Palestine,  May  23,  1948).  United 
States  consul  general  in  Jerusalem,  formerly  first  secretary 
at  the  American  Embassy,  Paris,  and  from  1942-46,  in  the 
Department  of  State.  He  died  from  wounds  received  from 
a  sniper's  bullet. 

Watson,  Charles  Roger  (b.  Cairo,  Egypt,  July  17,  1873 — 
d.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan.  11,  1948).  Presbyterian  clergy- 
man, missionary,  educator;  authority  on  the  Arab  world  and 
Moslem  religion.  Founder  (1914)  and  president  of  the 
American  University  at  Cairo,  Egypt,  1922-45. 

Watson,  Ernest  Milton  (b.  Warwick,  R.I.,  1884— d.  Buf- 
falo, N.Y.,  Dec.  5,  1948).  Noted  urologist,  consultant  at 
several  hospitals,  and  the  author  of  more  than  100  papers 
on  urology,  some  of  which  gained  him  international  recog- 
nition. 

Watson,  James  Eli  (b.  Winchester,  Ind.,  Nov.  2,  1863 — 
d.  Washington,  D.C,,  July  29,  ,1948).  Lawyer,  politician, 
and  Republican  majority  leader,  in  the  Senate,  1929-33. 
He  served  as  congressman,  1895-97,  1899-1909;  and  as  a 
senator  from  1916-33. 

Watt,  Homer  Andrew  (b.  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.,  Sept.  11, 
1884— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Oct.  4,  1948).  Scholaf,  edu- 
cator, head  of  the  English  department  at  New  York  Uni- 
versity since  1938,  and  a  faculty  member  since  1916.  The 
author  of  many  college  textbooks  in  English  literature  and 
co-author  of  Legends  of  Paul  Bunyan,  Lumberjack. 

Waxman,  Percy  (b.  Australia,  1881— d.  New  York,  N.Y., 
Jan.  12,  1948).  Author,  radio  commentator,  and  associate 
editor  of  Cosmopolitan  magazine  since  1935.  Between 
1925-30  he  edited  the  Pictorial  Review.  Written  works  in- 
clude The  Black  Napoleon  and  What  Price  Mattorca.. 


Netherlands  Information  Bureau 


QUEEN  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS.  On  September  6,  1948,  the  new  Queen,  Juliana,  took  the  oath  to  the  Constitution 
of  the  Netherlands  and  was  formally  invested  in  a  civil  ceremony  before  a  joint  session  of  the  States-General. 


THE  WORLD  COUNCIL  OF  CHURCHES,  meeting  in  an  International  Assembly  at  Amsterdam,  Holland,  attempted  a 
great  step  toward  the  reunion  of  Protestant  and  Orthodox  church  bodies.  The  Council  issued  a  report  in  1948  on 
"The  Church  and  the  Disorder  of  Society/'  which  analyzed  and  condemned  communism  and  laissez-faire  capitalism. 


European 

PRESIDENT  ELPIDIO  QUIRINO  of  the  Republic  of 
the  Philippines,  who  assumed  office  on  Apr.  17, 
1948,  following  the  death  of  President  Manuel  A. 
Roxas  y  Acuna  during  the  day,  Apr.  15,  1948. 


IN  COAL  lies  the  importance  of  the  Norwegian 
possession  of  Spitsbergen,  a  glimpse  of  which  can 
be  seen  through  the  bars  in  the  photograph. 


British  Information  Services 

FLYING  MAPMAKERS  aid  replannig  of  Great  Britain.  From  its  headquarters  at  Chessington,  Surrey,  Great  Britain's 
Ordnance  Survey  Office  is  carrying  out  a  new  and  complete  survey  of  the  country.  (Top):  The  Zeiss  Stereoplamgraph 
CS  one  of  the  Ordnance  Survey  Office's  most  elaborate  plotting  machines.  The  operator  sees  a  stereoscopic 
image  and  plots  the  map  by  remote  control  on  the  table  at  the  right.  (Below}:  A  transparency,  scale  50  inches  to  a 
mile  used  in  preparing  maps  for  town  planners.  It  is  of  London's  Buckingham  Palace  and  St.  James's  Palace  areas. 


«  RECONSTRUCTION  IN  NORWAY.  The 
Town  Hall  of  Oslo,  the  capita!  of  Nor- 
way, being  reconstructed.  A  view  of  the 
harbor  is  shown  in  the  foreground. 


T  OIL-STORAGE  REPAIRS.  Shell  blasted 
oil-storage  tanks  shown  under  reconstruc- 
tion in  the  northern  region  of  Norway. 

Norwegian  Official  Photos 


NECROLOGY 


385 


NECROLOGY 


Weaver,  Raymond  Melbourne  (b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  July  7, 
1888 — d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Apr.  4,  1948).  Educator,  author, 
professor  of  English  at  Columbia  University  since  1947, 
and  a  faculty  member  since  1916.  An  authority  on  Herman 
Melville,  he  edited  the  Constable  edition  of  Melville's 
works  and  the  Colophon  edition  of  Journal  Up  the  Straits. 
He  was  the  author  of  Herman  Melville,  Manner  and  Mystic, 
etc, 

Weaver,  Zefoufon  (b.  Weavervflle,  N.C.,  May  12,  1872-^ 
d.  Ashville,  N.C.,  Oct.  29,  1948).  Corporation  lawyer,  poli- 
tician, and  Democratic  congressman  from  North  Carolina, 
1917-29,  1931-47. 

Weddell,  Alexander  Wilbourne  (b.  Richmond,  Va.,  Apr. 
6,  1876 — d.  near  Otterville,  Mo.,  Jan.  1,  1948).  Diplomat; 
United  States  ambassador  to  Argentina,  1933-39;  to  Spain, 
1939-42;  and  special  ambassador  to  Turkey,  1946.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  Pan  American  conferences  in  1933  and 
1935.  With  his  wife,  founder  of  the  Virginia  Museum  of 
Fine  Arts. 

Wedderbum,  Joseph  Henry  Maclagan  (b.  Forfar,  Scot- 
land, Feb.  26,  1882— d.  Princeton,  N.J.,  October,  1948). 
Mathematician  and  professor  at  Princeton  University,  1928- 
45  (since  emeritus),  where  he  had  taught  since  1909. 
Noted  for  his  work  in  the  field  of  algebra,  he  was  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  of  the  A.A.A.S.,  as  well  as  mem- 
ber of  many  scientific  societies.  Between  1911—45,  he  was 
associated  with  the  Annals  of  Mathematics. 

Weidenreich,  Franz  (b.  Edenkoben,  Germany,  1878 — d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  July  11,  1948).  Physical  anthropologist, 
educator,  and  author;  research  associate,  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  since  1941.  Sometime  professor  at  vari- 
ous German  universities;  visiting  professor  at  the  University 
of  Chicago,  and  the  Peiping  Union  Medical  College.  Best 
known  for  his  studies  of  the  Peking  man  and  fossil  man 
generally.  Author  of  Apes,  Giants  and  Man. 

Weir,  John  M.  (b.  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  Sept.  6,  1891 — d. 
Washington,  D.C.,  Nov.  21,  1948).  Brigadier  General, 
AUS  ( retired ) ,  and  assistant  to  the  Judge  Advocate  General 
during  World  War  II.  Member  of  military  tribunal  before 
which  8  Na2i  saboteurs  caught  in  this  country  were  tried. 
Wenyon,  Charles  Morley  (b.  Liverpool,  England,  Mar. 
24,  1878 — d.  London,  England,  Oct.  24,  1948).  Proto- 
zoologist,  authority  on  tropical  medicine,  and  director  in 
chief  of  the  Wellcome  Research  Institute,  1924-^4.  From 
the  mass  of  his  scientific  writings  the  outstanding  contri- 
bution to  medical  literature  was  the  standard  Protozoology, 
Werth,  Albertus  Johannes  (b.  Malmesbury,  Cape  Prov- 
ince, Mar.  6,  1888 — d.  George,  Cape  Province,  Mar.  4, 
1948).  Politician  and  a  leader  in  the  South  African  Na- 
tionalist Party.  Administrator  of  Southwest  Africa,  1926- 
33;  member  of  the  Union  Assembly,  1920-26;  sometime 
minister  of  finance. 

West,  James  Edward  (b.  Washington,  D.C.,  May  16, 
1876— d.  New  Rochelle,  N.Y.,  May  15,  1948).  Lawyer; 
chief  executive,  Boy  Scouts  of  America,  1911-43;  and 
editor  of  Boys'  Life,  1922-43.  His  many  activities  on  be- 
half of  children  included  organization  of  the  Child  Rescue 
League. 

West,  Milton  H.  (b.  El  Rancho,  Tex.,  June  30,  1888 — d. 
Washington,  D.C.,  Oct.  28,  1948).  Lawyer,  politician,  and 
Democratic  congressman  from  Texas  since  1933.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  House  Ways  and  Means  Committee  and 
took  an  interest  in  tariff  and  tax  legislation. 

Wetien,  Albert  Richard  (b.  London,  England,  Aug.  20, 
1900— -d.  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  Mar.  8,  1948).  Author  of 
adventure  and  sea  stories,  awarded  the  O.  Henry  prize 
(1926),  for  his  Command.  Other  writings  include  Captains 
All,  Fiddlers  Green,  In  the  Wake  of  the  Shark,  etc.  Co- 
founder  of  the  Outlandef,  and  contributor  to  The  Saturday 
Evening  Post. 

White,  Harry  Dexter  (b.  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  29,  1892 — 
d.  Fitewilliam,  N.H.,  Aug.  16,  1948).  Economist  and  out- 
standing authority  on  monetary  questions.  Sometime  assist- 
ant secretary  of  the  Treasury;  he  entered  government  serv- 
ice in  1934  and  resigned  in  1947,  as  director  for  the  United 
States  on  the  International  Monetary  Fund.  He  was  a 
recent  key  witness  before  the  Un-American  Activities  Com- 
mittee. 

White,  Newman  Ivey  (b.  Statesvffle,  N.C.,  Feb.  3,  1892 
— d.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  5,  1948).  Scholar,  author, 
educator,  and  chairman  of  the  department  of  English  at 
Duke  University,  where  he  had  taught  since  1919.  Re- 
garded as  an  eminent  authority  on  Shelley  and  the  ro- 
mantic movement,  he  published  The  Best  of  Shelley,  Por- 
trait of  Shelley,  and  a  two-volume  Shelley.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  North  Carolina  Folklore  Society;  editor  of  the 
forthcoming  Frank  C.  Brown  collection  of  North  Carolina 
folklore;  advisory  editor  of  the  Modern  Language  Associa- 
tion on  all  matters  pertaining  to  Shelley  scholarship.  An 
Anthology  of  Verse  by  American  Negroes  and  American 
Negro  Folksongs  were  also  compiled  and  edited  by  him. 

Whitlock,  Herbert  Percy  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  July  31, 
1868— d.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Feb.  22,  1948).  Mineralogist, 
regarded  as  an  authority  in  the  field.  Curator  of  mineralo- 
gy, Museum  of  Natural  History,  1918—41.  Author  of  two 
popular  volumes:  The  Story  of  the  Minerals  and  The  Story 
of  the  Gems. 

Whitten-Brown,  Sir  Arthur  (b.  Manchester,  England,  1886 
— d.  London,  England,  Oct.  3,  1948).  Aviator  and  former 
Royal  Air  Force  officer,  who  with  Sir  John  Alcock  made 
the  first  non-stop  flight  across  the  Atlantic,  in  June,  1919. 


Whiffy,  Dame  May  (b.  Liverpool,  England,  June  19, 
1865— d.  Hollywood,  Calif.,  May  29,  1948).  Distinguished 
character  actress  of  the  English  and  American  stage.  She 
made  her  London  debut  in  1882,  New  York  debut  in 
1895,  and  screen  debut  in  1937.  One  of  her  greatest  tri- 
umphs was  in  Night  Must  Fall  (stage  and  screen).  Recent 
films  in  which  she  appeared  were:  Green  Dolphin  Street, 
If  Winter  Comes,  and  The  Sign  of  the  Ham.  In  private  life 
she  was  Mrs.  Ben  Webster. 

William,  Warren  (b.  Aitkin,  Minn.,  1895 — d.  Encino, 
Calif.,  Sept.  £4,  1948).  Screen  actor  whose  real  name  was 
Warren  William  Krech.  In  a  movie  career  which  began  in 
1932  he  became  noted  for  his  portrayal  of  sleuths  and  was 
featured  in  some  60  films,  including  The  Mouthpiece,  The 
Match  King,  Arizona,  and  the  Lone  Wolf  series. 

WHIson,  Russell  (b.  Fredonia,  N.Y.,  Dec.  27,  1883~d. 
Bethesda,  Md.,  July  6,  1948).  Vice  Admiral,  USN,  re- 
tired; deputy  commander  in  chief  of  the  fleet,  1942-43. 
An  inventor  and  expert  in  the  field  of  secret  communica- 
tion, he  served  on  the  Joint  Strategic  Survey  Committee 
of  the  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff  during  World  War  II. 

Wilson,  Lewis  R.  (b.  Elwood  City,  Pa.,  1900— -d.  Balti- 
more, Md.,  Nov.  23,  1948).  Baseball  star  and  holder  of 
the  National  League  home-run  record,  who  as  Hack  Wilson 
hit  56  home  runs  in  1930.  Began  baseball  career  in  1921, 
played  for  the  Giants,  1923—25,  and  for  the  Chicago  Cubs, 
1926-31. 

Wilson,  Thomas  Webber  (b.  Coldwater,  Miss.,  Jan.  24, 
1893 — d.  Coldwater,  Miss.,  Jan.  31,  1948).  Lawyer  and 
chairman  of  the  Federal  Parole  Board  since  1946;  Federal 
judge  in  the  Virgin  Islands,  1933-35;  and  Democratic 
congressman  from  Mississippi,  1923-29. 

Wilson,  William  (b.  Preston,  England,  1887 — d.  Raleigh, 
N.C.,  May  6,  1948).  Physicist,  radio  engineer,  professor  of 
physics  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  and  formerly 
vice  president  of  the  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories.  A  spe- 
cialist in  radio,  he  helped  develop  the  vacuum  tube, 

Winternitz,  Felix  (b.  Linz,  Austria,  1872 — d.  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Aug.  19,  1948).  Violinist,  composer,  and  teacher; 
a  member  of  the  faculty  of  the  New  England  Conservatory 
of  Music,  since  1891.  Sometime  member  of  the  Imperial 
Opera,  Vienna,  and  of  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra.  His 
compositions  include  Troika,  Dream  of  Youth,  Forsaken. 

Wolf-Ferrari,  Ermanno  (b.  Venice,  Italy,  Jan.  12,  1876 
— d.  Venice,  Italy,  Jan.  21,  1948).  Operatic  composer 
whose  best  known  work  was  The  Jewels  of  the  Madonna. 
Other  operas  include  Le  donne  curiose,  II  segreto  di  Su- 
sanna, Uamore  medico,  etc. 

Wood,  Martha  (b.  Richfield,  N.Y.,  1892 — d.  Washington, 
D.C.,  Sept.  28,  1948).  Child  welfare  worker  of  interna- 
tional repute  and,  since  1945,  field  director  of  the  social 
service  division  of  the  Federal  Children's  Bureau.  Some- 
time Pennsylvania  field  representative  for  the  American  Red 
Cross,  and  a  member  of  the  American  Commission  to 
Serbia,  1921-22. 

Woods,  Albert  Fred  (b.  Belvidere,  HI.,  Dec.  25,  1866 — 
d.  Hyattsville,  Md.,  Apr.  12,  1948).  Botanist  associated 
with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  as  edu- 
cational adviser  (1941-47),  and  as  director  of  scientific 
work  (1926-34).  Between  1917-26  he  was  president  of 
the  University  of  Maryland. 

Woodson,  Walter  Browne  (b.  Lynchburg,  Va.,  Oct.  18, 
1881 — d.  Coronado,  Calif.,  Apr.  22,  1948).  Rear  Admiral, 
USN;  naval  aide  to  President  Roosevelt,  1936-38;  and 
judge  advocate  general,  1938-43. 

Woolf,  Samuel  Johnson  (b.  New  York,  Feb.  12,  1880— 
d.  New  York,  Dec.  3,  1948).  Artist  and  writer,  noted  for 
his  portrait  sketches  and  interviews  with  famous  people. 
Most  of  his  work  appeared  in  The  New  Jork  Times,  earlier 
work  having  appeared  in  Colliers.  Represented  by  works 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  the  New  York  Public 
Library,  etc.  Written  works  include  A  Short  History  of 
Art,  Drawn  from  Life,  and  Here  Am  I. 

Wright,  Orville  (b.  Dayton,  Ohio,  Aug.  19,  1871 — d. 
Dayton,  Ohio,  Jan.  30,  1948 ) .  Co-inventor  with  his  brother 
Wilbur  of  heavier-than-air  aircraft.  Made  first  power- 
driven  flight  at  Kitty  Hawk,  N.C.,  in  1903. 

Wrong,  George  Mackinnon  (b.  Canada,  June  25,  1860 — 
d.  Toronto,  Canada,  June  29,  1948).  Historian,  author, 
and  educator.  Professor  emeritus  of  history  at  the  University 
of  Toronto  (1894-1927).  Author  of  The  Fall  of  Canada, 
The  Conquest  of  New  France,  The  Canadians:  The  Story 
of  a  People,  etc. 

Wynne,  John  (b.  New  York,  N.Y.,  Sept.  30,  1859— d. 
New  York,  N.Y.,  Nov.  30,  1948).  Jesuit  priest  and  scholar; 
founder  and  first  editor  of  America  (1909-10),  and  editor 
of  its  predecessor,  The  Messenger  (1891-1909).  He  also 
originated  idea  for  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  which  he  edited 
from  1911—12.  Served  on  Cardinal  Hayes*  Literature  Com- 
mittee and  was  the  author  of  several  religious  books. 

Yahya  Muhammad  Hamld  ed  Din  (b.  1866 — d.  Sanaa, 
Yemen,  reported  Feb.  19,  1948).  Imam  (king-priest)  of 
Yemen  since  1934,  ascended  the  throne  in  1904.  Report- 
edly murdered  together  with  three  of  his  sons.  Sayed  Ab- 
dullah Ibn  Ahmed  el-Wazir  proclaimed  Imam  to  succeed 
Yahya. 

Yonai,  Mitsumasa  (b.  Iwateken,  Japan,  March,  1880 — 
d.  Tokyo,  Japan,  Apr.  20,  1948 ) .  Admiral,  statesman,  and 
minister  of  the  Navy,  1937-40,  1944-45.  An  opponent  of 
Tojo  militarists,  his  premiership  in  1940  was  of  short 
duration. 


NEGROES 


386 


NEPAL 


Youngmem,  Elmer  H»  (h.  New  Lebanon,  Ind.,  1861 — d. 
Brooklyn,  MY.,  Oct.  13,  1948).  Financial  writer;  editor 
o£  The  Bankers  Magazine,  1893-1943,  the  section  on 
Banking  in  the  Encyclopedia  Americana,  and  History  of 
Banking.,  by  Knox.  He  was  the  author  of  Credit  Currency, 
Banks  and  Banking,  Banking  in  the  United  States,  Private 
Banks,  etc. 

Zaceoni,  Ermete  (b.  Montecchio  di  Reggio,  Italy,  Sept. 
14,  1S57— <L  Viareggio,  Italy,  Oct.  14,  1948).  A  leading 
character  actor  who  achieved  his  greatest  success,  when 
past  80  years  of  age,  in  the  role  of  Socrates  in  his  own 
adaptation  of  Plato's  Ph&edon.  He  introduced  Ibsen's 
dramas  to  the  Italian  public,  one  of  his  best  roles  being 
that  of  Oswald  in  Ghosts. 

Zanardi-Landi,  Elizabeth  Marls  Christine.  See  Landi, 
Elissa. 

Zhdanov,  Andrei  Afexandrovieh  (b.  Mariupol,  Caucasus, 
Russia,  Feb.  26,  1896 — d.  near  Moscow,  U.S.S.R.,  Aug. 
31,  1948).  Colonel  General  of  the  Red  Army;  directed  the 
defense  of  Leningrad  in  World  War  II,  and  the  winter 
war  against  Finland,  1939-40.  A  member  of  the  Bolshevik 
Party  since  1915,  a  party  official  since  1922,  and  an  out- 
standing theoretician  and  propagandist.  Until  1940,  secre- 
tary of  the  Central  Committee  of  the  Communist  Party  of 
the"  Soviet  Union;  a  member  of  the  Politburo,  the  Presid- 
ium, Supreme  Council  of  the  U.S.S.R.;  and  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  Cominform. 

ZSfeher,  Hermonn  (b.  Frankfurt  a/M,  Germany,  Aug.  18, 
1881 — d.  Wiirzburg,  Germany,  Jan.  17,  1948).  Concert 
pianist  and  composer  of  choral,  instrumental,  and  orchestral 
music.  Since  1920,  director  of  the  conservatory  at  Wiirz- 
burg,  and  famous  for  his  staging  at  Mozart  festivals. 

Zimmerman,  OrvtHe  (b.  Glen  Allen,  Mo.,  Dec.  31,  1880 
— d.  Washington,  D.C.,  Apr.  7,  1948),  Democratic  con- 
gressman from  Missouri,  since  1935. 

MEGROES.  Africa.  Economically,  the  44  percent  of 
the  continent  of  Africa  which  is  ruled  by  Great 
Britain  is  becoming  increasingly  important  to  that 
country  as  a  source  of  foodstuffs,  raw  materials, 
and  strategic  defense.  This  condition,  coupled  with 
the  fact  of  a  Labor  government,  may  be  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  more  enlightened  colonial  policies 
in  these  possessions.  Through  British  colonial  de- 
velopment and  welfare  appropriations  planning, 
some  schools  and  a  few  other  social  sendees  have 
accelerated  progress.  In  West  Africa  where  local 
movements  for  self-government  or  independence 
among  the  native  people  are  strong,  the  Africans 
have  achieved  a  majority  in  the  legislative  councils. 
There  is  also  a  marked  increase  in  the  number  of 
native  civil  servants.  In  1948  there  were  322  Af- 
rican students  studying  in  111  American  colleges 
and  universities. 

The  "modernization"  of  the  African  people  pro- 
ceeds unevenly.  For  example,  British  East  Africa  is 
far  behind  British  and  French  West  Africa  in  al- 
most every  respect  when  it  comes  to  opportunity 
and  advancement  of  the  native  peoples.  The 
French  territories  continue  to  make  "Frenchmen" 
of  all  black  subjects  of  the  educated  and  military 
class  and  to  incorporate  larger  and  larger  blocks  of 
its  holdings  into  the  French  federated  union.  There 
are  no  Africans  in  American  colleges  from  the 
Belgian  Congo  where  vocational  training  is  insisted 
on  and  overseas  education  of  any  sort  frowned 
upon,  nor  are  there  any  from  Portuguese  Africa. 
These  areas  do  not  have  a  good  reputation  for 
helpfulness  to  the  indigenous  peoples.  A.  T.  Steele. 
writing  for  the  New  York  Herald  Tribune,  said 
about  one  part  of  Africa  what  could  be  said  about 
most  of  it;  that  the  Europeans  there  "do  not  want 
a  highly  educated,  politically  conscious  [leader- 
ship] that  might  agitate  for  self  rule." 

Probably  the  native  Africans*  lot  is  worst  in  the 
Union  of  South  Africa  where  much  ground  has 
been  lost  in  recent  months.  The  avowedly  anti- 
native,  pro-segregation  government  of  Dr.  F.  S. 
Malan  has  consolidated  its  control.  The  limited 
franchise  previously  exercised  by  a  few  blacks  and 
the  Cape  Province  colored  has  been  further  re- 
duced, almost  to  the  vanishing  point.  Accordingly, 
the  Natives  Representative  Council  has  "struck" 
against  continuing  its  meaningless  meetings. 


The  African  National  Congress,  led  by  Dr.  A.  B. 
Xuma,  has  made  bold  to  criticize  the  government's 
policy,  pointing  out  the  inevitable  consequences  of 
suffering  and  violence.  These  grave  predictions 
have  come  true,  though  in  a  curious  form — that  is, 
verbal  and  physical  clashes  have  broken  out  be- 
tween the  native  Africans  and  the  East  Indians  who 
live  in  South  Africa.  The  Africans  charge  that  the 
Indian  merchants  mercilessly  exploit  them.  What 
they  do  not  say  is  that  the  rebellion  of  the  unarmed 
and  poorly  organized  blacks  against  the  pressures 
placed  on  them  by  the  all-powerful  whites  is  turned 
toward  the  relatively  weak  Indians.  These  out- 
breaks have  broken  up  the  "united  front"  that  Af- 
rican and  Indian  leaders  had  effected  a  few  years 
before  and  which  had  enabled  them  to  beat  back 
the  efforts  of  the  Union  to  impose  a  more  definite 
pattern  of  racial  segregation  on  its  East  Indian 
residents  and  to  annex  the  mandated  territories  of 
Southwest  Africa. 

West  Indies.  The  Caribbean  Commission  con- 
tinued its  quiet  and  systematic  work  of  coordinat- 
ing the  efforts  of  the  various  imperialist  and  resi- 
dent interests  of  the  region.  The  republic  of  Haiti 
celebrated  its  148  years  of  independence  with 
elaborate  ceremonies.  The  American  Negro  gov- 
ernor of  the  Virgin  Islands,  William  H.  Hastie,  at 
the  close  of  the  year  appeared  to  have  established 
rapport  with  the  dissident  groups  that  have  been 
insisting  on  local  control  of  the  islands'  affairs. 

United  States.  Economics  and  Politics.  The  gen- 
eral fight  for  fair  employment  practices  failed  to 
gain  a  federal  law  but  the  principle  was  incorporat- 
ed in  the  procedures  of  the  federal  civil  service. 
The  Citizens'  Trust  Company  of  Atlanta,  Ga.,  be- 
came the  first  Negro  bank  to  be  admitted  to  the 
Federal  Reserve  System. 

The  two  Negro  members  of  Congress,  Repre- 
sentatives A.  Clayton  Powell  and  Wm.  L.  Dawson, 
were  returned  to  office.  Dawson  is  the  first  Negro 
to  head  a  committee  as  important  as  the  House 
Committee  on  Expenditures  in  Executive  Depart- 
ments. Attorney  Oliver  C.  Hill  was  the  first  Negro 
to  take  a  seat  on  the  Richmond,  Va.,  city  council 
since  Reconstruction  days.  Negro  participation  in 
politics  in  the  border  States  increased  without  un- 
due friction.  In  the  deep  South,  however,  such  ef- 
forts were  marked  by  tension  and  clashes.  Herman 
Talmadge  openly  campaigned  in  Georgia  on  an 
anti-civil-rights-for-Negroes  platform.  Negroes, 
joined  by  the  few  liberals  and  progressives  of 
Georgia,  fought  back.  They  were  overwhelmed  by 
the  Talmadge  landslide. 

Social  and  Cultural  Developments.  The  break  be- 
tween Walter  White,  Executive  Secretary,  and 
W.  E.  B.  DuBpis,  Director  of  Research  of  the  Na- 
tional Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Colored 
People,  was  partly  personal,  partly  political  and 
institutional.  Dr.  DuBois,  one  of  the  founders  of 
NAACP,  was  fired  and  joined  the  Council  on  Af- 
rican Affairs. 

"  The  Southern  Conference  for  Human  Welfare 
suspended  activity.  The  newspaper  PM,  highly  fa- 
vorable to  the  Negro's  cause,  folded,  as  did  Peo- 
ple's Voice,  a  left-wing  Negro  weekly.  The  New 
York  Age,  an  important  Negro  paper  for  a  half- 
century,  was  purchased  by  an  Englishman,  Richard 
Bourne- Vannect,  for  his  Negro  wife.  See  CARIB- 
BEAN COMMISSION;  SOUTH  AFRICA,  UNION  OF;  etc. 

— L.  D.  REDDICK 

NEPAL.  An  independent  kingdom  between  Tibet 
and  India.  Area:  54,000  square  miles.  The  terri- 
tory includes  Mount  Everest  (29,002  ft.  high). 
Population  (estimated):  7  million.  Capital,  Katman- 


NETHERLANDS 


387 


NETHERLANDS 


du  (pop.  108,805).  Gurkhas,  Magars,  Eurangs, 
and  Bhotias  are  the  chief  races.  Hinduism  is  the 
predominant  religion.  The  economy  of  Nepal  de- 
pends primarily  on  agriculture  and  livestock.  There 
are  many  fertile  valleys  and  valuable  forests.  Rice, 
jute,  hi3es,  cattle,  lumber,  oilseeds,  medicinal 
herbs,  and  ghee  are  the  main  exports.  Imports  in- 
clude cattle,  sheep,  goats,  spices,  textiles,  metal 
products,  sugar,  and  salt  The  annual  gross  revenue 
amounts  to  12,500,000  rupees.  Nepal's  government 
is  a  military  aristocracy  based  on  birth.  All  power 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  prime  minister,  a  member  of 
the  ruling  family.  Ruler:  Tribhubana  Bir  Bikram 
(succeeded  to  the  throne,  Dec.  11,  1911).  Prime 
Minister:  Maharaja  Sir  Mahan  Shumshere  Jung 
Bahadur  Rana  (succeeded  Apr.  30, 1948). 

NETHERLANDS.  A  constitutional  monarchy  of  north- 
western Europe.  Capital,  Amsterdam;  seat  of  the 
Government,  The  Hague.  Sovereign,  Queen  Juli- 
ana, who  ascended  the  throne  on  Sept.  6,  1948  ( see 
Events,  below).  Premier,  Willem  Drees. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area,  including  water 
belonging  to  municipal  territories,  is  15,764  square 
miles.  The  population  on  July  1,  1948,  was  esti- 
mated at  9,782,000.  Vital  statistics  in  1947  (rate 
per  1,000):  births,  27.8;  deaths,  8.1;  marriages, 
10.2.  Population  of  the  chief  cities,  in  1947,  Am- 
sterdam, 807,490;  Rotterdam,  645,417;  The  Hague 
('s  Gravenhage),  534,135. 

Production.  Agriculture,  manufacturing,  com- 
merce, and  mining  are  the  principal  industries. 
Chief  agricultural  products  in  1947  (monthly  aver- 
ages): milk,  2,338,000  hectolitres;  butter,  4,400 
metric  tons;  cheese,  5,400  tons;  meat,  16,400  tons. 
The  index  of  industrial  production  reached  116  in 
September,  1948  (1938=100). 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  imports  in  1947  were  valued 
at  4,200  million  guilders;  exports  at  1,900  million 
guilders.  For  the  first  half  of  1948,  imports  were 
2,359  and  exports  1,178  million  guilders. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  1949,  as  announced  in 
September,  1948,  anticipates  a  deficit  of  660  mil- 
lion guilders,  as  compared  to  a  deficit  of  1,750  mil- 
lion in  1948.  Total  expenditure  for  1949  is  esti- 
mated at  3,963  million  guilders  against  4,592  mil- 
lion in  1948;  revenue  at  3,303  million  guilders 
against  2,841  million. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  1814.  with  its 
various  amendments,  vests  executive  power  exclu- 
sively in  the  sovereign  while  legislative  authority 
rests  co-jointly  In  the  sovereign  and  the  States- 
General  (Parliament).  The  States-General  consists 
of  an  upper  chamber  of  50  members,  chosen  by 
elected  representative  bodies  in  the  several  prov- 
inces for  terms  of  six  years;  and  o£  a  lower  chamber 
of  100  members  elected  for  four  years  by  general 
adult  suffrage.  In  practice  the  Cabinet  is  respon- 
sible to  the  States-General  and  the  Premier  is  nor- 
mally chosen  by  the  sovereign  from  a  political 
group  commanding  a  parliamentary  majority. 

The  Constitution  was  amended  on  Sept.  20, 
1948,  to  legalize  the  equal  partnership  between  the 
Netherlands  and  the  United  States  of  Indonesia  as 
provided  for  by  the  Cheribon  Agreement  of  Nov. 
12,  1946. 

Events,  1948.  The  most  important  event  of  the 
year  was  the  abdication  of  Queen  Wilhelmina,  af- 
ter a  50-year  reign  and  the  accession  to  the  throne 
of  her  daughter  Juliana. 

After  having  left  the  realm  for  six  weeks  in  the 
hands  of  Crown  Princess  Juliana  (see  YEAK  BOOK 
for  1947),  Queen  Wilhelmina  again  resumed  her 
royal  duties  on  Dec.  1,  1947.  But  it  soon  became 
apparent  that  her  physical  strength  no  longer  was 


equal  to  the  task.  She  was  advised  by  her  doctors 
to  retire  for  good.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Queen, 
the  Crown  Princess,  and  the  Cabinet  agreed  that 
the  change  of  reign  should  be  postponed  until  after 
the  Golden  Jubilee  in  early  September. 

Accordingly,  Wilhelmina  announced  in  a  radio 
address  on  May  12  that  she  would  abdicate  im- 
mediately after  the  celebration  and  that  in  the 
meantime  another  regency  would  go  into  effect. 
Two  days  later  Juliana  for  the  second  time  in  a 
year  was  sworn  in  as  Regent.  On  August  30,  her 
mother,  as  scheduled,  made  a  brief  return  as  Queen 
to  accept  the  homage  of  her  nation  on  the  occasion 
of  her  6Sth  birthday  (August  31 )  and  of  the  fiftieth 
anniversary  of  her  accession  to  the  throne  (Sep- 
tember 6).  The  double  event,  culminating  in  the 
installation  of  the  new  sovereign  was  marked  by  a 
week  of  celebrations.  On  September  4  Queen  Wil- 
helmina signed  the  instrument  of  abdication  in  the 
Royal  Palace  at  Amsterdam  in  the  presence  of  the 
Cabinet  Ministers  and  the  leaders  of  the  States- 
General.  Two  days  later  the  solemn  investiture  of 
Queen  Juliana  took  place  at  the  Nieuwe  Kerk  of 
Amsterdam.  The  ceremony  was  witnessed  by  roy- 
alty and  dignitaries  from  all  over  the  world.  The 
Queen's  consort,  Prince  Bernhard,  was  given  the 
title  o£  Prince  of  the  Netherlands. 

Juliana  took  over  at  a  critical  period  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Dutch  Empire.  The  unsolved  Indone- 
sian problem  weighed  heavily  on  all  minds.  The 
economic  situation  of  the  Netherlands  gave  rise 
to  a  good  deal  of  concern.  And  the  country  was 
facing  possibly  hazardous  commitments  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  new  Western  European  Union.  In  her 
first  speech  from  the  throne,  on  September  21,  the 
new  Queen  gave  thanks  to  America  for  her  aid  in 
Dutch  recovery. 

Genera/  Elections.  Normally  the  Parliament  elected 
in  May,  1946,  should  have  served  for  four  years. 
However,  in  view  of  the  change  of  Constitution 
made  necessary  by  the  new  relationship  between 
the  Netherlands  Kingdom  and  the  East  Indies,  the 
Government  deemed  it  advisable  to  consult  the  en- 
tire nation  on  the  far-reaching  issues  involved. 
Hence  the  States-General  was  dissolved  in  May 
and  a  general  election  was  scheduled  for  July. 

Twelve  political  parties  presented  candidates  in 
the  Lower  House  election  which  was  held  on 
July  7  in  an  atmosphere  of  complete  calm  and  or- 
der. The  results  of  the  poll  were  unspectacular, 
the  only  change  being  a  light  shift  to  the  right. 
Of  the  100  seats  at  stake,  the  Catholic  Party  ob- 
tained 32,  as  before;  the  Labor  Party  lost  2,  re- 
taining 27;  the  Calvinist  Party  again  took  third 
place  with  13  seats  (unchanged);  the  Communists 
lost  2  seats  and  kept  8;  the  Liberals  picked  up  2 
for  a  total  of  8;  and  the  Christian-Historical 'Union 
gained  one  for  a  total  of  nine.  Hie  extreme  rightist 
State  Reformed  Party  kept  its  2  seats  and  a  dissi- 
dent Catholic  group  won  one.  The  distribution  of 
seats  in  the  Upper  House,  elected  on  July  8,  re- 
mained unchanged:  Catholics,  17;  Labor,  14;  Cal- 
vinists,  7;  Christian-Historians,  5;  Communists,  4; 
Liberals,  3. 

New  Government.  On  the  day  of  the  general  elec- 
tion, the  Catholic-Labor  coalition  Government 
headed  by  Premier  L.  J.  M.  Beel  resigned  in  ac- 
cordance with  customary  procedure.  The  Catholic 
Party  still  being  the  strongest  in  Parliament,  Prin- 
cess Regent  Juliana  again  asked  the  Party  leader, 
Beel,  to  form  a  Cabinet.  After  two  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts to  broaden  the  basis  of  his  previous  coali- 
tion Government,  Beel  gave  up  on  July  31.  The 
Regent  then  turned  to  the  Social-Democratic  lead- 
er Willem  Drees  who  succeeded  in  forming  a  four- 


NETHERLANDS 


388  NETHERLANDS  11T£RATURE 


party  coalition  on  August  7.  In  the  new  Cabinet, 
the  Catholics  hold  6  portfolios,  the  Labor  Party 
(Social-Democrats)  5,  and  the  Christian-Historical 
Union  and  Liberals  one  each.  J.  R.  H.  van  Schaick, 
Catholic  leader  in  the  Lower  House,  was  named 
Deputy  Premier.  The  Foreign  Ministry  went  to 
Dr.  D.  U.  Stilcker,  Liberal 

In  its  declaration  of  policy,  on  August  12,  the 
new  Government  promised  to  strive  for  a  settle- 
ment of  the  Indonesian  dispute  acceptable  to  both 
sides;  to  end  rationing  at  an  early  date;  and  to 
strengthen  the  economic  union  of  the  "Benelux" 
states. 

On  August  19,  Parliament,  by  a  vote  of  76  to  22, 
passed  the  constitutional  amendment  granting  sov- 
ereignty to  Indonesia  on  the  basis  of  equal  partner- 
ship with  the  Netherlands.  In  the  course  of  the 
constitutional  revision,  an  amendment  providing 
for  the  transfer  of  civil  authority  in  the  event  of  an 
internal  threat  and  another  granting  a  pension  to 
the  retiring  Queen  Wilhelmina  also  were  adopted. 
The  amendments  were  signed  by  Wilhelmina  on 
September  3  in  her  last  official  act  before  abdicat- 
ing, They  went  into  effect  on  September  20. 

Relations  with  Indonesia.  In  a  broadcast  from  The 
Hague,  February  3,  Queen  Wilhelmina  declared 
that  "colonialism  is  dead,"  and  that  "a  free  feder- 
ated Indonesia  is  about  to  take  her  place  among 
the  democratic  nations  of  the  world."  However  the 
Far  Eastern  partner  referred  to  by  the  Queen  was 
the  Dutch-sponsored  federation  of  Indonesian 
states  (East  Indonesia,  Borneo,  West  Java,  etc.) 
exclusive  of  what  normally  should  be  the  most  es- 
sential element  in  that  federation:  the  Indonesian 
Republic  in  Central  Java  and  Sumatra.  For  the 
difficulties  placed  in  the  way  of  integral  fulfillment 
of  the  Cheribon  Agreement  by  Republican  intransi- 
gence as  well  as  by  the  Dutch  "police  action"  of 
July-August,  1947,  continued.  Little  progress  was 
made  during  the  year  toward  an  effective  solution 
of  the  tangled  problem. 

Hubertus  J.  Van  Mook,  Dutch  Governor  Gen- 
eral of  Indonesia,  resigned  in  October  and  on  No- 
vember 1  his  post  was  taken  over  by  former  Pre- 
mier Beel.  On  October  28,  the  new  Dutch  Foreign 
Minister  Stikker  departed  for  Java  by  plane  for 
direct  negotiations  with  the  Indonesian  Republican 
Government  of  Premier  Mohammed  Hatta.  Upon 
his  return  to  The  Hague,  Stikker  presented  to  the 
Cabinet  a  lengthy  report  which  showed  that  no 
immediate  solution  was  in  sight  yet. 

Meanwhile  an  emergency  bill  authorizing  for- 
mation of  an  Indonesian  interim  Government  had 
been  passed  by  the  two  houses  of  the  States-Gen- 
eral. It  was  signed  by  Queen  Juliana  on  October  30 
(see  INDONESIA). 

The  Economic  Situation.  The  economic  picture  of 
the  Netherlands  remained  several  shades  darker 
than  in  neighboring  Belgium,  a  condition  that  of 
itself  was  apt  to  jeopardize  the  proposed  economic 
union  between  the  two  countries.  In  a  move  to 
place  the  prospective  partners  on  an  equal  footing, 
economically  speaking,  the  economic  ministers  of 
Belgium,  The  Netherlands,  and  Luxembourg  held 
a  conference  at  Chateau  d'Ardennes  early  in  June 
(see  Events,  BELGIUM).  The  decisions  of  the  con- 
ference were  reported  to  entail,  among  other 
things,  an  almost  complete  liquidation  of  the  Dutch 
rationing  system  before  Jan.  1,  1950;  abolition  of 
Dutch  import  subsidies,  amounting  to  500  million 
guilders  annually;  and  a  material  relaxation  of 
Dutch  control  over  prices,  imports,  and  exports.  In 
partial  confirmation  of  these  reports,  state  subsidies 
were  ended  on  November  8. 

A  primary  source  of  concern  was  the  continuing 


adverse  balance  in  foreign  trade.  Both  in  1946  and 
1947  huge  deficits  had  been  piled  up.  In  the  year 
under  review,  imports  still  were  running  far  ahead 
of  exports,  though  on  a  diminished  scale.  Early  in 
November,  Finance  Minister  Pieter  Lieftinck  ex- 
pressed the  hope  that  in  1949  imports  would  be 
covered  by  exports  to  the  extent  of  68  percent, 
against  60  percent  in  1948.  However,  Dutch  ^econ- 
omists  feared  that  even  if  their  international  ac- 
counts as  a  whole  eventually  would  be  balanced, 
the  shortage  of  dollars  might  persist. 

— JOACHIM  JOESTEN 

NETHERLANDS  LITERATURE.  Situated  in  the  center  of 
Western  Europe,  the  Low  Countries,  which  form 
one  linguistic  province  with  the  exception  of 
Southeastern  Belgium,  have  taken  a  very  active 
part  in  the  cultural  life  of  the  Atlantic  region  since 
their  first  literary  endeavors.  Influences  of  the  sur- 
rounding peoples  have  had  fruitful  results;  on  the 
other  hand,  they  have  served  as  a  spiritual  bridge 
between  France,  Western  Germany,  and  England. 
That  is  why  most  currents  in  these  countries  could 
make  themselves  felt  here,  if  they  harmonized  in 
any  way  with  the  people's  character,  which  is  de- 
termined by  realism  and  religiosity.  This  wealth  of 
many-sided  culture  was  a  source  from  which  neigh- 
bors drew  continually. 

The  rise  of  the  Low  Countries  coincides  with 
the  decline  of  feudal  society.  They  have  scarcely 
known  a  separate  knightly  literature;  criticism  of 
the  society,  ruled  by  the  nobility,  existed  in  the 
satiric  beast-epic  Van  den  Vos  Reynaerde  and  the 
strophic  poems  of  Jacob  van  Maerlant.  Romantic 
reminiscences  of  the  feudal  life  reverberated  until 
the  15th  century,  especially  in  folk  songs  (Hale- 
wijn,  Het  daghet  en  het  Oosten  and  in  the  drama 
Lanseloet}. 

Practical  Christianity,  as  preached  by  van  Maer- 
lant, found  in  his  own  time  a  counterpart  in  the 
mystical  poetry  of  the  nun  Hadewijch  and  later 
in  the  mystical  prose  of  Jan  van  Ruusbroec.  The 
highest  expression  of  the  adoration  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  was  found  in  the  legend  of  Beatrijs  (poet 
unknown).  The  visionary  and  practical  life  of 
faith  were  combined  in  the  movement  of  the  "Mod- 
ern Devotion"  (15th  century),  to  which  Thomas  a 
Kempis  also  belonged. 

Humanism  and  Renaissance  entered  the  Low 
Countries  from  France,  at  a  time  ( Erasmus )  when 
the  struggle  between  Roman  Catholicism  and  Ref- 
ormation was  at  its  height.  Inseparable  from  this 
was  the  conflict  in  the  chaotic  16th  century  be- 
tween the  feudal  imperialism  of  the  Habsburg 
world  empire  and  the  townspeople  ("the  burgh- 
ers"), who,  striving  for  autonomy  and  led  by  Wil- 
liam of  Orange,  gained  their  independence  through 
the  foundation  and  continuance  of  the  Protestant 
Republic  of  the  United  Netherlands.  The  activity 
of  the  hundreds  of  "Rederijkerkamers,"  organized 
after  the  example  of  the  "Chambres  de  Rheto- 
rique,"  reflected  very  accurately  the  antithesis  of 
the  age.  Their  literary  interest  is  especially  the  dili- 
gent exercise  in  and  the  final  mastery  of  the  forms 
of  art  produced  by  the  Renaissance.  To  them  be- 
longed amongst  others,  the  author  of  the  Faustian 
drama  Marieken  van  Nimweghen  and  the  morality 
play  Elkerlyck  (of  which  Everyman  is  very  prob- 
ably a  translation);  also  the  militant  Catholic  poet- 
ess Anna  Bijns  and  her  opponent,  the  prosist  Mar- 
nix  van  St.  Aldegonde  (according  to  some,  the 
poet  of  the  national  anthem  Wilhelmus  van  Nas- 
souwe).  Such  typical  protagonists  of  the  Renais- 
sance as  Jan  van  der  Noot,  Carel  van  Mander 
(Schilderboeck}  and  Coornhert  maintained  close 


NETHERLANDS  WERAWRE 


389 


NETHERLANDS  UTERATURi 


connections  with  these  clubs;  their  influence  was 
very  strong  on  the  poetry  of  resistance  in  the  strug- 
gle for  liberty.  The  notary  Valerius  collected  this 
poetry  in  GedenckJdanken  (for  instance,  Wilt 
heden  nu  treden). 

After  the  Southern  Netherlands  had  again  been 
brought  into  subjugation  under  the  Habsburgs, 
the  literary  life  became  concentrated  in  the  Re- 
public, especially  in  the  Province  of  Holland  (Am- 
sterdam, Leiden).  The  didactic  poem,  very  gen- 
erally cultivated  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  in  the 
Low  Countries,  was  continued  in  classical  form  by 
the  statesmen  Jacob  Cats  and  Constantijn  Huijgens 
(father  of  the  physicist  Christiaan  Huijgens).  Es- 
pecially the  voluminous,  as  well  as  homespun 
works,  of  "Father"  Cats  appealed  to  the  popular 
taste,  as  proven  by  the  expensive  editions  of  his 
Emblemata  (illustrated  parables).  Huijgens  com- 
bined a  strict  Calvinism  with  the  aspiration  for  the 
Renaissance  ideal  of  the  "uomo  universale."  His 
concise,  sometimes  obscurely  fashioned  prosody 
(closely  related  to  Dunne),  his  gifts  as  composer 
and  architect,  and  his  extensive  knowledge  of  the 
fine  arts  brought  him  far  on  the  road  to  its  realiza- 
tion. As  Counsellor  on  the  Arts  for  Stadtholder 
Frederick  Henry,  he  fashioned  his  court  into  a  fo- 
cus of  artistic  Me  and  in  this  manner  assisted  many 
young  artists  (Rembrandt).  Modestly,  he  called  his 
collected  poems  Korenbloemen  (Cornflowers).  To 
the  ruling  class  of  ''Regents"  also  belonged  the 
bailiff  of  Gooiland  and  Eemland,  Pieter  Cornelies- 
zoon  Hooft,  refined  esthete  and  humanist,  whose 
sonnets  and  other  poems  of  pure  rhythm,  flowing 
melody,  and  powerful  imagery  have  set  a  standard 
for  the  lyrics  of  which  Netherlands  literature  to  this 
very  day  has  a  larger  store  than  of  any  other  kind 
of  poetry.  His  historical  tragedies  lack  the  dramatic 
force  in  which  his  realistic  comedy  the  Warenar 
excels.  Through  his  vigorous  and  finely  styled  de- 
scription of  the  war  of  independence  (Neder- 
landse  Histonen),  Hooft  became  the  founder  of 
literary  prose,  which  has  felt  his  influence  until 
now. 

The  genius  of  Joost  van  den  Vondel  rose  from  a 
wider  base  to  a  greater  height.  His  Christian  con- 
ception of  Me  and  perfect  mastery  of  the  classical 
forms  enabled  him  to  create  a  series  of  potent  Bib- 
lical tragedies,  encouraged  by  the  admiration  of 
Hugo  Grotius.  With  Joseph  in  Dothan,  Lucifer  (in- 
fluence on  Milton's  Paradise  Lost)  and  Adam  in 
Ballingschap,  he  continued  the  line  of  the  mediae- 
val mystery-play  in  the  luxurious  form  of  the  ba- 
roque. Among  his  great  and  varied  works,  the 
passionate  political  satires  and  sensitive  reactions 
to  everyday  Me  do  excel.  Bredero,  who  died  young, 
gave  in  his  comedies  (among  them  De  Spaansche 
Brabander)  a  reflection  of  Jan  Steen.  In  his  reli- 
gious and  amorous  lyrics  he  is  simpler  and  more 
direct  than  most  of  his  contemporaries. 

It  was  only  on  the  lesser  poets  that  Spinoza  ex- 
ercised any  influence;  but  his  philosophy  has  so 
strongly  impressed  the  thinking  of  his  compatriots 
as  to  make  it  possible  for  the  conception  of  Reason 
to  dominate  the  Netherlands  literature  of  the  18th 
century. 

The  essay  and  the  classical  tragedy  were  prac- 
ticed by  many,  but  an  inclination  to  imitate  France, 
promoted  by  politics,  smothered  domestic  talent. 
This  could  again  breathe  freely,  under  the  Na- 
poleonic oppression,  with  the  ingenious  but  un- 
restrained Bilderdijk,  admirer  of  the  Greeks,  al- 
though his  aptitude  was  thoroughly  romantic.  Ro- 
manticism following  him  has  caused  no  revolutions 
in  the  Netherlands.  Even  in  its  later  period,  under 
the  leadership  of  the  poet,  essayist  and  critic  Pot- 


gieter  (the  monthly  De  Gids),  it  remained 
shackled  to  classicism,  although  together  with  the 
critic  Busken  Huet  he  steadily  aspired  to  an  idealis- 
tic realism.  Alone  stood  the  ingenious  but  undisci- 
plined Multatuli  (pen-name  of  Douwes  Dekker), 
whose  novel  Max  Havelaar  has  exercised  great  in- 
fluence on  the  colonial  problem,  and  whose  Ideeen 
inspired  the  younger  generation. 

The  long  servility  (since  the  18th  century)  of 
the  literary  arts  to  ethics  and  reasonableness  was 
finally  terminated  by  the  group  of  the  "Men  of 
Eighty,"  who  founded  a  monthly  in  1885  called 
De  Nieuwe  Gids,  They  did  not  create  a  school: 
"poesie  pur,"  naturalism,  realism  and  symbolism 
were  represented  on  equal  terms  in  their  circle. 
After  their  victory  over  the  older  generation  they 
fell  apart.  Of  all  these  artists,  Albert  Verwey,  who 
insisted  that  the  poet  should  be  a  leader  in  life, 
founded  a  school  in  the  larger  sense;  in  essence  he 
continued  in  his  monthly  De  Beweging  the  line  of 
Potgieter.  From  socialist  ranks  came  the  dramatic 
Heijermans,  the  lyric  poet  Herman  Gorter,  and 
the  mighty  poetess  Henrietta  Roland  Hoist.  She 
returned  with  the  generation  of  1910  to  the  tran- 
scendental philosophy  of  life,  for  which  P.  C.  Bou- 
tens  in  the  meantime  had  created  a  new  classic 
style  of  beauty.  His  magistral  poetry  is  in  many 
respects  a  contrast  to  the  deeply  heartfelt,  earthly 
mysticism  of  the  poet  Leopold.  The  influence  on 
the  younger  poets  has  been  very  profound.  While 
a  rich  romantic  art  was  developed  at  this  time,  first 
by  the  plastic  phantasy  of  Louis  Couperus,  and 
later  by  the  melancholic  realism  of  Arthur  van 
Schendel,  the  leadership  in  poetic  art  was  trans- 
ferred to  A.  Roland  Hoist  ( germane  to  Yeats )  and 
M.  Nijhoff.  The  conflict  between  the  glorification 
of  life  and  the  surrender  to  God,  which  character- 
izes the  work  of  the  latter,  is  repeated  in  the  young- 
er poets,  most  pronounced  by  the  poet  and  essay- 
ist H.  Marsrnan,  who  died  in  1940.  It  debouched  fi- 
nally in  a  paganistic  faith  in  culture  and  this  closed 
in  essence  the  curve  toward  Bouten's  Platonic 
idealism. 

The  generation  of  poets  between  1925  and  1940 
has  not  retreated  into  ivory  towers,  but  has  stood 
militant  against  the  threatening  powers  of  the  new 
"underworld"  exhorted  in  a  lashing  and  severe 
fashion  by  the  -keenly  intellectual  prosaist  Menno 
ten  Braak,  who  also  died  in  1940.  The  war  has 
broken  off  the  evolutionary  curve  of  this  literary 
period.  During  the  Nazi  occupation  resistance 
poetry,  anonymous  because  of  the  circumstances, 
flourished.  In  the  chaotic  world  after  the  libera- 
tion, literary  Me  could  not  resume  a  steady  course. 
There  is  a  growing  vigor  in  abundance:  the  year 
1948  has  yielded  a  very  rich  harvest. 

Poetry.  The  experiences  of  the  war  produced,  of 
course,  aftereffects,  directly  in  Verzen  uit  kamp 
St.  Michehgestel  by  Anton  van  Duinkerken,  indi- 
rectly in  Anthonie  Donker's  Tondalus'  Visioen. 
Van  Duinkerken's  apologetic  urge  revealed  itself 
in  his  collection  Tobias  met  den  Engel,  much  less 
significant  as  religious  expression  than  En  Jezus 
schreef  in  't  Zand  by  Gerrit  Achterberg,  who  is 
developing  into  a  leading  poet,  notwithstanding 
his  amorphous  and  obscure  expression.  The  deeply 
penetrating  poetry  of  De  Toovertuin  by  Hendrik 
de  Vries  excels  through  severe  control  over  form 
and  rhythm.  This  volume  received  an  award  from 
the  Netherlands  Society  of  Literature,  while  the 
award  of  the  municipality  of  Amsterdam  was  given 
to  Gerard  den  Brabander  for  De  Steenen  Minnaar. 
The  poetess  Vasalis  again  fascinated  with  De  Vogel 
Phoenix  by  her  extraordinarily  penetrating  use 
of  imagery.  The  troubadour  Bertus  Aafjes  rnanipu- 


NETHERLANDS  WEST  IN0IES 


390 


NEW  BRUNSWICK 


lated  enthrallingly  and  playfully  the  warp  and 
woof  of  the  sonnet  series  in  Het  Koningsgraf. 

The  Essay.  In  brevity  and  effective  sharpness, 
D.  A.  M.  Binnendijk  undoubtedly  leads  in  this 
genre,  as  his  third  volume,  Tekst  en  Uitleg,  proves. 
The  poet-critic  Victor  van  Vriesland  revealed  a 
mature,  philosophical  insight  in  De  gronddag  van 
Verstandhouding,  while  Simon  Vestdijk  delivered 
a  keen  analysis  of  faith  with  his  Toekomst  der  Re- 
ligie.  He  limited  himself  in  the  volume  De  Poolsdie 
Ruiter  to  esthetic  contemplation.  A  fundamental 
problem  was  postulated  by  Fokke  Sierksma  in 
Poezie  als  Ernst. 

The  Novel.  At  present  the  short  story  occupies 
first  place.  From  an  abundant  production  may  be 
selected  Rein  BJijstra's  Mislukte  Isolatie,  Sophie 
in  de  Koestraat  by  Amoene  van  Haerslote,  Bij 
gaslicht  by  F.  Bordewijk,  and  De  wilde  groene 
geur  by  Bep  Vuyk.  Next  to  these  volumes  must  be 
mentioned  the  excellent  etching  of  the  environ- 
ment in  the  novel  Spel  zonder  inzet  of  A.  van 
Grevelingen,  who  died  young.  More  concentrated 
in  sphere  and  psychology,  is  Vrouw  en  Wind  by 
Anna  Blaman.  This  realism  is  in  sharp  contrast  to 
the  grubbing  sensation-jottings  of  Simon  van  het 
Reve  in  De  Aconden. 

A  remarkable  combination  of  baroque  abun- 
dance of  imagination  with  almost  dogmatic  objec- 
tivity is  revealed  in  the  historical  novel  by  Simon 
Vestdijk,  De  Vuuraaribidders  (religious  wars  of 
the  17th  century).  On  the  borderline  between  his- 
tory and  the  novel  stands  the  biography  of  Hugo 
Grotras,  Vaderland  in  de  uerte  by  Annie  Romein- 
Verschoor.  Concerning  the  reclamation  of  the  is- 
land of  Walcheren,  A.  den  Doolard  wrote  Het 
Verjaagde  Water  (published  in  the  United  States 
as  Roff  Back  the  Sea).  It  was  greeted  with  little 
appreciation  by  the  literary  critics.  The  prize  of 
Amsterdam  was  given  for  the  novel  En  de  akker 
is  de  wereJd  to  Dola  de  Jong,  who  lives  in  New 
York,  as  does  A.  Merh'jn,  who  made  a  notable 
debut  with  his  Indonesian  novel  Bontorio, 

Drama.  Five  coordinated  theatrical  companies, 
subsidized  by  the  State  and  the  five  largest  mu- 
nicipalities, have  produced  but  few  new  homemade 
plays.  Jan  de  Hartog's  Skipper  Next  to  God  (al- 
ready produced  in  New  York)  was  received  with 
considerable  reservation.  A.  Defresne  wrote  an 
original  pageant  for  the  expression  of  homage  to 
Queen  Wilhelmina,  called  1948  Anno  Christi.  It 
was  little  appreciated  by  the  critics.  The  dramas 
Djajadewa  by  B.  Faddegon  and  Het  Portret  by 
Jeanne  Van  Schaik-Willing  appeared  exclusively  in 
printed  form.  Of  the  foreign  repertoire  produced 
by  the  theatrical  companies,  Glass  Menagerie, 
Home  of  the  Brave  and  Christopher  Blake  were 
very  successful.  — BENJAMIN  HUNNINGHER 

NETHERLANDS  WEST  INDIES.  The  overseas  possessions 
of  the  Netherlands  in  the  West  Indies,  comprising: 
(1)  CuBAgAO,  and  (2)  SURINAM.  Total  area:  54,- 
703  square  miles.  Total  population  (1947):  340,- 
313. 

NEVADA.  A  mountain  State.  Area:  110,690  sq.  mi. 
Population:  (July  1,  1948),  142,000,  compared 
with  (1940  census)  110,247.  Chief  cities:  Carson 
City  (capital),  2,478  inhabitants  in  1940;  Reno, 
21,317.  See  AGBICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS 
AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COL- 
LEGES, VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $14,578,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $15,249,000. 

Elections.  Truman  received  30,658  votes  to  29,102 


for  Dewey  and  1,464  for  Wallace,  thus  obtaining 
the  3  electoral  votes.  There  were  no  races  for  the 
Senate,  for  Governor,  or  for  other  Statewide  office. 
In  the  Congressional  contest,  Nevada's  lone  House 
seat  changed  from  Republican  to  Democratic. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Vail  Pittman;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Cliff  Jones;  Secretary  of  State,  John 
Koontz;  Attorney  General,  Alan  H.  Bible;  State 
Treasurer,  Dan  W.  Franks;  State  Auditor,  G.  L. 
Robinson;  State  Controller,  Jerry  Donovan.  Chief 
Justice  of  Nevada  Supreme  Court:  Edgar  Eather. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK.  A  maritime  province  of  eastern 
Canada.  Area:  27,985  square  miles,  of  which  27,- 
473  square  miles  are  land  area.  Population  (1941 
census):  457,401  (est  pop.  1948:  503,000).  Lead- 
ing religious  denominations  (1941)  were:  Roman 
Catholic,  220,454;  Baptist,  88,766;  United  Church, 
63,268;  Anglican,  55,155;  Presbyterian,  15,382. 
In  1946  there  were  16,274  hVe  births;  4,866  deaths; 
5,866  marriages.  Education  (1945-46):  106,052 
students  enrolled  in  schools  and  colleges.  Chief 
cities:  Fredericton  (capital)  10,062  inhabitants  in 
1941;  Saint  John  51,741;  Moncton  22,763;  Edmun- 
ston  7,096;  Campbellton  6,748. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction for  1947  was  $50,848,000.  Total  area  of 
field  crops  (1947)  was  948,000  acres,  valued  at 
$41,426,000.  Chief  field  crops  (1947) :  oats  6,106,- 
000  bu.  ($5,373,000);  potatoes  9,457,000  cwt 
($19,198,000);  field  roots  1,927,000  cwt.  ($1,638,- 
000).  Livestock  (June  1,  1947):  208,600  cattle 
($15,486,000);  43,100  horses  ($5,530,000);  92,- 
500  swine  ($2,505,000);  95,100  sheep  ($897,000); 
1,879,400  poultry  ( $2,370,000).  Fur  farms  in  1946 
totaled  383  with  value  of  fur  animals  estimated  at 
$467,125.  Value  of  fur  pelt  production  in  1946-47 
was  $834,641.  Production  of  fisheries  (1946) 
amounted  to  $16,419,983;  the  three  principal  kinds 
of  fish  being  lobster,  sardines,  and  herring.  Dairy 
production  included  6,908,000  Ib.  of  creamery  but- 
ter (1947)  with  an  estimated  value  of  $3,636,000; 
factory  cheese,  737,000  Ib;  while  total  farm  value 
of  poultry  meat  and  eggs  was  estimated  at  $5,065,- 
000. 

Manufacturing  establishments  in  1946  numbered 
993.  They  furnished  employment  to  22,732  per- 
sons who  received  $33,151,919  in  salaries  and 
wages.  The  gross  value  of  products  manufactured 
was  $170,753,741  from  materials  costing  $96,389,- 
299.  The  forests  of  New  Brunswick  give  a  leading 
place  to  its  pulp,  paper,  and  sawmill  industries,  al- 
though the  fish-curing  and  packing  products  add 
to  the  varied  output.  There  were  411  sawmills  in 
operation  in  1946  with  gross  value  of  products 
amounting  to  $17,230,075. 

Government.  JFinance  (year  ended  Oct.  31,  1948): 
net  combined  revenue  was  estimated  at  $23,774,- 
174  (1947:  $25,574,374);  net  combined  expendi- 
ture $23,543,766  (1947:  $19,226,554).  Total  direct 
and  indirect  liabilities  (less  sinking  funds)  $100,- 
994,000  on  Oct.  31,  1945.  The  executive  authority 
is  vested  in  a  lieutenant  governor  who  is  advised 
by  a  ministry  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  the  latter 
consisting  of  52  members  elected  for  a  five-year 
term  by  the  voters. 

Ten  members  (all  appointed  for  life)  in  the 
Senate  and  10  members  in  the  House  of  Commons 
represent  New  Brunswick  in  the  Dominion  Parlia- 
ment at  Ottawa.  Forty-seven  Liberals  and  five  Pro- 
gressive Conservatives  were  elected  at  the  last  pro- 
vincial general  election.  Lieutenant  Governor,  D.  L. 
MacLaren  (appointed  Nov.  1,  1945) :  Premier,  J.  B. 
McNair  (Liberal;  appointed  Mar.  13,  1940;  re- 
elected  June  28,  1948).  See  CANADA. 


MEW  CALEDONIA 


391 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


NEW  CALEDONIA.  A  French  overseas  territory  IB 
the  southwest  Pacific,  850  miles  east  of  Australia. 
Total  area  (including  dependent  islands):  8,548 
square  miles.  Population  (1947  est):  61,250,  includ- 
ing 18,510  Europeans,  30,034  native  Melanesians 
and  12,706  Tonkinese  and  Javanese.  Capital:  Nou- 
mea (10.466  inhabitants).  The  dependencies  of 
New  Caledonia  are:  Isle  of  Pines,  WalHs  Archipel- 
ago, Fortuna  and  AJofi,  Loyalty  Islands,  Huon  Is- 
lands, Belep  Archipelago,  Chesterfield  Islands,  and 
Walpoole. 

Production  and  Trade.  Chief  agricultural  products: 
coffee,  copra,  cotton,  manioc,  maize,  tobacco,  ba- 
nanas, and  pineapples.  Mineral  products  include 
nickel  (107,944  tons  in  1946),  chromite  (24,946 
tons  in  1946),  cobalt,  iron,  and  manganese.  For- 
eign trade  (1946):  imports  461,400,000  francs;  ex- 
ports 233,700,000  francs. 

Government.  Budget  (1946):  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure balanced  at  237,650,000  francs.  The 
territory  is  administered  by  a  governor,  aided  by 
a  privy  council,  and  an  elected  general  council. 
New  Caledonia  is  represented  by  one  delegate  in 
each  of  the  following:  French  National  Assembly, 
the  Council  of  the  Republic,  and  the  Assembly  of 
the  French  Union.  Governor:  G.  Parisot. 

NEWFOUNDLAND.  An  island  lying  between  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  de- 
pendency, Labrador,  lies  north  of  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence.  Newfoundland,  with  Labrador,  forms  a 
part  of  the  British  Commonwealth.  Capital,  St. 
John's. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area,  exclusive  of  Lab- 
rador, is  42,734  square  miles.  Population  was  esti- 
mated at  about  320,000  in  1948.  Chief  cities:  St. 
Johns  (est.  pop.,  1948),  45,000;  Corner  Brook,  18,- 
000.  The  dependency  of  Labrador  has  an  area  es- 
timated at  110,000  square  miles  and  a  population 
estimated  at  5,000. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  schools  are  aided  by 
the  religious  sects  and  are  denominational  in  char- 
acter, but  are  for  the  most  part  supported  by  the 
state  as  public  schools.  Enrollment  in  1945-46  was 
70,460.  Memorial  University  College  enrollment  in 
1946-47  was  401. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  the  Church  of 
England  each  included  just  above  100,000  persons 
in  1945.  The  United  Church  was  third  and  the 
Salvation  Army  fourth. 

Production.  The  greater  part  of  the  population  of 
the  island  lives  on  the  returns  from  fish  products, 
newsprint,  and  mineral  ores.  All  of  these  are  pro- 
duced almost  entirely  for  export.  Minerals  are  dom- 
inated by  the  iron  ore  from  Bell  Island,  output 
about  1.5  million  tons  in  1947.  The  total  estimated 
value  of  agricultural  crops  (incl.  livestock)  was 
$15  million  in  1946. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  are  of  supreme  importance 
to  Newfoundland.  Total  foreign  trade  in  1947-48 
was  $185,519,855,  more  than  $38,000,000  above 
the  previous  year,  1946-47.  The  United  States  took 
$27  million  of  exports,  Britain  $13  million,  and 
Canada  $11,660,000.  The  United  States  took  more 
newsprint  than  all  other  countries  combined.  Can- 
ada was  the  largest  supplier  of  goods  ($55  million) 
and  the  United  States  second  ($35  million).  Chief 
imports  in  1946-47  were  clothing,  coal,  and  food. 

Transportation.  In  1947  there  were  705  miles  of 
government  railroads  and  56  miles  privately  owned. 
Gander  Airport  is  used  by  10  world  airlines. 

Finance.  Budget  estimates  for  1947-1948  pkced 
revenue  at  $35,702,500;  expenditure  at  $37,574,- 
000,  Public  debt  in  1948,  $72  million.  Revenue 
comes  almost  entirely  from  customs. 


Government.  In  December,  1933,  as  a  result  of  fi- 
nancial difficulties  caused  by  depression  in  the  ex- 
port industries,  Newfoundland's  status  as  a  self- 
governing  dominion  of  the  British  Commonwealth 
was  temporarily  altered.  Effective  Feb.  16,  1934, 
executive  authority  was  vested  in  the  Governor  and 
a  Commission  of  six — three  Newfoundlanders  and 
three  British.  The  British  Government  assumed  re- 
sponsibility for  Newfoundland's  financial  obliga- 
tions and  provided  a  grant-in-aid  pending  the  res- 
toration of  the  island's  financial  solvency.  In  1946 
a  National  Convention  was  elected  to  ascertain 
whether  Newfoundland's  finances  were  restored 
and  to  discover  the  form  of  government  desired  by 
the  people.  For  subsequent  developments  see  YEAR 
BOOK  for  1947,  pp.  357-8,  and  Events,  1948,  be- 
low. 

Events,  1948.  The  National  Convention  on  New- 
foundland's form  of  government,  after  sitting  for 
15  months,  ended  on  Jan.  31,  1948.  The  National 
Convention  voted  29-16  to  exclude  confederation 
with  Canada  from  the  forthcoming  referendum, 
but  a  decision  by  the  British  Government,  an- 
nounced simultaneously  in  London  and  St.  John's 
on  March  11,  provided  that  the  ballot  should  allow 
three  choices:  retention  of  the  existing  form  of  Gov- 
ernment by  Commission,  return  of  responsible  self- 
government,  and  confederation  with  Canada. 

In  the  referendum  held  on  June  3  a  small  ma- 
jority (about  6,000  in  a  poll  of  some  154,000) 
voted  for  responsible  government,  about  63,000  for 
confederation  with  Canada,  and  21,900  for  the 
existing  commission  form  of  government.  Almost 
immediately  thereafter  the  holding  of  a  second 
referendum  was  called  for  July  22,  with  only  two 
choices  offered:  responsible  self-government  and 
confederation  with  Canada. 

In  the  July  22  referendum  the  vote  was  77,814 
for  confederation  and  71,258  for  responsible  gov- 
ernment. The  smallness  of  the  majority  created 
delicate  problems  for  the  future,  but  Prime  Minis- 
ter King  of  Canada,  in  a  formal  statement  on 
July  30,  said  that  the  Canadian  Government  wel- 
comed the  plebiscite  and  was  consulting  with  the 
governments  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  New- 
foundland in  working  out  the  constitutional  proce- 
dure. He  added  that  the  Canadian  Government 
would  be  glad  to  receive  authorized  representatives 
of  Newfoundland  to  negotiate  the  terms  of  union 
on  the  basis  of  the  proposals  submitted  in  1947. 

Terms  of  Union.  Negotiations  opened  in  Ottawa 
on  October  4,  with  a  strong  Canadian  delegation 
selected  to  meet  the  Newfoundland  group  headed 
by  Albert  Walsh.  The  negotiations  were  prolonged, 
and  it  was  repeatedly  rumored  that  Newfoundland 
was  insisting  on  improved  financial  terms.  On  De- 
cember 11,  however,  the  terms  of  union  were 
signed  under  which  Newfoundland  was  to  become 
the  tenth  Canadian  province  and  the  details  were 
released.  One  Newfoundland  member,  Chesley 
Crosbie,  did  not  sign. 

In  general  Newfoundland's  standing  as  a  prov- 
ince will  be  like  that  of  the  other  9  provinces,  in 
that  it  will  have  its  own  legislature  and  responsi- 
bilities for  the  major  services.  Its  provincial  gov- 
ernment will  be  asked  to  grant  to  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment the  use  of  the  income,  corporation,  and 
succession  taxes,  in  return  for  which  Canada  will 
pay  an  annual  subsidy  of  $180,000,  plus  80  cents 
per  head  of  the  population,  an  annual  subsidy  of 
$1.1  million  for  special  problems  arising  out  of 
Newfoundland's  situation,  and  transitional  grants 
for  12  years.  The  cost  to  Canada  is  approximately 
$20  million  more  than  the  amount  tentatively 
agreed  upon  in  1947. 


NEW  GUINEA 


392 


NEW  MEXICO 


Dissatisfied  Newfoundlanders  took  steps  to  pro- 
test the  agreement.  While  the  terms  were  still 
pending,  Peter  Cashin,  former  Finance  Minister, 
and  two  others  flew  to  London  to  protest  confed- 
eration at  the  bar  o£  the  House  of  Commons, 

-=-ALZADA  COMSTOCK 

NEW  GUINEA,  A  large  island,  north  of  Australia.  It 
comprises  Netherlands  New  Guinea  (151,000  sq. 

mi),  North  East  New  Guinea  (69,700  sq.  mi.) — 
the  mainland  part  of  the  Australian  mandated  Ter- 
ritory of  New  Guinea,  and  Papua  ( 87,786  sq.  mi. 
excluding  islands) — a  Territory  of  Australia  (for- 
merly called  British  New  Guinea).  Total  area: 
308,486  square  miles.  Population:  about  one  mil- 
lion. See  NEW  GUINEA,  TERRITORY  OF;  PAPUA. 

NEW  GUINEA,  Trust  Territory  of.  A  territory  in  the 
southwest  Pacific,  formerly  a  League  of  Nations 
mandate  (1920-46).  On  Dec.  13,  1946,  it  was 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  Nations 
Trusteeship  Committee,  It  continued  to  be  admin- 
istered by  Australia.  The  territory  includes:  North 
East  New  Guinea  (also  called  the  Mainland),  69,- 
700  square  miles;  Bismarck  Archipelago  (consisting 
of  New  Britain  14,600  sq.  mi.,  New  Ireland  3,340 
sq.  mi.,  Lavongai  460  sq.  mi.,  and  Admiralty  Is- 
lands 800  sq.  mi.),  19,200  square  miles;  and  part 
of  the  Solomon  Islands  (Bougainville  3,880  sq.  mi., 
Buka  and  adjacent  small  islands  220  sq.  mi.),  4,100 
square  miles.  Total  area,  93,000  square  miles.  Total 
enumerated  natives  in  patrolled  areas  (June  30, 
1941),  684,284,  including  34,087  indentured  la- 
borers; in  addition,  there  were  4,101  Europeans 
and  2,228  Asiatics.  Rabaui  (on  New  Britain),  had 
10,174  inhabitants  in  1939.  Chief  towns  of  North 
East  New  Guinea:  Aitape,  Lae,  Madang,  Monum- 
bo,  Morobe,  Salamaua,  Vanimo,  and  Wewak. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  chief  agricultural  prod- 
ucts are  cacao,  rubber,  coffee,  and  coconuts.  Gold 
is  the  most  important  mineral  produced.  Other 
minerals  include  platinum,  osmiridium,  copper, 
iron,  sulfur,  and  brown  coal.  Timber  and  fish  are 
important  products.  Foodstuffs,  machinery,  to- 
bacco, and  chemicals  comprise  the  territory's  main 
imports. 

Government.  An  administrator  controls  the  Ter- 
ritory and  advises  the  Governor  General  of  Aus- 
tralia on  legislative  matters.  Administrator:  Col. 
J.  K.  Murray  (Sept  13,  1945). 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  A  New  England  State.  Area:  9,210 
sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  548,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  491,524.  Chief  cities: 
Concord  (capital),  27,171  inhabitants  in  1940; 
Manchester,  77,685.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION, 
MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $31,963,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $32,277,000. 

Elections.  Dewey's  120,000  popular  votes  gave 
him  a  majority  of  about  12,000  over  Truman  and 
Wallace  and  earned  him  the  State's  4  electoral 
votes  which  were  Roosevelt's  in  1944.  Incumbent 
Senator  Styles  Bridges,  Republican,  was  reelected. 
Republican  nominee  Sherman  Adams  was  elected 
Governor.  The  2  House  seats  remained  Republican. 
Ernest  R.  D'Amours  was  reelected  Attorney  Gen- 
eral and  Arthur  E.  Bean  was  elected  Comptroller. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Charles  M.  Dale;  Lieut. 
Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  Enoch  D. 
Fuller;  Attorney  General,  Ernest  R.  D'Amours; 
State  Treasurer,  F.  Gordon  Kimball;  State  Comp- 
troller, Stephen  B.  Story. 


NEW  HEBRIDES.  A  group  of  some  80  islands  in  the 
south  Pacific,  under  joint  administration  of  British 
and  French  officials.  The  chief  islands  of  the  group 
are  Espiritu  Santo,  Malekula,  Epi,  Ambryrn,  Efate, 
Erromanga,  and  Tanna.  Total  area  (est. )  5,700 
square  miles.  Population  ( 1946 ) :  45,000,  including 
920  Europeans.  Capital:  Vila.  Sugar  cane,  oranges, 
bananas,  coconuts,  coffee,  and  cacao  are  the  main 
products.  Foreign  trade  (1946):  imports  £335,- 
681;  exports  £235,486.  Finance  (condominium), 
1946:  revenue  £60,983;  expenditure  £48,179  (the 
foregoing  figures  on  finance  exclude  expenditure 
on  the  revenue  from  the  British  and  French  Na- 
tional Services).  The  British  High  Commissioner 
and  the  French  High  Commissioner  for  the  region 
delegate  the  powers  of  government  for  the  New 
Hebrides  to  Resident  Commissioners  of  the  re- 
spective nationalities  stationed  on  the  islands. 

NEW  JERSEY.  A  middle  Atlantic  State,  Area:  8,204 
sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  4,729,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  4,160,165.  Chief  cities: 
Trenton  (capital),  124,697  inhabitants  in  1940; 
Newark,  429,760.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION, 
MlNEBALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $264,518,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $265,236,000. 

Legislation.  The  regular  annual  and  special  New 
Jersey  legislative  sessions  in  1948  implemented 
the  new  constitution  adopted  in  1947.  Consolida- 
tion of  State  agencies  into  14  departments  was 
about  completed  at  the  close  of  1948.  The  judicial 
system  also  had  been  reorganized. 

Other  enactments  included  an  important,  new 
cash  sickness  benefits  program  for  workers;  new 
taxes  on  cigarettes  and  pari-mutuel  betting;  repeal 
of  the  ban  on  colored  margarine;  bond  issues  for 
high-speed  highways  and  institutional  facilities; 
a  turnpike  authority  to  construct  toll  highways; 
and  substantial  salary  increases  for  State  employees 
and  legislators.  The  legislature  upped  minimum 
teachers'  salaries  to  $2,000;  granted  $10  million 
for  local  school  construction;  doubled  highway  aid 
to  municipalities;  and  increased  municipal  powers 
over  building  codes,  recreational  and  parking  fa- 
cilities; and  authorized  a  study  of  municipal  gov- 
ernments. 

Elections.  Dewey  won  the  16  electoral  votes  by 
receiving  973,629  votes  to  Truman's  894,791  and 
Wallace's  39,077.  Roosevelt's  1944  plurality  over 
Dewey  exceeded  26,000.  Robert  C.  Hendrickson, 
Republican,  won  the  Senate  race.  The  Democrats 
won  5  of  the  14  House  seats  for  a  gain  of  3.  There 
were  no  Statewide  contests  for  State  office. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Alfred  E.  Driscoll;  Lieut. 
Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  Lloyd  B. 
Marsh;  Attorney  General,  Walter  D.  Van  Riper; 
State  Treasurer,  Robert  C.  Hendrickson;  State 
Auditor,  Frank  Durand;  State  Comptroller,  Homer 
C.  Zink. 

NEW  MEXICO.  A  mountain  State.  Area:  122,634  sq. 
mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  571,000,  compared 
with  (1940  census)  531,818.  Chief  cities:  Santa 
Fe  (capital),  20,325  inhabitants  in  1940;  Albu- 
querque, 35,449.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION, 
MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $47,257,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $51,977,000. 

Elections.  Truman  won  the  4  electoral  votes  by  a 
majority  over  Dewey  and  Wallace  twice  as  large 


MiWS  AGENC/ES 


393 


NEWSPAPERS 


as  Roosevelt's  In  1944.  Democrats  won  all  other 
Statewide  races.  Clinton  P.  Anderson,  formerly 
Truman's  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  beat  Republi- 
can nominee  Patrick  J.  Hurley  for  the  Senate. 
Democratic  Governor  Thomas  J.  Mabry  was  re- 
elected.  The  2  House  seats  remained  Democratic. 
Also  elected  were:  Lieutenant  Governor — Joe  M. 
Montoya;  Secretary  of  State — Mrs.  M.  A.  Romero; 
Attorney  General — Joe  L.  Martinez;  Auditor — E. 
D.  Trujillo;  Treasurer — H.  R.  Rodgers;  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction — Charles  L.  Rose; 
Commissioner  of  Public  Lands — Guy  Shepard. 
Proposals  popularly  approved  provide  for  the  suc- 
cession when  the  governor-elect  dies,  and  empower 
the  legislature  to  call  special  sessions. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Thomas  J.  Mabry;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Joseph  M.  Montoya;  Secretary*  of  State, 
Mrs.  Alicia  Romero;  Attorney  General,  C.  C. 
McCulloh;  State  Treasurer,  Ray  Rodgers;  State 
Auditor,  J.  D.  Trujillo;  State  Comptroller,  C.  R. 
Sebastian. 

NEWS  AGENCIES.  A  partial  list  of  some  of  the  im- 
portant news-gathering  agencies  is  presented  in  the 
following  lines: 

Agence  France  Presse  (AFP),  founded  in  September, 
1944,  for  the  collection  and  dissemination  of  world 
news.  General  Manager:  Paul-Louis  Bret,  13  Place 
de  la  Bourse,  Paris,  France.  North  American  Man- 
ager: Andre  Rabache,  11  West  42nd  St.,  New  York 
18,  N.Y. 

Associated  Press  (AP),  The,  founded  in  1848;  pres- 
ent corporation  formed  1900.  Collects  and  distrib- 
utes news  and  newsphotos  for  newspapers  and 
radio  stations.  Membership:  1,750  newspapers,  950 
radio  stations  (approx.);  also  serves  1,300  (approx.) 
non-member  newspapers  and  radio  stations,  large- 
ly outside  the  United  States.  President,  Robert 
McLean;  Executive  Director,  Kent  Cooper;  Gen- 
eral Manager,  F.  J.  Starzel;  Secretary,  Lloyd  Strat- 
ton.  Headquarters:  50  Rockefeller  Plaza,  New  York 
20,  N.Y. 

Canadian  Press  (CP),  The,  founded  in  1917  to 
gather  and  distribute  news  for  Canadian  daily 
newspapers.  Membership:  93.  President,  Victor 
Sifton;  General  Manager  and  Secretary,  Gillis  Pur- 
eel!;  Treasurer,  C.  A.  Day.  Headquarters:  55  Uni- 
versity Ave.,  Toronto  1,  Out,  Canada.  Subsidiary: 
Press  News  Limited,  formed  in  1941  to  serve  radio 
stations  with  news.  Clients:  82. 

International  News  Service  (INS),  a  world-wide 
news-gathering  agency;  founded  in  1909.  News  is 
distributed  over  more  than  170,000  miles  of  leased 
wires  in  the  United  States,  and  through  powerful 
short-wave  radio  transmitters  to  foreign  clients, 
INS  serves  newspapers,  radio  stations,  and  televi- 
sion stations.  General  Manager,  Seymour  Berkson; 
Editor-in-Chief,  Barry  Fans;  Managing  Editor, 
Philip  G.  Reed.  Headquarters:  235  East  45th  St., 
New  York  17,  NT. 

North  American  Newspaper  Alliance,  Inc.,  an  Organ- 
ization that  furnishes  authoritative  stories  and  arti- 
cles to  newspapers  throughout  the  world.  Member- 
ship: 90.  President,  John  N.  Wheeler;  Vice  Presi- 
dent, Henry  M.  Snevily;  Treasurer,  Joseph  B.  Ag- 
nelli; Secretary,  Andre  F.  L'Eveque.  Headquarters: 
229  West  43rd  St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y. 

Press  Wireless,  Inc.,  an  organization  that  furnishes 
radio  facilities  for  the  press  of  the  world  and  acts 
as  a  special  press  carrier.  Founded  in  1928.  Its 
main  transmitting  and  receiving  stations  are  lo- 
cated within  25  miles  of  New  York  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  is  owned  by  a  number  of  the  important 
newspapers  in  the  United  States  and  operates  to 
all  the  important  countries  of  the  world.  It  handles 


the  majority  of  the  country's  International  press 
traffic.  Wm.  J.  McCambridge,  President  and  Treas- 
urer; T.  J.  Reilly,  Assistant  Treasurer;  Alfred  G. 
Greany,  Secretary;  R.  A.  Hilferty,  Chief  Engineer. 
Headquarters:  Times  Tower,  1475  Broadway,  New 
York  18,  N.Y. 

Reuters  News  Service,  an  organization  for  the 
world- wide  collection  and  distribution  of  news  and 
news  pictures;  founded  in  1849,  Membership:  Over 
2,000.  General  Manager:  C.  J.  Chancellor,  Direc- 
tors: H.  G.  Bartholomew;  Lord  Layton;  R.  A.  G. 
Henderson;  Malcolm  Graham;  Viscount  Rother- 
mere;  J.  R.  Scott;  W.  A.  Hawkins.  Headquarters: 
85  Fleet  Street,  London  E.C.4,  England.  New  York 
Bureau:  New  York  Times  Building,  229  West  43rd 
St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y. 

United  Press  Associations  (UP),  an  organization  for 
the  collection  and  distribution  of  world  news  for 
newspapers,  and  for  radio  and  television  broad- 
casting stations;  founded  June  21,  1907.  President 
and  General  Manager:  Hugh  Baillie.  Vice  Presi- 
dent and  General  News  Manager:  Earl  J.  Johnson. 
Vice  President  and  General  Business  Manager: 
Jack  Bisco.  Vice  President  and  General  Foreign 
Manager:  Joseph  L.  Jones.  Headquarters:  220  East 
42nd  St.,  New  York  17,  N.Y. 

NEWSPAPERS.  Newspapers  shared  with  other  in- 
dustries in  1948  inflationary  pressures  on  both  in- 
come and  expense.  The  press  enjoyed  increasing 
circulations,  at  higher  rates,  and  a  good  volume  of 
advertising  as  national  manufacturers  and  local 
merchants  sought  to  obtain  the  volume  of  busi- 
ness necessary  to  maintain  profitable  operation;  but 
newspaper  managements  were  apprehensive  over 
pay-scale  increases  greater  than  those  in  other  busi- 
nesses. Because  the  daily  press  must  maintain  un- 
interrupted production,  and  because  savings  in  op- 
erations in  publication  are  difficult  to  achieve,  pub- 
lishers viewed  the  coming  year  with  mixed  hopes 
and  misgivings.  The  bright  spot  was  the  fact  fiat 
advertisers  would  be  required  to  strive  for  cus- 
tomers in  a  buyers*  market;  the  darker  side  was  the 
inescapable  high  cost  of  operation. 

In  news-gathering  activities  the  press  admittedly 
did  well  in  covering  the  chaotic  conditions  of  a 
world  not  at  war  but  certainly  not  at  peace.  The 
newspapers  in  the  United  States  lost  some  prestige 
for  failing  to  forecast  the  election  trends,  and  some 
objective  observers  thought  that  the  editors  were 
more  preoccupied  with  the  scare  headlines  of  the 
communist  spy  hunt  than  with  the  daily  reporting 
of  the  progress  of  democracy.  But  on  the  whole  the 
critics  of  the  press  were  less  vocal  than  in  recent 
years;  and  it  would  be  fair  to  say  that  the  news- 
papers attained  a  better  record  of  recording  im- 
partially the  events  of  the  year. 

An  increasing  supply  of  newsprint  enabled  news- 
papers to  have  a  good  volume  of  business.  Canada, 
chief  source  of  supply,  produced  4,600,000  tons  of 
paper.  Imports  from  other  countries  seeking  Amer- 
ican dollars  (250,000  tons  from  abroad,  375,000 
from  Newfoundland)  and  manufacture  of  825,000 
tons  in  the  United  States  combined  to  give  a  total 
supply  of  6  million  tons.  The  price  rose  to  $100  a 
ton  in  New  York  ( and  correspondingly  higher  fig- 
ures in  the  other  zones  of  the  United  States)  but 
the  year  saw  lower  and  lower  prices  in  the  spot 
market  where  as  much  as  $240  a  ton  had  been  paid 
for  newsprint.  Publishers  were  concerned  whether 
the  ruling  of  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  bar- 
ring basing  point  prices  might  upset  the  entire 
newsprint,  pricing,  and  distribution  system. 

Advertising  volume  gained  some  10  percent  to 
15  percent  over  1947?  and  generally  higher  rates 


NEWSPAPERS 


394 


NEWSPAPERS 


brought  the  dollar  volume  up  by  20  percent  to  25 
percent.  With  manufacturers  and  local  retail  stores 
actively  seeking  the  vast  purchasing  power  of  the 
consumer,  the  newspaper  fared  somewhat  better  in 
the  competition  for  the  advertiser's  dollar  than  in 
recent  years.  Radio  seemed  to  face  some  uncertain- 
ty with  television  an  unknown  factor  in  the  near 
future,  but  the  daily  press  had  no  such  uncertainty 
in  its  function  as  a  sales  producer. 

Circulation  rates  were  advanced  in  every  section 
of  the  United  States.  This  continued  the  trend 
toward  obtaining  a  greater  proportion  of  revenues 
from  the  reader.  In  New  York  the  tabloid  news- 
papers went  from  2  cents  to  3  cents  a  copy  on 
week-day  issues,  and  increases  to  5  cents  a  copy 
were  made  in  scores  and  even  hundreds  of  cities 
and  towns.  Some  80  percent  of  daily  newspapers, 
it  was  estimated,  are  now  5  cents  a  copy  for  the 
week-day  issues.  In  Los  Angeles  and  San  Francisco 
the  price  was  raised  to  7  cents.  Such  higher  prices 
had  a  tendency  to  check  circulations  in  some  cities 
because  readers  were  feeling  the  pressure  of  the  ris- 
ing cost  of  living.  But  the  final  figures  showed  week- 
day daily  newspapers  in  the  United  States  reaching 
a  total  of  52,285,297  copies  a  day  and  46,308,081 
on  Sundays,  according  to  Editor  and  Publisher. 

Most  publishers  agreed  that  the  rates  charged 
both  readers  and  advertisers  were  approaching  a 
peak  as  the  year  ended.  They  saw  in  a  period  at 
the  year  end,  with  many  prices  declining,  a  chal- 
lenge to  render  a  greater  service  to  both  subscriber 
and  advertiser  as  the  best  means  of  maintaining 
that  great  volume  of  business  and  revenue  made 
necessary  by  the  sobering  rise  in  operation  costs. 

Small  change  occurred  in  the  number  of  daily 
newspapers  in  the  United  States  in  the  year.  A  few 
suspensions  were  noted,  none  of  them  of  outstand- 
ing publications.  Several  news  journals  were  be- 
gun, in  areas  to  which  there  had  been  marked  pop- 
ulation shifts,  as  at  Oak  Ridge,  Term.  A  move  to- 
ward joint  publication  operation  in  one  plant,  by 
competing  and  independent  newspapers  in  the 
same  cities,  gained  momentum  as  a  means  of  re- 
ducing expenses.  The  keynote  speech  at  the  News- 
paper Controllers'  Association  convention  forecast 
this  trend  as  the  major  one  in  publishing  in  the 
years  ahead.  Newspapers  in  Madison,  Wis.,  and 
Augusta,  Ga.,  adopted  this  plan  in  the  year.  In 
Chicago,  the  Sun  and  Times  consolidated,  and  in 
Indianapolis  the  Star  and  News  came  under  one 
ownership. 

A  notable  change  in  ownership  was  that  of  PM, 
in  New  York,  formerly  the  property  of  Marshall 
Field,  and  an  experiment  in  publication  without 
advertising.  Harold  Barnes  and  Bardey  Crum  ac- 
quired ?M,  renamed  it  the  Star,  and  changed  it 
from  an  evening  to  a  morning  paper. 

One  factor  pressing  for  joint  use  of  buildings 
and  machinery  was  the  vastly  increased  cost  of 
new  plants  and  of  typesetting  and  printing  equip- 
ment. Many  newspapers  had  worn  out  their  ma- 
chinery during  the  war  when  replacements  were 
unobtainable.  Now  the  cost  of  replacements  was 
staggering  except  for  those  publishers  who  had 
been  able  to  set  up  large  reserves.  Many  new  build- 
ings were  pushed  to  completion  in  1948  (the  New 
York  Times  addition,  the  Louisville  Courier- 
Journal,  the  Dallas  News,  the  Portland,  Ore., 
Journd  among  them)  but  other  dailies  delayed, 
because  of  the  price  of  new  construction,  the  plants 
urgently  needed  to  take  care  of  growing  advertis- 
ing and  circulation.  As  manufacturers  of  typeset- 
ting and  printing  machinery  caught  up  with  their 
backlog  of  orders  of  long  standing,  deliveries  were 
being  speeded  up  at  the  year  end. 


Labor  relations  in  the  newspaper  world  were 
not  happy.  The  struggle  between  the  International 
Typographical  Union  and  the  publishers  was  in- 
tensified. The  union  officers  maintained  that  the 
purpose  of  the  publisher  was  to  destroy  the  union, 
and  that  enforcement  of  the  Taft-Hartley  law 
would  mean  the  financial  ruin  of  their  organization. 
The  typographers  insisted  on  having  no  written 
contracts,  and  the  great  strike  against  the  Chicago 
newspapers  reached  a  duration  of  13  months  as 
1948  ended.  In  New  York  a  strike  was  threatened, 
and  the  newspapers  prepared  at  great  expense  to 
use  the  same  methods  of  typed  and  engraved  copy 
which  Chicago  had  employed.  But  a  formula,  not 
wholly  satisfactory  to  either  side,  was  achieved. 

In  a  Federal  Court  decision  Judge  Swygert  held 
that  the  Typographical  Union  and  its  officers  had 
been  guilty  of  civil  contempt  of  court.  The  union, 
Judge  Swygert^ declared,  had  violated  the  injunc- 
tion in  offering  "form  contracts"  which  in  substance 
required  newspapers  to  discriminate  against  non- 
union employees.  The  proposed  contract  would 
have  compelled  non-union  applicants  for  jobs  to 
prove  that  they  were  competent  and  qualified,  and 
would  not  have  enforced  such  tests  on  union  ap- 
plicants. In  November  the  Typographical  Union 
notified  the  court  that  it  had  purged  itself  of  con- 
tempt and  had  ceased  all  efforts  to  maintain  a 
closed  shop. 

What  the  future  of  the  dispute  would  be  in  the 
event  of  a  repeal  of  the  Taft-Hartley  Act  was  un- 
certain. Many  newspapers  continued  operations 
without  written  contracts,  but  with  the  negotiated 
new  and  higher  scales  and  had  a  tacit  understand- 
ing that  all  the  old  conditions  of  work  would  con- 
tinue in  effect  insofar  as  they  did  not  conflict  with 
the  law.  Other  unions,  pressmen,  stereotypers, 
mailers,  and  engravers  signed  contracts.  Scales 
were  increased  from  $6  to  $14  weekly  in  cities 
throughout  the  country.  A  general  shortage  of 
journeymen  was  experienced  and  this  condition 
showed  no  signs  of  improving. 

After  the  national  elections  in  November,  in 
which  the  newspapers  had  failed  so  signally  to  give 
their  readers  indication  of  the  popular  political 
thought,  there  was  considerable  soul-searching. 
The  public-opinion  polls  to  which  the  newspapers 
had  given  much  space,  and  their  own  election  cor- 
respondents had  obviously  misread  the  temper 
of  the  voters.  President  Truman's  victory  was  a 
complete  surprise  and  no  explanations  would  avail. 
As  in  most  of  the  elections  since  1936  the  majority 
of  the  newspapers  editorially  had  been  opposed 
to  the  Democratic  Party.  But  whereas  President 
Roosevelt  had  enjoyed  on  the  whole  a  good  ad- 
vantage in  the  news  columns,  President  Truman 
had  not. 

James  Reston,  of  the  New  York  Times,  summed 
up  the  mistakes  of  the  press  by  saying  that  they 
were  primarily  a  failure  of  reporting;  that  the  cor- 
respondents had  not  left  the  campaign  trains  and 
gone  out  to  learn  what  the  people  were  thinking. 
They  had  not  discovered  the  truth  that  the  Roose- 
velt influence  was  still  alive,  and  "were  wrong,  not 
only  on  the  election,  but  what's  worse,  on  the  whole 
political  direction  of  our  time."  Undeniably  the 
press  suffered  in  public  esteem,  but  the  newspapers 
acknowledged  their  failure  and  the  experience  may 
have  been  wholesome  in  restoring  some  lost  value 
to  the  reporter  and  taking  away  from  the  fancied 
omniscience  of  the  experts  and  "columnists"  of 
the  ivory  towers. 

In  the  United  States  a  few  minor  efforts  were 
made  to  limit  freedom  of  the  press — the  Maryland 
"gag"  law  restricting  publication  of  certain  crime 


395 


WBVSPK/NT 


news  was  a  notable  exception — but  abroad  the 
cause  of  a  free  press  suffered.  It  seemed  obvious 
that  in  a  world  in  which  most  governments  in- 
creased their  control  over  economics,  business,  and 
production  (this  including  allocation  of  newsprint) 
the  drift  would  be  toward  greater  control  of  the 
contents  of  the  press. 

In  Great  Britain  newspapers  increased  in  size  to 
six  pages  daily,  thanks  to  a  greater  supply  of  paper, 
and  essential  freedom  was  not  hampered.  The 
Royal  Commission  pursued  its  inquiry,  begun  by 
the  Labor  government,  into  charges  that  newspa- 
pers in  Britain  were  being  channelled  into  fewer 
hands  by  the  owners  of  great  chains.  In  Argentina 
the  dictator  Peron  harassed  the  independent  press, 
and  foreign  correspondents  as  well.  Russia  pushed 
its  curbs  on  news-gathering  into  Czechoslovakia, 
and  various  restrictions  were  imposed  in  Yugosla- 
via, the  Near  East,  and  in  China.  The  licensing  of 
newspapers  in  Germany  was  continued  and  a  num- 
ber of  publications  were  banned.  In  many  countries 
in  which  no  actual  censorship  was  imposed,  diffi- 
culties were  placed  in  the  way  of  the  correspond- 
ents. 

The  threat  of  increasing  costs  of  production  and 
of  interrupted  production  by  reason  of  strikes  (of 
which  many  took  place  in  the  year)  led  to  renewed 
research  to  find  new  methods  of  setting  and  print- 
ing newspapers.  The  Yde  Daily  News  began  the 
use  of  typed  and  engraved  plates  as  its  regular 
daily  practice.  The  American  Newspaper  Publishers 
Association  intensified  its  research  into  the  fields  of 
printing  processes.  Little  fundamental  change  in 
the  cumbersome  and  varied  operations  of  news- 
paper production  has  taken  place  in  two  genera- 
tions, except  in  improving  the  speed  of  equipment. 

Frank  Starzel  was  made  General  Manager  of 
the  Associated  Press  in  October,  1948,  and  Kent 
Cooper,  who  had  held  this  post  for  23  years, 
assumed  the  duties  of  Executive  Director  of  this 
world-wide  cooperative  news-gathering  organi- 
zation. 

The  New  York  Times  announced  plans,  provided 
lower  air  transportation  rates  could  be  arranged, 
to  issue  a  special  foreign  edition  to  be  distributed 
by  air  mail.  The  New  York  Herald  Tribune  entered 
into  a  contract  with  the  Economic  Cooperation 
Administration  to  promote  the  sale  of  its  European 
edition  in  bizone  Germany.  It  was  the  first  such 
"information  media"  contract  with  a  newspaper. 

Little  tangible  results  were  observed  from  the 
reports  made  in  recent  years  by  the  Commission 
on  the  Freedom  of  the  Press  of  which  President 
Robert  Hutchins  of  the  University  of  Chicago  was 
chairman.  It  was  probable,  however,  that  the  long- 
range  results  of  this  critical  and  scholarly  analysis 
of  the  newspapers  would  continue  to  be  felt  and 
that  increasing  pressure,  both  from  within  and 
without,  would  tend  to  make  the  newspapers  more 
conscious  of  their  social  responsibility  to  democ- 
racy in  the  presentation  of  the  news. 

— CHARLES  McD.  PUCKETTE 

NEWSPRINT.  The  year  1948  saw  considerable  im- 
provement in  the  newsprint  supply  situation  in  the 
United  States,  although  a  complete  balance  be- 
tween demand  and  supply  has  not  yet  been 
attained.  While  there  were  no  reports  of  actual 
hardship  cases  among  newspaper  publishers  in 
1948 — as  had  been  the  case  in  1946  and  to  a  lesser 
extent  in  1947 — many  of  them  reportedly  would 
have  used  more  newsprint  had  it  been  available. 
Supply.  The  increase  in  supply  of  newsprint  avail- 
able to  United  States  newspaper  publishers  was 
due  almost  entirely  to  greater  imports,  since  there 


was  relatively  little  increase  in  domestic  produc- 
tion. There  was  further  shifting  of  newsprint  ca- 
pacity in  this  country  to  other  grades,  but  this  was 
counterbalanced  by  installation  of  new  facilities 
and  the  more  or  less  temporary  conversion  to  news- 
print production  of  machines  formerly  manufac- 
turing other  kinds  of  paper.  The  past  year  also  saw 
the  beginning  of  building  operations  on  the  second 
mill  to  produce  newsprint  from  southern  pine, 
which,  when  completed,  will  add  about  100,000 
tons  to  the  annual  capacity  of  the  domestic  in- 
dustry. 

There  was  a  substantial  increase  in  imports 
from  Canada  and  Newfoundland  which  was  due  in 
part  to  inability  of  overseas  consumers — -due  to 
dollar  shortages — to  take  all  the  tonnage  previously 
contracted  for.  The  newsprint  thus  released  found 
a  ready  market  in  this  country. 

Despite  a  reportedly  pronounced  shortage  of 
newsprint  in  Europe,  imports  from  that  source — 
with  the  exception  of  1937  and  1939— were  the 
greatest  on  record.  Approximately  one-half  of  the 
imports  from  Europe  originated  in  Finland,  while 
Sweden,  France,  and  Norway  together  accounted 
for  practically  all  of  the  balance. 

The  following  table  gives  the  sources  of  news- 
print used  in  the  United  States  in  the  prewar  years 
1937-1939  and  in  the  last  two  years.  The  figures 
for  1948  are  estimated  on  the  basis  of  information 
available  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

TABLE  I—SOURCES  OF  NEWSPRINT  USED  IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES 
(Thousands  of  short  tons] 

U.S.  imports  from 

New-  Avail- 

U.S.      U.S.  found-  able 

output    exports  Canada       land     Europe  for  use 

946         17         2,895         128         294         4,246 
820  -          --          ---          

939 

826         __          _,_          _„          

1948....  860(?)     28(?)     3,799(?)     229 (?)    256 (?)     5T116(?) 

Study  of  the  above  data  indicates  the  extent  to 
which  this  country  is  dependent  on  Canada  and 
Newfoundland  for  its  supply  of  newsprint  Nearly 

TABLE  2— WORLD  NEWSPRINT  PRODUCTION 
(Thousands  of  short  tons) 


1937.. 
1938.. 
1939 . . 
1947....  826 


6 
13 
28 


1,963 
2,203 
3,631 


68 
99 
198 


243  3,088 
310  3,538 
129  4,756 


Average 

Country 
Canada  

1947 
4,447 

1946 
4,143 

1937-1939 
3,047 

United  States  

826 

771 

901 

Newfoundland  

373 

363 

308 

Sweden  

302 

290 

295 

Finland  

297 

259 

475 

United  Kingdom  

288 

330 

945 

France  

203 

133 

349 

Norway  

124 

121 

209 

Japan  

99 

83 

314 

Germany  

72« 

80* 

482 

Belgium  

50 

35 

50 

Austria  

42 

29 

47 

Switzerland  

41 

38 

45 

Netherlands  

.  .  .  ,  .        39 

39 

105 

Czechoslovakia  

39 

38 

42 

Italy  

37(?) 

32 

70 

Australia  

36 

34 

Poland  

35 

29 

35 

Brazil  

18 

9 

7 

Spain  

16 

15 

20 

Hungary  

10 

4 

5 

Chile  

6 

6 

9 

Portugal  

3 

3 

TJ.S.S.R.*  

250  « 

200" 

223 

Bulgaria  

(?) 

3 

Total  

7,653 

7,084 

7,986 

0  Exclusive  of  the  Soviet  Zone.  6  Includes  Estonia,  Latvia 
and  Lithuania.  *  Estimate  includes  the  Soviet  Zone  of  Ger- 
many. 

80  percent  of  the  tonnage  available  for  consump- 
tion in  1948  came  from  these  two  countries. 


NEW  YORK 


396 


NEW  ZEALAND 


Consumption.  A  combination  of  very  high  news- 
paper circulations  and  advertising  linage  substan- 
tially in  excess  of  all  previous  records  contributed 
to  the  all-time  high  estimated  consumption  of  ap- 
proximately 5,100,000  tons  of  newsprint  in  the 
United  States  in  1948.  This  was  equivalent  to 
about  70  pounds  per  capita  and  represented  an 
increase  of  nearly  4  pounds  over  1947  and  9 
pounds  above  1946.  Although  the  3,780,000  ton 
consumption  of  newsprint  in  1929  was  exceeded 
in  a  number  of  years  prior  to  this  country's  involve- 
ment in  World  War  II,  the  62  pounds  per  capita 
use  reached  that  year  represented  a  peak  wnich 
was  not  topped  until  1947,  which  in  turn  was 
surpassed  by  a  substantial  margin  in  1948. 

World  Production.  The  following  table  is  the  result 
of  a  world  newsprint  survey  undertaken  in  cooper- 
ation with  the  Office  of  International  Trade, 
United  States  Department  of  Commerce.  There 
was  an  indicated  increase  of  8  percent  in  global 
output  in  1947  compared  with  1946,  while  com- 
parison with  the  1937-1939  average  shows  a  de- 
crease of  4  percent. 

NEW  YORK.  A  middle  Atlantic  State.  Area:  49,576 
sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  14,  386,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  13,479,142.  Chief 
cities:  Albany  (capital),  130,577  inhabitants  in 
1940;  New  York  City,  7,454,995.  See  AGRICULTURE, 
EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS, 
UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  March  31, 
1947,  total  revenue  amounted  to  $925,200,000;  to- 
tal expenditure,  $907,040,000. 

legislation.  The  annual  session  of  die  legislature 
convened  January  7  and  adjourned  March  13, 
having  appropriated  a  record-breaking  total  in  ex- 
cess of  $800  million.  Of  this,  $451  million  is  aid  to 
local  governments  of  which  New  York  City  was 
to  receive  $237  million.  State  school  aid  was  in- 
creased by  about  $30  million,  and  temporary  aid  of 
$26  million  extended  in  1947  was  made  permanent. 
Approval  was  given  to  establishment  of  a  State 
university,  comprising  a  series  of  four-year  col- 
leges, two  medical  centers,  and  other  professional 
and  technical  schools. 

Few  State  tax  changes  were  made,  except  for 
special  personal  income  and  cigarette  levies  to  re- 
tire veterans*  bonus  bonds.  New  York  City  received 
authority  to  increase  the  nickel  subway  fare,  dou- 
ble its  gross  receipts  business  tax,  and  impose 
minor  new  taxes,  while  municipalities  in  the  State 
generally  benefit  from  assumption  by  the  State  of 
maintenance  costs  of  arterial  highways. 

Other  enactments  increased  unemployment  and 
workmen's  compensation  benefits;  expanded  State 
regulatory  control  over  insurance  companies;  ear- 
marked $20  million  for  pay  increases  to  State  em- 
ployees; doubled  salaries  of  State  legislators — to 
$5,000  a  year;  and  increased  municipalities'  pow- 
ers to  provide  parking  facilities  and  to  stimulate 
construction  of  veterans*  housing  cooperatives. 

Elections.  Dewey  carried  his  home  State's  47  elec- 
toral votes — Roosevelt's  in  1944 — by  a  narrow 
margin,  receiving  2,837,858  votes  to  Truman's 
2,795,081.  Wallace  received  508,542  votes,  about 
half  of  his  total  in  the  nation.  In  races  for  the 
State's  45  House  seats,  Democrats  won  24  (a  gain 
of  9),  Republicans  20,  and  American  Labor  Party 
1.  One  successful  Democrat,  John  J.  Delaney — 7th 
District,  died  before  the  81st  Congress  convened. 
There  were  no  Statewide  contests  for  Senator  or 
State  office. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Thomas  E.  Dewey; 
Lieut  Governor,  Joe  R.  Hanley;  Secretary  of  State, 


Thomas  J.  Curran;  Attorney  General,  Nathaniel  L. 
Goldstein;  State  Comptroller,  Frank  C.  Moore. 

NEW  ZEAtAMD.  A  British  self-governing  dominion 
in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  consisting  chiefly  of 
two  large  islands  about  1,200  miles  east  of  the 
southeastern  coast  of  Australia.  The  dominion  has 
jurisdiction  over  Western  Samoa  (a  United  Na- 
tions trusteeship),  Tokelau  (Union  Islands),  some 
islands  of  Oceania,  and  the  Ross  Dependency. 
Capital,  Wellington. 

Area  and  Population.  Total  area,  103,410  square 
miles.  Population  in  1948,  1,804,276,  including 
108,042  Maoris.  The  European  birth  rate  in  1947 
was  26.4  per  1,000.  Chief  cities  in  1947:  Auckland, 
281,900;  Wellington,  183,100;  Christchurch,  159,- 
400;  Dunedin,  87,700. 

Education  and  Religion.  Primary  education  in  New 
Zealand  is  free  and  compulsory.  At  the  end  of  1946 
the  enrolment  in  the  public  primary  schools  was 
218,055.  There  are  a  large  number  of  schools  of 
various  kinds  for  secondary  education.  The  Uni- 
versity of  New  Zealand  includes  4  colleges  and  two 
affiliated  agricultural  colleges.  The  latest  available 
figures  show  religious  affiliations  as  follows: 
Church  of  England,  40  percent;  Presbyterian,  23 
percent;  Roman  Catholic,  13  percent;  and  the  re- 
mainder scattered. 

Production.  In  spite  of  the  rapid  expansion  of  in- 
dustry, New  Zealand's  economy  still  rests  upon  ag- 
riculture as  the  source  of  the  necessary  exports. 
Wool,  dairy  products,  and  meats  are  the  most  im- 
portant agricultural  products.  In  1947  there  were 
33,000,000  sheep  and  1,700,000  dairy  cows.  The 
chief  industries  are  closely  connected  with  agri- 
culture. In  1945-46  meat  freezing  and  preserving 
was  first  and  butter,  cheese  and  condensed  milk 
manufacture  second.  Coal  production  in  the  first 
quarter  of  1948  was  at  the  annual  rate  of  2,600,000 
tons.  Because  of  the  inadequacy  of  the  supply 
coal  is  imported  from  the  United  States  and  British 
Commonwealth  countries. 

foreign  Trade.  For  a  number  of  years  New  Zea- 
land has  maintained  a  surplus  of  exports  over  im- 
ports, but  in  1947  the  margin  was  slight:  exports 
were  $417  million  and  imports  $415  million.  Prin- 
cipal exports  are  wool,  butter,  and  frozen  meat. 
Exports  of  wool  to  all  countries,  July  1,  1947- 
Mar.  31,  1948:  925,423  bales;  to  the  United  States, 
42,026  bales.  Principal  imports  are  machine  prod- 
ucts and  textiles. 

Transportation.  In  1947  there  were  3,460  miles 
of  government  railway  lines  open  for  traffic.  The 
number  of  overseas  vessels  entering  New  Zealand 
ports  in  the  first  4  months  of  1948  was  179,  as  com- 
pared with  158  in  the  first  4  months  of  1947.  The 
New  Zealand  Airways  Corporation  operates  the 
nationalized  internal  air  services,  with  2,417,679 
miles  flown  in  the  year  ended  June,  1947. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  1947-48  showed  a  sur- 
plus of  £NZ1,786,000.  The  1948-49  budget  called 
for  revenue  of  £NZ1 14,867,000,  compared  with 
£NZ117,000  collected  in  1947-48.  For  the  reval- 
uation of  the  New  Zealand  currency  in  1948,  see 
Events  below. 

Government.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  a  Gov- 
ernor General,  appointed  by  the  Crown  for  5  years 
on  recommendation  of  the  Dominion  Government. 
Legislative  power  rests  with  a  Parliament  of  two 
chambers:  the  Legislative  Council  with  an  inde- 
terminate number  of  members  (usually  over  30), 
appointed  by  the  Governor  General  for  7  years, 
and  the  House  of  Representatives  of  80  members, 
including  four  Maoris,  elected  every  three  years 
by  general  male  and  female  suffrage.  Labor  was 


NEW  ZEALAND 


397 


NICARAGUA 


in  power  in  1948  as  a  result  of  the  1946  election. 
Governor  General,  Lieut.  Gen,  Sir  Bernard  Frey- 
berg.  Prime  Minister,  Peter  Fraser  (Labor), 

Events,  1948.  The  surface  prosperity  which  con- 
tinued in  New  Zealand  in  1948  failed  to  satisfy  the 
Government,  to  whom  the  rising  spiral  of  wages 
and  prices  was  disturbing.  The  greatest  weakness 
in  the  economy  appeared  to  be  the  excess  of  money 
in  comparison  with  the  goods  available. 

Revaluation  of  the  Pound.  A  dramatic  step  was 
taken  on  August  19,  when  the  New  Zealand  pound, 
which  had  been  set  at  125  to  100  British  pounds  in 
1933,  was  raised  in  value  to  full  parity  with  the 
pound  sterling.  The  announcement  was  made  sud- 
denly by  Finance  Minister  Walter  Nash,  as  a  part 
of  his  presentation  of  the  budget  to  the  House  of 
Representatives. 

In  presenting  the  case,  the  Finance  Minister 
said  that  if  the  income  of  the  country  was  to  be 
equitably  shared,  costs  must  come  down  imme- 
diately. He  discussed  the  most  serious  aspect  of  the 
change,  the  effect  on  the  New  Zealand  farmers 
whose  exports  of  wool,  meat,  and  dairy  produce 
are  vital  to  the  maintenance  of  the  country  s  inter- 
national position,  and  promised  guaranteed  farm 
prices  if  necessary. 

Nash  reminded  the  House  that  when  the  pound 
was  depreciated  to  125  in  1933,  the  purpose  was 
to  obtain  foreign  sales  for  these  producers  by  offer- 
ing the  foreign  purchasers  a  cheaper  pound.  The 
reverse  of  that  advantage  for  New  Zealand  farm- 
ers was  the  higher  cost  of  imported  raw  materials 
and  other  commodities,  which  affected  the  fanners 
as  well  as  the  manufacturers  and  the  consumers. 
The  Cabinet,  he  said  in  an  interview  later,  reached 
its  decision  to  return  to  parity  on  the  afternoon  of 
budget  day,  without  prior  consultation  with  Lon- 
don. 

Reaction  fo  Parity.  The  people  of  New  Zealand 
responded  to  the  sudden  news  according  to  their 
economic  interests.  Farmers  were  critical,  in  spite 
of  Finance  Minister  Nasr/s  promise  that  farm  in- 
come from  butter,  cheese,  meat,  tallow,  wheat 
and  many  other  products  would  not  be  adversely 
affected  and  that  the  Government  was  prepared 
to  guarantee  prices  for  still  other  products.  Man- 
ufacturers recognized  their  gains  from  lower  costs 
of  imported  raw  materials,  but  expressed  anxiety 
about  foreign  competition  with  finished  products 
and  uncertainty  about  how  much  import  controls 
could  shelter  them. 

The  sharpest  foreign  issue  involved  was  the 
attitude  of  Australia,  whose  currency  ratios  had 
corresponded  with  New  Zealand's.  Australian 
Prime  Minister  Chifley  promptly  asserted  that 
Australia  would  not  adjust  the  exchange  rate  at 
that  stage,  for  as  an  exporting  country  over  a  wider 
range  of  commodities  than  New  Zealand's,  a  re- 
turn to  parity  would  create  greater  problems, 
Moreover  Australia,  as  a  member  of  the  Interna- 
tional Monetary  Fund — which  New  Zealand  had 
declined  to  join — could  not  make  more  than  a  10 
percent  variation  in  the  rate  of  exchange  without 
first  obtaining  the  approval  of  the  Fund. 

In  Canada,  which  was  familiar  with  the  experi- 
ence of  revaluing  the  currency,  comment  was 
largely  limited  to  estimating  the  effects  on  Can- 
adian foreign  trade.  It  was  estimated  in  Ottawa 
that  New  Zealand  merchandise  would  now  cost 
Canada  $3  million  more,  with  the  offsetting  con- 
sideration that  Canadian  products  might  have  a 
better  market  in  New  Zealand. 

Cfifieisin  In  london.  Although  official  London 
maintained  a  diplomatic  silence,  criticism  was 
heard  elsewhere.  Some  comments  follow. 


Observer,  August  22;  "Here  is  a  move  of  mone- 
tary policy  of  first-rate  importance  made  by  one 
member  of  the  family  without  any  reference  to  Brit- 
ain, or?  as  far  as  is  known,  to  any  of  the  other  Do- 
minions. .  .  .  New  Zealand,  by  her  secretiveness, 
may  have  cut  herself  off  from  wise  advice,  and  may 
later  regret  her  action." 

The  Times,  City  [financial]  Notes,  August  20: 
"Memories  of  how  Canada  and  Sweden  lived  to  re- 
gret considerable  less  drastic  upward  revaluation 
are  too  fresh  to  allow  New  Zealand's  action  to  be 
viewed  without  uneasiness." 

There  was  something  deeper  than  pique  in  the 
disturbance  expressed  by  unofficial  Britain,  New 
Zealand  food  supplies  were  a  mainstay  of  the  non- 
dollar food  imports;  and  although  bulk  contracts 
had  recently  been  negotiated  with  New  Zealand, 
pressure  for  renegotiation  of  contracts  was  foreseen 
on  the  part  of  both  New  Zealand  farmers  and  their 
Government. 

Restriction  of  Imports.  The  1949  import  licensing 
schedule  was  announced  on  October  19,  Import 
licenses  from  dollar  currency  areas  were  limited 
to  absolutely  essential  commodities  not  available 
from  sterling  sources,  and  purchases  from  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  other  dollar  areas  were  put  on  the 
basis  of  individual  applications.  In  this  connection 
Finance  Minister  Nash  expressed  New  Zealand's 
intention  of  living  within  its  income  from  exports. 

In  connection  with  the  control  of  exports  and 
imports,  New  Zealand  concluded  agreements  with 
specific  countries.  As  a  result  of  a  conference  in 
Canberra  in  June,  New  Zealand  and  Australia 
agreed  to  coordinate  their  economic  policies  so 
that  they  would  become  less  dependent  on  imports 
from  North  America  and  Europe.  New  Zealand 
was  one  of  the  five  British  Commonwealth  coun- 
tries to  enter  into  the  trade  agreement  with  Japan 
announced  after  the  conclusion  of  the  Conference 
of  Commonwealth  Prime  Ministers  in  London  in 
October.  New  Zealand  agreed  to  sell  Japan  goods 
to  the  value  of  $2,500,000  until  June  30,  1949, 
and  to  accept  imports  to  the  same  amount.  Wool 
was  scheduled  to  have  a  large  place  in  the  sales 
to  Japan. 

Parliamentary  Session.  In  opening  Parliament  on 
June  22  Governor  General  Sir  Bernard  Freyberg 
expressed  the  hope  that  the  Prime  Ministers  of  the 
British  Commonwealth  would  soon  meet  to  dis- 
cuss Western  Union  and  other  urgent  matters  of 
common  concern.  When  this  meeting  took  place  in 
London  October  11-22  Prime  Minister  Peter  Fra- 
ser was  present.  Fraser  took  an  active  part  in  the 
conferences  with  Eire  relating  to  the  latter's  sev- 
erance of  ties  with  the  Commonwealth. 

Early  in  the  session  (June  30)  Parliament  rat- 
ified the  Geneva  Agreement  on  Tariffs  and  Trade, 
thus  putting  into  effect  the  tariff  concessions 
granted  to  the  United  States  and  others  at  the 
Geneva  Conference  of  1947.  Sir  Bernard  Freyberg 
and  Lady  Freyberg  began  a  month's  visit  to  Aus- 
tralia in  November.  New  Zealand  expanded  its 
plan  of  granting  assisted  passages  to  single  British 
immigrants  early  in  the  year,  when  there  were 
more  than  20,000  British  applicants  waiting  for 
passage.  In  the  autumn  homes  were  offered  for 
1,000  refugee  widows,  orphans  and  old  people. 
— ALZAPA  COMSTOCK 

NICARAGUA.  A  republic  of  Central  America.  The 
western  highlands  slope  gradually  toward  the  west 
and  end  in  the  Caribbean  lowlands.  There  are 
other  lowland  regions  that  cross  the  country  di- 
agonally. The  Caribbean  littoral  is  wet  and  humid. 
Dry  winters  prevail  in  the  northwest. 


NICARAGUA 


398 


NICKEL 


Area  and  Population.  Area,  57,143  square  miles. 
Population,  1,140,000  (1947),  of  which  about  68 
percent  are  mestizos,  17  percent  of  European  de- 
scent, 10  percent  Negroes,  and  5  percent  Indians. 
Principal  cities;  Managua  (capital),  Leon,  Mata- 
galpa,  and  Granada. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the 
predominant  religion,  Spanish  Is  the  official  lan- 
guage. Of  the  total  population  over  7  years  of 
age,  62.96  percent  are  illiterate.  During  the  school 
year  of  1943-46,  there  were  1,050  elementary  and 
secondary  schools,  with  an  enrollment  of  84,651 
students.  There  are  three  universities  in  Nicaragua, 
that  in  1946  had  a  combined  enrollment  of  665 
students. 

Production.  The  country's  economy  depends  on 
agriculture,  stock-raising,  and  mining  of  gold  and 
silver.  Leading  agricultural  products  in  1946  were 
com,  58,352,000  pounds;  rice,  25,636,000  pounds; 
sugar,  25  million  pounds;  coffee,  225,000  bags;  and 
beans,  118,000  bushels.  Other  agricultural  prod- 
ucts included  sesame,  cotton,  tobacco,  peanuts, 
and  bananas.  The  cattle  industry  produced  enough 
for  domestic  consumption  and  a  small  amount  for 
export,  which  in  1946  came  to  41,000  head  of 
cattle  and  159,000  kilos  of  hides  and  skins.  Gold 
exports  the  same  year  were  valued  at  7,117,000 
gold  cordobas  (coVdoba  =  U.S.$0.20;  1939— No- 
vember, 1948).  The  vast  forests  of  the  eastern 
regions  produce  timber  for  domestic  use  and  some 
for  export. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1947,  total  exports  were  valued 
at  $13.3  million  and  imports  at  $20.8  million.  Dur- 
ing the  first  8  months  of  1948,  Nicaragua's  exports 
were  valued  at  $16.5  million;  Imports,  $14.4  mil- 
lion. 

Chief  buyers  from  Nicaragua  are  the  U.S.,  Costa 
Rica,  Panama,  and  Great  Britain.  Principal  sources 
of  Imports  are  the  U.S.,  Mexico,  Costa  Rica,  and 
the  Netherlands  West  Indies. 

Transportation.  The  country  has  381  kilometers  of 
railroad  and  3,151  miles  of  highway  of  all  types. 
Most  recent  statistics  indicate  1,484  motor  ve- 
hicles, 6,000  radios,  and  1,510  telephones. 

Finance.  In  the  budget  for  the  fiscal  year 
1946-47,  revenue  was  estimated  at  83,077,031 
c6rdobas,  and  expenditure  at  82,697,268  cordobas. 
Currency  in  circulation  in  July  of  1948  was  49.1 
million  cordobas.  Bank  deposits  (October,  1948) 
were  33.2  million  cordobas,  and  gold  reserves  $3,- 
520,000. 

Government.  Under  the  constitution  of  1939,  Nic- 
aragua is  a  centralized  republic,  divided  into  four- 
teen departments  and  one  National  District.  Exec- 
utive power  is  vested  in  a  President,  elected  for  a 
six-year  term.  Legislative  power  is  exercised  by  a 
bicameral  Congress  composed  of  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies  and  a  Chamber  of  Senators.  In  August, 
1947,  a  Constituent  Assembly  elected  Dr.  Victor 
Manuel  Roman  to  the  Presidency.  He  is  an  uncle 
of  Anastasio  Sornoza,  Nicaragua's  "strong  man." 

Events,  1948.  Although  no  change  in  the  govern- 
ment took  place,  the  year  was  one  of  turbulent  po- 
litical activity.  On  the  domestic  front,  action  was 
centered  on  opposition  to  the  Roman-Somoza  ad- 
ministration, and  beyond  Nicaraguan  borders,  on 
efforts  by  exiles  to  overthrow  the  regime  by  force. 

Protests  and  Confusion.  Toward  the  end  of  April, 
the  press  started  a  campaign  against  government 
censorship.  Various  journals  agreed  to  suspend 
publication,  and  the  government,  in  reprisal,  cut 
off  the  light  and  telephone  service  in  the  building 
occupied  by  newspaper  La  Flecha.  In  July,  die  ad- 
ministration made  a  move  toward  conciliation,  with 


a  conference  in  the  Argentine  Embassy,  at  which 
President  Roman  and  General  Somoza  met  with 
leaders  of  the  Liberal  Party.  The  government  press 
said  this  would  pave  the  way  to  better  political 
relations  for  the  country,  but  the  Liberal  Party 
denied  rumors  of  an  agreement  with  the  govern- 
ment, as  the  circumstances  motivating  their  oppo- 
sition had  not  altered. 

Cabinet  Re-shuffling  and  Rebellion.  At  the  end  of 
August,  General  Somoza,  Minister  of  War  and 
Head  of  the  National  Guard,  offered  his  resigna- 
tion to  President  Roman,  and  his  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  members  of  the  Cabinet.  The  pur- 
pose was  ostensibly  to  open  the  door  to  a  Cabinet 
reorganization  that  might  permit  the  appointment 
of  members  of  the  Liberal  Party.  Since  die  resigna- 
tion was  only  a  gesture  and  not  meant  to  be  ac- 
cepted, Somoza  ?  continued  to  be  "the  power  be- 
hind the  throne."  A  few  days  later,  the  government 
press  reported  a  rebel  movement  near  the  borders 
of  Honduras,  led  by  Gen.  Carlos  Castro  of  the 
Liberal  Party.  The  government  sent  troops  of  the 
National  Guard  under  Maj.  Anastasio  Somoza,  son 
of  the  Caudillo,  and  the  rebellion  was  crushed. 

Inter-  American  Problems.  During  the  year,  the  gov- 
ernment was  much  concerned  with  the  activities 
of  the  so-called  Caribbean  Legion,  a  military  force 
said  to  be  formed  by  exiles  from  Nicaragua,  Hon- 
duras, and  Santo  Domingo,  which  was  planning  to 
overthrow  the  governments  of  those  countries. 
General  Somoza  publicly  denounced  the  Legion 
and  the  aid  given  them,  especially  by  Guatemala, 
Cuba,  and  Costa  Rica.  These  nations  denied  the 
charges. 

On  December  10,  Costa  Rica  was  invaded  by 
a  rebel  group  headed  by  Rafael  Calderon  Guardia, 
one  of  the  candidates  in  the  recent  presidential 
elections  of  Costa  Rica  (see  COSTA  RICA).  The 
government  of  Costa  Rica  stated  that  the  invasion 
was  organized  in  Nicaragua  and  had  received  So- 
moza's  support  (It  was  rumored  that  the  invasion. 
was  fostered  by  Somoza  in  order  to  prevent  Costa 
Rica's  being  used  as  a  base  for  Legion  activities 
against  Nicaragua.)  The  case  was  referred  to  the 
Organization  of  American  States  under  the  Rio  de 
Janeiro  Treaty,  and  a  Commission  of  Inquiry  was 
appointed  to  investigate  the  aggression.  At  the  end 
of  the  year,  the  Commission  was  functioning  in 
Costa  Rica. 

The  Bogota  Conference.  Nicaragua  attended  the 
Ninth  Inter-American  Conference  of  American 
States  held  at  Bogota  in  April  (see  PAN  AMERICAN 
ACTIVITIES),  and  became  signatory  to  the  Charter 
of  the  Americas.  —  MIGUEL 


NICKEL  Shipments  of  Canadian  nickel  reached  a 
peacetime  peak  in  1948  to  meet  heavy  worldwide 
demand  for  alloying  in  steels,  irons  and  nonferrous 
metals,  and  for  electroplating.  The  needs  of  the 
rearmament  program  and  U.S.  stockpiling  made 
it  necessary  for  Canadian  producers  to  limit  sales 
in  many  cases.  Production  was  restricted  by  a 
power  shortage  in  Ontario,  the  major  world  pro- 
ducing area,  due  to  inadequate  rainfall.  Canadian 
production  in  the  first  10  months  was  105,375  net 
tons  (year  1947:  117,781  tons).  Production  in 
New  Caledonia  is  estimated  to  be  below  the  1947 
rate.  Cuban  production  has  been  discontinued.  In 
July  the  International  Nickel  Company  advanced 
the  price  by  6%  cents  per  lb.,  making  electrolytic 
nickel  to  contract  customers  40  cents  per  lb.,  f.o.b. 
Port  Colborne,  Ont.  The  advance  was  attributed 
to  higher  costs,  including  recovery  from  lower 
grade  ores. 
Nickel  oxide  sinter,  a  new  product  for  alloying 


NIGERIA  399 

of  steels,  is  now  in  production  for  sale  at  36% 
cents  per  Ib.  of  nickel  contained,  f.o.b.  Copper 
Cliff,  Ont.  Total  consumption  of  nickel  by  domestic 
industry  in  1947  was  80,757  tons,  of  which  41 
percent  went  to  the  steel  industry.  Production  by 
the  U.S.S.R.  at  Petsamo  is  not  reported.  However 
Russia's  payments  to  the  International  Nickel  Com- 
pany for  its  interest  in  the  former  Finnish  mine 
are  being  made,  amounting  to  more  than  $12 
million  by  the  end  of  1948.  — JOHN  ANTHONY 

NIGERIA.  A  British  colony  and  protectorate  in  West 
Africa,  including  for  administrative  purposes  the 
United  Nations  Trust  Territory  (since  Dec.  13, 
1946)  of  British  Cameroons.  Total  area  (including 
Cameroons):  372,674  square  miles.  Population 
(1946):  22,980,000.  Chief  towns  (1945):  Ibadan 
327,284,  Lagos  (capital)  174,200,  Kano  89,812, 
Ogbomosho  81,740,  Oyo  79,340,  Iwo  74,764, 
Oshogbo  59,352.  Primitive  areas  have  in  general 
retained  ancestral  religions,  but  Christianity  and 
Islam  have  many  adherents.  Education  has  made 
slow  progress,  except  in  the  Christian  areas.  Only 
about  one-seventh  of  the  children  of  school  age  are 
in  primary  or  secondary  schools. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  products  of  Nigeria 
include  agricultural  and  forest  products,  gold,  tin, 
and  a  variety  of  other  minerals.  Palm  kernels,  palm 
oil,  cocoa  (1946  export,  100,186  tons),  groundnuts 
(1946  export,  285,668  tons),  hides  and  skins  are 
important  exports.  Cotton  piece  goods  are  usually 
the  leading  import,  but  iron  and  steel  manufactures 
are  also  required  in  volume.  In  1947  imports  were 
valued  at  £32,466,000;  exports  £37,155,000. 

Government.  Budget  (1946-47):  revenue  £14,- 
955,750;  expenditure  £14,426,830;  public  debt 
£22,064,599.  The  administration  is  headed  by  a 
governor,  aided  by  an  executive  council  and  a  legis- 
lative council  of  not  more  than  30  official  members 
and  21  elected  or  appointed  members  to  represent 
business  and  native  interests.  The  legislative  coun- 
cil enacts  laws  for  the  whole  of  Nigeria.  There  is  a 
House  of  Assembly  for  the  northern  provinces,  the 
western  provinces,  and  the  eastern  provinces.  Gov- 
ernor: Sir  John  Stewart  Macpherson. 

NOBEl  PRIZES.  The  will  of  Alfred  B.  Nobel  provided 
for  five  annual  prizes  to  be  awarded  to  persons 
who,  in  different  fields  of  activity,  had  made  the 
greatest  contributions  toward  the  progress  of  the 
world  and  the  welfare  of  humanity.  Prizes  are  di- 
vided equally  among  recipients  for  distinguished 
work  in  physics,  chemistry,  physiology  or  medicine, 
literature,  and  in  the  promotion  of  world  peace. 
The  awards  in  physics  and  chemistry  are  made  by 
the  Royal  (Swedish)  Academy  of  Sciences,  that  in 
physiology  or  medicine  by  the  Caroline  Institute  in 
Stockholm,  that  in  literature  by  the  Swedish  Acad- 
emy, and  that  in  peace  by  a  committee  of  five 
elected  by  the  Norwegian  Storting.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  Nobel  Prizes  takes  place  every  year  on 
December  10,  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of  the 
founder.  Awards  of  the  1948  prizes  ( each  amount- 
ing to  159,773  Swedish  crowns;  about  $44,381) 
were  as  follows: 

Medicine  and  Physiology.  The  prize  was  awarded 
to  Professor  Paul  Herman  Mueller  (born  1899)  of 
Switzerland,  director  at  the  scientific  laboratories  of 
the  firm  of  Geigy  at  Basle,  Switzerland;  "for  his  dis- 
covery of  the  strong  effect  of  DDT  as  a  compact 
poison  against  a  number  of  arthropodes." 

Peace.  The  prize  was  allocated  with  one-third 
to  the  main  fund  of  the  Foundation  and  with  two- 
thirds  to  the  special  fund  for  this  group  of  prizes. 

Physics.  The  prize  was  awarded  to  Professor  Pat- 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


rick  M.  S.  Blackett  (bom  1897),  professor  at  the 
University  of  Manchester,  England;  "for  his  devel- 
opment of  the  Wilson  cloud  chamber  method  and 
his  discoveries  in  connection  therewith  in  the  do- 
main of  nuclear  physics  and  cosmic  radiation/* 

Chemistry.  The  prize  for  1948  was  awarded  to 
Professor  Arne  Tiselius  (born  1902)  of  Sweden, 
professor  of  biochemistry  at  the  University  of  Up- 
sala,  Sweden;  "for  his  electrophoretic  and  adsorp- 
tion analytical  researches,  especially  for  his  discov- 
eries concerning  the  complex  nature  of  the  serum 
proteins." 

Literature.  The  prize  for  1948  was  awarded  to 
Dr.  Thomas  Stearns  Eliot  (born  1888)  of  London, 
England;  "for  his  remarkable  achievement  as  a 
pioneer  in  modern  poetry." 

NORFOLK  ISLAND.  An  Australian,  island  territory  in 
the  south  Pacific,  930  miles  northeast  of  Sydney. 
Area:  13  square  miles.  Population  (1944):  733. 
The  cultivation  of  citrus  fruits,  bananas,  and  cof- 
fee is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people.  In  1945- 
46  imports  were  valued  at  £  32,402  and  exports  at 
<£  9,024.  An  administrator,  assisted  by  an  advisory 
council,  governs  the  territory. 

NORTH  AMERICA.  The  continent  of  North  America, 
excluding  Mexico  and  Central  America,  but  in- 
cluding Greenland,  Newfoundland,  and  smaller  ad- 
jacent islands,  has  an  area  of  about  7,591,498 
square  miles  (19,662,000  square  kilometers)  and 
a  population  estimated  at  143,178,000  on  Jan.  1, 
1940.  The  combined  area  of  Mexico,  Central  Amer- 
ica, and  the  West  Indian  islands  is  about  1,073,080 
square  miles  and  the  population  about  40,870,000. 

NORTH  CAROLINA.  A  south  Atlantic  State.  Area: 
52,426  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  3,715,- 
000,  compared  with  (1940  census)  3,571,623. 
Chief  cities:  Raleigh  (capital),  46,897  inhabitants 
in  1940;  Charlotte,  100,899.  See  AGRICULTURE,  ED- 
UCATION, MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNI- 
VERSITIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS, 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $230,317,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $195,341,000. 

Elections.  Normally  Democratic  North  Carolina 
gave  its  14  electoral  votes  to  Truman  whose  popu- 
lar majority  over  Dewey,  Thurmond,  Wallace,  and 
others  exceeded  100,000.  Democrats  won  all  other 
races:  J.  Melville  Broughton  was  elected  Senator; 
W.  Kerr  Scott  was  elected  Governor;  and  Demo- 
crats retained  all  12  House  seats.  State  officers 
elected  included:  Lieutenant  Governor — EL  P. 
Taylor;  Secretary  of  State — Thad  Eure;  Attorney 
General — Harry  McMullan;  Auditor — Henry  L. 
Bridges;  Treasurer — Brandon  P.  Hodges;  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction — Clyde  A.  Erwin. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  R.  Gregg  Cherry;  Lieut. 
Governor,  L.  Y.  Ballentine;  Secretary  of  State, 
Thad  Eure;  Attorney  General,  Harry  McMullan; 
State  Treasurer,  Charles  M.  Johnson;  State  Audi- 
tor, Henry  L.  Bridges. 

NORTH  DAKOTA.  A  west  north  central  State,  Area: 
70,837  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  560,000 
compared  with  (1940  census)  641,935.  Chief 
cities:  Bismarck  (capital),  15,496  inhabitants  in 
1940;  Fargo,  32,580.  See  AGBICULTTJRE,  EDUCA- 
TION, MINERALS  ANI>  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSI- 
TIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $37,109,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $32,593,000. 

Electrons.  Dewey  received  a  popular  majority  over 


NORTHWEST  TERR/TORI! S 


400 


NORWAY 


Truman,  Wallace,  and  others — including  scattered 
votes  for  Thurmond — and  won  the  4  electoral 

votes.  There  was  no  Senatorial  race.  Republicans 
retained  the  2  House  seats.  Incumbent  Republican 
Governor  Fred  G.  Aandahl  was  reelected.  Other 
State  officials  elected  included:  Lieutenant  Gover- 
nor— C.  P.  Dahl;  Secretary  of  State — Thomas  Hall; 
Attorney  General — Wallace  E.  Warner;  Auditor — 
Berta  E.  Baker;  Treasurer — Albert  Jacobson.  A 
popular  referendum  in  June  approved  a  bonus  to 
veterans. 

Officers,  1948,  Governor,  Fred  G.  Aandahl;  Lieut 
Governor,  C.  P.  Dahl;  Secretary  of  State,  Thomas 
Hal;  Attorney  General,  Nels  G.  Johnson;  State 
Treasurer,  H.  W.  Swenson;  State  Auditor,  Berta  E. 
Baker. 

NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES.   The   northern   areas   of 

Canada,  extending  north  from  the  provinces  and 
Yukon  to  die  North  Pole.  Area:  1,304,903  square 
miles  (including  51,465  sq.  mi.  of  fresh  water).  It 
is  divided,  for  administrative  purposes,  into  the 
districts  of  Franklin  (549,253  sq.  mi.),  Keewatin 
(228,160  sq.  mi.)  and  Mackenzie  (527,490  sq. 
mi.).  Population  (1941  census):  12,028  (1948 
est,  16,000). 

Production,  etc.  Mining,  fur  trapping,  and  rein- 
deer herding  are  the  principal  occupations  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  estimated  value  of  mineral  pro- 
duction in  1947  was  $2,720,988,  the  value  of 
gold  amounting  to  $2,188,095.  Petroleum,  silver, 
and  natural  gas  are  also  produced,  as  are  copper, 
lead,  and  tungsten  ore.  There  were  488,039  pelts 
taken  in  the  season  1946-47,  valued  at  $1,658,754. 
Marketed  value  of  fish  was  $558,264.  In  the  Mac- 
kenzie Valley  are  some  593  acres  of  arable  land 
possible  of  economic  exploitation,  in  spite  of 
high  freighting  and  other  costs.  Finance  (1946- 
47):  revenue,  $976,103;  expenditure,  $6,742,362. 

Government.  A  Territorial  Council,  consisting  of 
a  commissioner,  deputy  commissioner,  and  5  coun- 
cillors appointed  by  the  Governor  General  in 
Council,  controls  the  administration  of  the  Terri- 
tories. The  seat  of  government  is  at  Ottawa,  On- 
tario. Commissioner,  H.  L.  Keenleyside.  See  CAN- 
ADA. 

NORWAY.  A  European  kingdom  occupying  the 
western  and  northern  part  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula.  Capital,  Oslo.  King,  Haakon  VII,  who 
was  bom  in  1872  and  was  elected  to  the  throne  by 
the  Storting  (Parliament)  Nov.  18,  1905.  Premier, 
Einar  Gerhardsen.  Norway  holds  sovereignty  over 
Svalbard  ( Spitzbergen  and  adjacent  islands )  in  the 
Arctic  Sea,  240  miles  distant  from  the  Norwegian 
coast  (see  SVALBABD).  Norway  also  asserts  sov- 
ereignty over  uninhabited  Jan  Mayen  Island  in 
the  Arctic  Sea,  and  certain  uninhabited  areas  in 
the  Antarctic. 

Area  and  Population.  Covering  an  area  of  124,- 
556  square  miles  (land  area,  119,148  sq.  mi.),  Nor- 
way proper  had  3,172,000  inhabitants  on  Jan.  1, 
1948,  by  official  estimate.  Vital  statistics  (rate  per 
1,000  inhabitants)  in  1947:  births,  21.7;  deaths, 
9.4;  marriages,  9.2.  Estimated  populations  of  chief 
cities  in  1947:  Oslo,  300,000;  Bergen,  105,000; 
Trondheim,  55,000;  Stavanger,  47,000. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  state  religion  is  evan- 
gelical Lutheran.  All  faiths  are  tolerated  but  Jesuits 
are  barred  from  the  country.  Education  is  com- 
pulsory; illiteracy  is  low.  The  Norwegian  language 
has  two  idioms,  both  of  which  are  used  officially. 

Production.  Agriculture,  forestry,  mining,  indus- 
try, fishing,  and  whaling  are  the  principal  occupa- 
tions. Food  production  in  1947  was  only  83  per- 


cent of  the  average,  due  to  the  Europe-wide 
drought.  Cereal  crops  totaled  269,400  tons  against 
378,000  tons  in  1946.  The  potato  harvest  was  918,- 
500  tons;  hay,  2,488,600  tons.  Whale  oil  produc- 
tion in  the  1947-48  Antarctic  season  was  935,902 
barrels  ( over  50  percent  of  the  international  total ) , 
against  903,661  for  the  1946-47  season. 

Foreign  Trade,  In  terms  of  money,  foreign  trade 
figures  in  1947  reached  the  highest  points  in  Nor- 
wegian history.  Imports  were  valued  at  3.800  mil- 
lion kroner;  exports  at  1,900  million.  Total  imports 
for  1948  were  valued  at  3,708,500,000  kroner;  total 
exports  2,062,500,000. 

Finance.  The  budget  presented  to  Parliament  on 
Jan.  19,  1948,  for  the  1948-49  fiscal  year,  totals 
2,490  million  kroner,  as  compared  with  2,203  mil- 
lion for  the  1947-48  period. 

Transportation.  Virtually  all  of  Norway's  2,600 
miles  of  railway  are  state-owned  and  operated. 
The  railway  system  is  still  suffering  from  the  effects 
of  the  German  occupation  and  the  need  for  re- 
placements. Of  the  27,000  miles  of  highways  and 
roads,  less  than  2  percent  are  surfaced.  Coastal 
waterways  are  of  prime  importance  and  are^highly 
developed.  About  10  percent  of  the  country's  mer- 
chant marine  is  engaged  in  coast- wise  shipping.  Air 
service  to  various  parts  of  Norway;  daily  or  weekly 
flights  to  continental  points;  and  regular  service  to 
the  United  States  and  South  America  is  furnished 
by  Det  Norske  Luftfartsselskap  (DNL). 

Government.  Under  the  constitution  of  1814,  as 
subsequently  amended,  executive  power  is  vested 
in  the  King,  acting  through  a  cabinet  responsible 
to  the  Storting.  The  Storting  consists  of  150  mem- 
bers elected  for  four  years  by  universal  suffrage. 
It  divides  itself  into  two  sections  of  38  and  112, 
called  the  Lagting  and  Odelsting,  respectively.  In 
the  elections  for  the  Storting  held  on  Oct.  8,  1945, 
the  following  parties  were  elected:  Labor,  76;  Con- 
servative, 25;  Liberal,  20;  Communist,  11;  Agra- 
rian, 10;  and  Christian  Popular,  8. 

Events,  1948.  "Tension  among  the  great  powers 
has  retarded  reconstruction  in  Norway,  and  prog- 
ress during  the  coming  year  will  be  governed  large- 
ly by  developments  abroad,"  Prime  Minister  Ger- 
hardsen predicted  in  his  New  Year  address  to  Par- 
liament. He  went  on  to  say  that  "developments 
abroad  have  resulted  in  greater  economic  stress 
than  was  originally  envisioned.  Price  rises  have 
struck  hard  at  our  foreign  exchange  reserves,  and 
European  exchange  shortages  are  retarding  our 
recovery."  This  picture  did  not  change  materially 
during  the  year. 

On  the  domestic  political  scene,  and  on  the  la- 
bor front,  all  was  quiet  in  Norway  in  1948.  The  So- 
cialist Government  headed  by  Gerhardsen  main- 
tained itself  in  office  for  the  third  straight  year.  A 
minor  Cabinet  reshuffle  took  place  in  July,  follow- 
ing the  death  of  one  minister  and  the  resignation 
of  another. 

There  were  many  rumors  of  Soviet  pressure, 
with  some  foundation  in  fact.  On  March  17,  For- 
eign Minister  Halvard  M.  Lange  confirmed  that 
objections  had  been  raised  by  "outside  sources" 
(meaning  Russia)  to  the  inter-Scandinavian  eco- 
nomic conference  scheduled  to  be  held  at  Copen- 
hagen early  in  April.  "It  was  erroneously  reported 
this  conference  would  discuss  military  coopera- 
tion," he  added.  The  Moscow  newspaper  Izvestia 
on  March  27  sharply  criticized  the  Oslo  Govern- 
ment for  allegedly  "selling  out  Norway  to  the  Unit- 
ed States."  The  paper  charged  that  Norwegian 
armaments  were  being  standardized  with  Ameri- 
can models  and  that  plans  were  afoot  to  lease  Nor- 
wegian territory  (Svalbard  and  Jan  Mayen)  for 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


401 


NUCIEAR  ENERGY 


American  and  British  bases.  This  was  categorically 
denied  by  Defense  Minister  Jens  Hauge. 

Norway's  position  in  the  East-West  conflict  was 
clearly  defined  in  an  address  by  Foreign  Minister 
Lange  on  April  19  before  the  Oslo  Military  So- 
ciety: "There  can  not  be  the  least  doubt  that  we 
are  part  of  western  Europe  geographically,  eco- 
nomically, and  culturally  and  that  we  are  and  will 
remain  a  western  European  democracy."  He  add- 
ed, however,  that  "this  knowledge  must  not  pre- 
vent Norway  from  maintaining  good  relations  and 
expanding  economic  ties  with  the  U.S.S.R.  and 
other  eastern  European  countries." 

Spurred  on  by  the  events  in  Czechoslovakia,  the 
Storting  on  March  16  voted  an  extraordinary  ap- 
propriation of  100  million  kroner  ($20  million) 
for  national  defense.  In  another  move  toward 
strengthening  security  the  House,  on  April  9,  set 
up  a  special  committee  for  Defense  and  Foreign 
Affairs  questions  from  which  the  Communists  were 
excluded.  Generally,  Communist  influence,  never 
very  strong  in  Norway,  was  reduced  to  insignificant 
proportions  as  public  opinion  turned  sharply 
against  the  followers  of  Moscow. 

On  June  4,  a  policy  clash  between  the  Defense 
Ministry  and  the  Army  Command  was  revealed  as 
the  Cabinet  voted  to  remove  Lt.  Gen.  Olav  Helset 
from  his  post  as  commander  in  chief  and  demoted 
him  to  major  general.  On  the  same  day,  Foreign 
Minister  Lange  in  a  speech  at  Malmo,  Sweden,  in- 
dicated that  Norway  would  welcome  military  co- 
operation with  Denmark  and  Sweden.  This  and 
other  Norwegian  feelers  brought  a  noncommittal 
reaction  from  Stockholm  where  the  view  prevailed 
that  Norway  was  leaning  too  strongly  to  the  West 
and  that  Sweden's  position  was  too  exposed  to  go 
along.  Nevertheless  both  Sweden  and  Denmark 
agreed  to  consult  with  Norway  on  a  coordination 
of  Scandinavian  defense  measures  and  a  confer- 
ence on  this  subject  was  held  at  Oslo  on  Octo- 
ber 15-16.  The  conference  was  attended  by  the 
Ministers  of  Defense  of  the  three  powers  as  well 
as  by  numerous  military  experts. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  year,  it  was  apparent  that 
Norway  would  not  turn  down  an  invitation  to  join 
in  the  North  Atlantic  Pact  proposed  by  the  West- 
ern European  Union  and  the  United  States.  "We 
must  join  openly,  honestly,  and  fearlessly  in  the 
international  cooperation  aimed  at  preserving  those 
freedoms  and  rights  which  are  in  themselves  the 
foundation  for  our  existence  as  a  free  people," 
wrote  the  Government  organ  Arbeiderbladet  of 
Oslo  on  November  10,  concluding  that  **hence  we 
must  regard  with  sympathy  and  understanding  the 
establishment  of  a  North  Atlantic  Pact." 

Economic  Affairs.  Norway's  economic  situation  in 
1948  strongly  reflected  world  trends.  The  universal 
dollar  shortage  and  the  general  rise  in  prices  im- 
posed adoption  of  an  "austerity  program"  on  the 
British  model.  Drastic  import  restrictions  improved 
the  foreign  trade  balance  but  hit  the  consumers 
hard,  especially  in  clothing,  textiles,  and  automo- 
biles. Industrial  production  in  1948  was  maintained 
at  generally  high  levels,  with  little  unemployment. 
The  harvest  was  considerably  better  than  in  1947, 
as  were  the  yields  of  the  fishing  industry. 

Norway's  adherence  to  the  Paris  accord  on  the 
Marshall  Plan  was  approved  by  a  108  to  11  vote 
of  the  Storting  on  July  3.  Immediately  afterwards 
the  agreement  was  signed  by  Foreign  Minister 
Lange  and  U.S.  Ambassador  Charles  U.  Bay. 

— JOACHIM  JOESTEN 

NOVA  SCOTIA.  An  eastern  maritime  province  of 
Canada.  Area:  21,068  square  miles,  of  which  20,- 


743  square  miles  are  land  area  and  325  square 
miles  fresh  water.  Population  (census  1941): 
577,962  (est.  pop.  1948),  635,000.  Religious  affil- 
iations include  (1941):  Roman  Catholic,  188,944; 
United  Church,  124,301;  Anglican,  103,393;  Bap- 
tist, 89,272;  Presbyterian,  47,415.  In  1946  there 
were  17,914  live  births;  6,046  deaths;  6,549  mar- 
riages. Education  (1945-46):  138,332  students  en- 
rolled in  schools  and  colleges.  Chief  cities:  Halifax 
(capital),  70,488  inhabitants  in  1941;  Sydney,  28,- 
305;  Glace  Bay,  25,147. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural  out- 
put in  1947  was  $42.5  million.  Value  of  field  crops 
in  1947  totaled  $21,579,000  from  544,000  acres. 
Chief  field  crops  (1947):  oats  2,250,000  bu. 
($2,048,000);  potatoes  1,828,000  cwt  ($4,186,- 
000);  field  roots  2,010,000  cwt.  ($2,010,000). 
Livestock  (June  1,  1947):  203,100  cattle  ($16,- 
606,000);  32,800  horses  ($5,024,000);  59,900 
swine  ($1,630,000);  138,000  sheep  ($1,299,000); 
2,681,900  poultry  ($3,361,000).  In  1946  there 
were  350  fur  farms.  Value  of  fur  pelt  production 
in  the  season  1946-47  was  $716,009.  Fisheries  pro- 
duction in  1946  reached  a  marketed  value  of  $34,- 
270,761;  chief  commercial  fishes  caught  were  cod, 
lobsters,  haddock,  herring,  swordfish,  pollock,  and 
mackerel.  Creamery  butter  produced  in  1947 
amounted  to  6,617,000  Ib.  valued  at  $3,487,000; 
estimated  total  farm  value  of  poultry  meat  and 
was  $7,041,000.  The  value  of  fruit  crops 


(1947)  was  placed  at  $2,779,000.  The  value  of 
lumber  sawn  in  1946  amounted  to  $14,519,554 
from  617  sawmills  in  operation.  * 

Government.  Budget  estimates  for  1947-48:  net 
combined  revenue  $30,119,430;  net  combined  ex- 
penditure $27,473,310.  Total  direct  and  indirect 
liabilities  (less  sinking  funds)  $105,779,633  on 
Nov.  30,  1946.  The  executive  authority  is  vested  in 
a  lieutenant  governor  who  is  advised  by  a  ministry 
of  the  House  of  Assembly,  the  latter  comprising  30 
members  elected  for  a  five-year  term  by  popular 
vote  (28  Liberals,  and  2  Cooperative  Common- 
wealth Federationists  were  elected  at  the  provin- 
cial general  election  of  Oct.  23,  1945).  Ten 
members  (appointed  for  life)  in  the  Senate  and 
12  members  in  the  House  of  Commons  represent 
Nova  Scotia  in  the  Dominion  Parliament  at  Ot- 
tawa. Lieutenant  Governor,  J.  A.  D.  McCurdy, 
M.B.E.  (appointed  Aug.  12,  1947);  Premier,  An- 
gus L.  Macdonald  (Liberal;  appointed  Sept,  8, 
1945).  See  CANADA. 

NUCLEAR  ENERGY.  Progress  in  1948  in  the  field  of 
nuclear  energy  or,  in  popular  terms,  atomic  energy, 
began  to  show  tangible  results  in  the  use  of  radio- 
isotopes  in  chemical,  biological,  medical,  and  other 
investigations  leading  to  new  knowledge  of  natural 
processes  and  some  applications.  The  predicted 
ability  of  radioisotopes  to  implement  the  solving 
of  many  lands  of  problems  which  are  unsolvable  by 
other  techniques  was  amply  demonstrated.  The 
production  of  atomic  weapons  continued,  and  the 
Atomic  Energy  Commission  announced  that  tests 
at  Eniwetok  of  atomic  weapons  of  improved  de- 
sign were  successful.  While  work  on  the  develop- 
ment of  atomic  power  equipment  continued  and 
expanded,  the  fact  that  many  years  of  intensive 
work  must  precede  its  commercial  application  be- 
came more  generally  recognized  and  accepted. 

Much  of  the  emphasis  in  atomic  energy  con- 
tinued on  the  construction  of  facilities  for  research 
and  development  and  the  training  and  assembling 
of  technical  manpower.  Characteristics  peculiar  to 
experimental  work  in  atomic  energy,  compared  to 
work  in  other  fields,  require  extensive  and  special 


NUCLEAR  ENERGY 


402 


NUCLEAR  ENERGY 


facilities,  and  make  the  conduct  o£  experimental 
work  most  time-consuming.  Extension  of  funda- 
mental physical  measurements  beyond  their  present 
scope  requires  tremendous  "atom  smashers,"  each 
new  higher  energy  unit  requiring  several  years  of 
design  and  construction  (See  PHYSICS).  Chemical 
work  with  radioactive  materials  in  greater  than 
tracer  amounts  takes  elaborate  laboratory  facilities 
to  protect  workers  from  injurious  radiation.  Experi- 
ments must  be  handled  by  remote  control  with  op- 
erators separated  from  equipment  by  thick  shields. 
Data  on  material  stability  against  radiation  within 
a  nuclear  reactor  require  special  packaging  of  the 
sample,  then  exposure  in  a  nuclear  reactor  (there 
are  only  a  few  in  the  country)  and  finally  ingeni- 
ous devices  for  making  measurements  after  ex- 
posure because  the  sample  will  itself  be  radio- 
active. These  examples  are  indicative  of  why  so 
much  effort  must  continue  on  the  more  prepara- 
tory phases  of  the  atomic  energy  program,  and  why 
progress  may  appear  slow  to  those  unfamiliar  with 
the  special  characteristics  of  the  field. 

Atomic  Power.  For  a  careful  assessment  of  the 
foreseeable  technical  and  economic  problems  which 
we  now  know  must  be  solved  before  atomic  power 
can  be  a  factor  in  the  world's  power  economy,  we 
have  the  report  to  the  Atomic  Energy  Commission 
by  its  General  Advisory  Committee  issued  during 
1948  (in  the  Fourth  Semiannual  Report)  which 
concludes,  "We  do  not  see  how  it  would  be  pos- 
sible under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  to 
have  any  considerable  portion  of  the  present  power 
supply  of  the  world  replaced  by  nuclear  fuel  before 
the  expiration  of  20  years."  Some  authorities  feel 
that  even  this  statement  is  optimistic  in  view  of  the 
uncertainties  of  international  politics  and  unknown 
economic  conditions. 

Regardless  of  what  dates  are  forecast  for  com- 
mercial application  of  atomic  power  on  any  sub- 
stantial scale,  the  following  observations  appear 
reasonable: 

1.  Technical  problems  set  an  irreducible  mini- 
mum time  and  although  individual  estimates  vary, 
the  order  of  magnitude  suggested  by  the  General 
Advisory  Committee  to  the  AEC  seems  generally 
accepted. 

2.  If  atomic  power  does  become  widely  used,  its 
growth  will  be  gradual  and  it  will  supplement 
rather  than  supplant  power  from  other  fuels. 

3.  For  atomic  power  to  become  a  major  factor 
in  the  world's  power  economy,  it  must  become  suf- 
ficiently competitive  to  have  a  strong  economic  in- 
centive, and  we  now  know  less  about  the  future 
cost  of  atomic  fuels  and  power  plants  than  about 
any  technical  aspect. 

4.  There  are  no  known  technical  obstacles  which 
appear  to  be  insurmountable. 

5.  Atomic  power  plants  will  probably  be  ap- 
plied first  where  some  strong  incentive  other  than 
economy  exists.  An  example  is  the  propulsion  of 
naval  ships  where  the  possibility  of  long  cruising 
range  without  refueling  provides  a  major  incentive. 

Atomic  Fuel.  The  close  relationship  between  the 
production  of  fuel  and  power  became  more  ap- 
parent to  thejpublic  in^l948  with  the  announce- 
ment that  the  breeding"  of  new  fissionable  materi- 
al appeared  to  be  theoretically  possible.  In  a  con- 
trolled nuclear  reaction,  there  are  neutrons  in  ex- 
cess of  those  required  just  to  sustain  the  reaction 
and  release  power.  Some  of  these  excess  neutrons 
are  used  now  to  produce  plutonium,  a  synthetic 
atomic  fuel,  from  uranium  in  laboratory  reactors. 
If  a  reactor  can  be  designed  so  that  the  losses  of 
excess  neutrons  by  unprofitable  absorption  are  very- 
low  and  the  rest  are  used  to  produce  new  fission- 


able material,  it  may  be  possible  to  make  more  new 
fissionable  material  than  that  which  is  burned.  Such 
a  process  is  called  "breeding." 

The  profound  effect  which  this  might  have  on 
the  future  of  atomic  power  can  be  visualized  when 
it  is  realized  that  a  major  success  of  ''breeding"  in 
atomic  power  plants  might  make  relatively  plenti- 
ful Uranium  238  and  Thorium  the  sources  of  fuel 
in  place  of  relatively  rare  Uranium  235,  the  only 
known  natural  fissionable  isotope.  Such  possibili- 
ties have  yet  to  be  demonstrated.  For  the  "breed- 
ing" process  to  have  great  economic  importance, 
both  the  amount  of  the  margin  produced  over  equal 
replacement  of  that  burned,  and  the  rate  of  burn- 
ing up  the  fuel  invested  in  the  reactor  must  be 
large  for  the  net  gain  in  a  given  time  to  be  sig- 
nificant. 

Radioisotopes.  Progress  in  1948  in  the  manufac- 
ture and  use  of  radioisotopes  was  reviewed  in  the 
above  mentioned  report  of  the  Atomic  Energy 
Commission.  The  foflowing  excerpts  suggest  the 
great  scope  and  variety  of  useful  applications 
which  are  already  in  progress. 

"Using  tracer  isotopes,  the  scientist  and  engineer 
can  observe  atoms  as  they  take  part  in  basic  or- 
ganic and  inorganic  reactions,  much  as  though  the 
atoms  were  visibly  tagged  or  labeled.  For  the  first 
time,  it  becomes  possible  to  follow  in  intimate  de- 
tail .  .  .  such  processes  as  photosynthesis,  metab- 
olism, and  the  chemistry  of  hydrocarbons  .  .  . 

"The  most  surprising  fact  revealed  has  been  the 
extreme  rapidity  with  which  life  processes  take 
place.  By  'tagging*  salt  (sodium  chloride)  with 
sodium  24  and  injecting  it  into  the  human  body, 
investigators  have  found  that  salt  is  diffused 
through  the  walls  of  the  veins,  transported  to  the 
sweat  glands,  converted  into  sweat,  and  carried  to 
the  surface  of  the  body,  all  in  less  than  one  minute's 
time. 

"In  hospitals  today,  physicians  are  using  radio- 
isotopes  to  diagnose  various  circulatory  disorders, 
to  locate  malignant  tumors,  to  measure  how  sick 
thyroid  glands  are  functioning,  to  find  out  how 
much  iron  the  red  blood  cells  of  anemic  patients 
can  take  up,  and  to  diagnose  various  unhealthy  in- 
ternal body  changes  that  they  could  not  identify 
without  the  radioactive  tracers  to  follow  and  report 
on  the  movement  of  materials  in  the  body. 

"Using  radioisotopes,  plant  scientists  have  been 
able  to  follow  through  the  soil,  into  the  rootlets, 
and  to  their  final  disposition  in  the  plant,  minerals 
such  as  zinc,  copper,  and  manganese,  all  of  which 
are  available  to  the  plants  in  amounts  of  less  than 
an  ounce  per  acre. 

"Already,  in  field  experiments  conducted  by  the 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  and  State  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations  and  by  the  fertilizer  in- 
dustry in  all  parts  of  the  nation,  radioisotopes  are 
answering  very  specific  questions:  such  questions 
as  where,  when,  and  how  plant  foods  are  most  ef- 
fectively applied  to  different  crops;  what  forms  of 
fertilizer  return  the  most  in  production;  when  and 
how  the  plant  utilizes  them;  and  how  much  ex- 
pensive plant  food  is  likely  to  go  unused  in  today's 
fertilizing  methods. 

"The  powerful  signals  emitted  by  radioisotopes 
have  been  used  to  follow  and  measure  a  variety  of 
industrially  important  substances  otherwise  un- 
traceable,  from  the  impurities  in  a  batch  of  molten 
steel  to  the  invisible  coating  on  a  wisp  of  thread. 
Manufacturers  of  steel,  machinery,  rubber,  gaso- 
line, oil,  plastics,  rayon,  chemicals,  drugs,  and  a 
rapidly  growing  list  of  other  products  are  looking 
to  these  researches  to  bring  better  and  more  eco- 
nomical production. 


MYASALAND 


403 


OLYMPIC  GAMES 


"The  entire  field  of  metallurgy  is  certain  to  be 
greatly  influenced  by  tracer  investigations  already 
under  way  on  the  structure,  manufacture,  alloying, 
durability,  corrosion,  and  friction  of  metals." 

— B.  R.  PRENTICE 

NYASALAND.  A  protectorate  of  Great  Britain,  in 
central  Africa.  Area:  37,374  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion ( 1946) :  2,230,500,  including  2,400  Europeans 
and  3,100  Asiatics.  Chief  towns:  Zomba  (capital), 
Blantyre,  Lilongwe,  Mlanje,  Salima,  and  Fort 
Johnston.  The  chief  industry  of  the  people  is  agri- 
culture. Among  the  important  products  are  tobacco, 
tea,  cotton,  pulse,  groundnuts,  and  tung  oil.  Im- 
ports include  cotton  goods,  vehicles,  manufactures 
of  wood,  and  timber.  Foreign  trade:  imports  «£2,- 
050,176;  exports  £2,364,970.  Budget  estimates 
(1947):  revenue  £1,077,865;  expenditure  £981,- 
441.  Nyasaland  is  administered  by  a  governor,  aid- 
ed by  executive  and  legislative  councils.  Governor: 
Geoffrey  Colby. 

OATS.  The  1948  production  of  oats  in  the  United 
States  reached  a  total  of  1,491,752,000  bushels,  ac- 
cording to  the  estimate  (as  of  December,  1948)  of 
the  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  This  compares  with 
the  1947  output  of  1,199,422,000  bu.  and  the  1937- 
46  average  of  1,231,814,000  bu.  Yields  of  the  chief 
producing  States  (in  bushels)  were:  Iowa  266,- 
445,000;  Minnesota  206,338,000;  Illinois  182,078,- 
000;  Wisconsin  126,148,000;  South  Dakota  104,- 
252,000;  Nebraska  72,744,000;  Nor&  Dakota  62,- 
132,000;  Indiana  59,469,000;  Michigan  56,672,- 
000;  Ohio  54,090,000;  Missouri  48,592,000;  Penn- 
sylvania 29,146,000;  New  York  28,320,000;  and 
Kansas  26,312,000. 

World  Oat  Production.  According  to  the  December, 
1948,  report  of  the  Office  of  Foreign  Agricultural 
Relations,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  the 
1948  world  output  of  oats  was  estimated  to  total 
4,335  million  bushels,  compared  with  1,195  million 
bushels  in  1947.  The  total  area  sown  was  estimated 
at  136.29  million  acres  for  1948.  Yields  of  the  chief 
producing  countries  for  1948  were  (in  bushels): 
United  States  1,492,957,000,  U.S.S.R.  (Europe  and 
Asia)  820,000,000  (in  1947),  Canada  357,703,000, 
France  235,000,000,  Great  Britain  202,930,000, 
Denmark  59,938,000,  China  55,883,000,  Eire  54,- 
000,000,  Sweden  53,785,000,  Argentina  44,000,000, 
Finland  42,300,000,  Spain  38,000,000,  Belgium 
36,500,000,  Italy  36,000,000,  Australia  27,500,000, 
Netherlands  21,700,000,  Turkey  21,000,000,  Aus- 
tria 20,000,000. 

In  the  foregoing  statistics  of  production  those  for 
Northern  Hemisphere  countries  are  based  on  re- 
vised estimates,  those  on  Southern  Hemisphere 
countries  are  based  on  preliminary  forecasts.  The 
figures  on  the  total  output  of  oats  in  Germany  were 
not  available. 

OHIO.  An  east  north  central  State.  Area:  41,122 
sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  7,799,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  6,907,612.  Chief  cities: 
Columbus  (capital),  306,087  inhabitants  in  1940; 
Cleveland,  878,336.  See  AGBICULTDBE,  EDUCATION, 
MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  Dec.  31,  1946, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $425,027,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $372,305,000. 

Elections.  The  25  electoral  votes,  which  went  in 
1944  to  Dewey  by  about  11,000  votes,  were  won 
by  Truman  by  a  small  margin.  Republican  incum- 
bent Governor  Thomas  J.  Herbert  lost  his  race  for 
reelection  by  the  man  he  defeated  in  1946,  former 


Governor  Frank  J.  Lausche.  There  was  no  Senate 
race.  In  contests  for  the  23  House  seats,  Democrats 
won  12  for  a  gain  of  8.  State  officers  elected  in- 
cluded: Lieutenant  Governor — George  D,  Nye; 
Secretary  of  State — Charles  J.  Sweeney;  Attorney 
General—Herbert  S.  Duffy;  Auditor— Joseph  T. 
Ferguson;  Treasurer — Don  H.  Ebright. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Thomas  J.  Herbert; 
Lieut.  Governor,  Paul  M.  Herbert;  Secretary  of 
State,  Edward  J.  Hummel;  Attorney  General,  Hugh 
S.  Jenkins;  State  Treasurer,  Don  H.  Ebright;  State 
Auditor,  Joseph  T.  Ferguson. 

OIL  AND  GAS  DIVISION.  Under  direction  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Interior  the  Division  is  authorized  to 
coordinate  and  unify  policy  and  administration 
with  respect  to  the  functions  and  activities  relative 
to  oil  and  gas  carried  on  by  the  several-  depart- 
ments and  agencies  of  the  Federal  Government;  to 
serve  as  the  channel  of  communication  between  the 
Federal  Government  and  the  petroleum  industry; 
to  serve  as  liaison  agency  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment in  its  relations  with  the  appropriate  State  oil 
and  gas  bodies;  and  to  review  technological  devel- 
opments in  the  field  of  petroleum  and  synthetic  hy- 
drocarbon fuels  and  coordinate  Federal  policy  with 
respect  thereto.  It  also  assists  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  in  administering  the  Connally  law,  which 
prohibits  the  shipment  in  interstate  and  foreign 
commerce  of  petroleum  or  its  products  produced 
in  excess  of  the  amount  permitted  by  State  law. 

OKLAHOMA.  A  west  south  central  State,  Area:  70,- 
057  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  2,362,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  2,336,434.  Chief 
city:  Oklahoma  City  (capital),  204,424  inhabitants 
in  1940.  See  AGBICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS 
AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COL- 
LEGES, VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $179,618,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $161,729,000. 

Elections.  Truman's  plurality  of  about  200,000 
votes  over  Dewey  was  about  double  Roosevelt's 
in  1944,  and  won  the  Democratic  candidate  the  10 
electoral  votes.  In  the  Senatorial  contest,  former 
Governor  Robert  S.  Kerr,  Democrat,  beat  Republi- 
can Ross  Rizley.  In  House  contests,  Democrats 
won  all  8,  picking  up  2  formerly  held  by  Republi- 
cans. There  were  no  Statewide  races  for  State 
office. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Roy  J.  Turner;  Lieut. 
Governor,  James  E.  Berry;  Secretary  of  State,  Wil- 
burn  Cartwright;  Attorney  General,  Mac  Q.  Wil- 
liamson; State  Treasurer,  John  D.  Conner;  State 
Auditor,  A.  S.  J.  Shaw.  Chief  Justice  of  Oklahoma 
Supreme  Court,  Thurman  S.  Hurst 

OLYMPIC  GAMES.  Renewal  of  these  international 
contests,  last  held  at  Berlin  in  1936,  provided  the 
most  colorful  and  successful  ^sports  show  of  the 
year.  This  XIV  Olympiad,  in  which  59  nations 
competed,  resulted  in  a  sweeping  triumph  for 
United  States  athletes  and  the  finest  display  of  the 
spirit  in  which  the  games  were  conceived  since 
their  revival  in  1896. 

A  gathering  of  82,000  filled  Wembley  Stadium 
in  England  to  hear  King  George  in  the  opening 
ceremony  on  July  29  and  from  then  on  through  Au- 
gust 14  the  pageant  rolled  from  one  set  of  im- 
pressive figures  to  another.  An  estimated  1.5  million 
persons  attended  the  184  events  in  17  sports  in 
which  more  than  5,000  men  and  women  competed. 
Receipts  ran  to  approximately  $2  million,  well 
above  any  previous  total  for  this  great  athletic  meet 


OLYMPIC  GAMES 


404 


OJTMPJC  GAMES 


Exceeding  the  brilliant  exploits  in  various  stadia 
was  the  sportsmanship  of  the  athletes  and  of  the 
crowds.  Except  for  a  bit  of  argument  in  the  prog- 
ress of  the  boxing,  which  resulted  in  the  removal  of 
a  succession  of  judges,  and  except  for  the  tem- 
porary disqualification  of  the  winning  American 
400-meter  relay  team,  harmony  and  good-will 
marked  the  games. 

Disqualification  of  the  United  States  in  the  re- 
lay, removed  three  days  later  when  movies  revealed 
that  passing  of  the  baton  had  been  done  legally, 
became  an  occasion  for  the  finest  show  of  Olympic 
spirit.  England,  second  in  the  race,  had  been  moved 
up  to  first  and  was  overjoyed  that  the  home  forces 
finally  had  gained  their  only  track  victory.  But 
when  pictures  revealed  that  the  judges  had  erred 
and  an  injustice  had  been  done  the  Americans,  the 
British  relinquished  their  gold  medals  as  the  crowd 
cheered  the  invaders. 

Gaining  38  first  places — 11  in  men's  track  and 
field — for  a  total  of  547.5  points  in  the  unofficial 
team  scoring  table,  the  United  States  squad  finished 
far  in  front.  American  athletes  registered  an  un- 
precedented sweep  in  men's  diving  and  swimming, 
with  Japan  barred  from  the  games,  and  scored  the 
most  triumphs  in  women's  swimming  and  diving 
despite  stem  opposition  from  Dutch  and  Danish 
naiads.  The  University  of  California  eight  won  in 
rowing,  as  did  the  University  of  Washington's  four 
with  coxswain.  John  B.  Kelly  Jr.,  counted  as  an  al- 
most certain  victor,  lost  in  lie  semifinals  of  the 
single  sculls,  which  event  was  taken  by  Mervyn 
Wood  of  Australia.  The  United  States  dominated 
basketball;  triumphed  in  weightlifting;  won  two 
firsts  in  wrestling;  two  in  yachting,  along  with  team 
honors;  captured  the  top  prize  in  shooting;  tied 
with  the  Czechs  in  canoeing;  and  won  the  trying 
8-day  team  event  in  the  equestrian  tests. 

Eight  track  and  field  records  for  men  were  bro- 
ken and  two  tied  despite  rain  that  fell  day  after  day 
at  Wembley.  Mai  Whitfield,  Bill  Porter,  Roy  Coch- 
ran,  and  Wilbur  Thompson  of  the  United  States 
each  set  a  new  standard  for  the  Olympics,  while 
Harrison  Dillard  tied  the  mark  for  the  100-meter 
dash.  Bob  Matildas,  Tulare,  CaL,  schoolboy,  was 
one  of  the  outstanding  heroes,  the  17-year-old  cap- 
turing the  decathlon  after  two  days  of  punishing 
competition  against  the  world's  best. 

The  marathon,  prize  race  of  the  ancient  games, 
was  won  by  Delfo  Cabrera  of  Buenos  Aires,  a  com- 
parative unknown.  Another  hero  was  Emil  Zatopek, 
who  annexed  the  10,000-meter  run  in  record  time. 
And  in  the  5,000-meter  race,  the  young  Czech 
Army  officer  put  on  an  unforgettable  sprint  to  finish 
only  one-fifth  of  a  second  behind  Gaston  Reiff  of 
Belgium  as  both  bettered  the  Olympic  standard, 

Mrs.  Fanny  Blankers-Koen,  30-year-old  Amster- 
dam housewife  and  the  mother  of  two  children,  be- 
came the  greatest  woman  athlete  the  Olympics 
have  known  in  winning  four  gold  medals  in  track. 
The  slender  star  took  the  80-meter  hurdles  in 
world-record  time  of  0:11.2  and  led  the  Nether- 
lands girls  to  team  honors.  Alice  Coachman  estab- 
Eshed  a  new  mark  in  winning  the  high  jump  for  the 
only  United  States  victory  in  women's  track  and 
field. 

United  States  male  swimmers  made  four  new 
Olympic  marks,  Walter  Ris,  Bill  Smith,  Joe  Verdeur 
and  the  800-meter  team  of  Ris,  Wallace  Wolf, 
Jimmy  McLane,  and  Smith  setting  new  standards. 
Ann  Curtis  was  the  only  American  to  win  one  of 
the  four  individual  races  for  feminine  swimmers. 
The  California  beauty  set  an  Olympic  record  in  the 
400-meter  free  style  and  anchored  the  winning 
400-meter  relay  team.  Mrs.  Victoria  Draves  cap- 


tured both  the  low  and  high  diving  events  for  the 
United  States  to  become  the  first  woman  to  achieve 
that  feat  in  Olympic  competition.  See  OLYMPIC 
GAMES,  WINTER.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

Results  of  the  XIV  Olympiad.  The  final  placings  in 
the  XIV  Olympiad,  according  to  the  Olympic  Re- 
sults issue  of  World  Sports  (September,  1948),  are 
listed  in  the  accompanying  table. 

BASKETBALL 

1  U.S.A.  3  Brazil  5  Uruguay 

2  France  4  Mexico  6  Chile 

BOXING 

FLYWEIGHT 

P.  Perez  (Argentina)  beat  S.  Bandinelli  (Italy)  on  pts. 
Third   place:    Sop   Ann   Han    (Korea)    beat   F.   Majdloch 
(Czechoslovakia)  on  pts. 

BANTAMWEIGHT 

T.  Czik  (Hungary)  beat  G.  Zuddas  (Italy)  on  pts. 
Third  place:  J.  Venegas  (Puerto  Rico)  beat  A.  Domenech 
(Spain)  on  pts. 

FEATHERWEIGHT 

E.  Fonnenti  (Italy)  beat  D.  Shepherd  (S.  Africa)  on  pts. 
Third  place:  A.  Antkiewicz  (Poland)  beat  F.  Nunez  (Ar- 
gentina) on  pts. 

LIGHTWEIGHT 

G.  Dreyer  (S.  Africa)  beat  J.  Vissers   (Belgium)   on  pts. 
Third  place:  S.  Wad  (Denmark)  w.o.j  W.  Smith  (XJ.S.A.) 
withdrew. 

WELTERWEIGHT 

J.  Torma  ( Czechoslovakia )  beat  H.  Herring  (U.S.A.)   on 

Third'  place:  A.  d'Ottavio  (Italy)  beat  D.  du  Preez  (S. 
AJErica)  on  pts. 

MIDDLEWEIGHT 

L.  Papp  (Hungary)  beat  J.  Wright  (Great  Britain)  on  pts. 
Third  place:  I.  Fontana  (Italy)  w.o.;  M.  McKeon   (Eire) 
withdrew. 

LIGHT   HEAVYWEIGHT 

G.  Hunter  (S.  Africa)  beat  D.  Scott  (Great  Britain)  on  pts. 
Third  place:   M.  Cia   (Argentina)   beat  A.  Holmes   (Aus- 
tralia) in  3rd  round. 

HEAVYWEIGHT 

R,  Iglesias  (Argentina)  k.o.  N.  Nilsson  (Sweden)  in  2nd 
round. 

Third  place:  J.  Arthur  (S.  Africa)  w.o.;  H.  Muller  (Switz- 
erland) withdrew. 

CANOEING 
10,000  METEHS  KAYAK  SINGLES 

1  G.   Fredriksson    (Sweden) 50  m.  47.7  s. 

2  K.  Wires    (Finland) 51  m.  18.2  s. 

3  E.  Skabo   (Norway) 51  m.  34.4  s. 

10,000    METERS    CANADIAN    SINGLES 

1  J.  Holecek  (Czechoslovakia) 1  h.  2  m.    5.2  s. 

2  F.  B.  Havens   (U.S.A.) 1  h.  2  m.  40.4  s. 

3  D.  H.  Bennett  (Canada) 1  h. 4m.  35.3s. 

10,000    METERS    KAYAK    PAIRS 

1  Sweden     46  m.    9.4  s. 

2  Norway     46  m.  44,8  s. 

3  Finland     46  m.  48.2  s. 

10,000    METERS    CANADIAN   PAIRS 

1  U.S. A. 55  m.  55.4  s. 

2  Czechoslovakia     57  m.  38.5  s. 

3  France    58  m.    0.8  s. 

1,000    METERS   KAYAK   PAIRS 

1  Sweden     4  m.  7.3  s, 

2  Denmark     4m.  7.5  s. 

3  Finland     4m.  8.7  s. 

500    METERS    KAYAK   SINGLES    (WOMEN) 

1  K.  Hoff    (Denmark) 2m.  31.9  s. 

2  Van  der  Anker-Doedans  (Holland) 2m.  32.8  s. 

3  F.  Schwingl   (Austria) , 2m.  32.9  s. 

1,000    METERS    KAYAK    SINGLES 

1  G.  Fredriksson  (Sweden) 4m.  33.2  s. 

2'  J.  Andersen   (Denmark) 4m.  39.9  s. 

3  H.  Eberhardt    (France) 4m.  41.4  s. 

1,000    METERS    CANADIAN   SINGLES 

1  J.  Holecek   (Czechoslovakia) 5m.  42.0  s. 

2  D.  H.  Bennett  (Canada) 5m.  53.3  s. 

3  R.  Boutigny   (France) 5m.  55.9  s. 


OCTAiPJC  GAMES 


405 


OLYMPIC  GAMZ3 


1,000    METERS    CANADIAN   PAULS 

1  Czechoslovakia     5m.    7.1  s. 

2  U.S.A 5m.    8.2s, 

3  France     5m.  15.2  s. 

CYCLING 
2,000  METERS  TANDEM 

1  Italy  (F.  Terazzi,  R.  Perona). 

2  Great  Britain    (R.  Harris,  A.  Bannister). 

3  France   (R.  Faye,  G.  Dron). 

4  Switzerland   (J.  Roth,  M.  Aeberli). 

1,000    METERS    TIME    TRIAL 

1  J.   Dupont    (France) 1m.  13.5 s. 

2  J.  Nihant  (Belgium) 1m.  14.5  s. 

3  T.  Godwin  ( Great  Britain) 1  m.  15  s. 

1,000   METERS   SCRATCH 

1  M.  Gheila  (Italy).  3  A.  Schandorff  (Denmark). 

2  R.  Harris    (Great  Britain).  4  C.  Bazzano   (Australia). 

4,000    METERS    TEAM    PURSUIT 

France  (P.  Adam,  S.  Blusson,  C.  Coste,  F.  Decanali),  4  m. 

57.8  s.,  beat. 
Italy  (Benefenati,  Bernadi,  Citterio,  Pucci),  5  m.  36.7  s. 

Third  Place  Match 

Great  Britain  (R.  Geldard,  T.  Godwin,  D.  Ricketts,  W.  Wa- 
ters), 4  m.  55.6  s.  beat. 
Uruguay  (de  Armas,  Benrastky,  Francois,  de  Los  Santos), 

5  m.  4.4  s. 

ROAD    RACE 

203  kilometers  8  meters  (120  miles  914  yds.) 

1  J.  Beyaert  (France) 5  h.  18  rn.  12.6  s. 

2  G.  P.  Voorting  (Holland) .  . '. 5  h.  18  m.  16.2  s. 

3  L.    Wouters    (Belgium) 5  h.  18  m.  16.2  s. 

4  L.  Delatfaouwer   (Belgium) 5  h.  18  m.  16.2  s. 


1  Belgium 

2  Great  Britain 


Team  Placings 

3  France 

4  Italy 


5  Sweden 

6  Switzerland 


EQUESTRIAN 

Marks 

1  Capt.  B.  Chevallier  (France)  ----  .  .............    +  4 

2  Lt.-Col.  F.  S.  Henry  (U.S.A.)  .................    -21 

3  Capt.  J.  R.  Selfelt  (Sweden)  ..................    -25 

Team  Placings 

1  U.S.A  ........  -161%       4  Switzerland    .  .  .   -404% 

2  Sweden     ......   -165  5  Spain    ........   -422% 

3  Mexico    .......  —305%       No  other  complete  teams. 

PRIX    DES    NATIONS 

Faults 

1  H.  M.  Cortes   (Mexico)  ........................  6*4 

2  R.    Uriza    (Mexico)  ...........................  8* 

3  Chev.  J.  F.  d'Orgeix  (France)  ..................  8* 

*  After  a  jump  off. 

Team  Placings 

Faults 

1  Mexico      ..........  .  ........................  34% 

2  Spain    ...  ..................................  56% 

3  Great  Britain  ................................  67 

FENCING 


1  L.  Cantone    (Italy)  ...............  ....  ......  7  wins 

2  O.   Zappelli    (  Switzerland)  ...................  5  wins 

3  E.    Mangiarotti    (Italy)  ......................  5  wins 

EPEJS:    TEAMS 

1  France  2  Italy  3  Sweden  4  Denmark 

FOIL:  INDIVIDUAL 

1  J.  Buhan    (France)  .........................  7  wins 

2  C.   d'Oriola   (France)  .......................  5  wins 

3  L.  Mazlay  (Hungary)  ...........  4  wins  22  hits  against 

FOIL:    TEAMS 

1  France  2  Italy  3  Belgium  4  U.S.  A. 

WOMEN'S  FOILS 

1  A.  EIek  (Hungary)  ........................  6  wins 

2  K.  Lachmann  (Denmark)  ......  .  ............  5  wins* 

3  E.  Muller-Preis  (Austria)  ...................  5  wins* 

*  Decided  on  hits  against. 

SABRE:  INDIVIDUAL 

1  A.  Gerevich    (Hungary)  .....................  7  wins 

2  V.  Pinton   (Italy)    ..........  5  wins*  23  Mts  against 

3  P.  Kovacs    (Hungary)  ..........  5  wins,  24  hits  against 


1  Hungary 


SABRE:  TEAMS 
2  Italy  3  U.S.A. 


4  Belgium 


FOOTBALL 

FINAL 
Sweden,  3;  Yugoslavia,  1. 

Third  Place  Match 
Denmark,  5;  Great  Britain,  3. 

GYMNASTICS 
MEN'S  TEAM 

Points 

1  Finland      1,358.3 

2  Switzerland     1,356.7 

3  Hungary    1,330.85 

INDIVIDUAL 

1  V.  A.  Huhtanen   (Finland) 229.7 

2  W.   Lehmann    (Switzerland) 229 

3  P.  Aaltonen  (Finland ) 228.8 

WOMEN'S  TEAM 

1  Czechoslovakia     445.45 

2  Hungary 440.55 

3  U.S.A 422.6 

HOCKEY   (FIELD) 
India,  4;  Great  Britain,  0. 

Third  Place  Match 
Holland,  4;  Pakistan,  1. 

MODERN  PENTATHLON 

(RIDING,  FENCING,  SHOOTING,  SWIMMING, 
CROSS-COUNTRY  RUNNING) 

Points 

1  Capt.   W.   Grut    (Sweden) 16 

2  Maj.  G.  B.  Moore  (U.S.A.) 47 

3  Lt.  G,  Gardin    (Sweden) 49 

Capt.  Grut  finished  1st  in  Riding,  1st  in  Fencing,  5th  in 

Shooting,  1st  in  Swimming,  and  8th  in  Cross-country 
Running.  The  three-event  wins  and  the  total  number  of 
16  points  both  constitute  a  new  Olympic  record. 

ROWING 
SINGLE  SCULLS 

1  M.    Wood    (Australia) 7m.  24.4  s. 

2  G.  Risso    ( Uruguay) 7m.  38.2  s. 

3  R.   Catasta    (Italy) 7m.  51.4  s. 

DOUBLE    SCULLS 

1  Great  Britain  (B.  Bushnell,  R.  Bumell,  str.)  6m.  51.3s. 

2  Denmark  (A.  Larsen,  E.  Parsner,  str.) 6  m.  55.3  s. 

3  Uruguay   (J,  Rodrigney,  W.  Jones,  str.) .  . .  .7m.  12.4  s. 

COXED    PAIRS 

1  Denmark  (T.  Henriksen,  F.  Pedersen,  str.,  C.  Andersen, 
cox )    8m.  0.5  s. 

2  Italy  (A.  Tarlao,  G.  Steffe,  str.,  A.  Radi?  cox)  8  m.  12.2  s. 

3  Hungary  (B.  Zsituik,  A.  Szendei,  str.,  R.  Zimonyi,  cox) 

8  m.  25.2  s. 

COXS\VAINLESS   PAIRS 

1  Great  Britain  (W.  Laurie,  J,  Wilson,  str.)   .  .7m.  21.1  s. 

2  Switzerland   (J.  Kalt,  H.  Kalt,  str.)    7m.  23.9s. 

3  Italy    (B.  Boui,   F.  Fanetti,  str.)    7m.  31.5  s. 

COXED    FOURS 

1  U.S. A.    (G.   Giovanelli,   bow;   R.  Will,  R.   Martin,  W, 
Westlund,  str.;  A.  Morgan,  cox) 6m.  50.3  s. 

2  Switzerland   (P.  Stebler,  bow;  E.  Knecht,  E.  Schriever, 
R.  Reichling,  str.;  A,  Moccand,  cox) 6  ra.  53.8  s. 

3  Denmark  (H.  Knudson,  bow;  H.  Larsen,  B.  Neilsen,  E. 
Larsen,  str.;  I.  Ilsen,  cox) 6m.  58.6  s. 

COXSWAINLESS   FOURS 

1  Italy   (F.  Faggi,  G.  Invernizzi,  E.  MoviHe,  G.  Moioli, 
str. )      6  m.  39  s. 

2  Denmark  (I.  Larsen,  H.  Schroder,  A.  Hansen,  H.  Halk- 
jaer,     str. ) 6m.  43.5  s. 

3  U.S.A.  (P.  Perew,  G.  Gates,  S.  Griffing,  F.  Kingsbury, 
str.) 6m.  47,7  s. 

EIGHTS 

1  U.S.A.   (J.  Stack,  bow;  J.  Smith,  D.  Brown,  L.  Lloyd- 
Butler,  G.  Ahlgren,  J.  Hardy,  D.  Turner,  I.  Turner,  str.; 
R.  Purchase,  cox) ...5m.  56.7  s. 

2  Great  Britain  (A.  Mellows,  bow;  D.  Meyrick,  C.  Lloyd, 
P.  Massey,  E.  Bircher,  G.  Richardson,  H.  Lapage,  C. 
Barton,  str.;  J.  Dearlove,  cox) 6  m.  6.9  s. 

3  Norway   (C.  Moussen,  bow;   T.  Pedersen,  L.  Naess,  H. 
Kraakenes,  H.  Olsen,  H,  Hansen,  T.  Kraakenes,  K.  Lep- 
soe,  str.;  S.  Moussen,  cox) 6m.  10.3  s. 

SHOOTING 
RAPID  FIRE  PISTOL  (25  METERS ) 

1  K.  Takacs   (Hungary) 


Hits    Points 
.60         580 


OLYMPIC  GAMES 


406 


OLYMPIC  GAMES 


2  C.  Valiente  ( Argentina ). 

3  S.  Lundquist   (Sweden). 


.60 

.60 


571 
569 


FREE    PISTOL    f50    METERS } 


1     E.  Vasquez  Cam  ( Peru ) 545 

fE.   Ullman    (Sweden ) 5C9 


2  <R.  Schnyder  (Switzerland) 539 

.  L.  Benner    (U.S.A. ) 539 

FREE    RIFLE     (SMALLBORE)    50    METERS 

1  A.  Cook   (U.S.A.) 599 

2  W.  Tomsen    (U.S.A.) 599 

3  E.  J.  Jonsson   ( Sweden ) 597 

FREE    RIFLE     (300    METERS ) 

1  E.  Gmnig   (Switzerland) 1,120 

2  P.  A.  Janhonen  ( Finland ) 1,114 

3  W.  Roegeberg  (Norway) 1,112 

SWIMMING  (  MEN  ) 
100  METERS  FREE-STYLE 

World  record:  55.4  s.,  A.  R.  Ford  (U.S.A.)  1948. 
Olympic  record:  57.3  s.,  W.  Ris  (U.S.A.)  1948. 
Previous   Olympic   record:    57.5   s.,   M.    Taguchi    (Japan) 
1936. 

1  W.  Ris   (U.S.A.) 57.3  s. 

2  A.  Ford   (U.S.A.) 57.8  s. 

3  G.  Kadas    (Hungary) 58.1  s. 

200    METERS    BREAST-STROKE 

World  record:  2  m.  30  s.,  J.  Verdeur  ( U.S.A.)  1948. 
Olympic  record:  2  m.  39.3  s.,  J.  Verdeur  (U.S.A.)   1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  2  m.  42.5  s.,  T.  Hamuro  (Japan) 
1936. 

1  J.  Verdeur   (U.S.A.) 2m.  39.3  s. 

2  K.    Carter    (U.S.A.) 2m.40.2s. 

3  R.   SoH   (U.S.A.) 2m.  43.9  s. 

400    METERS    FREE-STYLE 

World  record:  4  m.  35.2  s.,  A.  Jany  (France)  1947. 
Olympic  record:   4  m.  41.0  s.,  W.   Smith   (U.S.A.)    1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  4  m.  44.5  s.,  J.  Medica  (U.S.A.) 
1936. 

1  W.    Smith    (U.S.A.) 4m.  41.0  s. 

2  J.  McLane   (U.S.A.) 4m.  43.4  s. 

3  J.    Marshall    (Australia) 4m.  47.7  s. 

100    METERS   BACK-STROKE 

World  record:  1  m.  4  s.,  A.  Stack  (U.S.A.)   1948 
Olympic  record:  1  m.  5.9  s.,  A.  Kiefer  (U.S.A.)  1936. 

1  A.  Stack  (U.S.A.) 1  m.  6.4  s. 

2  R.  Cowell    (U.S.A.) 1  m.  6.5  s. 

3  G.  Vallerey   (France) 1  m.  7.8  s. 

1,500    METERS    FREE-STYLE 

World  record:  18  m.  58.8  s.,  F.  Arnano  (Japan)  1938. 
Olympic  record:  19  m.  12.4  s.,  K.  Kitarnura  (Japan)  1932. 

1  J.  McLane   (U.S.A.) 19m.  18.5s. 

2  J.  Marshall  (Australia) 19  m.  31.3  s. 

3  G.  Mitro  (Hungary) 19  m.  43.2  s. 

HIGH    PLATFORM    DIVING 

Points 

1  S.  Lee  (U.S.A.) 130.05 

2  B.  Hailan   (U.S.A.) 122.30 

3  J.  CapiHa  (Mexico) 113.52 

SPRINGBOARD   DIVING 

Points 

1  B.  Hartan   (U.S.A.) 163.64 

2  M.  Anderson  (U.S.A.) 157.29 

S  S.  Lee  (U.S.A.) 145.52 

800    METERS   RELAY 

World  record:  8  m.  46  s.,  U.S.A,   (W.  Ris,  W.  Wolf,  J. 

McLane,  W.  Smith)  1948. 
Olympic  record:  8  m.  46  s.,  W.  Ris,  W,  Wolf,  J.  McLane, 

W.  Smith  (U.SJL)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  8  m.  51.5  s.,  C.  M.  Yuss,  S.  H. 

Sugufira,  Th.  Ara,  M.  Taguchi   (Japan)    1936. 

1  U.S.A.  (W.  Ris,  W.  Wolf,  J.  McLane,  W.  Smith) 

8m.  46s. 

2  Hungary  (I.  Nyeki,  G.  Mitro,  E.  Szatmary,  G.  Kadas) 

8  m.  48.4  s. 

3  France  (H.  Padou,  E.  Corim,  J.  Bernardo,  A.  Jany) 

9  m.  0.8  s. 


Italy    . . , 

Hungary 

Hungary 


WATER    POLO 

Final  Group 

4       Holland    2 

3        Belgium     0 

....4       Holland      4 


1  Italy 

2  Hungary 


Final  Placings 

3  Holland        5  Sweden         7  E] 

4  Belgium        6  France          8  S; 


SWIMMING  (WOMEN) 
100  METERS  FREE-STYLE 

World  record:  1  m.  4.6  s.,  W.  den  Ouden  (Holland)  1936. 
Olympic  record:   1   m.  5.9  s.,  H.  Mastenbrack    (Holland) 
1936. 

1  G.   Andersen    ("Denmark) 66.3  s. 

2  A.  Curtis    (U.S.A.) 66.5  s. 

3  M.  Vaessen    (Holland) 67.6  s. 

400    METERS    RELAY 

World  record:  4  m.  27.6  s.,  Denmark  (Arndt,  Kraft,  Peter- 

sen,  Hveser)    1938. 
Olympic  record:   4  m.  29.2  s.,  U.S.A.    (Corridon,   Helser, 

Kalana,  Curtis)    1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:   4   m.   36  s.,  Holland   (Selbach, 

Wagner,  den  Ouden,  Mastenbroek)   1936. 

1  U.S.A.   (M.  Corridon,  B.  Helser,  T.  Kalana,  A.  Curtis) 

4m.  29.2s. 

2  Denmark  (Ruse,  Harup,  Carstensen,  Andersen) 

4  m.  29.9  s. 

8  Holland  (Marsman,  Schuhmacher,  Termeulen,  Vaessen) 

4m.  31.6s. 

100    METERS    BACK-STROKE 

World  record:  1  m.  10.9  s.,  C.  Kint  (Holland)   1939. 
Olympic  record:  1  m.  14.4  s.,  K.  Harup   (Denmark)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  1  m.  16.6  s.,  N.  Senff  (Holland) 
1936. 

1  K,  Harup  ( Denmark ) 1m.  14.4  s. 

2  S.  Zimmerman   (U.S.A.) 1  m.  16  s. 

3  J.  Davies    (Australia) 1  rn.  16.7  s. 

200   METERS  BREAST-STROKE 

World  record:  2  m.  49.2  s.,  N.  van  Vliet  (Holland)  1948. 
Olympic  record:  2  m.  57.2  s.,  N.  van  Vliet  (Holland)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  3m.  1.9  s.?  H.  Maehata  (Japan) 
1936. 

1  N.   Van  Vliet   (Holland) 2m.  57.2  s. 

2  B.  Lyons    (Australia) 2m.  57.7 s. 

3  E.  Novak   (Hungary) 3m.  00.2  s. 

400  METERS  FREE-STYLE 

World  record:  5  m.  0.1  s.,  R.  Hveger  (Denmark)  1940. 
Olympic  record:  5  m.  17.8  s.,  A.  Curtis   (U.S.A.)   1948. 
Previous   Olympic   record:    5  m.   26.4  s.,  H.   Mastenbroek 
(Holland)   1936. 

1  A.  Curtis   (U.S.A.) 5m.  17.8  s. 

2  K.  Harup   (Denmark) 5  rn.  21.2  s. 

3  C.  Gibson   ( Great  Britain ) 5m.  22.5  s. 

HIGH  PLATFORM  DIVING 

Points 

1  V.  Draves   (U.S.A.) 68.87 

2  P.  Elsener  (U.S.A.) 66.28 

3  B.  Christophersen  (Denmark) ,  . . . 66.04 

SPRINGBOARD  DIVING 

Points 

1  V.  Draves   (U.S.A.) 108.74 

2  Z.   Olsen    (U.S.A.) 108.23 

3  P.  Elsener  (U.S.A.) 101.30 

TRACK  AND  FIELD  (MEN) 

100   METERS 

World  record:  10.2  s.,  J.  C.  Owens  (U.S.A.)  1936;  H.  Da- 
vis (U.S.A.)   1941. 
Olympic  record:  10.3  s.,  E.  Tolan  (U.S.A.)  1932. 

1  H.  Dfflard   (U.S.A.) 10.3  s. 

2  H.  N.  Ewell   (U.S.A.) 10.4s. 

200   METERS 

World  record:  20.3  s.,  J.  C.  Owens  (U.S.A.)  1935. 
Olympic  record:  20.7  s.,  J.  C.  Owens  (U.S.A.)  1936. 

1  M.   Patton    (U.S.A.) 21.1  s. 

2  H.  N.  Ewell   (U.S.A.) 21.1s. 

3  L.  La  Beach  (Panama) 21.2  s. 

400  METERS 
World  record:  46.0  s.,  R.  Harbig   (Germany)    1939;  and 

G.  Klemmer  (U.S.A.)   1932. 
Olympic  record:  46.2  s.,  W.  Carr  (U.S.A.)  1932;  and  A.  S. 

Wint  (Jamaica)    1948. 

1  A.  S.  Wint   (Jamaica) 46.2  s. 

2  H.  McKenley  (Jamaica) 46.4  s. 

3  M.  Whitfield   (U.S.A.) 46.9  s. 

800  METERS 

World  record:  1  m.  46.6  s.,  R.  Harbig  (Germany)  1939. 
Olympic  record:  1  m.  49.2  s.,  M.  Whitfield  (U.S.A.)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  1  m.  49.8  s.,  T.  Hampson  (Great 
Britain)  1932. 

1  M.  Whitfield   (U.S.A.) 1m.  49,2  s. 

2  A.  S.  Wint   (Jamaica) 1m.  49.5  s. 

3  M.   Hansenne    (France) 1m.  49.8  s. 

1,500    METERS 

World  record:    3    m.    43   s.,   G.   Hagg    (Sweden)    1944; 
L.  Strand  (Sweden)  1947. 


OLYMPIC  GAMES 


407 


OLYMPIC  GAMES 


Olympic  record:  3  m.  47.8  s.,  J.  Lovelock  (New  Zealand) 
1936 

1  H.  Eriksson   (Sweden) 3  m.  49.8  s. 

2  L,    Strand    (Sweden) 3m.  50.4  s. 

3  W.   Siijkhuis    (Holland) 3m.  50.4s. 

5,000    METERS 

World  record:  13  m.  58.2  s.,  G.  Hagg  (Sweden)  1942. 
Olympic  record:  14  m.  17.6  s.,  G.  Reiff  (Belgium)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  14  m.  22.2  s.,  G.  Hockert  (Fin- 
land) 1936. 

1  G.  Reiff  (BeMum) 14m.  17.6s. 

2  E.  Zatopek  (Czechoslovakia) 14  m.  17.8  s. 

3  W.   Slijkhuis    (Holland) 14  m.  26.8  s. 

10,000    METERS 

World  record:  29  m.  35.4  s.,  V.  Heino  (Finland)   1944. 

Olympic  record:  29  m.  59.6  s.,  E.  Zatopek  (Czechoslovakia) 
1948. 

Previous  Olympic  record:  30  m.  11.4  s.,  J.  Kusocinski  (Po- 
land) 1932. 

1  E.  Zatopek  (Czechoslovakia) 29  m.  59.6  s. 

2  A.    Mimouu-O-Kacha    (France) 30  m.  47.4  s. 

3  B.  Albertsson  ( Sweden ) 30  m.  53.6  s. 

MARATHON 

(26  miles  385  yds.  =  42,195  meters) 
Olympic  record:  2  h.  29  m.  19.2  s.,  K.  Son  (Japan)  1936. 

1  D.   Cabrera    (Argentina) 2  h.  34  m.  51.6  s. 

2  T.  Richards   ( Great  Britain ) 2  h.  35  m.    7.6  s. 

3  E.  Gailly    ( Belgium) 2  h.  35  m.  33.6  s. 

10,000    METERS   WALK 

World  record:  42m.  39.6  s.,  V.  Hardmo  (Sweden)  1945. 
Olympic  record:  45  m.  3.0  s.,*  J.  F.  Mikaelsson  (Sweden) 

1948. 
Previous    Olympic   record:    46   m.    28.4   s.,    G.    Goulding 

(U.S.A.)  1912. 

1  J.  Mikaelsson  (Sweden) 45  m.  13.2  s. 

2  B.  Johansson    (Sweden ) 45  m.  43.8  s. 

3  F,  Schwab  (Switzerland) 46  m.    0.2  s, 

*  Record  made  in  heat 

50,000  METERS  WALK 

Olympic  record:  4  h.  30  m.  41.4  s.,  H.  Whitlock  (Great 
Britain)  1936. 

1  J.  Ljunggren    (Sweden) 4  h.  41  m.  52  s. 

2  G.  Godel   (Switzerland) 4  h.  48  m.  17  s. 

3  T.  Johnson   (Great  Britain) 4  h.  48  m.  31  s. 

400   METERS  RELAY 

World  record:  39.8  s.,  U.S.A.   (Owens,  Metcalfe,  Draper, 

Wykoff)   1936. 
Olympic  record:  39.8  s.,  U.S.A.  (Owens,  Metcalfe,  Draper, 

Wykoff)  1936. 

1  U.S.A.  (H.  N.  Ewell,  L.  C.  Wright,  H.  Dfflard,  M.  E. 
Patton)    40.6  s. 

2  Great  Britain   (A.  McCorquodale,  J.  Gregory,  K.  Jones, 
J.   Archer) 41,3  s. 

3  Italy  (M.  Tito,  F.  Peracconi,  C.  Monti,  A.  Siddi).  .41.5  s. 

1,600  METERS  RELAY 

World   record:    3   m.    8.2   s.,  U.S.A.    (Fuqua,   Ablowich, 

Warner,  Carr)  1932. 
Olympic  record:  3  m.  8.2  s.,  U.S.A.   (Fuqua,  Ablowich, 

Warner,  Carr)  1932. 

1  U.S.A.  (A.  Harnden,  C.  Bourland,  R.  Cochran,  M.  Whit- 
field)     3m.  10.4  s. 

2  France    (J.    Kerebel,    F.    Schewetta,    R.    Chef    d'hotel, 
J.   Lunis) 3m.  14.8  s. 

3  Sweden    (K.    LundquM,    L.    Wolfbrandt,    F.    Alnevik, 
R.  Larsson) 3m.  16.3  s. 

110   METERS   HURDLES 

World  record:  13.7  s.,  F.  Towns  (U.S.A.)  1936;  F.  Wol- 

cott  (U.S.A.),  1941. 

Olympic  record:  13.9  s.,  W.  F.  Porter  (U.S.A.)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record  14.1  s.,  F.  Towns  (U.S.A.)  1936. 

1  W.  F.  Porter  (U.SJL) 13.9  s. 

2  C.  Scott   (U.S.A.) 14.1  s. 

3  C.  Dixon   (U.S.A.) 14.1  s. 

400    METERS   HURDLES 

World  record:  50.6  s.,  G.  F.  Hardin  (U.S.A.)  1934. 
Olympic  record:  51.1  s.,  R.  B.  Cochran  (U.S.A.)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  52.0  s.,  G.  F.  Hardin  (U.S.A.), 
1932. 

1  R.  B.  Cochran  (U.S.A.)... 51.1s. 

2  D.  White  (Ceylon) 51.8  s. 

3  R.  Larsson  (Sweden) .52.2  s. 

HIGH  JUMP 

World  record:  2.11  meters  (6  ft.  11  in.),  L.  Steers  (U.S.A.), 

1941. 
Olympic  record:   2.03  meters    (6  ft.  8  m.),  C.  Johnson 

(U.S.A.)  1936. 
1     J.  Winter  (Australia ) 1.98  meters    6  ft  6  in. ) 


fT. 
\G. 


Paulson  (Norway) 1.95  meters 

Edleman    ( U.S. A. ) 1.95  meters 

Stanich    (U.S.A. ) 1.95  meters 


. 

6  ft.  4.77  in.) 
6  ft.  4.77  in.) 
6  ft.  4.77  in.) 


LONG  JUMP 

World  record:  8.13  meters   (26  ft.  8}i  in.),  J.  C.  Owens 

(U.S.A.)   1935. 
Olympic  record:  8.06  meters  (26  ft.  5%  in.),  J.  C.  Owens 

(U.S.A.)  1936. 

1  W.  Steele  (U.S.A.) 7.825  meters  (25  ft.  8  in.) 

2  T.  Bruce    (Australia) 7.555  meters  (24  ft.  9%  in.) 

3  H.  P.  Douglas   (U.S.A.) 7.545  meters  (24  ft.  9  in.) 

HOP,   STEP  AND  JUMP 

World  record:  16.00  meters  (52  ft.  6  in.),  N.  Tajima  (Ja- 
pan) 1936. 

Olympic  record:  16.00  meters  (52  ft.  6  in.),  N.  Tajima 
(Japan)  1936. 

1  A.  Ahman   (Sweden) 15.40  meters  (50  ft.  6%  in.) 

2  G.  Avery  (Australia) 15.365  meters  (50  ft.  5%  in.) 

3  H.  Sarialp  (Turkey) 15.025  meters  (49  ft.  3%  in.) 

POLE  VAULT 

World  record:  4.77  meters  (15  ft.  7%  in.),  C.  Warmerdam 

(U.S.A.)  1942. 
Olympic  record:  4.35  meters  (14  ft.  3%  in.),  E.  Meadows 

(U.S.A.)  1936. 

1  O.  Smith   (U.S.A.) 4.30  meters  (14  ft.  1%  in.) 

2  E.  Kataja  (Finland) 4.20  meters  ( 13  ft.  9%  in.) 

3  R.    Richards    ( U.S.A. ) 4.20  meters  ( 13  ft.  9V*  in. ) 

DECATHLON 

Olympic  record:  7,900  pts.,  G.  E.  Morris  (U.S. A.),  1936. 

Points 

1  R.  Mathias    (U.S.A.) 7,139 

2  L  Heinrich   (France) 6,974 

3  F.   Simmons    (U.S.A.) 6,950 

STEEPLECHASE    (3,000   METERS ) 

Olympic  record:  9  m.  3.8  s.,  V.  Iso-Hollo  (Finland)  1936. 

1  T.    Sjoestrand    (Sweden ) 9m.    4.6  s. 

2  E.    Elmsaeter    ( Sweden ) 9m.    8.2  s. 

3  G.   Hagstroem    ( Sweden ) 9m.  11.8  s. 


World  record:   17.40  meters   (57  ft.  1  in.),  J.  Torrance 

(U.S.A.)  1934. 
Olympic  record:  17.12  meters  (56  ft  2  in.),  W.  Thompson 

(U.S.A.)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  16.20  meters  (53  ft.  1%  in.),  H. 

Woellke  (Germany)  1936. 

1  W.  Thompson  (U.S.A.)...  17.12 meters  (56ft.    2     in.) 

2  A.  Delaney   (U.S.A.) 16.68  meters  (54  ft.    8%  in.) 

3  J.  Fuchs    ( U.S.A.) 16.42  meters  (53  ft.  10%  in.) 


World  record:   54.93  meters   (180  ft  2%  in.),  R.  Fitch 

(U.S.A.)  1946. 
Olympic  record:  52.78  meters  (173  ft.  2  in.),  A.  ConsolM 

(Italy)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  50.48  meters  (165  ft.  7^  in.), 

K.  Carpenter  (U.S.A.)  1936. 

1  A,  Consolini  ( Italy) 52.78  meters  ( 173  ft.    2     in.) 

2  G.  Tosi  (Italy) 51.78  meters  ( 169  ft.  10%  in.) 

3  F.   Gordien    (U.S.A. ) 50.77  meters  ( 166  ft.    7     in.) 


World  record:  59.00  meters   (193  ft.  6%  in.),  E.  Blask 

(Germany)  1936. 
Olympic  record:  56.49  meters  (185  ft.  4%  in.),  K.  Hein 

(Germany)  1936. 

1  L   Nemeth    (Hungary) . .  .56.07  meters  ( 183  ft  11%  in.) 

2  I.  Gubijan  (Yugoslavia) .  .54. 27  meters  (178ft.    Oysin.) 

3  R.   Bennett    (U.S.A.) 53.73  meters  ( 176  ft.    3%  in.) 

JAVELIN 

World  record:  78.70  meters  (258  ft.  2%  in.),  Y.  Nikkanen 

(Finland)   1938. 
Olympic  record:  72.71  meters   (238  ft.  6%  in.),  M.  Jar- 

vinen  (Finland)  1932. 

1  K.  Rautavaara  (Finland). 69 .77 meters  (228ft.  10% in.) 

2  S.  Seymour   (U.S. A.) 67.56  meters  (221  ft.    7%  in.) 

3  J.  Varszegi  (Hungary) . .  .67.03  meters  (219  ft.  11     in.) 

TRACK  AND  FIELD  (WOMEN) 

100  METERS 

World  record:  H.  H.  Stephens  (U.S.A.)  11.5  s.,  1936. 
Olympic  record:  H.  H.  Stephens  (U.S.A.)  11.4  s.,  1936. 

1  F.  Blankers-Koen    (Holland) 11.9  s. 

2  D.  Manley  (Great  Britain) - 12.2  s. 

3  S.  Strickland   (Australia) 12.2s. 

200  METERS 

World  record:  23.6  s.,  S.  Walasiewicz  (Poland)  1935. 
New  Olympic  event. 

1  F.  Blankers-Koen    (Holland) 24.4  s. 

2  A.  Williamson,  ( Great  Britain) 25.1  s. 

3  A   Patterson    (U.S.A.) 25.2 s. 

400  METERS  RELAY 

World  record:  46.4  s.,  Germany  (E.  Albus,  K.  Krauss,  M. 
Dollinger,  I.  Dorffeldt)  1936. 

Olympic  record:  46.4  s.,  Germany  (Albus,  Krauss,  Dollin- 
ger, Dorffeldt)  1936. 


OlYMP/C  GAMfS 


408 


OLYMPIC  GAMES 


1  Holland    (X.  S  tad-de-Jong,   I.  Witaaers-Timmer,  V.  D. 
Kade-Koudijs,  F.  Blankers-Koen ) 47.5  s. 

2  Australia    (S.   Strickland,   J.    Maston,   B.    McKinnon,   J. 
King)    47.6  s. 

3  Canada  (V.  Myers,  N.  Mackav,  D.  Foster,  P.  Jones)  .... 
" 47.8  s. 

80   METERS   HTSDLES 

World  record:   11.2  s.,  F,  B!ankers-Koen   (Holland)   1S48; 

M.  Gardner  (Great  Britain)  1948. 
Previous  World  record:  11.3s.,  C.  Testoni  (Italy)  1939; 

F.  Blankers-Koen  (Holland)  1942. 
Olympic  record:  11.2  s.,  F.  Blankers-Koen  (Holland)  1948; 

M.  Gardner  (Great  Britain)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  11.6  s.,  T.  Valla  (Italy)  1936. 

1  F.   Blankers-Koen    (Holland) 11.2  s. 

2  M.  Gardner  C Great  Britain) 11.2  s. 

3  S.  Strickland   (Australia) 11.4  s. 

JAVELIN 

World   record:    A.    Steinheuer    (Germany)    47.24    meters 

(154  ft  10%  in.)  1942. 
Olympic  record:  H.  Bauma  (Austria)  45.57  meters   (149 

ft.  6  in.)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:   T.  Fleischer   (Germany)   45.18 

meters  (148  ft.  2%  in.)  1936. 

1  H.   Bauma    (Austria) 45.57  meters  ( 149  ft.  6     in.) 

2  K.  Parviainen    (Finland) .  .43.79  meters  ( 143  ft.  8     in.) 

3  M.  Carlstedt   (Denmark) .  .42.08  meters  ( 138  ft.  0%  in.) 

HIGH  JUMP 

World  record:  1.71  meters  (5  ft.  7%  in.),  F.  Blankers-Koen 

(Holland),  1943. 
Olympic  record:  1.68  meters  (5  ft.  6l/s  in.),  A.  Coachman 

(U.S. A.)  and  D.  Tyler  (Great  Britain)  1948. 
Previous  Olympic  record:  1.657  meters  (5  ft.  5l,£  in.),  J. 

Shiley  (U.S.A.)  and  M.  Didrikson  (U.S.A.)  193£. 

1  A.   Coachman    (U.S.A.) 1.68  m.  (5  ft.  6%  in.) 

2  D.  Tyler  (Great  Britain) 1.68  m.  (5  ft.  6Vs  in.) 

3  M.  Ostermeyer   (France) 1.61  m.  (5  ft.  5%  in.) 


World  record:  48.31  meters  (158  ft.  6  in.),  G,  Mauermayer 
(Germany),  1936. 

Olympic  record:  47.63  meters  (156  ft.  3*4  in.),  G.  Mauer- 
mayer (Germany)  1936. 

1  M.  Ostermeyer   (France) 41.92  m.  ( 137  ft.  6*/2  in.) 

2  G.   Gentile    (Italy) 41.16m.  (135  ft.  1  in.) 

3  J.  Mazeas   (France) 41.17  m.  ( 135  ft.  0%  in.) 

LONG    JUMP 

World  record:  6.25  meters  (20  ft.  6  in.) »  F.  Blankers-Koen 

(Holland)   1943. 
New  Olympic  event. 

1  V.    Gyarmati    ( Hungary) 5.69  m.  ( 18  ft.  8%  in. ) 

2  N.  de  Portela  ( Argentina) 5.60  m.  ( 18  ft.  4%  in.) 

3  A.   Leyman    (Sweden) 5.575  m.  ( 18  ft.  3%  in.) 


World  record:   14.38  meters   (47  ft.  2%  in.),  G.  Mauer- 
mayer (Germany)  1934. 
New  Olympic  event. 

1  M.  Ostermeyer   (France) 13.75m.  (45 ft.  1% in.) 

2  A,   Piccinini    (Italy) 13.095  m.  (42  ft.  11%  in.) 

3  P.  Schaeffer   (Austria) 13.08  m.  (42  ft.  11  in.) 

WEIGHTLIFTING 

BANTAMWEIGHT 

1  J.  N.  de  Pietro  (U.S.A.) 307.315  kg.  (677%  Ib.) 

2  J.  Creus  (Great  Britain) 297.335  kg.  (655%  Ib.) 

3  R.  Tom   (U.S.A.) 294.84 kg.  (650 Ib.) 

FEATHERWEIGHT 

1  M.  Fayad   (Egypt) 332.265 kg.  (732%  Ib.) 

2  R.  A.  Wilkes  (Trinidad) 314.79  kg.  (694  Ib.) 

3  J.  Saimassi  (Iran) 312.305  kg.  (688%  Ib.) 

LIGHTWEIGHT 

1  I.   Shams    (Egypt) 360  kg,  (793%  Ib. 

2  A.  Hamouda    (Egypt) 360  kg.  ( 793%  Ib. 

3  J.  Halliday  (Great  Britain) 340.11  kg.  (749%  Ib. 

MIDDLEWEIGHT 

1  F.   Spellman    (U.S.A. ) 390  kg.  ( 859%  Ib. 

2  P.  George  (U.S.A.) 382.5  kg,  (842%  Ib. 

3  S.  J.  Kim  (Korea) 380 kg.  (837% Ib.. 

LIGHT   HEAVYWEIGHT 

1  S.  A.  Stanczyk  (U.S,A.) 417.5  kg.  (920  Ib.) 

2  H.  Sakata   (U.S.A.) 380  kg.  (837%  Ib. 

3  K.  Magnusson  (Sweden) 375  kg.  (826%  Ib. 

HEAVYWEIGHT 

1  A.   Davis    (U.S.A.) 452.5kg.  (997%  Ib, 

2  N.  Schemansky  (U.S.A.) 425  kg.  (936%  Ib. 

3  A.  Charite  (Holland) 412.5  kg.  (909  Ib.) 


WRESTLING  (FREE-STYLE) 


FL  YWE IGHT 

1  V.  Viitala    (Finland) 

2  H.  Balamir  (Turkey) 

3  T.  Johansson  (Sweden) 

FEATHERWEIGHT 

1  G.  Bilge   (Turkey) 

2  S.  Johin  (Sweden) 

3  A.  Mueller    (Switzer- 
land) 

WELTERWEIGHT 

1  Y.  Dosju   (Turkey) 

2  R.  Garrard  (Australia) 

3  L.  Merrill    (U.S.A.) 

LIGHT  HEAVYWEIGHT 

1  H.  Wittenberg  (U.S.A.) 

2  F.  Stoeckli  (Switzerland) 

3  B.  Fahlkvist    (Sweden) 


BANTAMWEIGHT 

1  N.  Akar  (Turkey) 

2  G.  Leeman    (U.S.A.) 

3  C.  Kouynos  (France) 

LIGHT-WEIGHT 

1  C.  Atik   (Turkey) 

2  A.  Frandfors   (Sweden) 

3  H.  Baumann  (Switzer- 
land) 

MIDDLEWEIGHT 

1  G.  Brand    (U.S.A.) 

2  A.  Candemir  (Turkey) 

3  E.  Linden   (Sweden) 

HEAVYWEIGHT 

1  G.  Bobis    (Hungary) 

2  B.  Antonsson   (Sweden) 

3  J.  Armstrong  (Australia) 


WRESTLING  (GRECO-ROMAN) 


FLYWEIGHT 

1  P.  Lombardi    (Italy) 

2  K.  Olcay  (Turkey) 

3  R.  Kangasmaeki   (Fin- 
land) 

FEATHERWEIGHT 

1  M.  Oktav   (Turkey) 

2  O.  Anderberg   (Sweden) 

3  F.  Toth  (Hungary) 

WELTERWEIGHT 

1  G.   Andersson    (Sweden) 

2  M.  Szilvassy  (Hungary) 

3  C.  Hansen  (Denmark) 

LIGHT  HEAVYWEIGHT 

1  K.  Nilsson   (Sweden) 

2  K.  Groendahl  (Finland) 

3  I.  Orabi  (Egypt) 


BANTAMWEIGHT 

1  K.  Petersen    (Sweden) 

2  M.  Hassen   Aly   (Egypt) 

3  H.  Kaya  (Turkey) 


LIGHTWEIGHT 

1  K.  Freij  (Sweden) 

2  A.  Eriksen  (Norway) 

3  K.  Ferencz   (Hungary) 

MIDDLEWEIGHT 

1  R.  Gronberg   (Sweden) 

2  M.  Tayfur    (Turkey) 

3  E.  Gallegati   (Italy) 

HEAVYWEIGHT 

1  A.  Kirecci   (Turkey) 

2  T.  Nilsson   (Sweden) 

3  G.  Fantoni    (Italy) 


YACHTING 


6-METER    CLASS 

Points 

4  Norway     

5  Great  Britain   . 

6  Belgium    


Points 
. .  .  3,217 
. .  .2,879 
...2,752 


1  U.S.A 5,472 

2  Argentina    5,120 

3  Sweden     4,033 

DRAGON    CLASS 

1  Norway     4,746       4  Great  Britain   .  . .  .3,943 

2  Sweden     4,621       5  Italy      3,366 

3  Denmark     4,223       6  Finland     3,057 

STAR    CLASS 


1  U.S.A 5,828 

2  Cuba     4,849 

3  Holland    4,731 


4  Great  Britain    4,372 

5  Italy    4,370 

6  Portugal    4,292 


SWALLOW    CLASS 

1  Great  Britain    ....  5,625        4  Sweden     3,342 

2  Portugal    5,579        5  Denmark     2,935 

3  U.S.A 4,352        6  Italy    2,893 

FIREFLY    CLASS 


1  Denmark     5,543 

2  U.S.A 5,408 

3  Holland     5,204 


4  Sweden     4,603 

5  Canada     4,535 

6  Uruguay    4,079 


HOW  THE  NATIONS  FINISHED  * 


Country  Points 

United  States 547.5 

Sweden 308.5 

France 206 

Hungary 183.1 

Italy 166 

Great  Britain 162 

Finland 153.75 

Switzerland 135.6 

Denmark 129 

Netherlands 107 

Australia 82 

Czechoslovakia 80.5 

Turkey 72,8 

Norway 65.75 


Country  Points 

Argentina 60.5 

Belgium 58 

Austria 44 

Canada 38.1 

South  Africa 36 

Mexico 35.5 

Egypt 33.25 

Jamaica 26 

Uruguay 17 

Yugoslavia 17 

Korea 15.6 

Spain 14.5 

Iran 12.1 

Poland 10 


*  The  table  shows  the  unofficial  national  placings  at  the  XIV 
Olympiad:  7  points  are  awarded  for  1st  place,  5  for  2d,  4  for  3d, 
3  for  4th,  2  for  5th,  and  1  for  6th.  Scores  of  9  points  and  less  were 
made  by  14  other  nations;  17  nations  scored  no  points. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES,  Winter.  A  series  o£  controversies 
threatened  the  fifth  Winter  Olympic  Games,  but 
after  many  hot  verbal  exchanges  and  a  little  com- 


ONTARIO 


409 


OPHTHALMOLOGY 


promising  on  the  part  of  the  more  cool-headed 
authorities,  the  contests  got  under  way  at  St. 
Moritz,  Switzerland,  on  Jan.  30,  1948.  Despite  the 
plague  of  changing  weather  that  brought  hot  sun- 
shine and  snowstorms  on  alternate  days,  the  cham- 
pionships were  run  off  successfully  and  came  to  a 
peaceful  conclusion  on  February  8. 

The  hockey  championship,  one  of  the  big  prizes 
of  the  games,  was  not  decided  until  the  closing 
day,  when  Canada  defeated  Switzerland,  3-0, 
thereby  gaining  enough  points  to  give  Canada  first 
place  on  a  goals-average  basis.  The  United  States 
Amateur  Hockey  Association  six,  center  of  most  of 
the  dissension,  lost  to  the  Czechs,  4-3,  in  its  final 
game.  The  real  trouble  started  when  the  Amateur 
Athletic  Union  and  the  Amateur  Hockey  Associa- 
tion became  involved  in  a  battle  as  to  who  was 
entitled  to  represent  the  U.S.  in  the  Olympics,  For 
a  time  the  A.A.U.  threatened  to  withdraw  all  of 
its  competitors,  a  move  that  caused  the  St.  Moritz 
mayor  to  say  he  would  cancel  the  games  if  Uncle 
Sam's  athletes  did  not  compete.  Then  the  tempest 
settled  when  officials  got  together  and  announced 
that  the  A.H.A.  six  would  represent  the  United 
States  on  the  schedule,  although  its  points  would 
not  figure  in  the  final  standings. 

HOW  THE  NATIONS  PLACED  * 


Country 

Firsts 

Seconds 

Thirds 

Points 

Sweden  

4 

3 

3 

70 

Switzerland   

3 

4 

3 

68 

United  States  

....       3 

4 

2 

67* 

Norway  

4 

3 

3 

57 

Austria  

1 

4 

4 

48 

Finland  

1 

3 

2 

46 

France  

2 

1 

2 

33 

Italy   

1 

0 

0 

22 

Canada  

2 

0 

1 

is* 

Belgium   

1 

1 

0 

15 

Great  Britain  

....       0 

0 

2 

15 

Czechoslovakia  

0 

1 

0 

10 

Hungary  

....       0 

1 

0 

10 

Netherlands  

0 

0 

0 

6 

Poland  

0 

0 

0 

1 

*  The  scale  of  values  is  based  on  7  points  for  the  winner,  and 
5,  4,  3,  2,  and  1  points  for  the  following  five  competitors. 

A  surprise  scorer  for  the  Americans  was  Mrs. 
Gretchen  Fraser  of  Vancouver,  Wash.,  who  won 
from  Europe's  best  feminine  skiers  in  the  women's 
slalom.  Mrs.  Fraser  also  tallied  in  the  women's  Al- 
pine combined  event,  when  she  placed  second  to 
Trude  Beiser  of  Austria  by  only  thirty-seven  one- 
hundredths  of  a  point. 

Richard  Button  of  Englewood,  N.J.,  waltzed  off 
with  the  men's  figure  skating  award  while  Canada*s 
Barbara  Ann  Scott  was  queen  of  the  women  com- 
petitors. The  four-man  bobsled  team  of  Francis 
Tyler,  Lake  Placid,  N.Y.;  Pat  Martin,  Lake  Placid; 
Ed  Rimkus,  Schenectady,  N.Y.,  and  Bill  D'Amico, 
Lake  Placid,  added  to  the  United  States  scoring 
with  first  place,  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

ONTARIO.  A  Canadian  province  lying  between  Que- 
bec on  the  east  and  Manitoba  on  the  west.  Area, 
412,582  square  miles,  including  49,300  square 
miles  of  fresh  water.  Population  ( 1948  estimate ) : 
4,297,000,  compared  with  (1941  census)  3,787,- 
655.  Principal  religious  denominations  (1941) 
were:  United  Church,  1,073,425;  Roman  Catholic, 
882,369;  Anglican,  815,413;  Presbyterian,  433,708; 
Baptist,  192,915;  and  Lutheran,  104,111.  In  1946 
there  were  97,446  live  births,  39,758  deaths,  and 
46,073  marriages.  Education  (1945-46):  798,934 
students  enrolled  in  schools  and  colleges.  Chief 
cities:  Toronto,  667,457  (1941);  Hamilton,  166,- 
337;  Ottawa,  154,951;  Windsor,  105,311;  London, 
78,264;  Kitchener,  35,657;  Sudbury,  32,203;  Brant- 
ford,  31,948;  Fort  William,  30,585;  St.  Catharines, 


30,275;   Kingston,  30,126;  Timmins,  28,790;  Os- 
hawa,  26,813. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction for  1947  was  $601,106,000.  Gross  farm 
value  of  all  major  field  crops  produced  on  8,108,- 
000  acres  in  1947  amounted  to  $277,874,000.  Chief 
field  crops  (1947):  oats,  41,490,000  bu.  ($37,- 
341,000);  wheat,  18,299,000  bu.  ($25,985,000); 
barley,  6,930,000  bu.  ($6,440,000);  fall  rye, 
1,444,000  bu.  ($3,697,000);  dry  beans,  1,262,000 
bu.  ($6,903,000);  soy  beans,  1,110,000  bu. 
($3,397,000);  buckwheat,  3,192,000  bu.  ($3,543,- 
000);  mixed  grains,  25,312,000  bu.  ($23,793,000); 
fiaxseed,  674,000  bu.  ($3,653,000);  shelled  corn, 
6,430,000  bu.  ($12,153,000);  potatoes,  9,100,000 
cwt  ($21,658,000);  field  roots,  9,938,000  cwt. 
($8,845,000);  hay  and  clover,  6,154,000  tons 
($87,941,000).  Livestock  (June  1,  1947):  2,875,- 
000  cattle,  including  1,252,600  milk  cows  ( $267,- 
471,000),  451,200  horses  ($44,624,000),  2,244,- 
700  swine  ($57,001,000),  667,500  sheep  ($8,695,- 
000),  30,744,600  poultry  ($34,751,000). 

Manufacturing.  The  premier  position  in  manu- 
facturing is  maintained  by  Ontario  with  a  gross 
value  of  products  of  $3,754,523,701  in  1946.  There 
were  11,424  establishments  employing  498,120 
persons.  Salaries  and  wages  paid  amounted  to 
$845,216,547  and  the  cost  of  materials  was  $2,001,- 
900,592. 

Government.  Finance  (year  ending  Mar.  31, 
1949):  combined  ordinary  and  capital  revenues 
were  estimated  at  $210,858,000  (1948:  $241,297,- 
000);  expenditures  at  $228,647,000  (1948:  $208,- 
505,000).  The  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a 
lieutenant  governor  who  is  advised  by  a  ministry 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly.  There  is  a  single 
chamber  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  comprising 
90  members  elected  for  a  five-year  term  by  popu- 
lar vote.  At  the  provincial  general  election  held  on 
June  7,  1948,  there  were  elected  53  Progressive 
Conservatives,  21  Cooperative  Commonwealth 
Federationists  (C.C.F.),  14  Liberals,  and  2  others, 
Ontario  is  represented  in  the  Dominion  Parliament 
at  Ottawa  by  24  members  (appointed  for  life)  in 
the  Senate  and  82  elected  members  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  Lieutenant  Governor,  Ray  Lawson 
(appointed  Dec.  26,  1946);  Premier,  Thomas  L. 
Kennedy  (Progressive  Conservative).  See  CANADA. 

OPHTHALMOLOGY.  Chemotherapy  has  proved  of 
value  in  the  treatment  of  ocular  infections,  espe- 
cially the  sulfonamides,  because  of  their  bacterio- 
static  and  bactericidal  properties.  In  the  superficial 
lesions,  topical  applications  are  effective,  and  in  the 
deeper  seated  processes  such  as  orbital  cellulitis, 
cavernous  sinus  thrombosis,  etc.,  parenteral  ad- 
ministration is  indicated.  These  drugs  are  frequent- 
ly combined  with  penicillin  with  happy  results. 

Antibiotics.  Of  the  antibiotics,  the  calcium  and 
potassium  salts  of  penicillin  have  found  extensive 
use.  Infections  of  the  eye  caused  by  the  staphy- 
lococcus,  streptococcus,  pneumococcus  and  the 
gonococcus  respond  remarkably  well.  Penicillin  in 
the  form  of  eye  drops  or  as  ointment  is  used  pre- 
and  post-operatively.  Massive  doses,  300,000  units, 
intramuscularly  are  effective  in  many  intra-ocular 
infectious  processes.  Another  antibiotic,  strepto- 
mycin, has  given  encouraging  results  in  infections 
with  die  pyocyaneus  colon,  Pasteurella  tularensis, 
brucella  and  staphylococcus  aureus  organisms, 

Some  encouraging  reports  of  the  employment  of 
streptomycin  in  tuberculous  ocular  disease  have 
appeared,  and  as  the  preparations  are  improved 
and  the  indications  better  understood,  it  appears 
likely  that  this  substance  will  prove  of  great  benefit. 


OPHTHALMOLOGY 


410 


OREGON 


The  use  of  penicillin  drops  in  the  prophylaxis  of 
ophthalmia  neonatorum  has  been  quite  thoroughly 
studied  and,  on  the  whole,  the  results  have  been  as 
good  as  the  original  Crede's  method.  It  is,  however, 
necessary  to  employ  the  penicillin  every  few  hours 
for  several  days  as  against  the  use  of  silver  nitrate 
but  once.  Hence  it  must  be  proved  that  penicillin 
is  more  effective  than  silver  nitrate  before  it  can 
claim  to  be  superior.  Two  new  antibiotics  which 
give  promise  of  being  valuable  are  bacitracin  and 
aureomycin.  In  die  treatment  of  conjunctival  in- 
fections and  superficial  corneal  lesions  30  percent 
sulfacetamide  is  very  effective. 

Uveitis.  In  the  treatment  of  uveitis,  the  use  of 
fever  therapy  in  the  form  of  typhoid-para-typhoid 
vaccine  has  become  recognized  as  standard.  The 
removal  of  foci  of  infection  is,  of  course,  indicated. 
Atropine  and  neo-synephrine  to  maintain  dilatation 
of  the  pupil,  hot  moist  compresses,  and  dionin  in 
the  later  stages,  aid  recovery.  Immune  globulins 
have  been  used  with  apparent  benefit. 

Glaucoma.  In  the  treatment  of  congenital  glau- 
coma (buphthalmos)  the  operation  of  goniotomy, 
as  proposed  by  Dr.  Otto  Barkan,  has  yielded  the 
best  results  in  the  hands  of  several  surgeons.  In 
chronic  simple  glaucoma,  D.  F.  P.  ( di-iso-propyl 
fluorophosphate)  has  definitely  found  a  place  in 
our  list  of  drugs.  It  is  the  most  powerful  miotic  that 
we  have  and,  in  spite  of  the  discomfort  which  it 
sometimes  causes  because  of  the  intense  muscular 
spasm,  it  reduces  intra- ocular  tension  in  many  cases 
more  efficiently  than  other  preparations. 

As  a  diagnostic  test  in  cases  of^  suspected  early 
glaucoma,  the  so-called  "lability**  test  has  been 
found  valuable.  A  cold  stimulus  is  produced  by 
immersing  the  hand  in  ice  water  for  one  minute 
while  the  sleeve  of  the  blood  pressure  apparatus  is 
fastened  about  the  neck  and  inflated  to  40  mm.  The 
intra-ocukr  tension  is  recorded  at  the  end  of  the 
minute  and  a  rise  of  10  or  more  mm.  over  that 
measured  before  the  test  is  considered  evidence  of 
ocular  hypertension.  The  possibility  of  an  emo- 
tional factor  in  this  test  cannot  be  overlooked. 

Beta  Rays.  The  use  of  beta  rays  has  become  more 
widely  accepted.  Since  these  rays  penetrate  only  3 
mm.  they  are  suitable  for  the  treatment  of  non- 
malignant  lesions  of  the  eyelids  and  of  the  anterior 
segment  of  the  eye,  especially  for  tuberculous  con- 
ditions, for  vernal  conjunctivitis  and  lesions  of  the 
cornea,  particularly  recent  vascularization.  In  the 
operation  of  keratoplasty,  applications  of  beta  rays 
are  made  routinely  to  prevent  the  formation  of  new 
vessels.  No  damage  to  the  lens  has  been  observed, 
either  clinically  or  in  experimental  animals,  from 
therapeutic  doses  of  the  rays. 

Retro-Lental  Fibroplasia.  Reports  of  cases  of  retro- 
lental  fibroplasia  continue  to  appear,  and  while 
there  is  little  or  no  treatment  which  is  helpful,  it  is 
most  important  to  recognize  this  condition  and  to 
differentiate  it  from  retinoblastoma.  In  the  past, 
many  eyes  have  been  needlessly  removed  because 
of  failure  to  recognize  the  former,  which  occurs  in 
premature  infants.  Retro-lental  fibroplasia  is  char- 
acterized by  the  presence  of  embryonal  connective 
tissue  behind  the  crystalline  lens.  Often  branches 
of  the  tunica  vasculosa  lentis  are  to  be  seen.  The 
condition  has  been  observed  to  occur  from  2  to  5 
months  after  the  premature  birth,  and  in  the  orig- 
inally normal  fundus  angiomatous  dilatations  of  the 
retinal  vessels  are  observed.  This  was  followed  by 
massive  retinal  exudate  and  the  formation  of  the 
membrane  posterior  to  the  lens.  Retinal  folds  and 
detachment  are  often  associated  with,  or  are  a 
part  of,  the  condition. 

Transplantation  of  Vitreous.  This  has  been  prac- 


ticed with  some  success  and  pools  of  vitreous  are 
now  being  formed  to  be  drawn  upon  when  needed. 
The  procedure  is  indicated  when  the  vitreous  is 
densely  clouded  by  blood  of  long  standing  or  other 
vitreous  opacities.  In  place  of  new  vitreous,  after 
withdrawal  of  the  clouded  fluid,  the  needle  may  be 
left  in  place  and  some  of  the  patient's  own  spinal 
fluid  introduced.  Quite  satisfactory  results  are  re- 
ported. 

Ophthalmic  Surgery.  As  an  aid  to  ophthalmic  sur- 
gery, the  anesthesia  induced  by  the  intravenous  use 
of  Pentothal  sodium  has  been  of  great  value.  Suf- 
ficiently deep  narcosis  may  be  obtained  and  quickly 
modified  and  can  be  maintained  for  as  long  as 
needed.  The  rapid  loss  of  consciousness  and  the 
fact  that  the  anesthetist  is  not  in  the  operator's  field 
are  helpful.  A  hypodermic  of  atropine  and  mor- 
phine should  be  administered  45  minutes  before 
the  induction  of  the  anesthesia. 

Pentothal  is  especially  adapted  for  use  in  the 
cataract  operation  upon  highly  nervous  and  un- 
stable patients.  The  operation  of  corneal  trans- 
plantation continues  to  find  favor  and  the  knowl- 
edge of  what  type  of  corneal  pathology  is  best 
suited  to  the  operation  is  more  clearly  defined.  Im- 
provements in  technic  have  assured  better  results, 
and  experience  has  taught  how  better  to  deal  with 
the  complications  which  occur.  The  operation  is 
being  performed  by  more  and  more  surgeons  who 
have  acquired  their  training  through  the  Eye  Bank 
Foundation. 

Iontophoresis.  This  is  used  to  obtain  a  greater 
concentration  of  drugs  than  can  be  secured  by 
medicaments  in  water,  powder  or  ointment  form. 
From  3  to!5  times  greater  concentrations  are  thus 
obtainable  in  the  tissues  of  the  conjunctiva,  cornea 
and  the  anterior  segment  of  the  eye.  Especially 
since  the  advent  of  the  sulfonamides  and  the  anti- 
biotics, whose  specific  affinities  are  more  or  less 
clearly  defined,  the  use  of  iontophoresis  is  clearly 
called  for. 

Allergy.  Any  part  of  the  eye  or  its  adnexa  may 
be  subject  to  allergic  reaction.  The  more  superficial 
structures,  the  lids,  conjunctiva  and  cornea  are  fre- 
quently involved,  but  the  sclera,  uveal  tract  and 
the  nervous  structures  of  the  eye  are  also  known  to 
react  to  different  allergens.  Frequently  these  tissues 
react  in  association  with  more  remote  tissues,  such 
as  the  nasal  mucosa  or  the  gastro-intestmal  tract. 

Several  anti-histaminic  drugs  have  been  intro- 
duced and  have  been  used  in  diseases  of  the  eye. 
One  of  these,  called  Antistine,  has  afforded  relief 
in  a  variety  of  allergic  conditions.  It  is  of  low  tox- 
icity,  accumulates  in  the  tissues  and  is  strongly  ac- 
tive against  the  histaminic  substances,  especially  of 
the  ragweed  type.  Benadryl  hydrochloride  and 
Pyribenzamine,  which  are  effective  against  some 
forms  of  allergy,  seem  not  to  have  proved  so  reli- 
able as  Antistine.  Vernal  catarrh  responds  well  to 
this  preparation.  — EUGENE  M.  BLAKE 

OREGON.  A  Pacific  State.  Area:  96,981  sq.  mi.  Popu- 
lation: (July  1,  1948)  1,626,000,  compared  with 
(1940  census)  1,089,684.  Chief  cities:  Salem  (cap- 
ital), 30,908  inhabitants  in  1940;  Portland,  305,- 
394.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND 
METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES, 
VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $106,763,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $99,596,000. 

Elections.  Dewey  won  a  popular  majority  over 
Truman,  Wallace,  and  other  candidates,  and  re- 
ceived the  6  electoral  votes  which  also  were  his  in 
1944.  Incumbent  Republican  Senator  Guy  Cordon 


ORGANIZATION  OF  AMERICAN  STATES 


411 


ORGAN/ZAT/ON  OF  AMERICAN  STATES 


was  reelected.  AH  4  House  seats  remained  Repub- 
lican. In  races  for  State  office,  Republican  nominee 
Douglas  McKay  won  a  first  term  as  Governor; 
Earl  T.  Newbry  was  reelected  Secretary  of  State 
and  Auditor;  George  W.  Neuner  was  reelected  At- 
torney General;  Walter  J.  Pearson  became  Treas- 
urer. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  John  H.  Hall;  Lieut, 
Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  Earl  T.  New- 
bry; Attorney  General,  George  W.  Neuner;  State 
Treasurer,  Leslie  M.  Scott;  State  Auditor,  Earl  T. 
Newbry. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  AMERICAN  STATES.  The  21  Amer- 
ican republics  are  members  of  the  Organization  of 
American  States,  on  a  basis  of  absolute  equality. 
Each  country  has  one  vote  in  the  decisions  taken 
at  meetings  of  the  Council  of  the  Organization. 
The  list  or  member  countries  follows: 

ARGENTINA  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC       NICARAGUA 

BOLIVIA  ECUADOR  PANAMA 

BRAZIL  EL  SALVADOR  PARAGUAY 

CHILE  GUATEMALA  PERU 

COLOMBIA  HAITI  UNITED  STATES 

COSTA  KICA  HONDURAS  URUGUAY 

CUBA  MEXICO  VENEZUELA 

The  Organization  accomplishes  its  purposes  by 
means  of: 

1.  The  Inter- American  Conference,  meeting  every 
five  years,  at  which  representatives  of  the  mem- 
ber governments  decide  matters  pertaining  to 
their  relationships  and  to  the  general  action  and 
policy  of  the  Organization; 

2.  The  Meeting  of  Consultation  of  Ministers  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  held  to  consider  problems  of  an 
urgent  nature  and  of  common  interest  to  the 
American  republics  and  to  adopt  decisions  in 
matters  covered  in  the  Inter-American  Treaty 
of  Reciprocal  Assistance;  it  is  assisted  by  an 
Advisory  Defense  Committee,  composed  of  the 
highest  military  authorities  in  the  member  coun- 
tries and  meeting  whenever  it  is  considered  ad- 
visable to  study   questions   of  collective   self- 
defense; 

3.  The  Council  of  the  Organization,  with  head- 
quarters in.  Washington,  composed  of  one  Rep- 
resentative of  each  member  nation  especially 
appointed  by  the  respective  governments,  with 
the  rank  of  Ambassador,  its  function  being  to 
supervise  tie  progress  of  the  Organization,  act- 
ing either  directly  or  through  the  following 
technical  organs: 

Inter-American  Economic  and  Social  Council, 
with  permanent  headquarters  at  the  Pan  Ameri- 
can Union,  in  Washington; 
Inter-American  Council  of  Jurists,  and  the 
Inter-American  Cultural  Council,  the  latter  two 
meeting  periodically  at  places  chosen  by  them- 
selves; 

4.  The  Pan  American  Union,  the  central  and  per- 
manent organ  of  the  Organization,  with  head- 
quarters  in  Washington,  which  performs   the 
duties  assigned  to  it  in  the  Charter  of  the  Or- 
ganization and  such  other  duties  as  are  assigned 
to  it  in  other  inter- American  treaties  and  agree- 
ments; 

5.  The  Specialized  Conferences,  meeting  to  deal 
with  special  technical  matters  or  to  develop  spe- 
cific aspects  of  inter-American  cooperation; 

6.  The    Specialized    Organizations,    inter-govern- 
mental organizations  established  by  multilateral 
agreements  to  discharge  specific  functions  in 
their  respective  fields  of  action. 

Officers  of  the  Pan  American  Union:  Secretary  Gen- 
eral— Alberto  Lleras  (Colombia);  Assistant  Secre- 


tary General — William  Manger  (United  States); 
Director,  Dept.  of  Economic  and  Social  Aifairs — 
Amos  E.  Taylor  (United  States);  Director,  Dept. 
of  International  Law  and  Organization — Charles 
G.  Fenwick;  Director  Dept  of  Cultural  Affairs- 
Jorge  Basadre  (Peru);  Director,  Dept.  of  Admin- 
istrative Services — Lowell  Curtiss  (United  States). 

Events,  1948,  etc.  On  April  14,  1890,  represent- 
atives of  the  American  republics  meeting  in  Wash- 
ington at  the  First  International  Conference  of 
American  States  adopted  a  resolution  creating  what 
is  today  the  Pan  American  Union.  This  interna- 
tional organization's  object  was  to  foster  mutual 
understanding  and  cooperation  between  the  na- 
tions of  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Since  that  time, 
successive  Pan  American  conferences  have  greatly 
broadened  the  scope  of  work  of  the  Pan  American 
Union,  new  specialized  inter-American  agencies 
have  been  created,  and  it  gradually  became  evi- 
dent that  die  effective  operation  of  the  full-grown 
inter-American  system  called  for  greater  integra- 
tion of  its  various  parts. 

This  led  to  the  adoption  on  Apr.  30,  1948,  by 
the  Ninth  International  Conference  of  American 
States,  at  Bogota,  Colombia,  of  the  Charter  of  the 
Organization  of  American  States,  a  significant  step 
in  inter-American  relations  because  it  coordinated 
the  work  of  all  the  former  independent  official 
entities  in  the  inter-American  field  and  defined 
their  mutual  relationships.  The  Organization  of 
American  States  serves  the  cause  of  the  United 
Nations  as  a  regional  agency  devoted  to  the  pacific 
settlement  of  disputes  in  the  Western  Hemisphere 
and  to  the  promotion  of  inter-American  under- 
standing. 

With  the  signing  of  the  Pact  of  Bogota  at  the 
Ninth  Conference,  the  Pan  American  Union  was 
designated  as  the  central  organ  and  general  sec- 
retariat of  the  Organization.  The  functions  of  the 
Union  in  relation  to  the  other  organs  of  the  system 
were  greatly  enlarged  and  more  clearly  defined, 
and  provision  was  made  for  an  augmentation  of 
its  office  facilities  to  permit  it  to  discharge  all  its 
duties  efficiently.  Four  administrative  departments 
were  set  up  to  deal  with  matters  falling  in  the  fol- 
lowing fields:  economic  and  social  affairs;  interna- 
tional law  and  organization;  cultural  affairs;  and  of- 
fice services.  The  Directors  of  the  first  three  of 
these  departments  were  made,  ex  officio,  Executive 
Secretaries  of  the  corresponding  organs  of  the 
Council,  i.e.,  the  Inter- American  Economic  and  So- 
cial Council,  the  Inter-American  Council  of  Jurists, 
and  the  Inter- American  Cultural  Council,  for  great- 
er coordination  of  the  work  in  these  fields. 

The  Pan  American  Union  serves  also  as  the  per- 
manent secretariat  of  the  Inter-American  Confer- 
ences, the  Meetings  of  Consultation  of  Foreign 
Ministers,  and  the  Specialized  Conferences,  It  acts 
as  adviser  to  the  Council  and  its  organs  in  the 
preparation  of  programs  and  regulations  for  these 
conferences,  offers  technical  assistance  and  neces- 
sary personnel  to  the  governments  of  the  countries 
in  which  they  are  held,  acts  as  custodian  of  docu- 
ments and  archives  of  the  conferences,  as  well  as 
depository  of  instruments  of  ratification  of  inter- 
American  agreements,  and  submits  reports  to  the 
Council  and  to  the  inter- American  conferences  on 
work  accomplished  by  the  various  organs. 

In  addition  to  these  duties  to  the  member  gov- 
ernments and  their  official  agencies,  the  Pan  Amer- 
ican Union  renders  a  wide  variety  of  services 
through  its  information  offices  to  the  citizens  of 
the  American  republics.  It  answers  inquiries  on 
every  conceivable  phase  of  life  and  culture  in  the 
Americas  received  from  individuals  and  associa- 


PACIHC  ISLANDS 


412  PAKISTAN 


tkms,  secures  needed  material  and  information  on 

request,  makes  arrangements  to  bring  together  per- 
sons and  institutions  with  like  interests,  and  in  gen- 
eral serves  as  a  clearing  house  for  information  on 
all  the  member  countries. 

The  Secretary  General  and  the  Assistant  Secre- 
tary General  are  elected  by  the  Council  of  the 
Organization,  for  ten-year  terms.  The  Secretary 
General  appoints  the  Department  Directors,  as 
well  as  the  lesser  personnel  of  the  Union,  The 
Council  approves  the  annual  budget  for  the  Or- 
ganization, which  is  financed  by  quotas  contributed 
by  the  member  governments. 

PACIFIC  ISLANDS,  Trust  Territory  of  the.  The  territory 
in  the  Pacific,  formerly  mandated  to  Japan  by  the 
League  of  Nations  in  accordance  with  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles,  1919  (see  below  under  Government). 
It  comprises  some  2,146  islands,  islets,  atolls,  and 
reefs,  extending  over  an  area  1,200  miles  north  to 
south  and  2,500  miles  west  to  east.  There  are  three 
main  groups:  (1)  Marianas  (less  Guam),  14  is- 
lands, including  Saipan,  Tinian,  Rota;  (2)  Caro- 
lines, 577  islands,  including  Yap,  Koror,  Pelelieu, 
Angaur,  Truk,  Ulithi,  Ponape,  Kusaie;  (3)  Mar- 
shalls  (60  islands),  including  Kwajalehi,  Majuro, 
Bikini,  Eniwetok,  Rongerik,  Ujelang.  The  total  land 
area  of  the  Trust  Territory  is  715  statute  square 
miles  and  the  total  over-all  area  of  land  and  water 
is  3,121,722  nautical  square  miles. 

Population.  The  indigenous  population  is  of  the 
Micronesian  race,  except  on  a  few  islands  inhabited 
by  Polynesians,  a  race  closely  akin  to  the  Micro- 
nesian. At  least  three  different  dialects  are  spoken 
in  different  parts  of  the  Trust  Territory.  Total  pop- 
ulation (1948):  51,532.  Population  by  districts: 
Saipan  6,074;  Marshalls  10,543;  Ponape  9,591; 
Truk  14,368;  Palau  10,956. 

Education.  In  1948  there  were  148  public  schools 
in  the  Trust  Territory  with  a  total  of  9,411  stu- 
dents. Enrollment  in  the  district  teacher  training 
schools  totaled  313. 

Health.  During  1948  a  total  of  75  dispensaries 
with  a  capacity  of  382  beds  wTere  maintained  for 
the  use  of  the  indigenous  people.  Schools  for  med- 
ical practitioners,  dentists,  and  nurses  are  main- 
tained on  Guam.  A  medical  officer  makes  regular 
inspection  trips  to  each  island  to  administer  treat- 
ments and  to  supervise  the  work  of  the  local  med- 
ical practitioner.  Persons  requiring  hospitah'zation 
are  transported  to  district  headquarters  or  to  Guam 
by  ship.  In  1948  a  medical  survey  ship,  the  U.S.S. 
Whidlby3  was  assigned  to  the  territory.  This  floating 
clinic,  which  is  now  proceeding  from  island  to  is- 
land in  the  area,  makes  possible  the  accomplish- 
ment of  chest  X-rays  for  all  islanders  and  other  ex- 
aminations of  health  and  sanitation  conditions  on 
even  the  most  remote  island. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  natural  resources  of 
the  Trust  Territory  are  meager  and  for  the  most 
part  the  soil  is  unproductive.  Because  of  the  remote 
location  and  distances  involved  in  inter-island  ship- 
ping the  problem  of  sea  transportation  is  acute.  An 
effort  is  being  made  to  revitalize  the  island  econ- 
omy. Principal  products  for  export  are:  copra 
(dried  coconut),  handicraft,  trochus  shells,  and 
phosphate.  Exports  for  the  first  9  months  of  1948 
were  valued  at  $1,771,710;  imports  at  $804,581. 

Government.  In  World  War  II,  beginning  in 
early  1944,  the  islands  comprising  what  is  now  the 
Trust  Territory  were  either  wrested  from  the  Japa- 
nese military  forces  or  were  isolated  from  further 
effective  participation  in  the  war.  From  the  time  of 
the  expulsion  of  the  Japanese  until  July  18,  1947, 
these  islands  were  under  military  government  ad- 


ministered by  the  U.S.  Navy.  On  that  date  the 
President  of  the  United  States  approved  the  trus- 
teeship agreement  between  the  United  States  and 
the  Security  Council  of  the  United  Nations  for 
the  Trust  Territory  of  the  Pacific  Islands  (former 
Japanese  mandate).  The  President,  also  on  July  18, 
by  Executive  Order  9875  delegated  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy  the  responsibility  for  the  civil  ad- 
ministration of  "the  Trust  Territory,  on  an  interim 
basis  and  until  such  time  as  a  civilian  department 
or  agency  should  be  designated  to  have  permanent 
supervision  of  the  government  of  the  area.  Pursuant 
thereto  Admiral  Louis  E.  Denfeld  was  commis- 
sioned as  U.S.  High  Commissioner  of  the  Trust 
Territory  and  Rear  Admiral  Carleton  H.  Wright 
was  appointed  Deputy  High  Commissioner.  The 
present  seat  of  government  for  the  Trust  Territory 
is  at  Guam.  The  Trust  Territory  for  purposes  of  ad- 
ministration has  been  divided  into  the  following 
districts:  Saipan,  Kwajalein,  Majuro,  Ponape,  Truk, 
Yap,  and  Palau.  In  so  far  as  possible,  consistent 
with  the  fundamental  principles  of  democracy,  the 
indigenous  people  of  the  area  have  been  encour- 
aged to  retain  their  traditional  forms  of  government 
and  to  assume  responsibility  for  the  conduct  of 
their  own  local  affairs.  Legislation  to  provide  an  or- 
ganic act  and  local  citizenship  for  the  Trust  Terri- 
tory was  submitted  to  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  in  1948  but  no  action  was  taken. 

PAKISTAN.  A  self-governing  dominion  of  the  British 
Commonwealth  of  Nations.  Pakistan  was  consti- 
tuted on  Aug.  15,  1947,  in  accordance  with  the  In- 
dian Independence  Act  passed  by  the  British  Par- 
liament on  July  18,  1947.  The  Dominion  consists 
of  two  blocks  of  territory  separated  by  700  miles 
of  the  territory  of  the  Union  of  India.  The  section 
in  northwest  India  includes  the  former  provinces 
of  Sind,  Baluchistan,  Northwest  Frontier  Province, 
and  West  Punjab.  The  northeastern  region  includes 
East  Bengal  and  the  Sylhet  District  of  Assam. 
Capital,  Karachi, 

Area  and  Population.  Pakistan  includes  about 
361,007  square  miles,  or  almost  one-fourth  of  the 
area  of  undivided  India.  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  70  million,  of  whom  some  50  million  are 
Moslems,  19  million  Hindus,  and  the  remainder 
Sikhs  and  others.  Chief  cities  ( 1941  census ) :  La- 
hore, 671,659;  Karachi,  359,492;  Dacca,  213,218. 
Education  is  not  advanced  and  the  percentage  of 
illiteracy  is  high. 

Production.  The  country  is  essentially  agricultural, 
with  an  export  surplus  in  normal  times.  Rice  acre- 
age is  26  million,  yielding  9  million  tons;  wheat 
acreage  10  million,  yielding  3.5  million  tons.  Cot- 
ton, much  of  which  is  long-staple,  is  estimated  at 
1.4  million  bales  for  1948-49.  Annual  production 
of  hides  and  skins  is  about  9  million  pieces. 

The  industry  of  Pakistan  was  dislocated  by  par- 
tition. The  country  has  three-fifths  of  the  jute  pro- 
duction of  undivided  India  but  no  jute  mills.  The 
textile  industry  includes  13  spinning  and  weaving 
mills  and  one  small  cooperative  mill,  with  a  capac- 
ity estimated  at  100,000  bales  in  1948.  Pakistan  has 
no  steel  or  paper  plants.  Coal  is  inadequate,  but 
there  are  potential  petroleum  and  water  power  re- 
sources. Power  is  lacking  for  the  establishment  of 
the  27  industries  proposed  by  the  Industries  Con- 
ference of  December  1947. 

Foreign  Trade.  Statistics  are  available  only  for  the 
port  of  Karachi.  The  totals  for  the  first  5  months  of 
1948—49  showed  exports  at  305.8  million  rupees 
and  imports  at  304.6  million,  giving  a  slightly  fa- 
vorable balance  of  trade.  This  made  it  possible  to 
grant  licenses  for  the  import  of  woolen  goods, 


PAKISTAN 


413 


hardware,  and  electrical  appliances  from  the 
United  States. 

Transportation.  Pakistan  has  a  railway  mileage  of 
15,542  and  a  highway  mileage  of  49,863.  By  an 
agreement  with  India  signed  June  23  Pakistan  was 
given  two  air  lines,  Orient  Airways  and  Pak  Air. 
Passenger  and  cargo  maritime  sendees  from  Pak- 
istan ports  were  begun  by  British  companies  in 
1948. 

Finance.  The  State  Bank  of  Pakistan  came  into 
operation  July  1,  1948,  to  act  as  Government 
banker  and  to  control  the  currency  and  foreign  ex- 
change. Indian  currency  remained  legal  tender  un- 
til September  30,  at  which  time  Pakistan  notes 
were  required.  Subscriptions  to  Government  loans 
to  May  24  were  420  million  rupees. 

Government.  The  legislative  body  remains  that  at 
the  time  of  partition,  the  Constituent  Assembly. 
Governor  General  to  September  11,  Quaid-i-Azam 
Moharned  All  Jinnah  (See  Events  below);  after 
November  12,  Khwaja  Nazimuddin,  acting  Gover- 
nor General  in  the  preceding  two  months;  Prime 
Minister,  Minister  of  States  and  Defense,  Liaquat 
Ali  Khan. 

Events,  1948.  Pakistan,  like  its  sister  dominion  of 
India,  lost  a  revered  leader  in  1948.  On  September 
11  the  first  Governor  General,  Mohamed  Ali  Jin- 
nah, died  unexpectedly  in  Karachi  at  the  age  of  71. 
After  breaking  with  the  Congress  Party  in  1921 
Jinnah  worked  actively  for  the  Moslem  cause 
and  in  1940,  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Moslem 
League,  he  proposed  an  autonomous  Moslem  state 
comprising  all  die  provinces  of  India  with.  Moslem 
majorities.  He  became  the  first  Governor  General 
of  Pakistan  on  Aug.  15,  1947,  and  in  March  1948, 
he  resigned  as  chairman  of  the  Moslem  League. 

Dispute  with  India.  In  several  other  ways  the  year 
was  a  troubled  one  for  Pakistan.  The  dispute  with 
India  over  Kashmir,  the  northern  province  popu- 
lated largely  by  Moslems  whose  Hindu  ruler 
agreed  to  join  India,  remained  serious  throughout 
the  year. 

Recommendations  of  the  United  Nations  Security 
Council  early  in  the  year  for  a  neutral  adminis- 
tration in  Kashmir,  the  conduct  of  a  plebiscite 
and  Pakistan's  withdrawal  of  fighting  tribesmen 
from  the  area  produced  little  result.  A  United  Na- 
tions commission  was  sent  to  the  area;  on  August 
13  it  proposed  a  cease-fire  agreement  to  the  Prime 
Ministers  of  Pakistan  and  India  and  suggested  con- 
sultation about  the  arrangements  for  a  plebiscite. 

No  progress  was  made,  and  the  fighting  ap- 
peared to  increase  in  intensity.  Conferences  be- 
tween the  Prime  Ministers  of  the  two  Dominions 
at  the  time  of  the  Conference  of  Commonwealth 
Prime  Ministers  in  London  in  October  also  had  no 
visible  effect.  The  United  Nations  Security  Coun- 
cil's Kashmir  Commission,  rendering  its  report  on 
November  22,  admitted  that  it  had  "temporarily 
exhausted**  the  possibilities  of  negotiation,  but 
added  that  its  work  would  go  on.  The  Commission 
took  note  of  India's  acceptance  of  its  August  13 
proposals  while  Pakistan  attached  conditions. 

On  December  15,  at  the  end  of  an  inter-Domin- 
ion conference,  the  two  Dominions  announced  sub- 
stantial agreement  on  a  number  of  subjects, 
excluding  Kashmir.  Another  conference  was  sched- 
uled for  Jan.  10,  1949. 

Refugee  Problems.  Information  released  about  the 
conference  made  no  mention  of  the  large  move- 
ments of  refugees  still  going  on,  particularly  the 
evacuation  of  more  than  a  million  Hindus  from 
East  Bengal  in  Pakistan  to  West  Bengal  in  India. 
Such  migrations  had  caused  great  difficulty  and 
hardship  since  movements  of  religious  groups  be- 


gan immediately  after  independence  was  attained 
on  Aug.  15,  1947.  Pakistan  maintained  that  the 
migration  from  East  Bengal  occured  in  part  be- 
cause of  pressure  from  groups  in  India. 

After  Pakistan  had  tried  for  a  year  the  method 
of  dealing  with  the  refugee  problem  in  West  Pun- 
jab at  the  provincial  level,  it  was  decided  that  the 
Dominion  Government  should  use  its  emergency 
powers.  One  of  the  last  acts  of  Governor  General 
Jinnah  was  to  invoke  these  powers  on  August  27 
because  "the  economic  life  of  Pakistan  was  threat- 
ened." West  Punjab  had  resettled  nearly  5  million 
Moslem  refugees,  but  at  the  cost  of  great  over- 
crowding and  some  opposition  from  the  residents 
of  the  already  crowded  areas. 

The  Dominion  Government,  through  the  Central 
Refugee  Council,  at  the  end  of  August  ordered  the 
various  provinces  and  states  to  take  assigned  num- 
bers of  refugees,  thus  relieving  West  Punjab.  In 
die  province  of  Sind,  which  was  dominated  by  big 
landlords,  opposition  was  particularly  vigorous, 
but  the  growing  prestige  of  the  Government  and 
the  Moslem  League  indicated  that  the  program 
could  be  carried  through. 

Economic  Profo/ems.  The  problems  and  plans  of  a 
country  whose  viability  was  doubted  in  India,  now 
that  many  of  its  enterprises  had  been  truncated 
by  partition,  occupied  a  large  share  of  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Government.  "Pakistan,"  wrote  the  Lon- 
don Times  correspondent  in  Pakistan  on  August 
16,  "is  a  paradise  for  planners.  .  .  .  Five  and  10- 
year  plans  for  vast  hydro-electric  schemes,  coal 
mines,  oil  fields,  shipbuilding  yards,  even  model 
chicken  farms  which  will  guarantee  every  Pakistani 
his  morning  egg  are  envisaged.  .  .  .  The  air  in 
Karachi  is  made  heady  and  exhilarating  with  such 
dreams  and  hopes." 

An  important  statement  on  industrial  policy, 
issued  on  April  2,  contained  an  invitation  to  for- 
eign capital  to  come  to  Pakistan,  with  the  oppor- 
tunity of  subscribing  51  percent  of  the  capital  in 
some  industries  and  30  percent  in  others.  Assur- 
ance was  given  that  a  "reasonable  proportion"  of 
profits  could  be  taken  home.  With  the  central  gov- 
ernment as  the  chief  planning  agency,  encourage- 
ment was  to  be  given  particularly  to  the  fabrication 
of  jute,  cotton,  and  hides  and  skins. 

The  April  announcement  was  further  clarified 
on  September  13,  when  the  Pakistan  Government 
published  a  communique  interpreting  "reasonable 
proportion"  (of  profits)  as  meaning  that  no  restric- 
tion would  be  imposed  except  the  usual  limitations 
on  foreign  exchange  transactions.  It  was  also  ex- 
plained that  the  minimum  Pakistan  capital  pre- 
scription did  not  apply  to  existing  business  or  to 
foreign  companies  engaged  in  trading  only. 

Daily  life  in  the  Pakistan  territory  had  its  dreary 
side,  even  while  the  Government's  ambitious  plans 
found  approval.  In  May  only  about  one-half  of  the 
country's  requirements  of  1,000  million  yards  of 
cotton  cloth  was  on  hand.  Pakistan's  sugar  pro- 
duction of  25,000  tons  was  one-tenth  of  the  amount 
needed  by  householders.  Shortages  of  coal,  petro- 
leum, iron,  and  steel  caused  delays  and  stoppages 
in  transportation.  Even  the  granary  of  India,  West 
Punjab,  which  was  beset  by  floods  in  1948  and  the 
influx  of  millions  of  refugees,  had  to  ask,  through 
the  Dominion  Government,  for  60,000  tons  of 
grain  from  the  United  Nations  Food  and  Agricul- 
ture Organization.  — ALZADA  COMSTOCK 

PALESTINE.  A  former  British  mandate  (10,640  square 
miles)  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean, 
with  an  early  1948  population  of  about  two  mil- 
lion, two-thirds  Arab  (mostly  Sunni  Moslem)  and 


PALBT/NJ: 


414 


PALESTINE 


one- third  Jewish.  Chief  cities;  Jerusalem  (origi- 
nally capital),  Haifa  (port  and  oil  pipe-line  termi- 
nal), Tel  Aviv  (port,  largest  Jewish  city  in  the 
world),  and  Jaffa  (port). 

For  information  on  British  mandatory  govern- 
ment and  communications  and  education  before 
1948  fighting,  see  YEAR  BOOK,  EVENTS  OF  1947. 
For  details  o£  1948  United  Nations  deliberations 
and  Palestine  fighting  see  the  Middle  East  Journal 
quarterly  chronology.  (See  also  ARAB  LEAGUE  AF- 
FAIRS, ISRAEL,  UNITED  NATIONS,  and  articles  on 
Arab  countries  in  this  Year  Book. ) 

Production.  In  spite  of  a  serious  water  shortage 
Palestine  has  been  primarily  an  agricultural  coun- 
try, thanks  to  good  irrigation  and  subterranean 
water  supplies.  Citrus  growing  is  highly  developed 
(1948—49  crop  was  7  million  boxes,  less  than 
half  the  last  prewar  crop,  because  of  the  fighting) 
with  other  fruits,  grains,  vegetables,  and  olives 
also  grown.  Pond,  lake,  and  sea  fish  are  an  impor- 
tant product  Industrial  production  developed  with 
the  advent  of  large  numbers  of  Jewish  immigrants 
and  Jewish  capital  and  received  a  tremendous  im- 
petus during  the  recent  world  war  which  cut  off 
outside  supply  sources.  Although  Arab  manufac- 
turing concerns  are  small  and  limited,  Jewish  in- 
dustry ranges  from  the  Palestine  Electric  Corpora- 
tion and  the  Palestine  Potash  Company  holding 
the  Dead  Sea  concession  (with  apparently  in- 
exhaustible supplies  of  potash,  bromine,  magnesi- 
um, common  salt,  etc.)  to  Haifa  oil  refineries, 
leather  and  metalwork  factories,  and  the  new  rap- 
idly growing  diamond-polishing  business.  The  fig- 
ures of  electric  power  production  in  thousands  of 
kilowatts  provide  an  index  of  the  growth:  1939 — 
77,227;  1946—209,230;  1947—256,826. 

Foreign  Trade.  Principal  exports  include  citrus 
fruits  (four-fifths  of  total),  cereals,  olive  oil  and 
other  food,  wool,  hides  and  skins,  gas  oil  and  fuel 
oil,  polished  diamonds,  and  a  number  of  articles, 
mainly  manufactured,  including  clothes,  machin- 
ery, novelties,  and  leather.  Imports  include  wheat, 
food,  furniture,  textiles,  building  materials,  coal, 
and  machinery.  Over  the  war  years  other  Middle 
Eastern  countries  provided  a  third  to  over  a  half 
of  the  imports  and  absorbed  a  third  to  over  half 
of  Palestine's  exports — a  significant  factor  in  any 
post-partition  economic  arrangements.  Other  ex- 
ports went  to  the  United  Kingdom,  the  United 
States,  and  other  countries,  and  imports  came  from 
the  United  Kingdom,  the  United  States,  and  other 
countries.  In  the  first  nine  months  of  1947  exports 
amounted  to  £P21  million,  and  imports  £P67 
million.  Both  imports  and  exports  had  risen  since 
1946  and  the  prewar  years. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  1946-47  government 
revenue  totaled  £P25,716,636  (a  steady  increase 
since  1939),  whereas  expenditure  amounted  to 
£P22,547,025  (an  increase  since  1939  except  for 
a  1945-46  drop),  Currency  in  circulation  in  No- 
vember, 1947  totaled  £P40,958,000.  The  whole- 
sale price  index  in  November,  1947,  stood  at  a 
high  of  357  (1939  =  100),  having  been  336  a 
year  earlier.  The  Palestinian  pound  was  equiva- 
lent to  the  pound  sterling.  By  the  year's  end  no 
announcement  had  been  made  of  the  reentry  of 
all  or  part  of  Palestine  to  the  sterling  bloc  or  of 
tihe  allocation  of  Palestine's  sterling  balances  in 
London. 

Events.  UN  Activity  following  Partition.  The  United 
Nations*  November,  1947,  vote  for  Palestine  parti- 
tion between  Arabs  and  Zionists,  its  first  unequivo- 
cal decision  on  a  world  problem,  was  made  possi- 
ble by  active  American  and  Soviet  support  in  the 
face  of  the  opposing  opinions  and  votes  of  the 


Middle  Eastern  states  from  Greece  to  India  and 
Turkey  to  the  Yemen.  The  UN  Palestine  Commis- 
sion, charged  with  setting  up  the  provisional  gov- 
ernments, held  its  first  meeting  on  Jan.  10,  1948, 
with  Denmark,  Panama,  Bolivia,  Czechoslovakia, 
and  the  Philippines  represented.  But  a  week  later 
the  Palestine  Arab  Higher  Committee  rejected 
Arab  representation  on  the  Commission.  By  the 
middle  of  February  the  Commission  had  to  call  for 
prompt  UN  Security  Council  action  in  providing 
armed  assistance  "which  alone  would  enable  the 
Commission  to  discharge  its  responsibilities."  With- 
in a  week  after  its  March  arrival  in  Palestine  the 
Commission's  Secretariat  stated  there  was  insuffi- 
cient agreement  to  make  peaceful  implementation 
of  partition  possible. 

When  the  UN  Security  Council  considered  the 
question  in  the  middle  of  February  American  con- 
cern over  the  threat  to  peace  was  stronger  than  its 
interest  in  creating  a  Zionist  state.  This  concern 
was  reflected  in:  (1)  the  American  Delegate's 
February  24  statement  that  any  Council  action 
must  be  directed  only  to  preserving  peace  and 
not  to  enforcing  partition;  and  (2)  his  March  and 
April  efforts  in  behalf  of  trusteeship  (opposed  by 
the  Soviet  Union)  and  a  recall  of  the  Assembly  to 
consider  a  new  solution. 

An  April  14  Security  Council  resolution  advo- 
cating a  military  and  political  truce  was  accepted 
by  the  Arabs  with  provisos.  The  Jewish  Agency, 
objecting  to  all  major  points,  presented  other  rec- 
ommendations which  the  Arabs  refused.  As  the 
result  of  a  Council  vote  of  9  to  0  (Soviet  Union 
abstaining)  a  special  meeting  of  the  UN  General 
Assembly  convened  on  April  16  and  discussed 
various  suggestions  including  the  trusteeship  pro- 
posal, cease-fire  orders,  plans  for  administering 
Jerusalem,  and  British  suggestions  for  carrying  on 
essential  administrative  services  after  their  with- 
drawal. 

British  Withdrawal.  These  UN  debates  were  re- 
flecting the  developing  crisis  in  Palestine.  Imme- 
diately following  die  partition  vote  both  Jews  and 
Arabs  mobilized  and  December  clashes  mush- 
roomed into  fighting  and  bombing.  Having  an- 
nounced that  its  mandate  would  end  May  15, 
Great  Britain  was  faced  witih  the  twofold  task  of 
maintaining  security  while  withdrawing  its  per- 
sonnel, including  troops.  Evacuation  of  British  ad- 
ministrative personnel,  starting  in  March,  was  ac- 
companied by  the  suspension  of  mail,  money  or- 
ders, and  all  ensured  services. 

Following  the  death  of  30  British  soldiers  in  a 
train  explosion  the  Palestine  government  issued  an 
official  statement  condemning  the  Jewish  Agency 
for  condoning  terrorism.  By  April  the  fighting  was 
full-fledged,  significant  among  the  battles  being 
those  for  the  Old  City  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Jeru- 
salem—Tel Aviv  road.  Fighting  in  Jaffa  at  the  end 
of  April  was  ended  under  threats  of  force,  but  by 
May  13  the  former  Arab  city  was  an  open  city 
policed  by  Haganah.  On  May  15  the  British  High 
Commissioner  left,  thereby  ending  the  British  Man- 
date. The  State  of  Israel  was  declared  and  imme- 
diately recognized  by  the  United  States,  and  two 
Egyptian  columns  invaded  Palestine. 

UN  Mediation.  After  the  Assembly  disbanded  the 
Palestine  Commission,  the  Big  Five  on  May  20 
unanimously  agreed  to  appoint  Count  Folke  Bern- 
adotte  UN  Mediator  for  Palestine.  Two  days  later 
the  Council  voted  a  resolution  urging  "all  govern- 
ments and  authorities"  to  abstain  from  "hostile 
military  acts"  in  Palestine.  Egyptian  and  Jewish 
planes  went  into  action,  and  the  seven  Arab  League 
nations  initially  rejected  the  cease-fire  order  on 


PALESTINE 


415 


PALMYRA  ISLAND 


the  basis  that  it  would  only  give  advantage  to 
Jewish  "terrorist  bands/*  However,  as  the  UN  Me- 
diator arrived  in  Palestine,  both  Arabs  and  Jews 
accepted  the  Council's  request  for  a  four-week 
cease-fire  order  under  threat  of  UN  sanctions.  On 
June  9  both  sides  unconditionally  accepted  a  truce 
to  start  June  11.  After  four  days  of  truce  the  Medi- 
ator, reporting  occasional  violations,  expressed  sat- 
isfaction with  its  effectiveness  and  began  informal 
conferences  with  leaders  of  both  sides. 

On  June  28  the  Mediator  submitted  tentative 
proposals  to  Israel  and  the  Arab  states,  including 
the  following:  (1)  A  Palestine  union  embracing 
Trans  Jordan  to  be  composed  of  two  states;  (2) 
Israel  and  the  Arab  state  each  to  exercise  full  con- 
trol over  their  own  domestic  and  defense  problems; 
(3)  both  states  to  solve  mutual  economic  and 
defense  problems  through  a  Central  Council;  (4) 
immigration  to  be  within  the  competence  of  each 
state,  subject  to  the  Central  Council's  review  after 
two  years;  (5)  Jerusalem  to  be  under  Arab  rule, 
subject  to  some  local  government  by  a  municipal 
council  representing  the  100,000  Jews  there;  (6) 
the  Arabs  to  receive  part  or  all  of  the  Negeb 
(southern  triangle);  (7)  the  Jews  to  receive  part 
or  all  of  Western  Galilee;  and  (8)  Haifa  to  be 
a  free  port  and  Lydda  a  free  airport. 

Before  a  week  passed  both  Arabs  and  Jews  re- 
jected the  proposals.  In  spite  of  the  Mediator's  ef- 
forts toward  extension  the  cease-fire  order  expired 
on  July  8  and  fighting  started  again.  An  additional 
ten-day  armistice  was  refused  by  the  Arabs.  While 
the  Mediator  discussed  the  situation  with  the  Se- 
curity Council,  the  Councifs  Truce  Commission, 
consisting  of  the  consuls  in  Jerusalem  of  France, 
Belgium,  and  the  United  States,  reported  Jerusa- 
lem's international  character  was  gravely  threat- 
ened by  Israeli  actions  and  statements.  The  Coun- 
cil voted  a  truce  and  cease-fire  resolution  to  which 
both  Arabs  and  Israelis  agreed,  effective  July  18. 
Two  days  after  an  Israeli- Arab  signing  of  a  bound- 
ary agreement  establishing  the  limits  of  Jerusalem's 
Arab  and  Jewish  areas,  Israel's  General  Zionist 
Party  adopted  a  resolution  demanding  that  Jeru- 
salem be  included  in  Israel.  Much  UN  discussion 
followed  on  both  the  demilitarization  of  Jerusalem 
and  its  eventual  status.  Although  on  September  2 
both  Jews  and  Arabs  agreed  to  another  cease-fire, 
on  September  9  Israel  rejected  the  Mediator's  pro- 
posals for  gradually  broadening  Jerusalem's  demili- 
tarization. Reports  of  truce  violations  by  both  sides 
poured  in  and  firing  broke  out  in  Jerusalem  again. 
Then,  on  September  17,  UN  Mediator  Bernadotte 
was  shot  and  felled  by  an  unknown  Zionist  terrorist 

Bernatfofte's  Final  Report.  Immediately  following 
his  death  the  General  Assembly  released  the  Medi- 
ator's final  report  which  said,  among  other  things: 

( 1 )  Peace  must  be  restored  by  any  means  possible; 

(2)  Israel  exists,  and  there  are  no  sound  reasons 
for  assuming  it  will  not  continue  to  do  so;  (8)  the 
original  partition  boundaries  must  be  revised  to 
produce  "geographical  homogeneity";  and  ( 4 )  dis- 
placed persons  must  be  assured  the  right  to  return 
home,  or  adequate  compensation  if  they  cannot 
or  will  not  return.  Suggested  territorial  changes 
included:  (1)  the  Negeb  to  be  Arab  territory;  (2) 
Galilee  to  be  Israeli  territory;  and  (3)  Jerusalem 
to  be  under  UN  control. 

The  U.S.  Secretary  of  State  announced  full  sup- 
port of  these  recommendations,  as  did  Great  Brit- 
ain. However,  Israel  opposed  any  plan  separating 
any  part  of  the  Negeb  from  the  state  of  Israel. 
Another  UN  Security  Council  cease-fire  order,  ef- 
fective October  22,  theoretically  accepted  by  both 
Egypt  and  Israel,  was  accompanied  by  well- 


planned  Israeli  attacks  on  Iraqi  and  Egyptian 
bases.  Israel  refused  to  withdraw  from  areas  under 
its  army's  control,  but  finally  decided  on  a  cease- 
fire as  of  October  31.  As  Egyptian  troops  with- 
drew, UN  observers  reported  Israel  forces  in  Leba- 
non to  a  depth  of  two  to  three  miles.  A  Novem- 
ber 4  Council  resolution  called  upon  Egypt  and 
Israel  to  withdraw  from  positions  taken  since  Octo- 
ber 14,  to  conduct  direct  negotiations,  and  to  es- 
tablish permanent  truce  lines  and  neutral  zones. 
Egyptian  troops  continued  to  withdraw  but  Israel 
announced  it  awaited  proposals  for  new  military 
lines  in  the  Negeb  before  taking  action  on  the 
resolution.  More  UN  discussions  followed  as  to 
neutral  zones  and  Bernadotte's  final  plan.  A  No- 
vember 30  armistice  providing  for  a  "complete  and 
sincere  cease-fire"  in  Jerusalem  was  signed  by  Arab 
and  Israeli  commanders. 

UN  Conciliation  Commission.  In  early  December  the 
Assembly  gave  a  new  Conciliation  Commission  a 
free  hand  to  work  out  a  permanent  settlement,  but 
without  military  power  to  impose  that  settlement. 
As  of  December  21,  with  the  air  still  tense  and 
stormy,  UN  observers  were  reduced  from  350  to 
about  200.  Only  about  60,000  Arabs  remained  in 
Israel,  but  the  latter's  population  was  being  in- 
creased by  nearly  25,000  Jewish  immigrants  month- 
ly. Israel  officials  refused  permission  for  entry  into 
certain  strategic  areas  by  either  UN  observers  or 
newsmen.  On  December  23  UN  observers  reported 
a  full-fledged  Israeli  offensive.  A  British  charge  of 
Israeli  invasion  of  Egypt  produced  a  December  29 
cease-fire  order  by  the  Security  Council. 

Refugees.  One  of  the  ironies  of  the  situation  was 
the  displacement  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
Arabs  by  the  establishment  of  a  Zionist  state,  in- 
tended to  provide  a  home  for  European  Jewish 
refugees  ( 175,000  as  estimated  by  an  International 
Refugee  Organization  official  in  the  summer).  By 
early  May  175,000  to  200,000  Arabs  were  reported 
to  have  fled  from  Zionist-occupied  areas.  As  all 
the  Arab  governments  attempted  to  alleviate  their 
plight,  Israeli  Foreign  Minister  Moshe  Shertok, 
disclaiming  Israeli  responsibility  for  their  depar- 
ture, announced  in  August  that  Israel  would  dis- 
cuss their  return  only  as  part  of  the  final  peace 
treaty.  Shortly  following  a  substantial  British  gift 
of  medical  supplies  and  tents  the  UN  Mediator  re- 
quested help  for  337,000  refugees, 

On  October  29  the  UN  International  Childrens' 
Emergency  Fund  voted  six  million  dollars  for  Arab 
aid.  By  December  11  there  were  at  least  700,000 
refugees,  most  of  them  destitute.  A  UN  Palestine 
refugee  organization  was  set  up  under  the  direc- 
tion of  American  Ambassador  to  Egypt  Stanton 
Griffis,  with  the  American  and  International  Red 
Cross  and  the  Society  of  Friends  participating.  The 
International  Refugee  Organization  was  scheduled 
to  consider  the  problem  at  its  January  meeting. 
— DOROTHEA  SEELYE  FRANCK 

PALMYRA  ISLAND.  An  atoll  in  the  Pacific  (5°  5' 
N,  and  162°  5'  55"  W.),  960  miles  south  by  west 
from  Honolulu  and  362  nautical  miles  north  of  the 
Equator.  It  comprises  52  small  islets  having  a  total 
area  of  250  acres.  By  Executive  Order  dated  Dec. 
19,  1940,  Palmyra  Island  was  placed  under  the 
control  and  jurisdiction  of  the  Secretary  of  the  U.S. 
Navy.  The  island  is  an  important  station  on  the 
Hawaii-Samoa  air  route.  On  May  12,  1947,  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  United  States  in  U.S.  v.  Put- 
lard-Leo,  held  that  title  to  Palmyra  Island  is  vested 
in  the  Fullard-Leo  family  by  reason  of  a  grant  in 
favor  of  their  predecessors  in  title  from  the  govern- 
ment of  Hawaii  before  United  States  annexation. 


PANAMA 


416 


PANAMA  CANAI  ZONE 


PANAMA.  A  republic  of  Central  America.  Tlie  land 
west  of  the  Canal  is  a  highland  range;  a  second 
mountain  range  follows  the  shore  of  the  Caribbean, 
and  a  third  is  in  the  southwest.  The  Caribbean 
coastland  is  humid  and  hot;  along  the  Pacific  coast 
the  climate  is  healthier. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  28,576  square  miles. 
Population  (excluding  the  Canal  Zone  which  had 
47,352  inhabitants  in  1947):  701,000  (1947  est); 
of  whom  65  percent  were  mestizos,  13  Negroes,  11 
of  European  descent,  9  Indians,  and  2  percent 
members  of  other  ethnic  groups  including  Asiatics. 
Chief  cities:  Panama  (capital),  111,893  inhabit- 
ants in  1940,  Colon,  and  David. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  Roman  Catholicism  pre- 
dominates. Only  about  70  percent  of  the  popula- 
tion excluding  Indians  is  literate.  In  the  school 
year  of  1947-48,  there  were  812  elementary  schools 
and  47  pre-schools  with  a  total  enrollment  of  92,- 
707.  At  the  same  time  9,336  students  attended 
secondary  schools,  and  1,219  the  University  of 
Panama. 

Production.  Panama  is  predominantly  agricultural, 
53  percent  of  the  gainfully  employed  being  en- 
gaged in  agriculture.  The  economic  life  of  the 
country  is  influenced  by  and  dependent  upon  the 
commercial  life  of  the  Canal  Zone.  Principal  com- 
mercial crops  (with  1947  production  figures)  are: 
abaca  fiber,  11,455,625  lb.;  bananas,  3.5  million 
stems  (5  million  in  1946);  cacao,  5,138,186  lb., 
with  the  1948  production  expected  to  approximate 
that  of  1947.  Chief  food  crops  are:  rice  (1947), 
1,151,042  quintals  (of  101.43  lb.);  corn,  85,600,- 
000  lb.;  sugar,  171,000  quintals;  coffee,  2,500,000 
lb.;  and  coconuts,  18  million.  At  the  end  of  1947 
there  were  563,956  heads  of  cattle  and  183,487 
hogs. 

Industrial  production  is  limited  to  consumer 
•  goods,  of  which  the  most  important  are  beverages 
(21,057,314  liters  in  1947);  distilling  (1  million 
liters  rectified  alcohol);  footwear  (325,000  pairs); 
evaporated  and  condensed  milk  (55,000  cases); 
and  soap  (II  million  lb.). 

Foreign  Trade.  Panama  is  a  net  importer  of  goods 
and  services,  the  major  source  being  the  United 
States.  Imports  in  1948  (10  mos.  actual,  2  mos. 
est.)  were  valued  at  66.36  million  balboas  (balboa 
equals  one  U.S.$);  exports  at  7.68  million  bal- 
boas. The  comparative  figures  for  1947  were  $75,- 
568,225  for  imports;  $8,349,408  for  exports. 

Transportation.  There  are  531  miles  of  railroad 
of  which  134.7  are  in  the  Canal  Zone;  and  1,090 
miles  of  different  types  of  roads.  Shipping  under 
Panamanian  registry  totaled  500  ocean-going  ves- 
sels (2  million  gross  tons)  on  Dec.  31,  1946.  By 
October,  1947,  it  had  increased  50  percent.  Air 
service  is  rendered  by  important  international  lines; 
daily  services  operate  between  Panama  and  New 
York,  and  connect  with  other  South  and  Central 
American  countries. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  1948  estimated  expendi- 
ture at  $34,638,742;  revenue  at  $33,138,974.  Of 
this  budget,  $7  million  will  go  to  Education  and 
nearly  half  a  million  for  the  construction  of  a  Uni- 
versity City.  The  public  debt  on  June  30,  1947, 
was  $23,468,029  compared  with  $19,898,469  on 
Dec,  31,  1946.  Currency  in  circulation  at  the  end 
of  1947  was  82.6  million  balboas;  bank  deposits 
32.6  million  balboas. 

Government.  Under  the  constitution  of  1946  (the 
third  since  1903),  Panama  is  an  independent  re- 
public of  nine  provinces  and  one  Intendencia.  The 
legislature  is  a  unicameral  National  Assembly  of 
32  Deputies  elected  for  6  years;  Executive  power 


is  vested  in  a  President  (elected  for  6  years)  as- 
sisted by  a  Cabinet  of  7  Ministers.  On  Oct.  1,  1948, 
Domingo  Diaz  Arozamena  was  inaugurated  as 
President.  ( See  Events  below. ) 

Events,  1948.  The  year  was  one  of  high  political 
tension.  Elections  were  held  and  results  were  con- 
tested. The  question  relating  to  the  return  of  the 
United  States  bases  still  attracted  public  attention; 
while  the  general  unrest  that  prevailed  throughout 
Central  American  nations  perturbed  the  Govern- 
ment of  Panama. 

Camp0igjj  Highlights.  In  January,  there  were  al- 
ready six  names  mentioned  as  candidates  for  the 
elections  to  be  held  on  May  8.  Most  important  were 
ex-president  Araulfo  Arias  Madrid,  backed  by  the 
Partido  National  Revolutionary  (Autentico),  and 
Domingo  Diaz  Arozamena,  nominated  by  the 
Union  Liberal.  In  February,  Arias'  nomination  was 
challenged  before  the  National  Electoral  Jury  on 
technical  constitutional  grounds.  He  was  consid- 
ered such  a  strong  candidate  that  his  opponents 
felt  it  important  to  eliminate  him.  In  March,  some 
of  the  minor  candidates  waived  their  nominations 
and  their  parties  decided  to  back  Arias.  Political 
tension  was  later  aggravated  by  the  attempted  as- 
sassination of  the  attorney  representing  the  case 
against  Arias. 

Outcome  of  Elections.  The  elections  were  held  on 
May  9,  with  early  reports  indicating  Arias*  victory. 
Reportedly,  a  large  number  of  women  cast  their 
ballots  for  him.  On  May  28,  Arias  was  said  to  be 
ahead  of  Arozamena,  73,459  to  71,897,  but  these 
results  were  not  considered  official  since  the  Na- 
tional Electoral  Jury  had  not  as  yet  decided  upon 
Arias*  eligibility.  Many  other  cases  were  filed  claim- 
ing fraud  in  several  electoral  districts.  The  stale- 
mate was  prolonged  for  nearly  two  months,  and 
clashes  occurred  between  the  followers  of  Arias 
and  of  Arozamena.  Arias  took  refuge  in  the  Canal 
Zone,  stating  that  the  government,  together  with 
his  opponents,  was  plotting  to  "steal  his  victory." 

Arozamena's  Legal  Victory.  The  National  Electoral 
Jury  finally  rendered  a  decision  in  favor  of  Aroza- 
mena, who  had  won,  according  to  them,  by  1,116 
votes.  Arias  refused  to  accept  the  decision  and  de- 
parted for  Colombia.  Arozamena  took  office  on 
October  I,  outlining  the  following  program:  (1) 
continuation  of  the  policies  of  President  Jimenez 
— stressing  good  relations  with  the  United  States, 
but  always  defending  the  sovereignty  of  Panama; 
(2)  expansion  of  education,  development  of  agri- 
culture, and  commerce;  ( 3 )  intensive  public- works 
program  and  fulfillment  of  all  international  eco- 
nomic obligations.  Political  circles  expected  Presi- 
dent Arozamena  to  meet  with  difficulties  in  Con- 
gress, since  none  of  the  political  parties  had  a  ma- 
jority. 

International  Front.  Early  in  the  year,  the  question 
of  the  return  of  United  States  bases  to  Panama  was 
still  pending.  The  American  Government  returned 
11  of  the  13  bases  and  promised  to  return  the  last 
two  at  a  later  date.  Another  issue  was  raised  as  a 
result  of  the  civil  war  in  Costa  Rica.  Many  citizens 
of  that  country  entered  Panama,  and  the  Govern- 
ment was  forced  to  station  troops  near  the  border. 

Panama  attended  the  Ninth  Inter- American  Con- 
ference of  American  States  held  at  Bogota  in  April 
(see  PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES),  and  became  sig- 
natory to  the  Charter  of  the  Americas. 

— MIGUEL  JORRIN 

PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE.  A  strip  of  land  crossing  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  extending  about  five  miles 
on  each  side  of  the  center  line  of  the  Canal  and 
three  marine  miles  beyond  low  water  mark  in  the 


Photos  from  British  Information  Services 


OLYMPIC  YACHTING  at  Torbay,  England,  on  Aug.  4,  1948.  Swallow  Class  yachts  are  shown  (above)  jockeying  at  the 
start  of  their  race.  Final  Order  for  Swallow  Class  Yachts:  1.  Great  Britain-5,625  points;  2.  Portugal-5,579; 
3  United  States-4,352;  4.  Sweden-3,342;  5.  Denmark-2,935;  6.  ItaIy-2,893;  7.  Canada-2,807;  8.  Norway-2,768. 


OLYMPIC  SWIMMING:  Women's  200-meter  Breast-Stroke   Final  at  the  Empire  Pool,  Wembley,  England.  Result:   1st 
Van   Vliet  (Netherlands),   2   «.,   57.2  s.;  2d    Lyons   (Australia),  2  m.,  57.7  s.;  3d  Novak  (Hungary),  3  m.,  00.2  s. 


Photo  fwm  European 

4  WOMAN  DIVING  star  Mrs. 
Vicki  Manuelo  Draves  arches 
smoothly  in  the  air  at  Wem- 
bley. Mrs.  Draves,  who  started 
doing  this  kind  ol  thing  when 
she  was  sixteen,  won  the  Olym- 
pic springboard  diving  cham- 
pionship in  1948,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-three. 


T  NETHERLANDS  HOUSEWIFE. 

Mrs.  Fanny  Blankers-Koen  win- 
ning the  Olympic  80-meter 
hurdle  final  at  Wembley,  Eng- 
land. She  won  two  other  Olym- 
pic finals  and  assisted  in  win- 
ning the  400-meter  relay  final. 

Wide  World  Photo 


>  DISCUS  CHAMPION.  M.  O.  M.  Oster- 
meyer  of  France  in  action  at  Wem- 
bley, England,  where  she  won  the 
Olympic  discus  event  with  a  throw  of 
41.92  meters. 


T  IN  A  DEAD  HEAT,  women  Olympic 
stars  come  across  the  finish  line  at 
Wembley  in  the  semi-final  of  the 
Women's  200-meter  dash.  Ladies  S.  B. 
Strickland  (No.  668,  from  Australia) 
and  A.  D.  Williamson  (No.  723,  Great 
Britain)  finished  in  a  first-pface  tie. 

British  Information  Services  Photos 


!*•  f  f.  ,..^"'""-?-%s.  ,*'ft<:'!™  ,,?*  .,f. .  Sfp-i- ': '%».••*  • 


CZECH  WINS.  (Top  left)  E. 
Zatopek  winning  the  Olympic 
10,000  meter  run  at  Wembley 
Stadium,  England,  in  the  rec- 
ord Olympic  time  for  this  great 
event  of  29  min.  59.6  sec. 


4  FINAL  400  METERS  RELAY, 

H.  Dillard  (U.S.A.),  handing 
over  to  M.  E.  Patton  (U.S.A.) 
during  the  400  meters  relay 
final  in  the  XIV  Olympiad. 


T  SWEDISH  VICTORY,  The  fi- 
nal of  the  1,500  meters  race 
in  the  XIV  Olympiad.  The  win- 
ner, H.  Eriksson,  time  3  min. 
49.8  sec.,  is  shown  on  the  right. 


DECATHLON  WINNER.  R.  B. 

Mathias  (U.S.A.)  who  won 
the  Decathlon  with  7,139 
points,  shown  (at  right) 
throwing  the  discus.  He 
became  the  Olympic  Cham- 
pion-"Worldfs  No.  1  All- 
round  Athlete."  ^ 


Photos  from 
British  Information  Services 


800  METERS  RECORD.  (Ex- 
treme right)  Near  the  finish 
of  the  Olympic  800  meters 
final.  Winner:  Whitfield 
(136),  U.S.A.,  time  1  min. 
49.2  sec.  2d:  Wint  (122)  of 
Jamaica,  British  West  In- 
dies, time  1  min.  49.5  sec. 


A  CYCLISTS  Ghella  of  Italy  and  Harris  of  Great  Brit- 
am    fight    it    out    in    the    1,000-meter    final    heats. 


•4  JUMPER  B.  Singh   of   India  is  shown   competing   in 
the  qualifying  trials  of  the  Long  Jump  at  Wembley. 


>  MARATHON  winner  D.  Cabrera  of  Argentina  crosses 
the  finish   line  at  Wembley  stadium   all   by   himself. 


T  HIGH  DIVERS  congratulate  each  other:  Lee  (U.S.A.), 
1st;    Harlan    (U.S.A.),    2nd;    Capilla    (Mexico),    3rd. 


PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE 


417 


PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES 


Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  By  the  Hay-Bunau 
Varilia  Treaty  concluded  in  1903,  the  Republic  of 
Panama  granted  to  the  United  States  in  perpetuity 
the  use,  occupation,  and  control  of  the  Canal  Zone 
for  the  construction,  maintenance,  operation,  sani- 
tation, and  protection  of  the  Canal.  The  treaty 
provided  for  the  payment  to  Panama  of  a  lump 
SUIB  on  the  exchange  of  ratification  of  the  treaty, 
and  also  an  annual  payment  (which  is  an  annuity 
and  not  rental )  beginning  nine  years  after  the  date 
aforesaid.  A  new  treaty  was  signed  on  Mar.  2, 
1936,  which  makes  various  amendments  and  ad- 
ditions. Total  area  of  the  Canal  Zone  is  648.01 
square  miles  including  275.52  square  miles  of 
water.  Balboa  Heights  is  the  administrative  center. 

Population.  The  1940  United  States  census  re- 
reported  51,827  persons  in  the  Canal  Zone  of 
whom  32,856  were  white.  According  to  the  annual 
census  of  the  Canal  Zone  taken  in  April  1948,  the 
population  was  47,402,  of  whom  22,787  were 
United  States  citizens.  On  June  26,  1948,  the  force 
employed  by  the  Panama  Canal- Railroad  Company 
numbered  5,020  employees  paid  at  United  States 
rates  (chiefly  U.S.  citizens)  and  17,716  employ- 
ees paid  at  local  rates  ( chiefly  natives  of  the  trop- 
ics). 

Economic  Conditions.  The  Canal  Zone  is  in  effect  a 
United  States  government  reservation,  the  princi- 
pal industry  being  the  maintenance  and  operation 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  including  auxiliary  enterpris- 
es to  provide  adequately  for  the  needs  of  shipping 
and  of  the  Canal  operating  forces.  The  Canal  Zone 
is  populated  largely  by  employees  and  personnel 
of  The  Panama  Canal— Panama  Railroad  Company 
organization  and  the  armed  forces,  together  with 
families  of  these  groups.  Transits  of  the  Canal  by 
ships  in  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1948,  totaled 
6,999. 

Panama  Canal  Finances.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  1948,  there  was  a  net  revenue  from  tolls 
and  other  sources  of  $2,622,673.  The  net  capital 
investment  in  the  Canal,  after  depreciation,  as  of 
June  30,  1948,  was  $516,332,328. 

Government.  A  civil  government  was  authorized 
by  Congress  by  the  Panama  Canal  Act  of  1912. 
Administration  rests  in  the  hands  of  a  Governor  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate,  for  a  period  of  four 
years,  but  by  Executive  Order  of  Sept.  5,  1939, 
the  provisions  of  Section  13  of  the  Panama  Canal 
Act  were  invoked  as  an  emergency  measure,  and 
since  that  date  the  Commanding  General,  Panama 
Canal  Department  (now  Commander  in  Chief, 
Caribbean),  United  States  Army,  has  exercised  fi- 
nal authority  over  the  operation  of  the  Panama 
Canal  and  all  its  adjuncts,  appendants,  and  appur- 
tenances, including  control  and  government  of  the 
Canal  Zone;  and  the  Governor  of  the  Panama  Ca- 
nal has  been  subject  to  that  authority  and  orders 
issued  under  it.  Subject  to  such  superior  authority 
the  scope  of  government  goes  much  beyond  the 
functions  of  the  government  in  the  other  terri- 
tories. The  Governor's  duties  can  be  compared  to 
those  of  an  executive  in  the  management  of  a  vast 
business  organization. 

Events,  1948.  The  President  of  the  United  States, 
by  Proclamation  No.  2775,  signed  Mar.  26,  1948, 
prescribed  for  the  Panama  Canal  a  revised  sched- 
ule of  rates  of  toll,  effective  Oct.  1,  1948.  (Note: 
The  effective  date  was  later  changed  to  Apr.  1, 
1949  by  Presidential  Proclamation  No.  2808  signed 
Sept.  7,  1948.)  The  revised  schedule  is  as  follows: 
On  merchant  vessels,  yachts,  Army  and  Navy 
transports,  colliers,  hospital  ships,  and  supply  ships, 
when  carrying  passengers  or  cargo,  $1.00  per  net 


vessel-ton  of  100  feet  of  earning  capacity;  on  ves- 
sels in  ballast  without  passengers  or  cargo,  80 
cents  per  net  vessel-ton;  on  other  floating  craft,  In- 
cluding warships  other  than  transports,  colliers, 
hospital  ships,  and  supply  ships,  55  cents  per  ton 
of  displacement.  The  current  rates,  which  became 
effective  Mar.  1,  1938,  are  90  cents  per  net  vessel- 
ton  on  laden  vessels,  72  cents  per  net  vessel-ton  on 
vessels  in  ballast,  and  50  cents  per  ton  of  displace- 
ment for  other  floating  craft. 

Bibliography,  Annual  Report  of  the  Governor  of 
the  Panama  Canal,  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington,  D.C. 

PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES.  Bogota  Conference.  The 
focal  point  of  all  Pan  American  activity  during  the 
year  was  the  Ninth  International  Conference  of 
American  States,  which  met  in  Bogota,  Colombia, 
from  March  30  to  May  2.  It  was  probably  the  most 
eventful  and  most  fruitful  in  the  series  that  began 
in  Washington  in  1889.  After  the  conference  was 
under  way,  an  outbreak  of  mob  violence  occurred 
on  April  9  following  the  fatal  shooting  of  a  popular 
leader  of  the  Liberal  Party  of  Colombia,  Dr.  Jorge 
Eliecer  Gaitan,  by  an  obscure  fellow-countryman. 

Much  of  the  early  destruction  by  the  crowd  was 
in  the  Capitol  itself,  seat  of  the  conference;  this 
fact,  together  with  the  general  upheaval  that  en- 
sued throughout  the  city  and  country,  threatened 
for  a  time  the  very  continuance  of  the  conference. 
However,  the  delegations  from  the  21  republics 
were  united  in  their  determination  to  complete 
the  essential  parts  of  the  program. 

The  concrete  results  of  the  conference  are  meas- 
ured in  terms  of  the  instruments  signed,  which 
include  the  following;  Charter  of  the  Organization 
of  American  States;  Economic  Agreement  of  Bo- 
gota; American  Treaty  of  Pacific  Settlement;  Inter- 
American  Convention  on  the  Granting  of  Civil 
Rights  to  Women;  Inter- American  Convention  on 
the  Granting  of  Political  Rights  to  Women;  and 
Final  Act  of  the  Ninth  International  Conference  of 
American  States. 

The  Charter,  already  in  provisional  effect,  fur- 
nishes the  first  constitution  ever  to  be  adopted 
jointly  by  the  21  independent  countries  of  this 
hemisphere.  Containing  very  few  innovations,  it 
brings  together  most  of  the  basic  principles  and 
proven  practices  that  had  grown  up  during  the 
past  half  century,  and  adds  others  needed  to  bring 
it  up  to  date.  The  basic  Economic  Agreement  is 
a  statement  of  broad  principles  to  guide  the  mem- 
bers in  the  conduct  of  their  mutual  economic  rela- 
tions, and  presumably  it  will  be  implemented  by 
a  more  specific  program  to  be  adopted  at  the  spe- 
cial Inter-American  Economic  Conference  sched- 
uled to  be  held  in  Buenos  Aires  in  1949. 

Application  of  the  Rio  Treaty.  Another  outstanding 
event  occurred  toward  the  end  of  the  year,  when 
on  December  3  the  Ambassador  of  Costa  Rica  de- 
posited the  ratification  by  his  Government  of  the 
Inter-American  Treaty  of  Reciprocal  Assistance 
signed  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  Sept.  2,  1947.  That  ratifi- 
cation, which  completed  the  necessary  two-thirds, 
enabled  the  Mutual  Defense  Treaty  to  enter  into 
force. 

By  coincidence,  Costa  Rica  became  the  first  re- 
public to  invoke  the  terms  of  that  treaty.  On  De- 
cember 12  the  Chairman  of  the  Council  of  the 
Organization  of  American  States  called  a  special 
session  and  read  to  them  the  terms  of  the  note  in 
which  the  Government  of  Costa  Rica  requested 
the  Council  to  call  a  Meeting  of  Consultation  of 
the  Ministers  of  Foreign  Affairs,  charging  that  the 
Government  of  Nicaragua  had  permitted  an  armed 


PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIV/T/fS 


418 


PARAGUAY 


invasion  to  proceed  from  its  territory  into  that  of 
Costa  Rica  for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  the 
established  government.  The  Council  voted  to  call 
such  meeting  but  left  the  time  and  place  in  abey- 
ance. 

The  Council  held  meetings  on  December  12,  14, 
15,  17,  24,  and  28,  most  of  them  as  the  Provisional 
Organ  of  Consultation,  in  accordance  with  terms 
of  the  Rio  Treaty.  A  Committee  of  Information 
was  named  by  the  Council  and  dispatched  to  Costa 
Rica  and  Nicaragua  to  investigate  the  situation, 
and  upon  its  return  it  recommended  a  series  of 
steps  which  the  Council  adopted.  These  called 
upon  the  two  governments  to  suppress  any  military 
activity  in  their  respective  territories  that  might 
constitute  a  threat  against  the  other.  The  Council 
also  appointed  a  Military  Committee,  which  pro- 
ceeded to  Central  America  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
serving the  extent  to  which  the  two  parties  carried 
out  the  measures  of  the  Council  to  which  they  had 
agreed. 

Peaceful  Settlement  Between  Cuba  and  Dominican 
Republic.  Several  months  earlier,  and  before  the  en- 
trance into  force  of  the  Rio  Treaty,  another  inter- 
American  agency  had  persuaded  two  American  re- 
publics to  resume  normal  diplomatic  means  to  set- 
tle a  dispute  that  had  arisen.  The  Government  of 
the  Dominican  Republic  requested  the  Council 
of  the  Organization  to  convoke  the  Committee  on 
Methods  for  the  Peaceful  Solution  of  Conflicts., 
provided  for  by  a  resolution  of  the  Second  Meet- 
ing of  Foreign  Ministers  held  at  Havana  in  1940. 
While  originally  constituted  by  one  representative 
each  from  Argentina,  Brazil,  Cuba,  Mexico,  and 
the  United  States,  this  was  the  first  time  that  it 
was  called  upon  to  take  specific  action. 

During  a  series  of  meetings  that  began  on 
July  31  it  considered  certain  charges  brought  by 
the  Dominican  Republic  against  the  Government 
of  Cuba  respecting  matters  that  the  former  claimed 
could  not  be  settled  by  ordinary  diplomatic  means. 
After  the  meeting  held  on  October  26,  the  Com- 
mittee was  able  to  announce  agreement  by  the 
two  parties  to  resume  direct  negotiations  and  to 
settle  their  mutual  problems  peaceably.  While  the 
elements  making  up  these  negotiations  were  not  of 
a  sensational  nature,  the  success  of  this  inter- Amer- 
ican body  in  securing  the  peaceful  solution  of  a  re- 
gional dispute  must  be  considered  noteworthy. 

Other  Events.  As  a  result  of  action  taken  at  the 
Bogota  Conference,  the  permanent  executive  body 
of  the  inter-American  system  was  converted  from 
the  Governing  Board  of  the  Pan  American  Union 
into  the  Council  of  the  Organization  of  American 
States.  To  the  casual  observer,  the  quiet  transfor- 
mation of  this  21-man  body  at  the  May  18  meeting 
in  Washington  went  unnoticed. 

Personnel  changes  during  the  year  brought  in 
these  replacements:  Captain  Colon  Eloy  Alfaro  be- 
came Special  Representative  of  Ecuador  on  Janu- 
ary 7;  on  March  8  Dr.  Enrique  Finot  became  the 
Special  Representative  of  Bolivia,  and  Dr.  Ismael 
Gonzalez  Arevalo,  as  new  Ambassador  of  Guate- 
mala, the  Representative  of  that  country;  new  Am- 
bassadors attending  the  meeting  held  on  May  18 
were  Dr.  Ernesto  Jaen  Guardia,  Dr.  Juan  Felix 
Morales,  and  Dr.  Mario  Esquivel,  representing 
Panama,  Paraguay,  and  Costa  Rica  respectively; 
while  on  July  30  the  Council  welcomed  Dr.  Silvio 
Villegas  as  Special  Representative  of  Colombia, 
Dr.  Octavio  Vallarino,  new  Ambassador  of  Panama, 
Dr.  Enrique  V.  Corominas,  Special  Representative 
of  Argentina,  and  Paul  C.  Daniels,  Special  Repre- 
sentative of  the  United  States. 

At  the  meeting  held  November  3  the  Special 


Representative  of  Argentina,  Ambassador  En- 
rique V.  Corominas,  was  elected  Chairman,  and  the 
Ambassador  of  Haiti,  M.  Joseph  D.  Charles,  Vice 
Chairman  of  the  Council,  replacing  the  Delegates 
of  Peru  and  Uruguay  respectively. 

The  following  distinguished  visitors  were  of- 
ficially received  at  the  Pan  American  Union  by  the 
Governing  Board  or  its  successor,  the  Council:  on 
January  6  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  of  Ecua- 
dor, Dr.  Antonio  Parra  Velasco;  on  July  2  the  new- 
ly elected  President  of  Venezuela,  Dr.  R6mulo  Gal- 
legos;  on  September  7  Dr.  Romulo  Betancourt,  ex- 
President  of  Venezuela;  on  December  9  Dr.  Carlos 
Prio  Socarras,  President  of  Cuba. 

An  outstanding  statesman  of  the  hemisphere, 
Foreign  Minister  Jaime  Torres  Bodet  of  Mexico, 
was  elected  Director  General  of  UNESCO  in  No- 
vember. The  Inter-American  Conference  for  Con- 
servation of  Renewable  Natural  Resources  was 
held  Sept.  7-20,  1948,  in  Denver,  Colo. 

During  the  course  of  the  year  considerable  prog- 
ress was  made  on  plans  for  the  operation  of  the 
Leo  S.  Rowe  Pan  American  Fund,  a  bequest  con- 
tained in  the  will  of  the  late  Director  General  of 
the  Pan  American  Union  for  use  in  making  loans 
to  Latin  American  students  who  wish  to  study  in 
the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  United  States. 
— PAUL  R.  KELBAUGH 

PAPUA.  An  Australian  territory,  comprising  the 
southeastern  portion  of  the  island  of  New  Guinea 
(87,786  sq.  mi.)  and  the  islands  of  Trobriand, 
Woodlark,  D'Entrecasteaux,  Louisiade  groups 
(2,754  sq.  mi.).  Total  area:  90,540  square  miles. 
Population  (1947  est.):  302,000,  including  2,000 
Europeans.  Capital:  Port  Moresby.  The  principal 
products  are  coconuts,  rubber,  sago,  gold,  silver, 
and  osmiridium.  Administrator:  Col.  J.  K.  Murray. 

PARAGUAY.  A  republic  of  South  America.  The 
eastern  third  of  the  country  is  a  plateau,  and  west 
of  it  there  are  low  plains.  The  vast  alluvial  plain 
of  the  Gran  Chaco  stretches  westward  from  the 
Paraguay  River.  The  climate  is  subtropical  and 
variable,  depending  on  whether  the  air  masses 
come  from  the  tropics  or  the  subpolar  regions. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  150,500  square  miles. 
Population:  1,225,000  (1947  est),  of  whom  about 
97  percent  are  mestizos  and  the  rest  of  European 
descent.  Chief  cities:  Asuncion  (capital)  210S000 
inhabitants,  Villarica,  and  Coronel  Oviedo. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  Constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the 
established  state  religion.  Spanish  is  the  official 
language,  but  the  majority  of  the  people  speak 
Guarani  as  well.  According  to  official  reports,  prac- 
tically the  entire  population  over  10  years  of  age 
has  a  rudimentary  knowledge  of  reading  and  writ- 
ing. The  most  recent  educational  statistics  (1947) 
show  1,293  elementary  schools  with  176,465  pu- 
pils; 14  secondary  schools  with  nearly  6,000  stu- 
dents, and  a  National  University  with  an  enroll- 
ment of  1,600  in  1944. 

Production.  The  economy  of  the  country  is  pre- 
dominantly agricultural  and  pastoral.  Chief  agri- 
cultural production  in  1947  (metric  tons)  was: 
tobacco,  12,500;  sugar,  15,511;  corn,  114,636;  peas, 
31,218;  seed  cotton,  37,300  and  lint  cotton,  57,300 
bales.  Industrial  production:  tannin,  44,914;  flour, 
27,830;  sugar,  17,921;  preserved  meats,  10,967, 
Stock-raising  is  an  important  industry.  Estimated 
livestock  (1945):  over  4  million  cattle  and  170,000 
sheep. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  imports  in  1947  amounted 
to  68,087,000  guaranies  (a  guarani  equals  U.S. 


PARAGUAY 


419 


PATENT  OFFICE 


$0.52);  exports  to  65,703,000  guaranies.  Largest 
exports  go  to  Argentina,  Great  Britain,  Uruguay 
and  the  United  States;  imports  come  from  Argen- 
tina, the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Uru- 
guay. Exports  for  the  first  quarter  of  1948  were  re- 
ported to  be  9  percent  below  those  of  the  same 
period  of  the  previous  year,  Argentina  still  taking 
75  percent  of  the  whole. 

Transportation.  There  are  713  miles  of  railway 
and  4,122  miles  of  highways  of  all  lands.  Air  serv- 
ices are  supplied  by  five  airlines. 

Finance.  The  budget  estimates  for  1947  placed 
revenue  at  46,929,000  guaranies;  expenditure  at 
56,129,000  guaranies.  Internal  funded  debt  at  the 
end  of  1947  reached  42  million  guaranies.  Gold 
reserves  in  June,  1947,  were  1,870,000  guaranies; 
foreign  exchange  holdings  33,697,000  guaranies. 
The  cost  of  living  index  in  December,  1947,  was 
319  (1937=100).  In  September,  1948,  the  new 
government  presented  a  bill  to  float  an  internal 
loan  of  20  million  guaranies,  to  be  devoted  en- 
tirely to  a  public  works  program. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  1940, 
Paraguay  is  a  centralized  republic  of  12  depart- 
ments. Legislative  power  is  exercised  by  a  unicam- 
eral  Congress.  Executive  power  rests  in  a  President, 
assisted  by  a  Council  of  Ministers  and  a  Council 
of  State.  On  February  15,  Natalicio  Gonzalez  was 
elected  President  and  took  office  on  August  15, 

Events,  1948.  Paraguay,  like  nearly  half  of  the 
Latin  American  republics,  had  a  change  of  gov- 
ernment in  1948.  Domestic  politics  were  influenced 
by  the  electoral  campaign;  economic  life  was  af- 
fected by  the  postwar  inflation,  and  international 
relations  disturbed  by  the  economic  dependence 
of  the  country  on  Argentina. 

Elections.  On  February  15,  presidential  elections 
were  held.  Only  one  party  went  to  the  polls,  and 
its  candidate,  Natalicio  Gonzalez,  was  elected.  The 
president-elect  was  closely  connected  with  Mori- 
nigo's  dictatorial  regime,  in  which  he  held  the 
portfolio  of  Finance.  The  Colorado  Party,  which 
nominated  Gonzalez,  also  won  a  substantial  major- 
ity in  the  Congress.  The  other  parties  refrained 
from  voting  as  a  sign  of  protest.  After  the  elections, 
the  political  climate  was  far  from  favorable.  There 
were  serious  divisions  among  the  Colorados,  and 
several  members  of  Morifligo's  Cabinet  resigned  in 
protest.  The  armed  forces  showed  symptoms  of 
unrest. 

The  President  Resigns.  The  "lame  duck"  period 
between  Gonzalez*  election  and  his  inauguration, 
scheduled  for  August  15,  proved  to  be  difficult  for 
President  Morinigo.  Members  of  the  opposition 
were  imprisoned,  and  the  North  American  press 
accused  the  Government  of  having  turned  the 
country  into  a  large  prison  camp.  In  spite  of  des- 
perate efforts  made  by  the  President,  the  opposition 
grew  stronger  and  the  leaders  of  the  Color  ados,  in 
order  to  avert  trouble,  demanded  Morifligo's  resig- 
nation. The  President  yielded  and  his  place  was 
taken  by  the  President  of  the  Supreme  Court,  Juan 
Manuel  Frutos,  who  was  to  continue  in  office  until 
Gonzalez*  inauguration. 

New  Administration.  President  Gonzalez  took  of- 
fice on  the  date  scheduled,  and  kept  the  same  Cab- 
inet appointed  by  Frutos.  The  inaugural  ceremo- 
nies were  conducted  with  pomp,  and  outstanding 
intellectuals  of  the  continent  were  invited  to  at- 
tend. The  new  administration  endorsed  a  liberal 
program,  and  spoke  of  the  necessity  of  a  more 
democratic  constitution  for  the  country. 

Army  Rebellion.  On  October  25,  the  cadets  of  the 
military  academy  at  Asuncion  attempted  a  revolt 
to  overthrow  the  Government.  The  movement  was 


headed  by  Colonel  Carlos  Montanado,  but  police 
forces,  after  a  brief  struggle,  succeeded  in  checking 
it  until  the  army  took  over  and  captured  most  of 
the  revolutionists.  In  political  circles,  it  was  ru- 
mored that  the  rebellion  was  backed  by  dissatis- 
fied members  of  the  Colorado  Party.  Later,  Presi- 
dent Gonzalez  tried  to  prevent  future  trouble  by 
issuing  a  decree  to  the  effect  that  all  armed  forces 
should  be  under  the  direct  command  of  the  Presi- 
dent. 

Paraguay  attended  the  Ninth  Inter-American 
Conference  of  American  States  held  at  Bogota  (see 
PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES)  and  became  signatory 
to  the  Charter  of  the  Americas. — MIGUEL  JORRIN 

PATENT  OFFICE,  United  States.  Applications  for  pat- 
ents filed  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1948, 
totaled  80,708,  compared  to  a  figure  of  86,749  for 
the  preceding  fiscal  period.  Patents  granted  totaled 
24,617,  including  designs  and  reissues,  an  increase 
of  2,428  over  the  22,189  issued  for  the  correspond- 
ing period  in  the  preceding  year,  and  the  first  year 
there  was  an  increase  in  the  number  of  patents 
granted  since  1941. 

The  total  number  of  applications  for  patents 
pending  on  June  30,  1948,  was  approximately  244,- 
000,  an  increase  of  some  28,000  cases  over  the  fig- 
ure at  the  close  of  the  previous  year.  Of  the  cases 
pending,  about  156,000  were  awaiting  action  by 
the  Office,  slightly  under  4,000  were  involved  in 
appeals  and  interference  proceedings,  and  the  re- 
mainder, about  84,000  were  under  rejection,  await- 
ing response  by  applicants. 

The  inaugural  year  of  operations  under  the  Trade 
Mark  Act  of  1946  was  one  of  expanded  activity, 
with  the  Office  registering  and  renewing  16,115 
tri.de  marks,  an  increase  of  2,402  over  the  13,713 
figure  for  the  preceding  year.  On  June  30,  1948, 
approximately  57,000  applications  for  registration, 
renewal,  and  republication  were  pending  before 
the  examiners,  with  some  20,000  additional  pend- 
ing cases  awaiting  response  by  applicants.  New 
Rules  of  Practice  in  Trade  Mark  cases  were  pro- 
mulgated coincident  with  the  effective  date  of  the 
1946  Act,  on  July  5,  1947. 

Patents  granted  since  1836,  when  the  consecu- 
tive numbering  was  begun  totaled  2,444,411  on 
June  30,  1948.  Some  25,000  of  these  had  been 
placed  on  the  Register  of  Patents  available  for  li- 
cense or  sale  since  1945,  when  the  Register  was 
established  in  the  Patent  Office.  The  Office  sells 
printed  copies  of  patents  for  25  cents  each,  designs 
and  trade  marks  for  10  cents  each.  During  the  year 
ended  June  30,  1948,  more  than  six  million  copies 
of  patents  were  distributed,  almost  a  half  million 
going  to  libraries,  and  nearly  two  million  to  for- 
eign countries  under  exchange  agreements. 

A  program  of  improvements  designed  to  render 
additional  and  better  service  to  the  public  was  con- 
tinued: the  roster  of  attorneys  and  agents  regis- 
tered to  practice  before  the  Office  was  revised;  a 
comprehensive  list  of  patents  owned  by  the  United 
States  Government  was  compiled;  a  proposed  re- 
vision of  the  Patent  Rules  of  Practice  was  printed 
and  widely  distributed  in  June  for  solicitation  of 
comments  and  suggestions;  and  a  project  to  per- 
fect the  patent  copy  reference  collection  main- 
tained for  public  use  in  the  search  room  was 
initiated. 

Net  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year  were  $5,651,585, 
an  increase  over  the  preceding  year  of  $836,325, 
and  obligations  incurred  under  all  Patent  Office 
appropriations  amounted  to  $8,603,032  as  com- 
pared with  $7,262,472  for  the  preceding  year. 
— LAWRENCE  C.  KINGSLAND 


PEMNSttVANJA 


420 


PENNSYLVANIA.  A  middle  Atlantic  State.  Area:  45,- 

333  sq,.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  10,689,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  9,900,180.  Chief 

cities:  Harrisburg  (capital),  83,893  inhabitants  in 
1940;  Philadelphia,  1,931,334.  See  AGRICULTURE, 
EBUGATION,  MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS, 
UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS, 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  May  31,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $499,838,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $491,263,000, 

Elections.  The  35  electoral  votes  went  to  Dewey 
who  received  1,901,160  votes  to  Truman's  1,751,- 
188  and  Wallace's  54,603.  Roosevelt's  1944  plu- 
rality over  Dewey  was  105,400.  There  was  no 
contest  for  Senate  or  Statewide  office.  In  races  for 
House  seats,  Democrats  won  16  and  Republicans 
17,  a  Democratic  gain  of  11. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  James  H.  Duff;  Lieut 
Governor,  Daniel  StricHer;  Secretary  of  Common- 
wealth, Charles  M.  Morrison;  Attorney  General, 
Thomas  McK.  Chidsey;  State  Treasurer,  Ramsey  S. 
Black;  Auditor  General,  G.  Harold  Wagner. 

PERMANENT  JOINT  BOARD  ON  DEFENSE— United  States 
and  Canada.  A  Board  set  up  by  President  Roosevelt 
arid  Prime  Minister  W.  L.  Mackenzie  King  in  pur- 
suance of  a  joint  communique  dated  Aug.  17,  1940, 
to  "commence  immediately  studies  relating  to  sea, 
land,  and  air  problems  including  personnel  and 
material"  and  "consider  in  the  broad  sense  the  de- 
fense of  the  north  half  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere." Chairman:  Canadian  Section,  Gen. 
Andrew  G.  McNaughton;  United  States  Section, 
vacant  since  Spring  1948. 

PERU.  A  republic  of  South  America.  The  country 
is  divided  into  three  natural  regions,  Costa,  Sierra, 
and  Montana.  The  Costa  is  a  lowland,  the  Sierra, 
highlands  and  gentle  slopes,  and  the  Montana 
heavily  forested  slopes  eastward  of  the  Andean 
mountains.  Climate  on  the  coast  is  cloudy  and  cool; 
in  the  highlands  it  ranges  from  very  wet  to  very 
dry,  according  to  the  seasons. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  482,258  square  miles. 
Population:  7,246,000  (1948  est.)  excluding  in- 
habitants in  the  jungle  areas.  About  45  percent  are 
Indians,  7  of  European  descent,  another  45  mes- 
tizos, and  the  rest  Asiatics  and  Negroes.  Chief 
cities:  Lima  (capital),  628,821  inhabitants,  Callao, 
and  Arequipa. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  Constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  protected  by  the  State.  Spanish  is  the 
official  language,  but  Quechua  and  Aymara  are 
spoken  among  the  Indians.  42  percent  of  the  total 
population  is  estimated  to  be  literate.  In  1947, 
Peru  had  8,898  public  primary  schools  with  a  total 
enrollment  of  808,860.  There  are  also  private  ele- 
mentary schools,  and  87  kindergartens.  165  sec- 
ondary schools  in  1944  had  an  enrollment  of  22,- 
474.  There  are  five  universities. 

Production.  Peru's  economy  is  dependent  on  ag- 
riculture, stock-raising,  and  mining.  Manufacturing 
contributes  somewhat  to  the  national  occupation. 
The  two  principal  export  crops  in  1947  were  sugar 
(411,723  metric  tons)  and  cotton  (1.3  million 
quintals  of  101.43  Ib.  each).  The  cotton  crop  was 
unsatisfactory  due  to  labor  shortage  and  drought. 
Production  of  sugar  in  1948  was  forecast  at  450,- 
000  metric  tons.  Oil  production  has  been  increasing 
every  year,  and  in  1947  amounted  to  12,763,807 
barrels,  an  increase  of  2.5  percent  over  the  previous 
year.  Other  important  mining  products  are  copper, 
silver,  lead,  tungsten,  and  gold.  Industrial  produc- 
tion is  centered  around  beer,  leather  goods,  cotton 


and  wool  textiles,  and  silk  goods.  Livestock  indus- 
try provides  for  local  markets  and  exports  of  wool 
from  sheep,  alpaca,  llama,  and  vicuna. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  exports  in  1947  amounted 
to  SI 54.3  million;  imports  to  $168  million.  Im- 
ports for  the  first  six  months  of  1948  were  valued 
at  568.9  million  soles;  exports  at  489.2  million  soles 
(a  sol  equals  U.S. $0.15),  an  indication  that  the 
country  would  continue  to  have-  an  unfavorable 
balance  of  trade. 

Transportation.  Peru  has  3,348  miles  of  railroads 
and  20,663  miles  of  highway  of  all  types.  Air  trans- 
portation is  provided  by  international  lines  as  well 
as  domestic  companies. 

Finance.  In  the  absence  of  congressional  action 
on  the  1948  budget  bill,  a  decree  of  Jan.  1,  1948, 
promulgated  a  budget  balanced  at  927  million 
soles.  In  the  1947  budget  estimates,  revenue  and 
expenditure  were  balanced  at  946  million  soles. 
Currency  in  circulation  at  the  end  of  1947  was 
653  milHon  soles;  bank  deposits  931  million  soles; 
gold  reserves  $20  million. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  Mar.  29, 
1933  (amended  1936,  1940),  Peru  is  a  centralized 
republic  divided  into  provinces  and  departments. 
Legislative  power  rests  in  a  Senate  of  49  members 
and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  of  52,  all  elected  to 
serve  a  6-year  term.  Executive  power  is  vested  in 
a  President  and  two  Vice  Presidents,  similarly 
elected.  An  Economic  Council  composed  of  spe- 
cialists in  various  fields  serves  the  President  in  an 
advisory  capacity.  The  President  exercises  his  func- 
tions through  a  Cabinet  of  Ministers.  On  Octo- 
ber 27,  a  military  coup  overthrew  President  Jose 
Luis  Bustamante  and  appointed  a  provisional  gov- 
ernment headed  by  General  Manuel  Odria. 

Events,  1948.  Early  in  the  year,  the  political  crisis 
caused  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  APRA  party  from 
the  government  (see  YEAH  BOOK,  Events  1947), 
appeared  to  lessen  in  tension,  and  public  atten- 
tion was  focused  on  economic  problems,  i.e.,  infla- 
tion and  the  scarcity  of  foreign  exchange.  Haya  de 
la  Torre,  APRA  leader,  came  to  the  United  States, 
his  trip  being  interpreted  as  an  attempt  to  obtain 
economic  assistance  for  Peru  from  the  U.S.  Gov- 
ernment. 

APRA  Congress.  Between  May  27  and  June  2,  an 
APRA  congress  was  held  at  which  important  reso- 
lutions were  taken,  principally  a  recommendation 
for  the  creation  of  a  Ministry  of  Economic  Plan- 
ning; support  of  the  recently  organized  Inter- 
American  Federation  of  Workers  (CIT);  a  state- 
ment of  position  against  the  European  colonies  in 
Latin  America;  and  the  demand  for  expulsion  of 
Communists  from  Government  posts.  APRA  sup- 
port of  the  CIT  was  criticized  in  labor  circles  as 
dangerous  to  the  workers  unions  of  the  continent, 
and  as  being  definitely  partial  to  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  whicn  appears  to  have  backed 
the  new  labor  organization. 

Rebellion  at  Juliaca.  The  city  of  Juliaca  witnessed 
a  military  rebellion  early  in  July,  headed  by  Al- 
fonso Llosa  of  the  rightist  Union  Revolucionaria 
party.  The  uprising  was  rapidly  quelled,  and  the 
leader  fled  to  Bolivia.  It  appeared  that  the  military 
revolt  was  caused  by  the  political  deadlock  created 
by  the  21  Senators  belonging  to  the  Alianza  Na- 
cionalista  party,  who  declared  a  strike  and  refused 
to  attend  the  sessions  of  Congress,  thereby  hinder- 
ing the  legislative  functions  of  the  Government. 

The  Senators*  behavior,  which  is  a  continuation 
of  their  last  year's  policy,  was  directed  toward 
hampering  Bustamante's  coalition  Government. 
The  President  cancelled  the  convocation  of  the 
Congress,  and  the  APRA  issued  a  manifesto  against 


PfTROlEUM 


421 


PETROLEUM 


his  decree,  stating  that  he  was  recognizing  the 
Senators*  right  to  strike.  The  APRA  recommended 
legal  action  against  the  Senators  for  abandonment 
of  their  functions. 

Conflicts  between  the  APRA  and  Bvsfamante,  The 
Administration  decided  to  convoke  a  Constituent 
Assembly  to  modify  the  Constitution  and  solve  the 
problem  of  the  Senate  strike.  Again,  the  APRA 
protested  because  the  Constitution,  according  to 
the  document  itself,  could  not  be  amended  by  a 
plebiscite,  only  by  an  act  of  Congress.  Further- 
more, Bustamante's  decree  provided  that  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  should  later  function  as  a  regu- 
lar Congress,  and  the  Apristas  who  have  a  majority 
in  the  present  Congress,  considered  a  new  election 
a  real  risk.  Neutral  observers  commented  that  the 
purpose  of  the  Government  was  to  oust  the  Apris- 
tas by  means  of  a  legal  subterfuge.  In  spite  of 
the  tense  situation,  the  administration  held  to  its 
idea. 

Rebellion  at  Callao.  On  October  3,  the  naval 
forces  of  the  port  of  Callao  turned  against  the  Gov- 
ernment and  aided  by  groups  of  civilians,  took  over 
the  Armory,  the  Naval  Academy,  and  various  ships. 
Again  the  administration  acted  rapidly  and  crushed 
the  revolt.  In  the  brief  straggle,  there  were  more 
than  100  dead  and  numerous  wounded.  There  were 
minor  skirmishes  in  Lima  and  Arequipa.  The  Gov- 
ernment blamed  -the  uprising  on  the  Apristas,  im- 
mediately suspended  constitutional  guarantees,  and 
by  decree  outlawed  the  APRA.  Many  Apristas  were 
arrested,  but  their  leader  Haya  de  la  Torre,  Luis 
Alberto  Sanchez  (  Rector  of  the  University  of  Bue- 
nos Aires),  and  other  Peruvian  intellectuals,  man- 
aged to  escape. 

Government  Is  Overthrown.  On  October  27,  an 
important  military  rebellion  started  at  Arequipa, 
led  by  General  Manuel  Odria.  President  Busta- 
mante  ordered  the  Lima  troops  to  march  against 
the  rebels,  but  on  the  29th  the  Army  chief  of 
Lima  refused  to  obey,  and  asked  for  the  President's 
resignation.  Bustamante  fled  the  country,  but  re- 
fused to  resign,  and  the  army  took  control  of  the 
capital;  the  officers  forming  a  military  Junta  to  rule 
the  country.  One  of  the  first  measures  taken  by 
the  new  Government  was  to  outlaw  the  Communist 
Party.  As  this  article  is  being  written,  Peru  is  being 
governed  by  this  Junta,  with  no  formal  announce- 
ment having  been  made  of  a  return  to  a  constitu- 
tional status. 

Peru  attended  the  Ninth  Inter-  American  Con- 
ference of  American  States  held  at  Bogota  in  April 
(see  PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES)  and  became  sig- 
natory to  the  Charter  of  the  Americas. 

—  MIGUEL 


TABLE  1— U.S.  OUTPUT  OF  CRUDE  PETROLEUM 
(In  thousands  of  barrels  per  year) 


PETROLEUM.  The  1948  output  of  crude  petroleum  in 
the  United  States  amounted  to  2,051,433,000  bar- 
rels, a  gain  of  195,326,000  bbl.  over  the  1947  out- 
put of  1,856,107,000  bbl.  The  yields  of  the  chief 
producing  States  in  1948  were  (in  thousands  of 
bbl.):  Texas  923,227  (819,427  in  1947),  Cali- 
fornia 345,333  (333,102),  Louisiana  189,972  (160,- 
219),  Oklahoma  154,680  (141,019),  Kansas  (in- 
cluding Nebraska  and  Missouri)  108,017  (105,631), 
and  Illinois  64,032  (66,459).  Table  1  lists  the  pro- 
duction of  crude  petroleum,  by  States,  for  the  years 

1947  and  1948.  (Source:  Oil  and  Gas  Journal,  Jan. 
27,1949.) 

Total  United  States  imports  of  petroleum  during 

1948  were   estimated   at   184   million   bbl.    (10 
months  actual;  2  months  estimated).  This  included 
128  million  bbl  of  crude  petroleum,  49  million  bbl. 
of  heavy  fuel  oil,  and  7  million  bbl.  of  other  prod- 
ucts. Exports  from  the  United  States  of  crude  pe-  . 


State 
Alabama  

1948 
out-put 
change 
+         72 
-f    1,632 
4-  12,231 
4"    1,525 
4-         33 
-     2,427 
4-    2,155 
4-    2,386 
-        415 
4-  29,681 
4-       408 
+  12,308 
-f       711 
-f    6,480 
-       202 
4-       187 
+  13,661 
50 
4-103,800 
30 
4-         78 
-f  11,102 

1948 
468 
31,622 
345,333 
17,273 
290 
64,032 
8,008 
108,017 
8,992 
189,972 
16,623 
47,325 
9,404 
47,607 
4,560 
3,295 
154,680 
12,640 
923,227 
30 
2,695 
55,340 

1947 
396 
29,990 
333,102 
15,748 
257 
66,459 
5,853 
105,631 
9,407 
160,291 
16,215 
35,017 
8,693 
41,127 
4,762 
3,108 
141,019 
12,690 
819,427 
60 
2,617 
44,238 

Total 
for 
1857-1943 
1,479 
755,791 
8,001,588 
99,846 
657 
1,366,769 
180,947 
1,883,781 
233375 
2,210,384 
289,500 
209,618 
151,191 
586,143 
167,450 
610,442 
5,882,571 
1,113,546 
12,221,851 
109 
437,985 
806,837 

Arkansas  

California  . 

Colorado0 

Florida 

Illinois 

Indiana. 

Kansas  * 

Kentucky  c  
Louisiana.  .  .  , 
Michigan  

Mississippi.  ..  . 
Montana  .... 
New  Mexico.  . 
New  York.... 
Ohio 

Oklahoma  
Pennsylvania.  . 
Texas  

Virginia  

W.  Virginia  .  .  . 
Wyoming  .... 

Total  U.S... 

4195,326 

2,051,433     1 

,856,107 

37,211,860 

0  Includes  Utah.     6  Includes  Nebraska 
eludes  Tennessee. 

and  Missouri.    c  In- 

troleum  and  other  products  were  estimated  at  135 
million  bbl. 

World  crude  petroleum  output  (excluding  that 

TABLE  2— WORLD  CRUDE  PETROLEUM  OUTPUT* 
(Annual  average  in  thousands  of  barrels  daily) 


Country 
Argentina  

1947 
59.9 

1948* 
63.5 

% 

change 

6.0 

Bolivia.  ...    

1.3 

1.3 

Brazil  

03 

03 

Canada  

20  1 

30.5 

51.8 

Colombia 

681 

62.0 

—8.9 

Cuba 

07 

07 

Ecuador  .... 

66 

7.4  ' 

12.1 

Mexico  

153  8 

160.0 

4.0 

Peru 

349 

38.0 

8.9 

Trinidad                         .  .      ... 

557 

560 

0.5 

Venezuela 

1  190  8 

13300 

117 

Total  W.  Hemis.a              .  .     . 

1,5922 

1  749.7 

9.9 

France 

1  0 

1.1 

10.0 

Germany                                      * 

11  0 

115 

45 

Italy 

02 

02 

Netherlands 

40 

95 

137.8 

Egypt 

255 

35  0 

373 

Great  Britain                  .    . 

1  0 

0  9 

—10.0 

Total  W.  Europe,  Africa  

42.7 

58.2 

36.3 

Bahrein.  ,  

25.8 

30.0 

16.3 

Iran     

422.0 

510.0 

20.9 

Iraq     

992 

68.0 

—31.5 

445 

125.0 

180.8 

246.2 

390.0 

58.3 

Total  Middle  East 

8377 

1  1230 

341 

British  Borneo 

36  1 

545 

510 

Burma 

06 

0  5 

—167 

1.1 

1.8 

63.7 

6.1 

6.5 

6.6 

22.0 

84.4 

283.5 

3.6 

3.3 

—8.4 

Total,  Far  East  

69.5 

151.0 

117.3 

World  Total-*,  less  U.S.S.R., 
E.  Europe  .  .    . 

2  542.1 

3,081.9 

21,2 

Albania      .  .                               • 

10 

1.0 

Austria 

159 

20.0 

258 

Czechoslovakia 

06 

0.4 

—333 

Hungary                       .  .  . 

119 

100 

—160 

Poland 

26 

2.7 

38 

78.0 

78.0 

U.S  S.R  

543.0 

580.0 

6.8 

Yugoslavia  ...,.,..„.  

1.0 

1.1 

10,0 

Total  U.S.S.R.,  E.  Europe  
World  Total0        .  .           .... 

654.0 
3  196.1 

693.2 
3  775.1 

6.0 

18.1 

«  Excluding  United  States     &  Estimated. 


PHILANTHROPY 


422 


PHILIPPINES 


of  the  United  States)  rose  to  an  estimated  3,775,- 
100  bbl.  daily  in  1948,  of  this  amount  Venezuela 
and  the  Middle  East  accounted  for  65  percent  of 
the  total.  Venezuela's  output  increased  nearly  12 
percent  in  1948  to  total  1,330,000  bbl.  daily.  Ku- 
wait's daily  average  production  was  placed  at  125,- 
000  bbl.  for  1948.  Late  in  the  year  this  small  sheik- 
dom was  producing  200,000  bbl  daily  from  its 
single  Burghan  field,  now  ranked  as  the  world's 
largest  oil  reservoir  with  reserves  of  nearly  11,000 
million  bbl. 

As  a  result  of  the  development  of  the  Leduc  field 
in  Alberta,  the  1948  Canadian  output  of  crude  pe- 
troleum amounted  to  30,500  bbl.  daily,  an  increase 
of  50  percent  over  the  1947  daily  average.  Table  2 
shows  the  estimated  world  output  (excluding  that 
of  the  United  States),  in  thousands  of  bbl.  daily, 
for  the  years  1947  and  1948.  (Source:  Oil  and  Gas 
Journal',  Jan.  27,  1949;  p.  236.) 

PHILANTHROPY.  A  very  considerable  increase  in 
American  philanthropy  during  the  year  1948  is  in- 
dicated in  the  annual  study  of  publicly  announced 
gifts  and  bequests  in  eight  large  cities,  made  by 
The  John  Price  Jones  Corporation  of  New  York. 

Total  publicly  announced  gifts  and  bequests  in 
the  eight  cities  studied  reached  $362,194,204  in 
1948,  as  compared  with  $232,191,062  in  1947,  and 
$275,853,339  in  1946.  The  study,  carried  on  as  one 
index  of  philanthropy,  has  been  in  progress  for  18 
years.  It  does  not  represent  total  philanthropy  but 
only  "that  giving  which  has  been  made  public  in  the 
cities  studied — New  York,  Baltimore,  Boston,  Chi- 
cago, Los  Angeles,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  and 
Washington,  D.C. 

The  1948  total  is  55.09  percent  greater  than  the 
total  for  1947.  Gifts,  which  amounted  to  $256,389,- 
942,  were  31.44  percent  greater  than  in  1947.  Be- 
quests showed  a  very  marked  increase  of  184.85 
percent,  from  $37,157,798  in  1947  to  $105,845,262 
in  1948.  The  greatest  increase  in  gifts  and  bequests 
in  1948  was  shown  in  the  field  or  education  which 
had  total  gifts  and  bequests  of  $109,315,656  in 
1948  as  compared  with  $46,715,619  in  1947.  Or- 
ganized social  work  and  foreign  relief  were  other 
fields  of  philanthropy  which  showed  sizable  in- 
creases in  1948. 

PHILIPPINE  ALIEN  PROPERTY  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE 
U.S.  Shortly  after  the  liberation  of  the  Philippines 
from  the  Japanese  invaders,  the  Office  of  Alien 
Property  Custodian  of  the  United  States  began  to 
administer  the  Trading  With  the  Enemy  Act  in  the 
Philippines  Islands,  taking  control  of  all  enemy 
alien  property  located  in  the  Islands.  On  July  4, 
1946,  the  Philippines  became  an  independent  na- 
tion; however,  the  taking  of  enemy  alien  property 
was  not  yet  complete.  Anticipating  this,  the  U.S. 
Congress,  on  July  3,  1946,  passed  the  Philippine 
Property  Act  of  1946  which  continued  in  operation 
the  Trading  With  the  Enemy  Act,  after  independ- 
ence, and  authorized  the  President  of  the  United 
States  to  create  an  agency  to  administer  it. 

On  Oct.  14,  1946,  by  Executive  Order,  President 
Truman  created  the  Philippine  Alien  Property  Ad- 
ministration and  on  Dec.  9,  1946,  appointed  James 
Mel.  Henderson,  formerly  Special  Assistant  to  the 
Attorney  General,  and  Legal  Advisor  to  General 
Douglas  MacArthur,  as  Philippine  Alien  Property 
Administrator.  The  functions  of  the  Administration 
are  to  ( 1 )  vest,  i.e.,  take  title  in  the  name  of  the 
United  States  and  administer  enemy  alien  prop- 
erty- (2)  tranfer  to  the  Philippine  Republic  such 
vested  properties,  or  the  proceeds  thereof  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Philippine  Property  Act;  and, 


(3)  adjudicate  claims  for  return  of  property  and/or 
payment  of  debt. 

Up  to  Dec.  7,  1948,  850  vesting  orders  were  is- 
sued, 704  claims  filed,  and  151  claims  heard. 

PHILIPPINES,  Republic  of  the.  Archipelago  and  sov- 
ereign state  in  western  Pacific  Ocean,  lying  south- 
east of  the  continent  of  Asia;  a  republic  since  July 
4,  1946,  by  mutual  and  legislative- agreement  with 
the  United  States,  to  whom  the  islands  had  been 
ceded  by  Spain  for  $20  million  in  accordance  with 
terms  of  Treaty  of  Paris,  Dec.  10,  1898. 

Area  and  Population.  Extending  1,152  statute 
miles  north  to  south  and  688  statute  miles  east  to 
west  at  the  widest  point,  the  total  land  area  is  115,- 
600  square  miles.  Area  of  principal  islands  (in  sq. 
mi.)  follows:  Luzon,  40,420;  Mindanao,  36,537; 
Samar,  5,124;  Negros,  4,903;  Palawan,  4,500;  Pa- 
nay,  4,448;  Mindoro,  3,794;  Leyte,  2,799;  Cebu, 
1,695;  Bohol,  1,534;  and  Masbate,  1,255. 

The  population  totaled  19,234,000  according  to 
the  census  taken  during  October  1948.  Popula- 
tion of  Manila,  capital  and  principal  city  (see 
Political  Changes,  below),  was  1,024,557  by  final 
count.  Other  chief  cities  and  their  population  prior 
to  the  Japanese  invasion  are:  Iloilo  (on  Panay), 
94,300;  Cebu,  155,100;  Zamboanga  (on  Minda- 
nao), 137,700;  Davao  (on  Mindanao),  103,100; 
Baguio  (in  Mountain  Province),-  27,000. 

Education  and  Religion.  Public  schools  in  1946 
numbered  11,791  with  an  enrollment  of  3,085,- 
245  pupils.  The  state- supported  University  of  the 
Philippines  accommodated  7,567  students  in  1941. 
Approximately  90  percent  of  the  population  are 
Christian,  chiefly  Roman  Catholic;  5  percent  are 
Mohammedan. 

Production.  The  most  important  subsistence  crops 
are  rice,  corn,  and  sweet  potatoes;  the  important 
commercial  crops  are  coconuts,  abaca  (Manila 
hemp),  sugar-cane,  and  tobacco.  The  1947-48  rice 
crop  was  1,415,000  metric  tons  of  cleaned  rice  as 
against  an  average  of  1,500,000  tons  per  year  be- 
fore the  war.  Sugar  crop  for  1948—49  was  esti- 
mated at  867,000  tons  as  compared  with  430,000 
tons  in  1947—48.  Copra  production  in  1948  was 
estimated  at  800,000'lbng  tons  (1.1  million  tons  in 
1947).  Production  of  abaca  in  1947  was  109,000 
short  tons  as  against  a  yearly  average  of  190,000 
tons  before  the  war.  Tobacco  output  for  the  crop 
year  ended  June  30,  1947,  was  17,655  metric  tons 
(1935-39  yearly  average  was  36,135  tons).  Cigar 
manufacture  (1947)  was  56  million  units,  com- 
pared with  prewar  annual  average  of  300  million 
units.  Gold  production  for  1948  was  estimated  at 
$15  million  at  the  fixed  rate  of  $35  per  ounce 
(production  totaled  $38,282,000  in  1940).  Princi- 
pal manufactures  are  textiles  ( 6,370,000  meters  of 
woven  cotton  fabrics  in  1947);  shoes;  Buntal  hats; 
pearl  buttons;  cement  ( 134  million  metric  tons  in 
1947  as  against  166.8  million  tons  in  1938);  soap; 
tin  cans;  matches;  proprietary  medicines;  and  fur- 
niture. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1947  were  valued  at 
1,022,710,000  pesos;  exports,  528,920,000  pesos. 
In  1946  imports  totaled  591,720,000  pesos;  exports, 
128,400,000  pesos.  In  1939  imports  were  245,160,- 
000  pesos;  exports,  244,080,000  pesos.  Principal 
exports  are  sugar,  copra,  coconut  oil,  abaca.  Im- 
ports are  mainly  textiles  and  food  products. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1949, 
governmental  revenue  was  estimated  at  250  million 
pesos;  expenditures  at  619  million  pesos  (Peso 
equals  U.S.  $0.50).  The  budget  for  the  year  ended 
June  30,  1948,  showed  revenue  of  190  million  pe- 
sos; expenditure  of  243,472,000  pesos. 


PHILIPPINES 


423 


Transportation.  Public  highways^  ( 1946 )  extended 
15,053  miles;  railroad  trackage,  567,5  miles.  Regu- 
lar air  travel  connects  Manila  with  the  United 
States,  Tokyo,  Hong  Kong,  Bangkok,  Shanghai, 
Singapore,  and  Batavia.  Domestic  air  travel  con- 
nects 30  airports  throughout  the  islands.  There  are 
six  commercial  radio  stations  functioning  plus  a 
station  operated  by  die  Department  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs and  a  relay  station  operated  by  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  State.  A  commercial  station  was  under 
construction  in  Davao  in  1948.  Telephone  service 
during  1948  was  still  virtually  limited  to  Manila. 
Six  companies  provided  telegraph  and  wireless 
service  at  354  offices  as  compared  with  567  offices 
before  the  war. 

Government.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
President  (elected  for  4  years);  the  legislative 
power  in  a  Congress;  and  the  judicial  power  in  a 
Supreme  Court  and  inferior  courts.  The  Congress 
is  composed  of  two  chambers — the  Senate  with  24 
members  (elected  for  6  years),  and  the  House  of 
Representatives  with  98  members  (elected  for  4 
years).  President:  Elpidio  Quirino,  who  succeeded 
Manuel  A.  Roxas  on  the  latter's  death  on  Apr.  15, 
1948. 

Events,  1948.  Political  and  economic  progress  in 
the  Philippines  during  1948  was  interrupted  by  a 
series  of  man-made  difficulties  and  natural  disas- 
ters that  aggravated  the  normal  growing  pains  ex- 
perienced by  the  young  republic.  Civil  strife  and 
bloodshed  of  ideological  origin  were  rampant 
throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the  year  and 
took  a  toll  of  several  thousand  lives,  mostly  in  the 
center  of  Luzon,  the  home  and  spawning  area  of 
Filipino  Communism;  typhoons,  floods,  and  earth- 
quakes destroyed  persons,  homes,  and  foodstuffs, 
including  rice  crops;  and  disrupted  or  impeded  the 
industrial  production  of  the  land.  Against  this 
background,  the  sudden  dissolution  of  the  national 
administration  and  the  establishment  of  a  new 
Government,  coincident  upon  the  death  of  Presi- 
dent Manuel  A.  Roxas  and  the  elevation  of  Vice 
President  Elpidio  Quirino  to  succeed  him,  were 
minor  incidents  in  the  national  life. 

Hukbalahap  Rebellion.  Despite  an  absolute  am- 
nesty accepted  by  its  members  in  general  and  its 
leader,  Communist  Luis  Taruc,  in  particular,  the 
guerrilla  organization  known  as  the  Hukbalahaps 
continued  to  harass  the  Government  of  the  new  re- 
public throughout  much  of  1948.  After  two  years 
of  intermittent  and  bloody  warfare,  a  short-lived 
peace  between  this  organization,  known  as  the 
"People's  Army  Against  the  Japanese/*  and  the 
Philippine  Republic  began  on  June  21  when  Presi- 
dent Elpidio  Quirino  issued  a  proclamation  ^pf  par- 
don to  all  members  of  the  Hukbalahaps  for  "crimes 
of  rebellion,  sedition,  illegal  association,  assault 
upon,  resistance  to  and  disobedience  to  persons  in 
authority,  and  for  illegal  possession  of  firearms." 

The  amnesty,  which  was  conditional  upon  sur- 
render of  all  firearms  to  the  Government  within  20 
days,  was  accepted  on  behalf  of  the  Hukbalahaps 
by  their  leader,  Luis  Taruc,  who  in  consequence 
was  installed  as  a  duly  elected  member  of  the  Phil- 
ippine House  of  Representatives  (June  25),  taking 
a  seat  that  he  had  won  in  the  election  of  1946  but 
which  had  been  denied  him  on  the  grounds  that  it 
had  been  acquired  by  fraud. 

The  Hukbalahaps  were  a  Communist-led  war- 
tune  guerrilla  group  that  inherited  the  prewar  So- 
cialist Party  movement  in  central  Luzon  and 
advocated  collectivization  of  farm  lands  and  abo- 
lition of  tenant  farming.  The  group  had  seized  vir- 
tual control  of  the  government  machinery  in  large 
areas  in  the  central  Luzon  provinces,  had  ap- 


pointed mayors  and  police  forces,  exacted  taxes, 
and  solemnized  marriages.  After  the  war  with  Ja- 
pan, it  inaugurated  a  two-year  regime  of  terror 
against  landlords  and  against  adherents  of  other 
guerrilla  groups  which  had  operated  in  the  vicinity, 
notably  the  guerrilla  group  headed  by  American 
and  Filipino  members  of  the  USAFFE  (United 
States  Air  Forces  of  the  Far  East). 

When  with  the  passing  of  days  it  became  evi- 
dent that  the  Hukbalahaps  were  willing  to  accept 
the  amnesty  but  were  unwilling  to  surrender  their 
arms,  President  Quirino  journeyed  personally  to 
the  remote  village  of  Bahay  Pare  in  central  Luzon 
in  a  fruitless  effort  to  obtain  a  token  of  surrender. 
Addressing  5,000  Hukbalahaps,  he  said  that  the 
amnesty  was  complete  and  "unconditional"  and 
that  a  program  of  land  and  governmental  reform 
would  be  accomplished.  Accompanied  by  three 
other  members  of  his  Government,  and  protected 
only  by  three  motorcycle  policemen,  he  told  the 
crowd:  "I  am  in  your  hands  now.  You  can  even 
kill  me  if  you  want  to,  I  am  very  sure  that  you  will 
not,  for  if  you  do  you  will  lose  the  greatest  advo- 
cate of  the  cause  of  the  masses  in  this  country/' 

President  Quirino's  plea  was  silently  but  firmly 
rejected  by  the  rebels  and,  in  spite  of  several  ex- 
tensions of  the  period  of  grace  in  which  the  revolu- 
tionaries were  invited  to  lay  down  their  arms,  the 
situation  rapidly  deteriorated.  By  late  August  open 
warfare  flared  anew,  with  constabulary  (Govern- 
ment) forces  clashing  with  large  concentrations  of 
Hukbalahaps  in  central  and  southern  Pampanga 
Province  20  to  30  miles  north  of  Manila. 

Driven  northward  by  relentless  pressure  of  Gov- 
ernment forces  under  ^  Brig.  Gen.  Mariano  Cas- 
taneda,  the  rebellious  "Huks"  made  a  determined, 
stand  in  the  Candaba  swamp  area,  75  miles  north 
of  Manila  on  the  borders  of  Bulacan  and  Pam- 

ganga  Provinces,  but  were  overpowered  and  de- 
sated  in  a  series  of  swift  engagements.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  year  it  was  believed  that  the  back  of 
the  resistance  had  been  broken  and  on  December 
12  President  Quirino  announced  that  mopping  up 
operations  were  being  conducted  by  Government 
troops.  The  whereabouts  of  Communist  Luis  Ta- 
ruc, leader  of  the  rebels  and  member  of  the  Philip- 
pine House  of  Representatives,  constituted  a 
major  mystery  at  the  close  of  the  year. 

Volcanic  and  Other  Disturbances.  Troubles  deriving 
from  the  civil  conflict  were  further  intensified  by 
volcanic  disturbances,  typhoons,  tidal  waves,  and 
earthquakes  that  took  thousands  of  lives,  caused 
millions  of  dollars'  damage,  disrupted  the  economy, 
and  seriously  reduced  the  life-giving  rice  crop.  A 
devastating  earthquake  consisting  of  72  distinct 
shocks,  with  concomitant  landslides,  struck  the  is- 
land of  Panay  during  the  period  of  January  25  to 
February  4,  causing  uncounted  deaths  and  con- 
siderable damage  to  industrial  facilities.  Recovery 
from  this  catastrophe  was  complicated  by  an  over- 
abundance of  rainfall  in  the  early  summer  that  re- 
sulted in  flood  conditions  which  reduced  or 
destroyed  extensive  quantities  of  the  rice  crops 
and  washed  away  buildings  and  homes  on  the  is- 
land of  Luzon. 

A  typhoon  blew  in  from  the  sea  on  August  31 
and  September  1,  swept  down  trees  and  houses  in 
Manila,  inundated  70  percent  of  the  city,  and  dis- 
rupted transportation  and  communications  within 
the  islands.  This  disaster  was  followed  almost  im- 
mediately by  volcanic  eruption  and  earthquakes 
on  the  island  of  Camiguin  off  the  northern  coast 
of  Mindanao.  Dormant  since  Apr.  30,  1871,  and 
generally  considered  extinct,  the  cone  on  the  5,620- 
foot  mountain  of  Hibok-Hibok  on  Camiguin 


PHJOPP/AIE  WAR  DAMAGE  COMMISSION 


424 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


reacted  to  violent  localized  earthquakes  on  Sep- 
tember 1  by  spouting  fire  and  lava  that  blanketed 
and  desolated  the  island. 

Local  shipping  craft  and  U.S.  Army  transports 
were  dispatched  to  the  scene  and  removed  45,000 
of  the  50,000  inhabitants.  Eruption  of  the  volcano 
continued  for  11  days.  On  December  10  the  city 
of  Manila  was  visited  by  still  another  earthquake, 
whose  consequences,  however,  were  measured  in 
terror  and  inconvenience  rather  than  in  appreci- 
able physical  damage  to  the  municipality. 

Economic  Conditions.  The  damage  wrought  by 
these  disasters  and  by  the  civil  war  were  reflected 
in  the  national  economy.  Partly  as  a  result  of  the 
January  earthquake  and  partly  as  a  result  of  the 
typhoons  that  swept  the  islands  in  1947,  it  became 
necessary  on  August  9  to  ration  rice  among  the 
populace.  Acute  hunger  was  manifest  throughout 
the  islands,  with  fanners  reportedly  eating  only 
one  meal  a  day  and  supplementing  this  diet  with 
herbs  and  roots  extracted  from  the  forests.  Heavy 
monsoon  rains  in  August  damaged  the  1948  rice 
crop  and  it  was  reported  that  much  of  the  nation's 
corn  crop  was  under  water  and  useless.  The  situa- 
tion was  further  aggravated  by  cancellation  of  ex- 
pected shipments  of  rice  from  Burma  because  of  a 
threatened  revolution  in  that  land. 

Although  President  Manuel  A.  Roxas  on  Febru- 
ary 10  submitted  a  national  budget  balancing  ap- 
proximately in  the  neighborhood  of  250  million 
pesos,  it  became  increasingly  apparent  that  hope 
of  this  accomplishment  would  have  to  be  aban- 
doned in  the  face  of  demands  on  the  public  purse 
for  assistance  to  the  homeless  and  foodless;  and  on 
June  30,  the  Philippine  Congress  passed  appropri- 
ations totaling  619  million  pesos.  As  a  means  of 
bolstering  the  national  economy,  the  Government 
formulated  plans  toward  the  end  of  the  year  for 
the  reduction  by  20  percent  of  all, imports  of  auto- 
mobiles, cosmetics,  jewelry,  and  other  foreign- 
made  commodities  classified  as  "luxuries." 

Political  Changes.  Manuel  A.  Roxas,  first  President 
of  the  Philippine  Republic,  collapsed  and  died  on 
April  16  after  delivering  a  speech  at  Clark  Field, 
United  States  air  base.  He  was  succeeded  by  Vice 
President  Elpidio  Quirino,  who  in  general  contin- 
ued to  pursue  the  policies  of  his  predecessor.  Other 
political  developments  of  the  year  were  the  proc- 
lamation by  Congress  of  an  amnesty  for  more 
than  1,000  alleged  collaborators,  including  Jorge 
B.  Vargas  and  Jose  P,  Laurel,  the  latter  having 
been  puppet  President  under  the  Japanese;  and 
the  formal  designation  on  July  17  of  Quezon  City 
as  the  new  capital  of  the  Philippines  instead  of  Ma- 
nila, of  which  it  is  a  suburb. — HAROLD  J.  COOPEH 

PHILIPPINE    WAR    DAMAGE    COMMISSION,    U.S.    The 

-United  States  Philippine  War  Damage  Commission, 
created  under  the  Philippine  Rehabilitation  Act  of 
1946  as  a  demonstration  of  good  will  for  the  as- 
sistance given  the  United  States  by  the  Philippines 
in  time  of  war,  and  to  assist  in  the  economic  re- 
covery of  the  new  Republic,  provides  for  payment 
of  claims  for  public  and  private  losses  caused  by 
the  war,  and  occurring  between  Dec.  7,  1941,  and 
Oct.  1,  1945.  The  Act  is  historically  unprecedented. 
Authorization  of  $400  million  for  private  claim 
payments  and  $120  million  for  restoration  of  pub- 
lic buildings  and  public  services  is  provided.  All  of 
the  former  and  $57  million  of  the  latter  fund  are 
allocated  to  the  Commission. 

The  agency  is  headed  by  three  Commissioners, 
Chairman  Frank  A.  Waring,  of  California;  Com- 
missioner John  A.  O'Donnell,  of  Pennsylvania;  and 
Commissioner  Francisco  A.  Delgado,  of  the  Phil- 


ippines. The  law  requires  that  one  member  of  the 
Commission  must  be  a  Filipino.  Headquarters  are 
in  Manila  although  an  office  is  maintained  in 
Washington,  D.C. 

Under  Title  I  of  the  Act,  which  pertains  to  pri- 
vate claims,  the  Commission  is  required  to  com- 
plete its  work  by  April,  1951.  It  began  to  receive 
claims  on  Mar.  1,  1947.  At  the  end  of  the  pe- 
riod for  filing  claims  on  Feb.  29,  1948,  a  total  of 
1,256,977  claims  with  a  claimed  value  of  $1,214,- 
272,106  had  been  received.  A  total  of  383,393 
claims  had  been  adjudicated  as  of  Oct.  29,  1948. 
Payments  amounted  to  $71,388,027. 

With  regard  to  public  claims,  the  Commission, 
in  cooperation  with  the  Philippine  Government, 
devised  a  system  of  priority  allocations  to  several 
broad  categories  of  projects  under  which  schools 
and  hospitals  ranked  first.  Approvals  on  public 
claims  amounted  to  $40,027,354  as  of  Oct.  29, 
1948  and  preliminary  payments  totaled  $22,464,- 
695.  With  the  funds  already  allotted,  work  is  well 
under  way  on  extensive  rehabilitation  of  schools, 
hospitals,  and  waterworks,  as  well  as  on  reconstruc- 
tion of  other  projects  vital  to  the  welfare  of  the 
Philippines. 

Estimates  of  war  damage  in  the  Philippines 
range  from  $1,000  million  to  $1,500  million  at 
prewar  replacement  costs,  and  at  least  three  times 
that  amount  based  on  cost  estimates  in  1947. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS.  The  keynote  of  the  year 
for  photography  was  its  steady,  useful  growth  in 
the  fields  of  business,  industry,  education,  and 
science.  Only  about  one-third  of  all  photographic 
materials  and  equipment  manufactured  were  used 
by  the  amateur  whereas  67  percent  represented 
items  for  professional  and  technical  use.  The  anal- 
ysis of  this  latter  group  was  about  as  follows:  com- 
mercial and  industrial  uses,  33  percent;  motion 
picture,  12  percent;  reproduction,  11  percent;  X- 
ray,  8  percent;  publishing,  3  percent.  Professional 
users  of  photo  materials  in  the  United  States  in- 
clude some  15,000  commercial  and  portrait  studios, 
35,000  X-ray  laboratories,  4,000  photo-finishing 
plants,  3,000  photo  departments  in  industry,  3,500 
graphic  arts  establishments  serving  the  printing  in- 
dustry, 500  motion-picture  producing  firms,  and 
600  newspapers  having  photographic  laboratories. 

According  to  the  Wall  Street  Journal  of  Jan.  13, 
1948,  a  revolution  in  printing  processes  was  in. 
progress  which  will  affect  methods  of  typesetting 
and  making  engravings.  Four  Florida  weekly  news- 
papers were  being  printed  by  the  Perry  process 
whereby  typewritten  copy,  headlines,  and  illus- 
trations are  photocopied  and  the  resulting  negative 
is  reproduced  directly  onto  a  magnesium  printing 
plate  which  is  then  bent  to  fit  the  press.  All  meth- 
ods of  preparing  copy  with  special  typewriters, 
however,  were  said  to  suffer  by  comparison  with 
present  typecasting  machines  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  availability  of  type  sizes  and  styles,  but  for 
many  types  of  work  this  was  unimportant. 

In  recent  years  a  number  of  photo-typesetting 
machines  were  built  for  composing  type  matter  as  a 
photographic  image  on  film  from  which  offset  litho- 
graphic printing  plates  could  be  made.  One  of  these 
machines,  the  Fotosetter  made  by  the  Intertype 
Corporation,  was  placed  on  the  market  during  the 
year.  Manipulation  of  the  keyboard  of  this  machine 
released  matrices  (each  matrix  having  one  master 
character,  a  photographic  negative  image,  posi- 
tioned securely)  and  assembled  them  in  lines  of 
the  desired  length.  After  justification,  the  line  was 
photographed,  character  by  character,  on  sensi- 
tized paper  or  film.  The  film-receiving  container 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


425 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


could  then  be  removed  from  the  machine  at  any 
time  for  processing  the  film  before  the  offset 
printing  plate  was  inade  from  the  film  record. 

In  October  at  the  Detroit  meeting  of  the  Optical 
Society  of  America,  a  new  printing  process  called 
Xerography  was  demostrated  with  which  docu- 
ments can  be  reproduced  quickly  and  without  the 
use  of  wet  chemicals  or  inks,  A  metal  plate  having 
a  photoconductive  coating  was  given  a  uniform 
electrostatic  charge  and  then  exposed  to  light 
through  a  negative  or  in  a  camera.  The  parts  of 
the  surface  that  are  shielded  from  light  retain  the 
electrical  charge  while  those  areas  exposed  to 
light  become  a  conductor  and  the  charge  leaks 
away.  A  finely  ground  pigment  is  then  dusted  over 
the  surface  and  it  adheres  to  the  area  where  the 
electrostatic  charge  is  retained.  The  plate  is  then 
covered  by  a  paper,  metal,  textiles  glass,  or  ceramic 
material  and  passed  under  the  electric  charging  de- 
vice whereupon  the  pigment  is  attracted  to  the 
paper  or  other  surface  without  the  application  of 
pressure  and  after  a  brief  heat  treatment,  the  image 
becomes  fused  and  permanent.  The  printing  plate 
can  be  recharged  and  duplicates  made  by  repeat- 
ing the  procedure  (U.S.  Camera  11:  46,  Decem- 
ber, 1948). 

A  year  ago  it  was  predicted  that  new  methods 
for  the  rapid  transmission  of  messages  and  photo- 
graphs may  open  up  a  new  era  in  communication. 
Further  progress  was  noted  in  this  field  as  evi- 
denced by  two  demonstrations  of  facsimile  trans- 
mission. On  Oct.  21,  1948,  in  Washington,  D.C., 
the  Ultrafax  system  of  the  Radio  Corporation  of 
America  was  used  effectively  to  transmit  the  en- 
tire 1,037  page  novel,  Gone  With  the  Wind,  a 
distance  of  three  miles  in  about  two  minutes. 
Rapid  processing  equipment  made  by  the  Eastman 
Kodak  Company  was  used  to  develop  the  trans- 
mitted record  on  16-mm  film.  The  other  demon- 
stration was  given  by  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company  in  Washington,  D.C.  on  November  17 
when  a  facsimile  telegram  was  sent  and  an  answer 
received  in  a  matter  of  seconds  using  equipment 
that  worked  on  the  same  principle  as  Ultrafax. 

The  principle  of  the  Ultrafax  system  is  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  each  message  is  photographed  on  special 
heat-resistant  film  and  processed  in  a  rapid-devel- 
oping machine;  (2)  the  processed  film  is  sent 
through  the  Ultrafax  television  system  at  30  mes- 
sages a  second  (1,800  pages  per  minute);  (3)  the 
transmitted  images  on  the  television  receiver  tube 
are  photographed  on  16-mm  or  35-mm  film  and 
then  developed  in  a  rapid-processing  machine. 
Widely  diversified  types  of  information  can  be 
transmitted  by  this  system  at  rates  up  to  a  million 
words  a  minute.  The  system  is  thus  endowed  with 
potentialities  for  greater  speed  and  volume  than 
any  existing  method  of  transmitting  information 
and  intelligence  (Cottiers  122:  13,  Oct.  30,  1948). 

Geographers  have  known  for  many  years  that, 
great  geological  areas  of  subterranean  mountains 
and  plains  exist  under  the  sea.  But  most  of  this  area 
is  eternally  dark  since  sunlight  does  not  penetrate 
the  sea  more  than  a  few  hundred  feet.  For  at  least 
14  years,  Dr.  Maurice  Ewing  of  Woods  Hole  Oeean- 
ographic  Institute,  Woods  Hole,  Mass.,  has  made 
photographic  studies  of  the  ocean.  Last  summer 
during  a  20,000-mile  cruise  in  the  ketch,  Atlantis, 
he  made  successful  photographs  at  depths  never 
before  seen;  the  greatest  depth  recorded  was  3% 
miles  where  spongelike  formations  on  the  floor  of 
the  mid-Atlantic  could  be  seen  clearly.  His  camera 
and  synchroflash  in  watertight  containers  were  at- 
tached to  a  pole  and  lowered  to  the  bottom  where 
a  trigger  released  the  flash  and  made  the  exposure. 


Cameras  were  transported  again  Into  the  upper 
air  over  the  earth  and  new  exploratory  studies 
were  made  with  them.  For  the  first  time,  a  se- 
quence of  photographs  was  taken  with  automati- 
cally operated  cameras  installed  in  V-2  type  and 
U.S.  Navy  Aerobee  rockets.  In  one  mosaic  of  seven 
photographs  made  with  exposures  of  1/500  second 
at^  f/8  and  taken  at  1%  second  intervals,  a  2,700- 
mile  arc  of  horizon  was  revealed  in  the  60-mile 
high  record  representing  the  largest  segment  of  the 
earth's  circumference  ever  photographed, 

Another  7-picture  sequence  made  from  a  height 
of  70  miles  showed  an  hourglass-shaped  panorama, 
1,400  miles  wide  from  the  south  horizon  in  Mex- 
ico to  the  north  horizon  in  Nebraska.  Landmarks 
such  as  an  airport,  a  railroad,  the  Rio  Grande 
River,  mountain  ranges,  and  towns  can  be  recog- 
nized on  these  remarkable  photographs.  The  rock- 
ets were  fired  from  launching  sites  near  White 
Sands,  N.  M.  Cameras  and  other  equipment  at- 
tached to  parachutes  were  released  as  the  rockets 
began  their  descent  when  an  explosive  charge  blew 
off  the  rocket  head.  (Life  25:  40,  Oct.  25,  1948). 
A  discussion  of  equipment  used  and  problems  en- 
countered in  the  photographic  tracking  of  guided 
missiles  was  published  by  Biberman,  Dorsey,  and 
Ewing  (Electronics  21:  92,  July  1948). 

High  Speed  Photography.  Hardly  a  year  passes  that 
new  equipment  is  not  made  for  the  photography  of 
events  that  happen  too  fast  to  be  detected  by  the 
human  eye.  Last  year  an  all-electric  camera  having 
the  fastest  shutter  yet  devised  for  microtime  re- 
search was  built  and  tested  by  the  U.S.  Navy  at 
Inyokern,  Calif.  The  instrument  was  called  the  Za- 
rem  camera  after  Dr.  A.  M.  Zarem  who  designed  it. 
It  was  said  that  the  shutter  of  this  camera  could  be 
operated  at  a  frame  rate  of  10  million  exposures 
per  second  with  an  individual  exposure  time  as 
short  as  100  millionth  of  a  second.  The  shutter  is 
essentially  an  electro-optical  Kerr  cell  (glass  tube 
filled  with  nitrobenzene  with  two  immersed  elec- 
trodes )  mounted  between  crossed  polarizing  filters. 
Normally  the  second  filter  blocks  the  light  passed 
by  the  first  filter.  On  application  of  about  5,000 
volts  across  the  electrodes  of  the  cell,  the  fluid  be- 
comes birefringent  and  rotates  the  plane  of  polari- 
zation of  the  light  entering  it  through  the  first 
polarizer  so  that  the  second  polarizer  then  passes 
the  light  and  an  exposure  is  made.  The  practical 
value  of  this  ultra-rapid  shutter  was  understood 
to  be  still  under  investigation  ( Ibid.  21 :  164,  July, 
1948). 

Two  other  high  speed  cameras  were  announced 
by  the  Navy  as  designed  by  Dr.  L  S.  Bo  wen  of 
Mt.  Wilson  Observatory  and  known  respectively 
as  the  RC-4  and  the  RC-3  cameras.  With  the 
former  instrument  76  pictures,  each  about  one-half 
inch  square,  could  be  taken  on  a  strip  of  35-mm 
film  at  a  maximum  rate  of  400,000  exposures  per 
second.  A  rotating  mirror  illuminates  each  of  76 
stationary  f/1,6  lenses.  The  RC-3  camera  consists 
of  a  field  lens,  a  narrow  slit,  a  condenser  lens,  and 
a  rotating  mirror.  The  film,  4  inches  wide  by  42 
inches  long,  and  slit  are  conjugate  so  that  the  ob- 
ject focused  on  the  slit  is  also  focused  as  a  narrow 
line  across  the  film  (Amer.  Cinemat.  29:  207, 
June,  1948). 

High  speed  photography  was  used  in  studies  by 
the  U.S.  Army  in  their  new  "flexible-throat"  wind 
tunnel  at  the  Aberdeen  Proving  Ground  in  Mary- 
land. A  Schlieren  camera  recorded  the  shadow- 
graphs of  models  showing  the  shock  waves  that 
are  produced  by  the  impact  of  the  air  stream  at 
speeds  as  great  as  four  times  that  of  sound  or,  in 
scientific  terms,  at  "Mach  Number  Four.'*  (Life, 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


426 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


25:  79,  Sept.  6, 1948).  Other  studies  were  reported 
by  J.  Winckler  on  the  Mach  interferometer  applied 
to  studying  an  axially-syrnmetric-supersonie  airjet 
Photographs  illustrating  the  performance  of  the  in- 
strument were  included  (Rev.  Sci.  Instr.  19:  307, 
May,  1948). 

The  speed  of  operation  of  Fastax  cameras  was 
reported  to  have  been  increased  as  follows;  13,000 
pictures  per  second  for  the  camera  using  8-mm 
film;  6,000  pictures  per  second  for  the  16-mm jam- 
era,  and  7,000  pictures  per  second  for  the  35-mni 
camera.  High  speed  cameras  winding  16-mm  film 
at  a  rate  of  500  pictures  per  second  were  used  by 
the  U.S.  Air  Force  at  Muroc,  Calif.,  to  measure 
the  speed  of  jet  airplanes  over  a  three  kilometer 
speed  course  (Tech.  Data  Digest  13:  11,  Nov.  15, 
1948).  A  high  speed  camera  of  the  optical  compen- 
sator type  was  described  by  C.  D.  Miller  which 
used  a  rotating  drum  ( 6,500  r.p.m. )  with  the  film 
in  a  closed  loop  around  the  inside  of  the  drum 
(P.S.A.  Journal  14:  669,  November,  1948). 

Color  Photography.  The  public  demand  for  color 
films  for  amateur  and  professional  use  continued 
unabated.  Production  of  color  materials  was  re- 
ported to  have  been  greater  than  had  ever  been 
achieved  before  but  it  was  still  somewhat  inade- 
quate to  satisfy  the  customer.  One  analyst  reported 
that  about  85  percent  of  the  amateur  motion-pic- 
ture film  used  was'  in  color,  more  than  25  percent 
of  the  35-mm  still  photography,  but  a  much  lower 
percentage  of  the  roll-film  market  used  color  mate- 
rials. The  customer  could  take  his  exposed  color 
films  to  any  one  of  about  75  firms  for  processing 
and  making  color  prints.  Although  this  number 
seemed  small  in  comparison  with  the  nearly  4,000 
photofinishers  in  the  United  States,  it  still  repre- 
sented a  marked  increase  over  the  number  of  such 
plants  offering  color-processing  services  a  few 
years  ago. 

A  larger  percentage  of  the  reproductions  in  mag- 
azines and  books  were  printed  in  color  than  hereto- 
fore. The  use  of  color  by  newspapers  was  increas- 
ing. The  August  5  issue  of  the  Milwaukee  Journal 
contained  31  pages  in  color  and  the  September  12 
issue  of  the  New  York  News  reproduced  13  color 
photographs  on  the  editorial  page  that  were  chosen 
from  over  200  color  pictures  taken  at  the  national 
political  conventions  in  Philadelphia.  In  general  the 
quality  of  color  reproductions  was  somewhat  better, 
probably  because  of  better  paper  stock  being  used, 
and  of  greater  skill  in  the  application  of  masking 
techniques  when  working  with  color  transparencies. 
This  improvement  was  especially  noteworthy  when 
it  was  obtained  in  such  well-known  weekly  publi- 
cations as  Saturday  Evening  Post,  Collier's  and 
Life  which  have  very  large  printings  of  each  issue. 
The  quality  of  color  reproductions  in  the  National 
Geographic  Magazine  has  been  of  a  high  standard 
for  many  years.  In  the  March  issue,  a  very  interest- 
ing series  of  circus  action-color  photographs  made 
with  flashtubes  was  reproduced  (Nat,  Geog.  Mag. 
43:  305,  March,  1948). 

The  major  portion  of  the  world's  color  motion 
pictures  was  still  being  made  by  the  Technicolor 
Corporation  who  have  constantly  held  to  a  high 
production  standard  for  many  years.  A  goal  of  320 
million  feet  per  year  of  color  prints  was  being  ap- 
proached by  the  end  of  1948.  Increased  capacity 
and  improved  laboratory  procedures  were  claimed 
by  the  Cinecolor  Corporation  who  were  said  to  be 
the  largest  producer  of  commercial  color  prints 
by  a  two-color  motion-picture  process.  During  the 
year  this  company  announced  that  feature  films 
could  be  made  in  Cinecolor  at  a  cost  of  but  10  per- 
cent above  that  for  ordinary  photography.  Maga- 


zines of  1,000  feet  capacity  for  the  bipack  film  and 
a  post-exposure  or  latensification  treatment  of  the 
exposed  negatives  were  reported  as  useful  features 
of  the  improved  process  (Amer.  Cinemat.  29: 
373,  November,  1948).  In  the  Trucolor  process 
introduced  about  two  years  ago  by  Republic  Pic- 
tures color  couplers  are  used  to  form  a  blue-dye 
image  on  one  side  and  a  red-dye  image  on  the 
other  side  of  the  film  (Ibid.  29:  79,  March,  1948). 

The  Polacolor  process  consisted  of  a  single-layer 
film  having  three  separate  color  images  which  had 
been  printed  from  three-color  separation  negatives 
(Nat.  Photo  Dealer  14:  75,  January,  1948).  Sev- 
eral color  cartoons  were  made  by  this  process  and 
shown  in  the  theater.  It  was  reported  in  October 
that  die  Denham  (England)  Laboratories  were 
being  equipped  to  process  Ansco  Color,  an  integral 
tripack  film.  The  first  picture  to  be  released  by  the 
laboratory  would  be  color  prints  of  Alice  in  Won- 
derland, a  puppet  cartoon  with  live  characters 
which  was  made  in  Ansco  Color  in  France  (Kine- 
mat.  Weekly  380:  21,  Oct.  14,  1948). 

Gevacolor  was  said  to  be  the  Gevaert  counter- 
part of  the  German  Agfacolor  process  with  color 
couplers  in  each  emulsion  layer  of  an  integral  tri- 
pack film  ( Le  Photographs,  Nov.  20,  1947,  p.  333 ) . 
The  Rouxcolor  process  of  A.  and  L.  Roux,  French 
opticians  is  an  additive  system  having  a  lens  that 
forms  four  images  on  the  area  of  one  frame  of  a 
standard  negative.  Four  color  filters,  deep  red, 
yellow,  green,  and  violet,  one  over  each  lens  com- 
ponent, are  required  in  both  the  camera  and  the 
projector.  During  projection,  the  four  images  are 
superposed  to  form  the  final  color  image  (Photo- 
Cinema  28:  136,  September,  1948). 

Aerial  Photography.  The  experience  gained  in 
aerial  photo-mapping  and  survey  studies  during 
the  war  was  being  used  in  many  ways  for  peaceful 
purposes.  Extensive  use  was  made  of  aerial  photog- 
raphy in  surveying  for  new  highways,  establish- 
ing not  only  the  best  route,  but  permitting  accurate 
estimates  to  be  made  of  equitable  compensation 
for  landowners,  and  of  the  quantity  of  earth  that 
would  need  to  be  moved.  The  location  of  possible 
oil  and  mineral  deposits  was  determined  by  aerial 
surveys.  Still  other  surveys  were  devoted  to  identi- 
fication and  estimation  of  timber,  wild  life  manage- 
ment studies,  traffic  surveys,  and  investigation  of 
archeological  sites.  The  U.S.  Navy  reported  that 
a  survey  of  30,000  square  miles  of  Alaskan  terri- 
tory had  been  completed  with  tri-metrogon  equip- 
ment during  the  summer  in  cooperation  with  the 
Department  of  the  Interior  and  other  government 
agencies. 

An  experiment  in  supersonic  aerial  photography 
resulting  in  a  remarkable  group  of  pictures  was  de- 
scribed by  A.  D.  Keough  of  the  Photographic  Lab- 
oratory, Engineering  Division,  Air  Materiel  Com- 
mand, U.S.  Air  Force  (Tech.  Data  Digest  IS:  11, 
Nov.  15,  1947).  The  flight  tests  were  based  on 
using  the  combined  speeds  of  two  P-80  jet  aircraft 
each  flying  in  opposite  directions  at  500  m.p.h.  500 
feet  above  one  another;  thus,  a  simulated  speed  of 
1,000  m.p.h.  was  obtained  by  the  low  flying  plane 
as  viewed  from  the  other  plane  or  vice  versa.  Two 
S-7  Aerial  Strip  cameras,,  one  with  a  6-inch  lens 
and  the  other  with  a  24-inch  lens  were  in  the  top 
airplane  and  the  movement  of  the  film  past  the  slit 
in  each  camera  was  synchronized  to  record  a  plane 
speed  of  1,000  m.p.h.  In  the  six  passes  of  the  two 
planes,  one  nearly  perfect  photograph  was  obtained 
with  the  24-inch-lens  camera  and  six  pictures  with 
the  6-inch4ens  camera.  The  dimensional  accuracy 
was  well  within  two  percent  in  tie  direction  of  die 
flight. 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


427 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


Another  interesting  test  was  conducted  on  Sep- 
tember 1  when  an  XR-12  type  photo-reconnais- 
sance airplane  was  flown  nonstop  by  the  U.S.  Air 
Force,  a  distance  of  2,700  miles  from  Santa  Bar- 
bara, Calif.,  to  Xew  York  City.  A  tri-metrogon  cam- 
era installation  was  used  with  three  K-17  type  cam- 
eras fitted  with  6-inch  lenses  and  400-foot  film 
magazine  loads.  With  the  plane  flying  at  a  nearly 
constant  altitude  of  40,000  feet,  each  camera  made 
390  individual  exposures  and  used  326  feet  of  film. 
The  exposures  were  automatically  controlled  with 
an  intervalometer  at  intervals  of  50  seconds.  The 
three  cameras  covered  an  area  about  490  miles 
wide.  The  resulting  continuous  strip  of  photo- 
graphs, 192  feet  long,  was  stated  to  be  the  first 
one  to  have  been  made  on  a  nonstop  flight  across 
the  country.  (Life  25:  12,  Nov.  29,  1948). 

An  excellent  summary  of  recent  advances  in 
aerial  photographic  equipment  and  the  applications 
to  reconnaissance  was  published  bv  A.  H.  Katz 
(J.  Opt.  Soc.  Amer.  38:  604,  July,  1948). 

Motion  pictures  at  normal  speed  and  with  high 
speed  cameras  are  frequently  taken  to  record  air- 
plane performance  tests  and  to  obtain  a  permanent 
record  of  instrument  dials  during  flight  maneuvers. 
All  Lockheed  experimental  airplane  take-offs  and 
landings  at  Burbank,  Calif,  were  recorded  by 
photographing  them  through  a  special  wire  grid, 
64  feet  long  by  9  feet  high,  on  which  vertical  wires 
spaced  off  100-foot  runway  sections  and  horizontal 
wires  marked  altitude  in  25-foot  sections.  Exami- 
nation of  individual  frames  permitted  accurate  cal- 
ibration of  each  airplane's  performance.  Similar  in- 
stallations were  being  set  up  at  Wright  Field,  Day- 
ton, Ohio,  and  at  the  Air  Base  at  Muroc,  Calif. 
Four  motion-picture  cameras  were  installed  in  a 
P-80  jet  drone  plane  of  the  U.S.  Air  Force  used  in 
tests  which  were  considered  too  hazardous  for  a 
pilot  to  undertake.  The  cameras  were  operated  by 
remote  control  from  the  ground  or  from  a  mother 
plane.  One  camera  photographed  a  special  instru- 
ment panel  in  the  nose  which  was  also  scanned  by 
a  television  camera,  another  camera  recorded  the 
regular  instrument  panel,  and  each  of  the  other  two 
cameras  photographed  the  wing  tips.  A  fifth  cam- 
era located  in  the  ground  control  truck  photo- 
graphed the  television  receiver  screen  (Electronics 
21:  126,  October,  1948). 

A  new  type  stabilized  camera  mount  for  use  in 
aircraft  was  described  by  A.  D.  Keough.  It  made 
use  of  a  gyro,  an  erecting  system  which  places  and 
holds  the  gyro  in  a  vertical  position,  an  optical 
pick-off,  and  a  servo  electro-mechanical  system. 
The  device  was  said  to  be  promising  for  use  in  high 
speed  aircraft  (Tech.  Data  Digest  IS:  13,  Oct.  1, 
1948). 

Motion  Pictures  and  Television.  The  25th  anniver- 
sary of  the  16-mm  reversal  process  was  observed 
by  several  trade  announcements  and  articles  pub- 
lished during  the  year.  The  first  public  demonstra- 
tion of  the  process  took  place  in  East  High  School, 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  on  the  evening  of  Jan.  8,  1923, 
when  Dr.  C.  E.  Kenneth  Mees  gave  a  lecture  en- 
titled, "Motion  Picture  Photography  for  the  Ania- 
teur."  In  the  quarter  century  that  has  elapsed  since 
that  date  the  interest  in  amateur  motion  pictures 
has  grown  steadily  until  in  1948,  it  was  estimated 
that  there  were  more  than  a  million  families  in  the 
United  States  who  owned  amateur  movie  cameras 
and  about  950,000  families  who  owned  projectors. 
The  ratio  of  those  owning  8-mm  equipment  to 
those  owning  16-mm  equipment  was  nearly  2^  to 
1.  (Photo  Developments  23:  64,  July,  1948). 

A  rapid  growth  in  the  use  of  16-mm  pictures  for 
educational  and  industrial  use  was  noted  since 


1945  which  was  stimulated  in  large  part  by  the  ex- 
tensive use  that  was  made  of  visual  aids  during  the 
war.  Central  film  libraries  were  set  up  at  state  uni- 
versities and  colleges  for  common  distribution.  In- 
diana University  was  reported  to  have  over  7,000 
prints  of  2,326  different  films,  and  Chicago  Uni- 
versity had  more  than  8,000  prints  of  700  films. 
By  1950  the  U.S.  Office  of  Education  expects  that 
more  than  8,000  film  subjects  will  be  available.  An 
increasing  percentage  of  the  films  being  made  were 
in  color  (Coronet  24:  149,  June,  1948). 

Although  a  large  percentage  of  industrial  and 
educational  films  contained  sound,  it  was  generally 
recognized  to  be  an  expensive  operation  to  make  a 
sound  film.  Interest  was  aroused  therefore  in  sev- 
eral methods  of  magnetic  tape  recording  for  which 
claims  of  good  fidelity  were  made  at  moderate  cost. 
The  use  of  magnetic  tape  also  permitted  quite  sat- 
isfactory sound  to  be  recorded  for  8-mm  projection 
(PSA  Journal  14:  181,  April,  1948.  ibid.  14:  424, 
August,  1948). 

Substantially  improved  quality  in  16-mm  sound 
film  was  said  to  be  obtainable  by  J.  A.  Maurer  by 
the  use  of  an  optical  one-to-one  ratio  printer.  Vari- 
ous defects  introduced  by  contact  printing  of 
16-mm  sound  tracks  were  described  and  the  re- 
quirements for  satisfactory  optical  printing  were 
analyzed.  (J.  Soc.  Mot.  Pict.  Eng.  50:  458,  May, 
1948). 

On  Jan.  1,  1948,  a  total  of  5,000  persons  in  the 
Los  Angeles  Shrine  Auditorium  saw  a  direct  in- 
stantaneous projection  of  the  Rose  Bowl  football 
game  on  an  18-foot  screen.  A  few  months  later  in 
New  York?  on  April  14,  large-screen  television  using 
a  film  recording  system  was  given  its  debut  in  the 
Paramount  Theatre  where  an  audience  of  3,000 
saw  a  boxing  bout  that  was  actually  in  progress 
across  the  East  River  in  Brooklyn  (Life  24:  49, 
May  3,  1948). 

The  televised  image  as  received  on  the  cathode- 
ray  tube  at  the  theater  was  photographed  on  35- 
mm  film  and  developed  ready  for  projection  within 
66  seconds.  With  improved  equipment  and  better 
technique,  the  total  elapsed  time  was  cut  down 
subsequently  to  22  seconds  (Mot.  Pict.  Herald 
172:  13,  Sept.  18,  1948;  also  Video,  Sept  27, 
1948).  Additional  shows  were  given  at  the  Para- 
mount Theatre  during  the  balance  of  the  year,  and 
it  was  announced  that  similar  installations  would 
be  made  in  Chicago  and  Los  Angeles. 

The  electronic  and  camera  equipment  for  re- 
cording television  sight  and  sound  on  film  directly 
from  the  cathode-ray  tube  were  described  by  Gold- 
smith, Jr.  and  Milholland  (J.  Soc.  Mot  Pict.  Eng. 
51 :  107,  August,  1948 ) .  Optical  problems  in  large- 
screen  television  were  enumerated  by  Maloff  ( ibid. 
51:  30,  July,  1948).  The  development  of  theater 
television  in  England  was  reviewed  by  West  ( ibid. 
51:  127,  August,  1948).  A  broad  historical  sketch 
of  the  progress  of  television  was  presented  by 
Lankes  (ibid.  51:  223,  October,  1948). 

The  use  of  motion-picture  film  for  nearly  in- 
stantaneous projection  of  a  televised  event  would 
use  only  a  small  quantity  of  film  compared  with 
feature  pictures  and  topical  short  subjects  made 
especially  for  television.  It  was  reported  that  sev- 
eral of  the  well-known  film  producers,  sucL.  as 
Jerry  Fairbanks,  had  signed  contracts  to  make  sev- 
eral hundred  feature  television  films  each  year.  The 
"Public  Prosecutor"  series  was  the  first  to  be  sched- 
uled for  production  and  several  subjects  of  this 
series  were  completed.  New  techniques  required 
for  films  to  be  used  for  television  were  discussed  by 
Foster  who  pointed  out  that  the  prints  should  have 
very  high  key  quality  (Amer.  Cinemat.  29:  229). 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


428 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


Nearly  one  million  television  receivers  were  un- 
derstood to  be  in  use  in  the  United  States  by  the 
close  of  the  year,  and  about  one-quarter  of  these 
were  installed  in  the  metropolitan  area  of  New 
York.  It  was  estimated  that  film  time  might  run  as 
high  as  50  percent  of  air  time;  if  this  percentage 
is  realized  it  would  .mean  a  substantial  increase  in 
the  consumption  of  film  (Video,  Aug.  16,  1948). 

Applied  and  Scientific  Photography,  The  microfilm- 
ing of  books,  newspapers,  checks,  and  other  docu- 
ments is  a  well-known  time  saver  and  cost-cutter 
for  industry.  Each  year  many  new  firms  install 
copying  cameras  and  readers  handling  microfilm 
and  thereby  effect  a  substantial  saving  in  storage 
space  as  well  as  obtain  valuable  copies.  The  State 
of  Arizona  began  a  microfilm  project  in  1948 
whereby  all  old  state  records  will  be  copied  and 
about  3,000  square  feet  of  floor  space  released. 

Some  progress  was  reported  on  the  problem  of 
microprinting  of  books  and  pamphlets  on  small 
cards,  100  pages  to  a  card.  One  firm  was  reported 
to  have  worked  out  a  method  of  reproducing  100  or 
more  pages  by  photographic  printing  on  a  small 
card. 

Twenty  cameras  adapted  for  the  new  British 
TechnicHrome  bipack  film  were  used  to  make  a 
feature  color  film  of  the  XIV  Olympiad  which  was 
produced  by  the  J.  Arthur  Rank  Organization.  A 
grand  total  of  some  500,000  feet  of  color  negative 
was  exposed  by  75  cameramen.  Several  thousand 
feet  of  Technicolor  Monopack  film  were  made  of 
the  winter  sports  at  St.  Moritz,  Switzerland;  other 
scenes  were  photographed  in  Greece.  A  great  many 
camera  positions  were  established  in  advance  at 
die  Wembley  Stadium,  others  were  made  from 
moving  trucks  and  by  cameramen  on  foot.  Under- 
water color  shots  of  the  aquatic  events  were  made 
with  a  Newall  camera  fitted  with  a  Cooke  f/1.3 
lens  (Amer.  Cinemat.  29;  374,  November,  1948). 
The  finish  lines  of  the  track  events  and  the  cycling 
races  were  photographed  using  a  special  camera 
having  a  moving  film  behind  a  narrow  slit.  The 
speed  of  movement  of  the  film  was  set  before  the 
race,  based  on  the  estimated  speed  of  the  contest- 
ants. Rapid  processing  in  solutions  at  110°  F.  per- 
mitted prints  to  be  delivered  to  the  judges  within 
60  to  90  seconds  after  the  finish  (Brit.  J.  Phot.  95: 
811,  July  30,  1948). 

A  radar  navigation  chart  of  344  miles  of  the 
Ohio  River  was  made  early  in  the  year  from  a 
mosaic  of  photographs  of  the  radar  scope  images. 
The  Mirar  camera  developed  by  the  Fairchild 
Camera  and  Instrument  Corporation  for  use  with 
all  makes  of  ship-borne  radar  equipment  was  said 
to  record  radar  scope  images  automatically.  The 
film  magazine  held  100  feet  of  35-mna  film  ( Popu- 
lar Phot  23:  126,  July,  1948).  Various  equipment 
for  photography  of  the  electronic  image  as  used 
by  the  U.S.  Navy  during  the  war  was  described 
by  Cksby  and  Koch  (J.  Soc.  Mot.  Pict.  Eng.  50: 
189,  March,  1948). 

An  event  of  paramount  importance  in  the  scien- 
tific world,  the  dedication  of  the  great  200-inch- 
diameter  reflecting  telescope  on  Mt  Palomar  in 
California,  took  place  on  May  3,  approximately  20 
years  after  active  work  began  on  the  project.  The 
instrument  was  given  final  tests  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  year  and  it  was  expected  to  be  used 
for  planned  photographic  work  late  in  the  year. 

Direct  observation  through  the  telescope,  while 
possible,  will  be  uncommon.  Photographic  records 
are  permanent,  the  photographic  emulsion  with 
long  exposure  can  integrate  tie  light  and  record 
images  that  cannot  be  seen  directly.  Such  records 
can  b©  studied  and  measured  by  many  scientists. 


A  spectroscope  will  frequently  be  attached  to  the 
telescope  to  measure  various  characteristics  of  the 
stars.  (Westinghouse  Eng.  8:  99,  July,  1948).  A 
color  motion  picture,  The  Story  of  Palomar  was 
finished  during  the  year  and  was  being  distributed 
through  the  California  Institute  of  Technology 
(Am&r.  Cinemat.  29:  312,  September,  1948). 

The  first  successful  photographs  showing 
sludge  in  blood  cells  were  made  by  F.  W.  Goro  us- 
ing a  camera  he  built  of  100-inch  focal  length 
w&ch  fitted  over  the  microscope  objective.  A  strob- 
oscopic  lamp  was  used  to  make  43  exposures  over 
a  period  of  21  hours  of  the  blood  stream  of  a  dying 
frog  (Life  24:  49,  May  31,  1948), 

New  frontiers  of  knowledge  were  explored  with 
the  aid  of  special  photographic  plates  during  the 
year.  Emulsions  of  high  silver  halide  content  and 
low  background  fog  were  used  to  record  the  tracks 
of  charged  particles  which  move  at  high  velocity 
through  space. 

In  England  in  1947,  two  types  of  mesons,  one 
from  cosmic  rays  and  the  other  from  the  decay  of 
the  first  type,  were  recorded  by  Powell  and  his 
colleagues  (Nature  106:  453,  486,  1947).  This 
year  at  the  Radiation  Laboratory  of  the  University 
of  California,  Gardner  and  Lattes  created  mesons 
artificially  by  bombarding  various  substances  with 
helium  nuclei  in  the  great  cyclotron  (Science  107: 
270,  Mar.  12,  1948).  A  year  ago  it  was  doubtful 
that  electrons  could  be  registered  at  all  by  the  pho- 
tographic emulsion.  This  year  with  much  improved 
plates,  electron  tracks  were  identified  unmistakably 
both  at  the  Kodak  Research  Laboratory  in  Harrow, 
England,  and  at  Rochester,  N.Y.  From  the  length 
and  curvature  of  the  track  and  the  grain  spacing, 
data  were  obtained  of  the  electron's  speed  and 
other  properties  (Physical  Rev.  74:  511,  Sept.  1, 
1948).  In  December,  plates  having  ultrasensitive 
characteristics  were  announced  by  Kodak  Research 
Laboratories  which  may  prove  of  great  value  in 
future  nuclear  research. 

The  physical  principles  and  techniques  of  auto- 
radiographs  were  discussed  by  G,  A.  Boyd  (J.  BioL 
Phot.  Asso.  16:  65,  December,  1947).  In  this  new 
field  of  medical  photography  gross  anatomical  or 
histological  sections,  from  animals  which  have 
been  fed  or  injected  with  substances  having  radio- 
active elements,  are  placed  in  contact  with  a  spe- 
cial photographic  plate.  The  emitted  radiation 
produces  a  heavy  exposure  in  localized  areas.  Pho- 
tomicrographs of  the  stained  tissue  then  reveal  ex- 
actly the  location  of  the  radioactive  substance.  The 
study  of  cancer  and  other  diseases,  it  is  hoped,  will 
be  facilitated  with  autoradiographic  technique.  For 
much  of  the  work  with  microsections  it  was  ex- 
pected that  phase  contrast  microscopy  would  be 
used.  J.  Magliozzi  defined  this  subject  as  a  special 
method  of  controlled  illumination,  ideally  suited 
for  the  observation  of  thin  highly  transparent  ob- 
jects, whose  structural  details  vary  slightly  in 
thickness  and  refractive  index  (Educational  Focus 
19:  6,  February,  1948). 

Physical  Measurement  and  Standardization.  It  was 
pointed  out  by  F.  E,  Washer  of  the  National  Bu- 
reau of  Standards  that  the  present  system  of  mark- 
ing lens  diaphragm  stops  in  terms  of  the  geo- 
metric f  number  is  subject  to  serious  deficiencies. 
Decisions  regarding  tibe  proper  exposure  to  use  at 
selected  stop  openings  may  be  in  error  by  ±10  per- 
cent or  more,  depending  on  whether  the  lens  sur- 
faces are  coated  or  not;  the  error  being  greater 
with  coated  lenses.  A  method  was  described  by 
Washer  whereby  a  lens  can  be  calibrated  by  a 
light  meter  in  terms  of  an  ideal  lens  by  passing 
light  of  known  spectral  quality  (noon  sunlight) 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


429 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROGRESS 


through  the  lens  and  measuring  the  transmitted 
light  at  the  image  plane  (J.  Soc.  Mot.  Pict.  Eng. 
51:  242,  September,  1948).  This  method  known  as 
the  T  system  was  recommended  by  a  subcommittee 
of  the  American  Standards  Association  as  a  better 
system  than  the  present  f  system.  (Pop,  Phot.  23: 
87,  October,  1948). 

Fourteen  additional  American  standards  on  mo- 
tion pictures  were  accepted  by  the  American 
Standards  Association  on  recommendation  of  its 
Sectional  Committee  on  Motion  Pictures  Z22.  The 
completion  of  this  work  brought  to  49  the  number 
of  new  and  revised  standards  in  this  field  (/.  Soc. 
Mot.  Plot.  Eng.  51:  534,  November,  1948).  A  short 
article  by  I.  C.  Gardner  pointed  out  how  standards 
on  photographic  lenses  would  aid  in  their  purchase 
and  use  (Ind.  Standardization  19:  43,  May- June, 
1948). 

In  their  fourth  paper  on  the  subject  of  photo- 
graphic granularity  and  graininess,  L.  A.  Jones 
and  G.  C.  Higgins  reported  on  further  work  on  the 
manner  in  which  the  visual  system  functions  in  the 
perception  of  various  test  objects.  It  is  believed 
that  the  knowledge  gained  from  these  studies  will 
lead  to  a  better  theory  of  the  visual  process,  which 
in  turn  will  aid  in  finding  a  method  of  measuring 
granularity  that  will  yield  values  in  agreement 
with  graininess  measurements  (J.  Opt.  Soc.  Amer. 
38:  398,  April,  1948). 

In  a  paper  on  absolute  sensitivity  measurements 
on  single-grain-layer  photographic  plates  for  dif- 
ferent wavelengths,  J.  H.  Webb  said  that  about 
40  light  quanta  must  strike  a  single  grain  of  silver 
bromide  to  make  it  developable.  Of  the  40  quanta, 
probably  not  more  than  10  are  actually  used  in  the 
formation  of  the  silver  speck  before  the  grain  can 
be  developed  (ibid.  S3:  312,  April,  1948). 

Photographic  Materials  ai\d  Apparatus.  Of  para- 
mount significance  to  the  motion-picture  industry 
was  the  announcement  by  Eastman  Kodak  Com- 
pany of  an  improved  safety  motion  picture  support, 
the  result  of  much  research  extending  over  a  pe- 
riod of  nearly  30  years.  The  new  support  was  said 
by  C.  R.  Fordyce  to  be  a  highly  acetykted  cellulose 
acetate  having  improved  physical  properties  and 
better  aging  characteristics  than  commercial  safety 
film  in  previous  use  (J.  Soc.  Mot.  Pict.  Eng.  51: 
331,  October,  1948).  It  was  reported  that  enough  of 
the  new  safety  stock  was  available  near  the  end  of 
the  year  to  make  every  fourth  picture  on  it  in  1949. 
Only  two  feature  pictures  were  known  to  have 
been  printed  on  the  new  stock  during  1948.  It 
was  predicted  that  a  complete  changeover  to  safety 
film  from  nitrate  filtn  would  be  possible  by  1952 
(Motion  Pict.  Herald  173;  27,  Nov.  27,  1948). 

The  number  of  new  sensitized  products  for  am- 
ateur and  professional  use  that  were  introduced 
were  small  and  included  the  following  materials: 
Ansco  Strip  Paper  and  Velox  Unicontrast  Paper, 
both  in  1,000-foot  rolls  for  strip  printing  on  con- 
tinuous machines;  Cykora  Paper  (Ansco);  Rem- 
brandt Chlorobromide  Contact  and  Projection 
Paper  (Remington-Rand);  Separation  Negative 
Plates,  Type  I  (Kodak);  Highlight  Masking  Film 
(Kodak);  Super-X  and  Super-XX  Blue  Base  Re- 
versal Films  (Kodak),  Photographic  plates  on 
very  thin  (0.040-inch)  glass  were  supplied  by 
Eastman  Kodak  Company  for  the  48-inch  Schmidt- 
type  telescope  on  Mt  Palomar;  the  glass  could  be 
bent  into  a  section  of  a  sphere. 

Although  the  principle  of  printing  photographs 
on  textiles  has  been  known  for  some  time;  until 
recently  no  practical  method  had  been  adapted  to 
continuous  operation.  Late  in  1947,  two  processes 
were  announced  that  appeared  to  have  commercial 


possibilities.  These  were  known  as  the  Leize  proc- 
ess (Foto-Fab,  Inc.)  and  the  Photone  process 
(Ross-Smith  Corp.)  and  with  them  it  was  esti- 
mated that  about  six  million  yards  of  textiles 
would  be  printed  during  1948.  , 

At  least  125  still-camera  models  built  by  some 
50  different  companies  could  be  purchased  on  the 
American  market  (Fortune  37:  138,  March,  1948). 
Several  new  models  of  cameras  were  added  to 
the  list  including  three  models  by  Ansco  called  the 
Flash  Clipper,  the  Speedex,  and  the  Titan;  the 
Busch  4  by  5  Pressman;  four  new  Kodak  cameras 
called  the  Tourist;  the  Kodak  Duafiex;  the  Perfex, 
Series  100  Camera;  the  Kalart  camera;  and  the 
Bell  &  Howell  Foton  camera.  Safety  devices  were 
said  to  prevent  blank  exposures  or  a  premature 
flash  when  using  the  Kalart  camera.  With  the  Fo- 
ton camera,  a  spring  drive  was  claimed  to  make 
possible  12  double-frame  exposures  within  a  sec- 
ond on  35-rnm  film.  The  focal-plane  shutter  was 
of  novel  design  and  consisted  of  four  metal  leaves, 
two  behind  the  lens  and  two  at  the  film  plane.  The 
Cooke  lens  was  calibrated  in  T  stops,  the  first 
camera  lens  to  be  marked  with  this  system  (PSA 
Journal  14:  551,  October,  1948;  also  Fortune  38: 
92,  July,  1948).  In  November  at  the  PSA  meeting 
in  Cincinnati,  a  commercial  model  of  the  Land 
One-step  camera  was  demonstrated;  a  finished 
print  was  produced  in  about  one  minute  after  mak- 
ing the  exposure. 

The  Beattie  Portronic  Camera  was  stated  to  per- 
mit 326  pictures  (2%  by  3%  inch,  in  size)  to  be 
made  on  each  100-foot  roll  of  70-mm  film.  The 
exposure  was  made  with  electronic  synchroflash,  an 
identification  number  was  printed  and  the  film  ad- 
vanced— all  from  a  single  pressing  of  a  button. 

In  the  16-mm  field,  the  Cine  Kodak  Special, 
Model  II  had  a  lens  turret  added  and  other  im- 
provements. The  Revere  16-mm  Sound  Projector 
was  announced  in  April  and  their  Model  48  Pro- 
jector for  16-mm  film  in  October.  Two  new  8-mrn 
projectors  were  marketed  by  the  Dejur  Amsco  Cor- 
poration. Considerable  interest  was  aroused  in  a 
complete  new  series  of  seven  Cine  Ektar  Lenses; 
the  fastest  lens  being  the  25-mm,  f/1.4  (PSA  Jour- 
nal 14:  425,  August,  1948). 

Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical  Company  described 
a  new  series  of  16-mm  projection  lenses  at  the 
S.M.P.E.  meeting  in  October.  Wollensak  an- 
nounced a  new  fast  lens  called  the  Cine  Raptar  of 
f/1.5  aperture.  An  extremely  wide  angle  lens  for 
aerial  mapping,  known  as  the  Pleon  lens,  was  de- 
veloped in  Germany  during  the  war.  Designed  to 
utilize  large  amounts  of  distortion  for  a  wider  field 
of  view,  the  focal  length  is  only  2%  inches  but  the 
outer  lenses  are  about  one  foot  in  diameter  with  a 
view  field  of  180  degrees  (Amer.  Cinemat.  29: 
154,  May,  1948). 

Items  of  miscellaneous  equipment  were  numer- 
ous and  included  the  following:  Argus  PA-200 
Projector  for  35-mm  slides;  the  Spectra,  a  direct- 
reading  color  temperature  meter;  Kodaslide  Table 
Viewer  for  examining  2  by  2-inch  slides  which  by 
a  simple  movement  of  a  metal  plunger  are  pro- 
jected on  a  7^  by  7%-inch  daylight  screen;  and 
Kodak  Color  Densitometer.  The  use  of  an  auxiliary 
device  called  the  Invercone  converted  the  Weston 
Master  II  reflection  type  lightmeter  into  an  inci- 
dent lightmeter.  The  Kodak  Studio  Speedlamp  per- 
mitted the  use  of  lens  apertures  as  small  as  f/16 
and  included  a  power  unit  with  sufficient  power  for 
three  flashtubes  for  balanced  portrait  lighting.  A 
very  compact  enlarging  unit  was  known  as  the 
Federal  Store-Away  Enlarger.  The  SEI  Exposure 
Photometer  (Ilford,  Ltd,,  London)  was  claimed 


WfOTOGRAPHJC  PROGRESS 


430 


PHYSICS 


to  permit   accurate   light  measurements   ranging 
from  0.01  to  10,000  foot  lamberts. 

In  line  with  the  trend  for  continuous  processing 
apparatus  for  photofinisMng  of  prints,  two  concerns 
introduced  equipment  for  this  work.  The  Kodak 
Continuous  Paper  Processor  machine  handled  long 
rolls  (1,000  feet)  of  paper,  used  automatic  solu- 
tion feed  and  replenishment,  and  had  a  stated 
capacity  of  2,400  oversize  prints  per  hour.  The 
Fotopak  machine  was  said  to  have  about  the  same 
capacity  and  to  be  adaptable  for  use  with  modified 
commercial  printers  and  dryers.  New  roll-printing 
heads  for  use  with  such  equipment  were  an- 
nounced for  two  models  of  Kodak  semiautomatic 
printers. 

The  Photo-s^P^c  Process.  Chemicals  in  packages, 
bottles,  and  packets  continued  to  be  popular  with 
amateur  and  professional  users  of  photographic 
materials.  A  small  heat-sealed  metal  foil  envelope 
was  used  by  one  firm  for  dispensing  developers, 
stop  baths,  "fixers,  and  a  few  other  chemicals  for 
amateur  use.  Ansco  Ardol  and  Vividol  package  de- 
velopers replaced  respectively  their  103  and  105 
Prepared  Developers. 

Positive  transparencies  could  be  made  directly 
on  film  exposed  in  the  camera  or  duplicates  printed 
from  negatives  or  positives  by  a  one-bath  reversal 
process  described  by  H,  A,  Miller.  A  developer 
containing  hypo  in  addition  to  the  usual  compo- 
nents is  used,  and  the  image  is  given  a  light-fog- 
ging treatment  (PSA  Journal  14:  103,  February, 
1948).  Details  for  reversal  processing  of  Gevaert 
films  were  published  by  H.  Verkindern  (Brit.  Kine- 
mat.  13:  37,  August,  1948).  Processing  directions 
for  use  with  Kodak  Blue  Base  Reversal  Films  were 
made  available. 

A  method  of  gold  and  'mercury  latensifi  cation 
and  hypersensitization  of  images  for  direct  and 
physical  development  was  described  by  T.  H. 
James,  W.  Vanselow,  and  R.  F.  Quirk,  With  la- 
tensification  emulsion  speeds  were  obtained  on 
physical  development  that  were  about  equal  to 
those  found  with  direct  development  ( PSA  Journal 
14:  349,  June,  1948).  Another  paper  by  W.  Vanse- 
low, R.  F.  Quirk,  and  J.  A.  Leermakers  gave  fur- 
ther information  on  this  subject  and  described 
latensification  studies  with  sodium  perborate  (Ibid. 
14:  675,  November,  1948). 

The  sources,  prevention,  and  removal  of  scums, 
sludges,  and  stains  were  discussed  by  J.  I  Crab- 
tree  and  R.  W.  Henn  who  included  several  useful 
tables  in  their  article  for  handy  reference  (Ibid, 
14:  201,  April,  1948). 

Bibliography.  A  biweekly  newspaper  called  Photo 
Industry,  was  started  in  New  York  in  March.  A 
list  of  the  more  significant  books  published  is  as 
follows:  Fun  with  Your  Camera,  ].  Deschin  (Mc- 
Graw-Hill, N.Y.);  Making  Your  Pictures  Interest- 
ing, E.  Xheisen  (Ziff-Davis  Publishing  Co., 
Chicago);  Camera  and  Lens,  A.  Adams  (Basic 
Photo  Series  No.  1,  Morgan  &  Lester,  N.Y.:  also 
The  Negative,  A.  Adams  (No.  2);  Camera  Art  as 
a  Means^  of  Self-Expression,  M.  Thorek  (Lippincott 
Co.,  Philadepma);  La  technique  photographique, 
L.  P.  Clerc  (P.  Montel,  Paris,  4th  ed.);  Magic 
Shadows:  The  Story  of  the  Origin  of  Motion  Pic- 
tures, M.  Quigley,  Jr.  (Georgetown  University 
Press);  The  Miracle  of  the  Movies,  L.  Wood 
(Burke  Publishing  Co.,  London);  Color  Photog- 
raphy for  the  Amateur,  K.  Henny  (McGraw-Hill, 
N.Y.  Rev.  ed.);  Color  Photography  in  Practice, 
D.  A.  Spencer  (Pitman  &  Sons,  London,  3rd  ed.); 
An  Introduction  to  Color,  R.  M.  Evans  (Wiley  & 
Sons,  N.Y.);  How  To  Take  Industrial  Photographs, 
M*  H.  Zielke  and  F.  G.  Beezley  (McGraw-Hill, 


N.Y.);  Photography  in  Law  Enforcement  (East- 
man Kodak  Company,  Rochester,  N.Y.);  Aerial 
Photographs  in  Forestry,  S.  H.  Spurr  (Ronald 
Press,  N.Y.);  Fundamentals  of  Photographic  The- 
ory* T.  H.  James  and  G.  C.  Higgins  (Wiley  &  Sons, 
N.Y.);  Australian  Photography,  Edited  by  O.  L. 
Zeigler  (Sydney,  Australia);  Sound  and  the  Docu- 
mentary Film,  K,  Cameron  (Pitman,  London). 
— GLENN  E.  MATTHEWS 

PHYSICS.  Cosmic  Radiation.  Most  important  among 
the  advances  in  physics  in  the  year  1948  were  those 
in  die  field  of  cosmic  ray  research. 

The  elusive  atomic  particle,  called  both  meson 
and  mesotron,  has  been  created  artificially  for  the 
first  time  in  the  largest  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia cyclotrons  by  bombardment  with  alpha 
particles,  accelerated  to  energies  of  400  million 
electron-volts,  an  event  that  promises  better  under- 
standing of  the  atomic  nucleus.,  and  of  the  forces 
that  hold  it  together.  There  are  theoretical  grounds 
for  hoping  that  the  meson  can  blast  energy  out  of 
heavy  elements  even  more  effectively  than  the  neu- 
tron. The  future  may  bring  a  meson  atomic  bomb, 
now  that  the  scientists  can  create  mesons  under 
control. 

Actually  there  are  probably  more  than  four  va- 
rieties of  particles,  all  called  mesons.  The  most 
usual  one  found  in  cosmic  ray  bursts  is  about  200 
times  the  weight  of  the  electron.  All  of  the  kinds 
of  mesons  are  intermediate  between  the  electron, 
lightest  subatomic  particle,  and  the  proton,  heart 
of  the  hydrogen  atom.  The  proton  and  the  neutron 
are  each  about  2,000  times  the  weight  of  the  elec- 
tron. 

Now^that  mesons  can  be  made  in  the  Berkeley 
giant  "atom  smasher"  much  more  should  be 
learned  about  them.  Although  mesons  live  only  a 
fleeting  fraction  of  a  second,  they  can  be  studied 
and  used  as  experimental  tools  once  they  are  cre- 
ated at  will.  Theoretical  physicists  suspect  that 
mesons  are  a  sort  of  go-between  in  allowing  neu- 
tron and  proton  to  turn  into  one  another.  They 
have  evidence  for  this  strange  performance  but  do 
not  yet  understand  what  happens.  The  closest  pic- 
turization  would  be  the  meson  being  passed  back 
and  forth  like  a  ball  between  two  basketball  play- 
ers. 

Evidence  that  there  are  heavy  nuclei  in  cosmic 
radiation  was  gathered  in  the  Office  of  Naval  Re- 
search project  called  "Skyhook"  during  which  bal- 
loons carrying  recorders  have  been  sent  above  the 
roof  of  the  atmosphere. 

Atomic  debris  or  "cinders  of  creation"  are  being 
rained  upon  the  earth  in  much  the  same  way  that 
remnants  of  past  planets  fall  on  the  earth  as 
shooting  stars.  Tracks  of  heavy  particles  were  cap- 
tured when  physicists  of  the  University  of  Min- 
nesota and  the  University  of  Rochester  sent  cloud 
chambers  and  special  photographic  plates  aloft 
in  free  balloons.  In  the  University  of  Minnesota 
group  are  Drs.  F.  Oppenheimer,  E.  P.  Ney,  E,  J. 
Lofgren  and  Phyllis  Freier,  while  the  University 
of  Rochester  group  includes  Drs.  H.  L.  Biadt  and 
B.  Peters. 

The  top  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  for  the  cosmic 
rays  that  bombard  us  from  outer  space  was  dis- 
covered by  scientists  who  put  their  instruments 
into  a  captured  Nazi  V-2  rocket  that  was  fired  up 
to  100  miles  over  the  White  Sands,  N.M.,  Prov- 
ing Ground  in  July.  The  discovery  was  announced 
by  Dr.  J.  A.  Van  Allen  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity Applied  Physics  Laboratory  and  Dr.  H.  E. 
Tatel  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington. 

Some  34  miles  above  the  earth's  surface,  die 


PHYSJCS 


431 


PHYSICS 


intensity  of  the  cosmic  ray  bombardment  begins 
to  become  constant.  This  is  die  beginning  of  the 
"cosmic  ray  plateau."  From  this  high-altitude  re- 
gion out  into  space  the  cosmic  radiation  is  believed 
to  remain  virtually  constant.  A  Geiger  counter 
was  placed  in  the  rocket  fired  at  White  Sands, 
July  29,  1948.  As  the  rocket  shot  up  to  an  altitude 
of  100  miles,  the  scientists  received  a  record  of  the 
cosmic  ray  count  by  means  of  a  radio  telemeter- 
ing system.  The  rocket's  flight  gave  them  counts 
of  cosmic  rays  at  the  highest  altitudes  at  which  the 
mysterious  rays  have  been  studied. 

The  intensity  of  cosmic  rays  in  the  space  out 
from  the  earth  is  two  to  three  times  greater  than 
scientists  had  calculated  on  the  basis  of  lower  alti- 
tude observations.  Below  55  kilometers,  or  approxi- 
mately 34  miles,  the  cosmic  rays  varied  from  one  or 
two  counts  a  second  at  sea  level  to  a  peak  of  49 
counts  per  second  in  the  neighborhood  of  12  miles 
above  the  earth.  But  for  the  highest  66  miles  of  die 
flight,  the  cosmic  ray  count  was  steadily  a  little 
more  than  22  counts  per  second. 

Atom  smashers.  Research  in  nuclear  physics  will 
receive  material  aid  from  tremendous  new  atom 
smashers  which  will  provide  physicists  with  ener- 
gies up  to  at  least  seven  thousand  million  electron- 
volts,  plans  for  which  were  formulated  during  the 
year. 

Two  new  gigantic  accelerators,  or  electronuclear 
machines,  both  of  which  promise  to  operate  at 
thousands  of  millions  of  electron-volts  in  the  en- 
ergy range  of  the  cosmic  rays,  were  planned  to  be 
built  in  die  next  few  years  with  $11  million  of 
Atomic  Energy  Commission  funds.  The  largest,  a 
110-foot  diameter  cyclotron,  will  be  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California's  Radiation  Laboratory  at 
Berkeley,  The  other,  a  60-foot  diameter  synchro- 
tron, will  be  built  at  the  Brookhaven  National 
Laboratory,  Upton,  Long  Island,  N.Y. 

Enough  energy  to  exceed  die  most  powerful 
cosmic  rays  from  the  depths  of  the  universe,  six  to 
seven  thousand  million  electron-volts,  will  be  pro- 
duced by  the  $9  million  Berkeley  cyclotron,  to  be 
completed  in  four  to  five  years.  This  will  multiply 
about  15  times  the  power  of  the  largest  cyclotron 
now  operating,  the  184-inch  atom  smasher  also  at 
Berkeley,  in  which  mesons  were  produced  artifi- 
cially. The  new  machine  will  be  110  feet  in  di- 
ameter with  a  circular  housing  around  the  rim. 
Atomic  particles  will  speed  around  it  under  die  in- 
fluence of  10,000  tons  of  magnet.  Protons,  the 
hearts  of  hydrogen  atoms,  will  be  fed  into  the 
machine.  Mere  men  operating  it  will  be  dwarfed 
by  the  apparatus. 

W.  M.  Brobeck,  who  did  die  engineering  design 
of  the  present  world's  largest  cyclotron,  determined 
that  it  would  be  feasible  to  build  and  operate  a 
great  proton  accelerator  at  die  ten  thousand-mil- 
lion electron-volt  level.  Dr.  Ernest  O.  Lawrence, 
whose  invention  and  operation^  of  the  cyclotron 
won  hfrr>  the  Nobel  Prize,  will  direct  it.  The  mag- 
net will  be  divided  into  four  segments,  the  four 
gaps  providing  access  to  the  accelerating  chamber 
for  such  equipment  as  vacuum  pumps  and  the 
high  frequency  equipment  which  accelerates  the 
protons.  As  protons  pass  the  accelerating  electrode 
point  on  each  trip  around  the  magnet,  they  will 
be  struck  by  a  high  frequency  charge  of  either 
2,500  or  5,000  volts.  With  5,000  volts  on  the  accel- 
erating electrode,  each  particle  would  make  more 
than  one  million  trips  around  the  chamber  before 
reaching  six  thousand  million  electron-volts.  Oper- 
ation or  the  great  atom  smasher  will  be  pulsed; 
diat  is,  it  will  operate  for  about  two  seconds  at  a 
time,  then  will  be  turned  off  for  a  few  minutes. 


Two  to  three  thousand  million  electron-volts  will 
be  the  energy  of  the  protons  to  be  accelerated  in 
the  60-foot  diameter  machine  to  be  built  at  Brook- 
haven  National  Laboratory  in  about  three  years 
at  a  cost  of  $3  million.  In  the  operation  of  the  ma- 
chine, the  protons  will  travel  repeatedly  around 
a  fixed  orbit  consisting  of  four  quadrants  of  a  circle 
30  feet  in  radius,  alternating  with  four  straight  lines 
about  10  feet  in  length.  The  padi  the  protons  xvill 
follow  will  have  die  appearance  of  a  circle  flat- 
tened at  four  equally  spaced  points  around  its 
circumference.  The  total  distance  travelled  in  one 
revolution  will  be  about  230  feet  and  a  proton 
reaching  its  peak  energy  will  make  about  3.5  mil- 
lion revolutions,  a  distance  of  about  150,000  miles. 
It  will  travel  this  distance  in  less  than  a  second.  De- 
sign of  the  Brookhaven  machine  was  by  a  group 
headed  by  Dr.  M.  Stanley  Livingston,  on  leave  of 
absence  from  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy. 

The  world's  most  powerful  linear  accelerator,  a 
high  voltage  apparatus  that  works  on  a  principle 
different  from  the  cyclotrons,  was  audiorized  for 
Stanford  University,  to  be  financed  by  the  Office 
of  Naval  Research.  Instead  of  speeding  heavy 
atomic  particles  in  a  merry-go-round  whirl  as  in 
the  cyclotron,  the  linear  accelerator  shoots  elec- 
trons in  a  straight  line,  sending  diem  down  a  tube 
on  the  crest  of  radio  microwaves,  such  as  used  in 
radar. 

Dr.  William  W.  Hansen,  director  of  the  Stanford 
Microwave  Laboratory,  will  direct  the  building  of 
die  160-foot  accelerator.  A  12-foot  pilot  model  of 
the  accelerator  has  already  produced  electrons  of 
6  million  volts.  Experiments  upon  the  fundamental 
nature  of  matter  and  creation  of  artificial  cosmic 
rays  are  possibilities  through  use  of  die  thousand- 
million  electron-volt  energies  to  be  reached  by  die 
new  accelerator.  Dr.  Hansen  believes  that  it  may 
be  possible  to  create  protons  and  neutrons,  the 
components  of  the  atomic  nucleus,  through  the 
use  of  such  high  energies. 

Neutron  Beam  Diffraction.  New  knowledge  about 
the  structure  of  crystals  was  made  possible  with 
the  discovery  that  the  neutron,  die  particle  that 
triggers  die  atomic  bomb,  can  be  used  to  study 
crystals  with  results  surpassing  those  of  either  elec- 
tron or  X-ray  diffraction. 

For  die  first  time  scientists  have  actually  been 
able  to  see  how  hydrogen  atoms  tie  up  to  the  oxy- 
gen atoms  in  a  piece  of  ice.  Drs.  E.  O.  Wollan, 
C.  G.  Shull  and  W,  L.  Davidson  of  die  Oak  Ridge 
National  Laboratory  in  Oak  Ridge,  Tenn.,  have 
found  that  hydrogen  atoms  are  not  stay-at-homes, 
fixed  in  one  position,  as  proposed  by  some  scien- 
tists. Instead,  the  hydrogen  atoms  are  restlessly 
jumping  from  one  position  to  another  in  the  crystal 
structure  of  ice.  Since  hydrogen  is  present  in  all  of 
our  foods,  fuel,  clothing,  and  many  other  mate- 
rials, such  studies  are  of  great  potential  impor- 
tance. 

The  Oak  Ridge  scientists  photographed  the  pat- 
tern produced  by  a  stream  of  neutrons  when 
scattered  by  passing  through  an  ice-crystal.  The 
pattern  is  like  a  shadow  picture  of  the  atomic 
structure  of  the  crystal.  A  wide  variety  of  other 
substances  in  addition  to  ice  have  been  studied  by 
the  neutron  beam  technique.  Production  of  dif- 
fraction patterns  with  neutrons  is  much  more  dif- 
ficult than  getting  the  patterns  with  electrons  and 
X-rays. 

Research  Instruments.  The  development  of  impor- 
tant new  instruments  for  physics  research  opened 
die  door  to  whole  new  areas  of  scientific  discovery. 

Color  "staining"  with  light  waves  witiiout  killing 


PHYSICS 


432 


PHYSICS 


the  living  cells  is  a  new  microscopic  technique  that 
is  expected  to  reveal  much  about  important  life 
processes.  This  new  kind  of  microscope,  a  further 
development  of  the  phase  microscope,  will  permit 
man  to  observe  cells  as  they  grow,  multiply  and 
carry  on.  their  important  life"  functions.  It  will  let 
scientists  see  in  color,  for  the  first  time,  both  nor- 
mal and  cancerous  growth,  and  may  help  them  dis- 
cover what  the  abnormal  growth  is. 

But  this  latest  development  in  microscopy  is 
still  very  ranch  in  the  experimental  stage.  Many 
refinements  may  be  expected  before  instruments 
of  this  type  are  made  available  to  scientists  for 
important  research.  The  instrument.,  reported  to 
the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  meeting,  was 
developed  by  Dr.  F.  Zernike,  a  Dutch  physicist 
who  visualized  and  made  the  first  pliase  micro- 
scope. Dr.  Zemike,  professor  of  physics  at  the  Uni- 
versiry  of  Groningen,  the  Netherlands.,  was  visiting 
professor  in  physics  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity during  1948. 

The  ordinary  phase  microscope  uses  two  trans- 
parent rings  to  reveal,  in  black  and  white,  details 
heretofore  unknown  concerning  delicate  cell  struc- 
ture. Two  optical  companies  are  now  making  in- 
struments of  this  type  available  commercially  in 
America.  The  phase  ring  separates  a  small  portion 
of  light  and  distributes  it  over  the  whole  field.  It 
works  because  it  takes  advantage  of  the  fact  that 
light  travels  in  waves.  This  separated  light,  spread 
over  the  whole  image,  promises  an  evenly  illumi- 
nated background.  The  image  appears  bright 
where  the  pliase  of  the  direct  light  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  background  light  so  that  it  is  reinforced. 
It  shows  dark  when  the  phases  of  the  two  light 
parts  are  different  so  that  by  interference  they  de- 
stroy each  other.  In  the  new  color  phase  micro- 
scope, the  ring  works  in  an  opposite  way  in  the 
red  than  in  the  green  end  of  the  spectrum,  giving 
some  details  more  red  light,  others  more  green,  de- 
pending on  their  thickness. 

Invisible  infra-red  light,  or  heat  waves,  were  de- 
tected by  sound  too  high-pitched  for  the  ear  to 
hear  through  use  of  the  acoustical  interferometer. 
It  has  practical  as  well  as  laboratory  applications, 
such  as  the  detection  of  invisible  light  signals,  and 
perhaps  to  detect  the  short  radio  waves  in  radar. 
The  acoustical  interferometer  consists  of  two 
quartz  crystals,  such  as  those  used  in  radio,  with  a 
gas  confined  between  them.  A  transmitter  sets  one 
crystal  into  vibration,  and  a  receiver  detects  the 
ultra-sonic  vibrations  carried  by  the  gas  to  the 
other  crystal.  When  infra-red  rays  strike  the  gas 
they  affect  the  passage  of  the  sound  through  the 
gas.  The  new  instrument,  developed  by  Prof.  W. 
J.  Fry  and  his  associates,  can  be  used  with  carbon 
dioxide  containing  water  vapor,  or  some  other  gas. 
If  invisible  infra-red  radiation  passes  through 
the  gas,  it  has  an  effect  on  the  sound  vibrations  in 
it,  and  the  gas  molecules  are  changed  so  that  they 
absorb  less  of  the  sound  waves  passing  between 
the  two  crystals,  and  this  may  be  instantly  de- 
tected. 

The  microwave  spectroscope  uses  waves  of  the 
same  length  as  radar  to  detect  even  tiny  amounts 
of  chemical  elements,  making  it  possible  to  trace 
chemical  elements  in  some  parts  of  the  body  with- 
out the  use  of  hazardous  radioactive  isotopes.  Sta- 
bly isotopes  of  elements,  which  differ  only  in  atomic 
weight  from  the  usual  form  of  the  element,  can  be 
fed  to  humans,  animals  or  plants.  The  element 
may  end  up  in  the  skin,  hair  or  nails  of  an  animal 
being  tested,  or  in  any  part  of  a  plant.  It  must  be 
in  some  part  that  can  be  cut  off  since  the  spectro- 
scope can  only  be  used  on  a  small  specimen  that 


is  destroyed  in  the  process.  Gas  or  vapor,  produced 
chemically  from  the  specimen,  is  placed  in  the 
spectroscope  where  it  will  intercept  microwaves 
and  cancel  out  those  frequencies  corresponding  to 
the  isotopes  of  elements  it  contains.  Development 
of  the  microwave  spectroscope  is  the  result  of  work 
done  at  the  Research  Laboratory  of  Electronics  of 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

During  microwave  research  for  the  war,  scien- 
tists working  on  radar  discovered  that  certain 
wavelengths  used  in  radar  were  absorbed  by  gases 
in  the  atmosphere.  At  the  Radiation  Laboratory  at 
M.LT.  and  at  Columbia  University,  projects  were 
started  to  find  out  what  gases  interfered  with  what 
wavelengths.  It  was  found  that  water  vapor  and 
oxygen  absorbed  microwaves  in  such  a  way  that 
they  defined  the  limits  of  usable  radar  waves. 
After  the  war  these  discoveries  led  to  work  in  the 
detection  of  gases  by  microwave  spectroscopy  and 
from  there  to  the  use  of  these  waves  in  exploring 
matter. 

Movements  of  as  little  as  a  hundred-thousandth 
of  an  inch  can  be  detected  with  the  "transducer," 
developed  at  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards. 
This  device,  which  consists  of  a  coiled  spring 
whose  turns  separate  one  by  one  when  the  ends  of 
the  spring  are  pulled  apart,  is  being  studied  by  W. 
A.  Wildhack  and  his  associates. 

When  the  spring  is  closed,  it  has  the  same  re- 
sistance as  a  solid  tube  of  metal.  But  when  it  is 
completely  open,  it  has  the  resistance  of  the  total 
length  of  the  coiled  wire.  Since  the  change  in  re- 
sistance when  the  spring  is  stretched  may  be  hun- 
dreds of  times  greater  than  the  change  in  length 
of  the  spring,  the  transducer  is  a  very  sensitive 
way  of  measuring  small  displacements.  An  elec- 
trical instrument  which  measures  resistance  precise- 
ly is  simply  hooked  up  to  the  transducer  and  the 
change  in  resistance  read.  The  transducer  may  be 
very  useful  both  in  industry  and  science  in  such 
things  as  strain  gages,  pressure  elements,  acceler- 
ometers,  electric  weighing  devices,  automatic  tem- 
perature controls,  direct  current-alternating  cur- 
rent inverters,  and  voltage  regulators. 

A  new  instrument  for  science  and  industry  has 
given  wavelength  measurements  in  a  previously 
unknown  range  of  the  invisible  infra-red  spectrum. 
Measurements  of  infra-red  wavelengths  up  to  39 
microns — a  micron  is  .00003937  inch — were  made 
at  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards  in  Washing- 
ton, Dr,  Earle  K.  Plyler  reported.  A  prism  made 
of  thallium  bromide  and  thallium  iodide  was  used 
for  the  study.  The  thallium  bromide-iodide  prism 
has  extended  the  wavelengths  in  the  infra-red  re- 
gion from  approximately  25  microns  for  potassium 
bromide  prisms  and  about  15  microns  for  sodium 
chloride  (common  salt)  prisms. 

The  new  prism  gives  scientists  a  new  tool  for 
studying  materials  in  a  range  of  the  infra-red  spec- 
trum which  they  have  not  been  able  to  explore  be- 
fore. It  is  not  now  available  commercially,  but  it 
may  find  important  industrial  applications  in  the 
future  for  analyzing  materials. 

Photographic  Techniques.  A  new  and  special  kind 
of  photographic  plate  was  used  to  take  pictures  of 
mesons,  small  cosmic  ray  particles. 

A  new  Ilford  photo  emulsion  was  developed  to 
photograph  die  trail  of  these  elusive  particles  in 
the  laboratory  of  Dr.  C.  F.  Powell,  Bristol,  Eng- 
land. This  emulsion  contains  eight  times  as  much 
silver  bromide  as  older  emulsions  in  order  to  mag- 
nify the  path  of  a  particle  on  the  photographic 
plate.  It  also  is  loaded  with  boron,  which  prevents 
the  tracks  left  by  the  particle  from  fading  and 
makes  the  emulsion  less  sensitive  to  light. 


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PHYSICS 


Since  prewar  days  it  has  been  possible  to  take 
pictures  of  protons,  deuterons,  alpha  particles  and 
fission  fragments  on  photographic  emulsions,  but 
until  recently  it  has  been  very  difficult  to  distin- 
guish between  the  tracks  left  by  the  different  par- 
ticles. In  addition,  very  light  particles  could  not 
be  traced  because  they  did  not  have  enough  energy 
to  leave  much  of  a  trail  in  the  emulsion.  Since  cos- 
mic rays  are  believed  by  scientists  to  come  from 
outside  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth,  perhaps  from 
the  stars,  plates  to  catch  the  traces  of  these  rays  in 
the  form  of  mesons  are  exposed  on  the  tops  of 
mountains.  Only  when  the  meson  actually  ends  up 
in  the  emulsion  can  one  be  sure  that  the  trail  in 
the  emulsion  is  due  to  a  meson  and  not  any  other 
particle.  The  plates  after  ejqposure  are  examined 
under  strong  microscopes  by  the  scientists.  By 
studying  the  plates  they  are  able  to  determine  the 
mass  of  the  meson,  evidences  of  nuclear  degenera- 
tion and  other  facts  which  increase  our  knowledge 
of  the  hitherto  little  known  cosmic  rays. 

Estimation  of  the  amount  of  atomic  energy  ele- 
ments, uranium  and  thorium,  in  rocks  was  done  by 
photography.  Dr.  J.  H.  J.  Poole  and  J.  W.  Brem- 
ner  of  Trinity  College  placed  special  nuclear  re- 
search photographic  plates  in  contact  with  flat  sur- 
faces of  rocks  cut  with  a  diamond  saw  and  left 
them  there  for  one  to  three  weeks.  Stars  with  two 
to  five  rays  appear  in  the  photographs,  caused  by 
the  alpha  particles  or  the  hearts  of  helium  atoms 
that  are  given  off  from  the  radioactive  elements. 

Distribution  of  radioactive  elements  in  rocks  is 
shown  to  be  very  sporadic,  especially  in  coarse- 
grained rocks  like  granites.  The  photographic  meth- 
od was  originally  suggested  two  years  ago  by  Mme. 
Irene  Curie-Joliot,  Nobelist  herself  and  daughter 
of  the  Curies  who  discovered  radium. 

Electrons,  known  as  particles  of  electricity,  are 
the  commonest  of  the  fundamental  bits  of  matter, 
and  scientists  work  with  them  daily.  Yet  only  now 
have  electron  tracks  been  definitely  photographed. 
Eastman  Kodak  scientists  have  announced  that 
tracks  about  two  thousandths  of  an  inch  long — 
less  than  the  thickness  of  this  piece  of  paper — have 
been  captured  in  a  special  photographic  emulsion. 

New  Particle.  A  new  subnuclear  particle,  this  one 
bearing  a  magnetic  charge  instead  of  the  more  fa- 
miliar plus  or  minus  electrical  charge  of  the  proton 
or  electron,  was  predicted  by  Dr.  P.  A.  M.  Dirac, 
the  British  mathematical  physicist. 

The  new  particle  has  yet  to  be  observed  in  the 
laboratory,  since  its  generation  by  an  artificial 
atomic  collision  would  require  energies  greater 
than  provided  by  any  present  atom  smashers. 
Neither  has  it  been  observed  in  cosmic  ray  studies, 
probably  because  no  one  was  looking  for  it.  Prof. 
Dirac  once  before,  in  1931,  predicted  the  existence 
of  and  properties  for  an  unknown  particle.  That 
particle  was  the  positron,  and  it  was  then  actually 
discovered  about  a  year  later  in  a  cloud  chamber 
photograph  by  Dr.  Carl  D.  Anderson  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Institute  of  Technology. 

Why  add  a  new  particle  to  the  present  long  list, 
especially  when  the  particles  now  known  are  so 
incompletely  explained?  Prof.  Dirac  raised  that 
question,  and  then  answered  it  by  saying  that  the 
new  particle  is  needed  for  theoretical  reasons.  It  is 
needed,  he  said,  in  order  to  help  explain  why  all 
electrons  carry  the  same  unit  amount  of  negative 
charge.  That  electric  charges,  such  as  those  on  the 
electron,  proton  or  meson,  do  occur  in  even  multi- 
ples of  the  same  electronic  unit  charge  has  been 
known  experimentally  for  a  long  time.  Still,  there 
has  been  no  adequate  explanation  of  this  even- 
multiple  type  of  regularity. 


Prof.  Dirac  now  surmises  that  there  is  no  expla- 
nation for  the  regularity  apart  from  the  existence 
of  magnetic  particles  on  the  subatomic  level.  More- 
over, if  there  exists  even  one  of  these  particles  in 
the  universe,  his  theory  requires  all  electric  charg- 
es to  be  even  multiples  of  the  electronic  charge. 

The  particle  could  be  created  in  an  artificial  col- 
lision ha\dng  an  energy  of  500  million  electron- 
volts,  it  is  estimated.  This  puts  it  out  of  range  of 
even  the  184-inch  cyclotron  at  Berkeley,  Calif., 
with  its  400  million-electron-volt  particles,  which 
artificially  created  mesons.  Thus,  for  the  moment, 
search  for  such  a  magnetic  particle  will  have  to  be 
made  through  cosmic  ray  studies,  until  the  thou- 
sand-million-volt generators  are  completed. 

What  will  it  look  like?  In  a  cloud  chamber,  it 
should  give  a  heavy  track  of  uniform  density 
through  its  path.  This  will  help  distinguish  it  from 
such  tracks  as  those  of  alpha  particles,  which  get 
denser  as  the  particle  slows  to  a  stop.  Also,  in  a 
strong  magnetic  field,  the  new  magnetic  particle 
should  be  deflected  toward  one  of  the  pole-pieces, 
instead  of  running  in  circles  as  electrons  and  pro- 
tons do. 

Nobel  Prize.  Winner  of  the  1948  Nobel  Prize  for 
physics  was  Prof.  P.  M.  S.  Blackett,  of  Manchester 
University,  England,  "for  discoveries  in  the  field 
of  cosmic  radiation." 

Last  year  Prof.  Blackett  presented  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  a  mathematical  relationship  be- 
tween electromagnetism  and  gravitation  that  arises 
out  of  the  rotation  of  such  massive  bodies  as  the 
sun,  earth  and  stars.  This  formulation  was  hailed 
as  possibly  as  significant  as  the  Einstein  relation- 
ship between  mass  and  energy  which  was  given 
such  powerful  reality  by  the  atomic  bomb.  Like  E 
equals  me2,  the  Blackett  formula  has  a  cryptic  ap- 
pearance. In  it  there  are:  P,  the  strength  of  the 
magnetic  field;  beta,  a  constant  near  unity;  G,  the 
gravitational  constant;  c,  the  speed  of  light;  and 
U,  the  angular  momentum  or  spin  of  a  revolving 
body.  In  some  laboratory  at  the  present  time  an 
experimental  test  of  this  relationship  may  be  under 
way,  since  Prof.  Blackett  proposed  an  experimental 
test.  It  would  consist  of  revolving  a  large  sphere 
quite  rapidly  and  measuring  its  magnetic  field. 

Whether  or  not  the  Blackett  formulation  proves 
to  be  the  basic  connection  between  magnetism  and 
gravitation,  the  earlier  researches  recognized  by 
the  Nobel  award  made  important  contributions  to 
the  understanding  of  the  constitution  of  matter 
and  radiation. 

Surface  Depth  Measurement.  A  scientific  instru- 
ment for  the  study  of  surface  layers  of  metal  less 
than  a  quarter-millionth  of  an  inch  thick  may  aid 
in  the  development  of  longer-wearing  metals  for 
aircraft  engines  and  other  products.  Known  as  an 
electron  diffraction  instrument,  the  device  was 
built  by  the  general  engineering  and  consulting 
laboratory  of  the  General  Electric  Company,  A 
beam  of  electrons,  the  negatively  charged  bits  of 
atoms,  is  shot  through  the  thin  sheet  of  metal.  The 
image  made  by  the  electrons  is  captured  on  a  fluo- 
rescent screen  or  photographic  film  for  study.  Sur- 
face conditions  such  as  corrosion  and  crystal  struc- 
ture are  revealed  by  the  image  from  the  beam.  Dr. 
J.  G.  Hutton  predicted  that  the  instrument  will  be 
important  in  metallurgical  studies  for  electrical 
equipment  and  for  research  on  a  wide  number  of 
industrial  products.  The  electron  diffraction  in- 
struments are  now  in  use  in  various  laboratories. 

To  determine  the  depth  of  a  liquid  surface,  sci- 
entists at  the  Stanford  Research  Institute  developed 
an  instrument,  as  yet  without  a  name,  which  meas- 
ures the  minute  distortion  of  polarized  light  re- 


PHYSICS 


434 


PHYSICS 


fleeted  off  them.  This  depth  is  not  a  matter  of 
purely  scientific  interest;  it  has  a  practical  value 
in  the  fields  of  lubrication,  oil  exploration,  and  bi- 
ology? in  fact  wherever  the  reaction  of  liquid  sur- 
faces in  contact  with  other  materials  is  a  factor. 
The  method  of  measuring  the  depth  of  a  liquid 
surface  was  carried  out  by  Stanford  scientists  work- 
ing on  a  Naval  Research  contract  under  Dr.  A.  Paul 
Brady,  research  director,  and  the  over-all  super- 
vision of  Dr.  J.  W.  McBain,  consultant  on  research. 
Two  others  who  assisted  were  Dr.  J.  C.  Henniker 
and  Dr.  Frank  A.  Lucy. 

Classical  mathematical  theory  assumed  liquid 
surfaces  had  no  depth.  General  scientific  opinion 
for  the  past  several  decades  thought  the  depth  to 
be  a  thousand-millionth  of  an  inch  rather  than 
*he  one-millionth  now  claimed.  This  belief  was 
based  on  the  assumption  that  attraction  between 
molecules  in  the  liquid  was  effective  only  over 
this  very  short  range.  The  new  research  is  claimed 
to  prove  that  molecular  attraction  takes  place  over 
a  wider  range  than  ever  proved  before.  Dr.  McBain 
explains  the  action  by  comparison  with  that  of  the 
ordinary  magnet  It 'has  a  short  direct  attraction 
on  a  cluster  of  nails,  but  can  pick  up  a  series  of 
them,  one  hanging  to  another.  Molecules  in  a  liquid 
surface,  he  believes,  polarize  several  neighbors  and 
these  in  turn  polarize  others.  This  chain-like  re- 
layed action  extends  over  what  he  calls  an  "impres- 
sive distance.'* 

Semi-conductor.  A  bit  of  semi-conducting  germa- 
nium metal  that  amplifies  or  oscillates  current  with- 
out the  complexity  of  plates  and  wires  in  an  airless 
bulb  and  is  called  a  transistor  should  make  possible 
more  stable  and  durable  radios,  television  sets,  and 
electronic  devices.  Radios  may  be  made  smaller 
when  the  new  cylinder,  slimmer  than  a  pencil  and 
less  than  an  inch  long,  comes  out  of  the  develop- 
ment laboratories  into  production.  Because  the 
new  device  has  no  filament  that  must  heat  up  be- 
fore it  operates,  it  goes  into  action  instantly.  It  will 
do  some  tilings  that  conventional  vacuum  tubes 
can  not  do.  -This  means  new  electronic  devices. 

Invented  at  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories,  the 
transistor's  operation  is  possible  because  the  ability 
of  a  semi-conductor  to  carry  electrical  current  can 
be  controlled.  This  is  done  by  changing  the  elec- 
tronic structure  of  a  small  bit  of  material  under  the 
influence  of  the  incoming  current,  fed  to  it  through 
a  fine  "cat's  whisker"  wire.  The  current  coming 
out  of  the  other  wire,  just  about  two  thousandths 
of  an  inch  away,  is  boosted  in  volume  a  hundred- 
fold. 

Dr.  John  Bardeen  and  Dr.  Walter  H.  Brattain 
made  the  key  investigations  in  the  Bell  Telephone 
Laboratories  that  produced  the  transistor,  while  the 
program  was  initiated  and  directed  by  Dr.  William 
Shockley. 

Since  electrical  speech  waves  traveling  between 
telephones  can  be  amplified,  the  transistor  will 
probably  replace  the  vacuum  repeater  tubes  now 
used  on  long  distance  and  other  telephone  lines, 
A  superheterodyne  radio  set  with  about  a  dozen 
transistors  instead  of  conventional  tubes  has  been 
demonstrated  and  probably  is  the  forerunner  of  a 
new  family  of  radios.  Because  it  can  oscillate  as 
well  as  amplify,  the  transistor  will  be  used  to  pro- 
duce standard  frequency  tones  and  for  other  simi- 
lar uses.  Germanium  metal  specially  treated  is  the 
semi-conducting  material  used,  but  other  semi- 
conductors include  silicon,  some  metallic  oxides 
and  other  compounds.  Semi-conductors  have  elec- 
trical properties  intermediate  between  those  of  the 
metals  and  insulators. 

Semi-conductors^    copper   oxide   and   selenium 


have  been  used  previously"  to  rectify  alternating 
to  direct  current,  and  silicon  has  been  used  as  a 
detector,  particularly  for  microwave  radio  appa- 
ratus. The  transistor  as  now  developed  has  a  fre- 
quency limitation  o£  about  10  million  cycles  per 
second,  but  it  is  quite  satisfactory  in  the  television 
ranges. 

By  knocking  holes  of  positive  electricity  in  the 
unusual  metal  germanium  with  an  atom-smasher, 
Purdue  University  physicists  have  created  a  new 
kind  of  substance  that  promises  to  be  useful  in  rec- 
tifying electricity  and  converting  light  into  electri- 
cal effects.  Dr.  1C  Lark-Horovitz  reported  that  with 
the  Purdue  cyclotron  new  types  of  electrical  "semi- 
conductors" have  been  produced  which  promise  to 
have  varied  applications  in  the  field  of  radio,  radar, 
and  microwave. 

Very  pure  germanium  metal  was  bombarded 
with  deuterons  accelerated  to  10  million  volts.  Al- 
though the  attack  was  for  only  a  few  seconds,  last- 
ing changes  were  produced  in  the  metal,  and  the 
resistance  of  the  metal  was  increased  tenfold. 
"Holes"  which  behave  like  electrons  that  are  posi- 
tive electricity,  instead  of  the  usual  sort  of  nega- 
tive electricity,  are  created  by  the  bombardment 
and  this  leads  to  new  phenomena  which  allow  the 
use  of  the  bombarded  material  as  rectifiers,  photo- 
sensitive devices,  and  for  other  possible  uses. 

The  bombardment  dislocates  permanently  atoms 
from  their  regular  positions  in  the  metal,  and  when 
these  atoms  are  dislocated  they  are  able  to  take  up 
electrons  from  the  internal  structure  of  the  metal 
and  produce  in  this  way  some  holes  that  for  all 
practical  purposes  behave  like  positive  electrons. 
Half  of  a  piece  of  the  metal  can  be  bombarded  and 
made  to  conduct  electricity  by  means  of  the  posi- 
tive holes  and  the  other  half  can  be  left  alone,  con- 
ducting in  the  ordinary  manner.  This  makes  a  rec- 
tifier that  can  yield  direct  current  from  alternating 
current.  The  sharp  boundary  between  the  posi- 
tively and  negatively  conducting  regions  is  ex- 
tremely photosensitive  and  can  be  used  to  convert 
light  into  electricity,  particularly  in  the  invisible 
infra-red  regions  of  the  spectrum. 

Other  nuclear  particles  are  being  tried  in  a  simi- 
lar way  for  their  effects  on  germanium  and  other 
substances.  The  hearts  of  helium  atoms,  called 
alpha  particles,  have  already  been  found  to  pro- 
duce strong  effects.  Drs.  E.  Bleuler,  R.  Davis,  and 
D.  Tendam  were  members  of  the  Purdue  cyclotron 
group  making  the  experiments. 

Magnetic  Clutch.  Magnetic  oil  is  the  key  to  a  new 
automobile  fluid  clutch  revealed  by  the  National 
Bureau  of  Standards.  Its  development  is  a  discov- 
ery of  number-one  importance.  The  oil  contains 
millions  of  tiny  particles  of  iron  dust  or  other  mag- 
netic material.  The  car  electric  system  magnetizes 
them  as  needed. 

This  new  magnetic  fluid  clutch  is  very  simple. 
It  has  three  elements  only;  a  driving  shaft  with  a 
plate  at  its  end,  a  driven  shaft  and  plate,  and  the 
iron-saturated  oil  between.  When  a  magnetic  field 
is  established  between  the  two  parallel  plates,  the 
magnetic  particles  form  chains  which  bind  the  two 
plates  together  as  tightly  as  if  they  were  held  by 
strong  spring  clamps.  Operation  of  the  clutch  is 
described  as  extremely  smooth  and  without  "chat- 
ter/* The  locking  force  is  practically  constant,  and 
the  bond  between  the  two  plates  is  a  function  of 
the  gradual  increase  of  the  magnetic  field,  which  is 
electrically  controlled.  The  relation  between  the 
amount  of  magnetization  and  the  bond  between  the 
plates  is  independent  of  speed.  There  is  no  point 
at  which  the  clutch  suddenly  tightens  to  produce 
a  jerk.  Slippage  is  completely  eliminated. 


PHYSICS 


435 


PHYSICS 


This  magnetic  oil  may  be  used  in  brakes  as  well 
as  in  clutches,  but  according  to  its  inventor,  Jacob 
Rabinow  of  the  Bureau  staff,  it  has  other  applica- 
tions which  may  be  even  more  important.  These 
are  in  servo-mechanisms,  instruments  to  translate 
electronic  "information"  into  appropriate  action 
in  purely  mechanical  equipment.  Such  devices  are 
used  for  power  steering  of  large  trucks,  tanks, 
steamships  and  airplanes.  They  are  also  used  in 
printing  presses,  power  machinery,  for  the  control 
of  radar  antennas,  gun  direction  control,  and  in 
high-speed  electronic  computers. 

Since  the  amounts  of  electric  power  required 
to  control  the  magnetic  fluid  clutch  are  small,  it 
is  a  simple  matter  to  interlock  the  electrical  cir- 
cuits with  the  speed,  throttle  setting,  and  power 
demands.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that 
the  nature  of  the  oil  used  has  relatively  little  bear- 
ing on  performance.  Hence  silicone  liquids  may 
be  employed  with  excellent  results,  enabling  the 
clutch  to  operate  at  both  very  low  and  very  high 
temperatures. 

Bibliography.  Among  the  new  books  on  physics 
published  during  1948  were:  John  G.  Wilson, 
About  Cosmic  Rays  (Sigma);  Samuel  A.  Goud- 
smit,  Alsos  (Schuman);  Sir  George  Thomson,  The 
Atom  (Oxford);  Karl  K.  Darrow,  Atomic  Energy: 
Being  the  Norman  Wait  Harris  Lectures  Delivered 
at  Northwestern  University  (Wiley);  Department 
of  State,  Atomic  Impasse  1948:  A  Collection  of 
Speeches  by  Frederick  Osborn,  Deputy  United 
States  Representative  to  the  United  Nations  Atomic 
Energy  Commission  (Govt.  Printing  Office);  U.S. 
Atomic  Energy  Commission,  Background  Material 
on  Activity  in  First  Year  of  Distribution  of  Pile 
Produced  Radio-Isotopes  (Gov't  Printing  Office); 
David  O.  Woodbury,  Battlefronts  of  Industry: 
Westinghouse  in  World  War  II  (Wiley) ;  Charts  on 
Nuclear  Physics  (Westinghouse  Research  Labora- 
tories); Burton,  Grayson-Smith  and  Quinlan,  Col- 
lege Physics  (Pitman);  Henry  A.  Perkins,  College 
Physics  (Prentice-Hall);  Newman  and  Miller,  The 
Control  of  Atomic  Energy:  A  Study  of  Its  Social., 
Economic,  and  Political  Implications  (McGraw- 
Hill);  Norbert  Wiener,  Cybernetics:  Or  Control 
and  Communication  in  the  Animal  and  the  Ma- 
chine (Wiley);  Daniel  Lang,  Early  Tales  of  the 
Atomic  Age  (Doubleday);  Charles  F.  Meyer,  Elec- 
tromagnetic Waves  and  Light:  An  Introductory 
Physical  Discussion,  First  Part  (Ulrich's  Book 
Store);  V.  E.  Cosslett,  The  Electron  Microscope 
(Sigma);  D.  Gabor,  The  Electron  Microscope:  Its 
Development,  Present  Performance  and  Future 
Possibilities  (Chemical  Publishing  Company);  Carl 
F.  Eyring,  Essentials  of  Physics  (Prentice-Hall); 
U.S.  Atomic  Energy  Commission,  Fourth  Semi- 
annual Report  (Govt.  Printing  Office);  James  and 
Higgins,  Fundamentals  of  Photographic  Theory 
(Wiley);  Konrad  Bates  Krauskopf,  Fundamentals 
of  Physical  Science  (McGraw-Hill);  James  Jeans, 
The  Growth  of  Physical  Science  (Macmillan); 
Charles  D.  Hodgman,  Ed.,  Handbook  of  Chemis- 
try and  Physics  (Chemical  Rubber  Publishing 
Co. );  Hull,  Cook  and  Kohr,  Handbook  of  Scientific 
and  Technical  Societies  and  Institutions  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  (National  Research 
Council);  Harvey  F.  Girvin,  A  Historical  Appraisal 
of  Mechanics  (Int.  Textbook);  Douglas  M.  Consi- 
dine,  Industrial  Weighing  (Reinhold);  Department 
of  State,  International  Control  of  Atomic  Energy- 
Policy  at  the  Crossroads:  An  Informal  Summary 
Record  of  the  Policy  Developments  Concerning  the 
International  Control  of  Atomic  Energy,  October 
15,  1946  to  May  17, 1948  (Govt.  Printing  Office); 
William  Mayo  Venable,  The  Interpretation  of  Spec- 


tra (Reinhold);  W.  Boas,  An  Introduction  to  the 
Physics  of  Metals  and  Alloys  (Wiley);  Newton 
Henry  Black,  An  Introductory  Course  in  College 
Physics  (Macmillan);  Berkner  and  Wells,  Iono- 
spheric Research  at  Watheroo  Observatory,  West- 
ern Australia,  June,  1938— June,  1946  (Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington);  Robert  E.  Hage,  Jet 
Propulsion  in  Commercial  Air  Transportation 
(Princeton  University  Press);  Hamilton,  Knipp, 
and  Kuper,  Klystrons  and  Microwave  Triodes 
(McGraw-Hill);  E.  M.  McMillan  and  others,  Lec- 
ture Series  in  Nuclear  Physics  (Govt.  Printing  Of- 
fice); Pierce,  McKenzie  and  Woodward,  Eds., 
Loran:  Long  Range  Navigation  (McGraw-Hill); 
H.  F.  Johnston  and  others,  Magnetic  Results  from 
Huancayo  Observatory,  Peru,  1922-1935  (Car- 
negie Institution  of  Washington);  H.  F.  Johnston 
and  others,  Magnetic  Results  from  Huancayo  Ob- 
servatory, Peru,  1936-1944  (Carnegie  Institution 
of  Washington);  Wolfgang  Pauli,  Meson  Theory 
of  Nuclear  Forces  ( Interscience ) ;  The  National 
Council  of  Teachers  of  Mathematics,  The  Metric 
System  of  Weights  and  Measures  ( Bureau  of  Pub- 
lications, Teachers  College);  J.  M.  DallaValle, 
Micromeritics:  The  Technology  of  Fine  Particles 
(Pitman);  George  B.  Collins,  Microwave  Magne- 
trons (McGraw-Hill);  S.  N.  Van  Voorhis,  Micro- 
wave Receivers  (McGraw-Hill);  George  L.  Ragan, 
Ed.,  Microwave  Transmission  Circuits  (McGraw- 
Hill);  Biochemical  Research  Foundation,  Neutron 
Effects  on  Animals  (Williams  &  Wilkins);  David 
Bradley,  No  Place  to  Hide  (Little,  Brown);  Pow- 
ell and  Occhialini,  Nuclear  Physics  in  Photographs; 
Tracks  of  Charged  Particles  in  Photographic  Emul- 
sions (Oxford);  Lapp  and  Andrews,  Nuclear  Ra- 
diation Physics  (Prentice-Hall);  Irvin  Stewart,  Or- 
ganizing Scientific  Research  for  War:  The  Admin- 
istrative History  of  the  Office  of  Scientific  Research 
and  Development  (Little,  Brown);  Women's  Bu- 
reau, The  Outlook  for  Women  in  Physics  and  As- 
tronomy ( Govt.  Printing  Office ) ;  Papers  Presented 
at  the  Naval  Ordnance  Laboratory  Magnetic  Ma- 
terials Symposium  (U.S.  Naval  Ordnance  Labora- 
tory ) ;  The  Patent  System — Law  and  Contemporary 
Problems,  Vol.  XII,  No.  4  (Duke  Univ.);  Brain- 
erd  Currie,  Ed.,  The  Patent  System  II  (Law  and 
Contemporary  Problems);  Max  Mark  Frocht, 
Photoelasticity,  Volume  II  (Wiley) ;  Robert  Living- 
ston, Physico  Chemical  Experiments  (Macmillan); 
Fonda  and  Seitz,  Eds.,  Preparation  and  Character- 
istics of  Solid  Luminescent  Materials  (Wiley); 
M.  J.  Zucrow,  Principles  of  Jet  Propulsion  and  Gas 
Turbines  (Wiley);  Taylor  and  Westcott,  Principles 
of  Radar  (Cambridge,  Macmillan);  Lipson  and 
W,  M.  Murray,  ed.,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  for 
Experimental  Stress  Analysis,  Vol.  V,  No.  1  (Addi- 
son- Wesley  Press);  Navy  Department  Bureau  of 
Ordnance  and  Harvard  University,  Proceedings  of 
a  Symposium  on  Large-Scale  Digital  Calcufating 
Machinery  (Harvard  University  Press);  John  Bur- 
chard,  Q.E.D.—M.I.T.  in  World  War  II  (Wi- 
ley); Orrin  E.  Dunlap,  Jr.,  Radar:  What  Radar  Is 
and  How  It  Works  (Harper);  John  S.  Hall,  Radar 
Aids  to  Navigation  (McGraw-Hill);  Arthur  Rob- 
erts, Ed.,  Radar  Beacons  (McGraw-Hill);  J.  L, 
Hornung,  Radar  Primer  (McGraw-Hill);  W.  M. 
Cady,  M.  B.  Karelitz  and  Louis  A.  Turner,  Eds., 
Radar  Scanners  and  Radomes  (McGraw-Hill); 
Shapley,  Wright,  and  Rapport,  Readings  in  the 
Physical  Sciences  ( Appleton);  Alfred  North  White- 
head,  Science  and  the  Modern  World  ( New  Amer- 
ican Library);  Crowther  and  Whiddington,  Science 
at  War  (Philosophical  Library);  Sam  F.  Trelease, 
The  Scientific  Paper:  How  to  Prepare  It,  How  to 
Write  It  (Williams  and  WiEdns);  Noah  D.  Ger- 


PITCAJRN  1S1AND 


,436 


PLANNED  PARiMTHOOQ 


shevsky,  Scientific  Russian  Reader:  Selected  Mod- 
em Readings  in  Chemistry  and  Physics  (Pitman); 

The  Second  Report  of  the  United  Nations  Atomic 
Energy  Commission  to  the  Security  Council,  Sept. 
11,  1947  (Govt  Pr.  Office,  Dept  of  State  Publica- 
tion 2932);  Stable  Isotopes  (Atomic  Energy  Com- 
mission); Joseph  Marin,  Strength  of  Materials 
(Macmilian);  Archie  M.  Palmer,  Survey  of  Uni- 
versity Patent  Policies:  Preliminary  Report  (Na- 
tional Research  Council);  Carol  G.  Montgomery', 
Ed.,  Technique  of  Microwave  Measurement  ( Mc- 
Graw-Hill); LeEoy  D.  Weld,  A  Textbook  of  Heat: 
for  Upperclassmen  (Macmilian);  Bronwell  and 
Beam,  Theory  and  Application  of  Microwaves 
(McGraw-Hill);  Francis  J.  Murray,  The  Theory  of 
Mathematical  Machines  (King's  Crown);  Robert 
H.  Cole,  Underwater  Explosions  (Princeton  Uni- 
versity Press ) ;  Valley  and  Wallman,  Vacuum  Tube 
Amplifiers  (McGraw-Hill);  Zeluff  and  Markus, 
What  Electronics  Does  (McGraw-Hill). 

See  CHEMISTRY,  NUCLEAE  ENERGY,  PHOTO- 
GRAPHIC PROGRESS.  — WATSON  DAVIS 

PITCAJRN  ISLAND.  A  British  island  colony  in  the 
Pacific,  midway  between  South  America  and  Aus- 
tralia (25°  3'  S.  and  130°  8'  E.).  Area:  2  square 
miles.  Population  (1946):  126.  Pitcairn  was  origi- 
nally settled  in  1790  by  mutineers  from  H.M.S. 
Bounty.  Included  in  the  district  of  Pitcairn  are 
the  islands  of  Ducie,  Henderson,  and  Oeno. 
Agricultural  products:  yams,  taro,  maize,  sweet 
potatoes,  bananas,  pumpkins,  oranges,  melons, 
pineapples,  arrowroot,  sugar,  and  coffee.  The  ad- 
ministration of  Pitcairn  is  under  a  chief  magis- 
trate, subject  to  the  High  Commissioner  for  the 
Western  Pacific. 

PLANNED  PARENTHOOD.  Growing  awareness  of  van- 
ishing resources  and  soaring  birthrates  was  respon- 
sible for  international  as  well  as  national  interest 
in  an  expanded  Planned  Parenthood  program.  One 
indication  was  the  International  Congress  on  Pop- 
ulation and  World  Resources  in  Relation  to  the 
Family  held  in  Cheltenham,  England,  which  drew 
leaders  in  three  fields:  (1)  scientific  and  social  in- 
quiry, (2)  biological  and  medical  research,  (3)  or- 
ganizational activity  in  the  promotion  of  Planned 
Parenthood.  Mxs.  Margaret  Sanger  was  chairman 
of  the  American  Committee  for  the  Congress. 

Mrs.  Sanger  described  the  purpose  of  the  Con- 
gress as  a  united  effort  "to  seek  an  alternative 
method  of  population  control  to  nature's  old  stand- 
bys  of  war,  famine  and  epidemics.  Delegates  from 
many  nations  are  meeting  under  the  auspices  of 
the  British  Family  Planning  Association  to  ex- 
change information  and  discuss  policies  which  must 
be  adopted  to  restore  some  sort  of  sane  balance 
between  numbers  of  people  and  food  resources." 

At  the  final  session  of  the  conference  a  com- 
mittee to  promote  birth  control  on  an  international 
basis  was  formed.  It  was  planned  to  have  the  com- 
mittee consist  at  the  outset  of  the  representatives 
from  the  chief  birth  control  organizations  of  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  the 
Netherlands  with  headquarters  in  London.  The 
committee  was  formed  to  "promote  research  and 
education  for  the  furthering  of  human  welfare 
through  planned  parenthood  and  progressive  sex 
education/' 

A  major  step  towards  worldwide  birth  planning 
was  made  possible  as  the  first  comprehensive  pro- 
gram on  research  in  human  reproduction  began 
its  active  work.  Nine  research  studies  were  started 
on  factors  governing  fertility  control  and  problems 
of  infertility  in  laboratories  across  the  United 
States. 


The  research  studies  were  recommended  by  the 
National  Research  Council's  newly  formed  Com- 
mittee on  Human  Reproduction  to  the  Board  of 
the  National  Committee  on  Maternal  Health.  The 
Planned  Parenthood  Federation  of  America  is  one 
of  the  three  collaborating  organizations.  Funds 
for  the  research  were  largely  raised  through  its  ef- 
forts. 

As  a  result  of  the  dearth  of  scientific  work  in 
fertility  control  many  of  the  applications  from  sci- 
entists so  far  have  been  related  to  infertility  studies 
and  to  fields  other  than  conception  control.  Plans 
were  made  however,  for  a  scientific  conference  in 
1949  sponsored  by  the  National  Research  Council. 
Since  it  is  the  first  such  national  meeting  to  be 
held  in  the  United  States  on  this  subject,  it  should 
help  to  stimulate  the  interest  and  support  of  scien- 
tists in  developing  conception  control  research. 

According  to  a  poll  representing  the  opinion  of 
over  three  million  women  that  was  conducted  by 
the  Woman's  Home  Companion,  three-fifths  fa- 
vored making  birth-control  information  available 
to  all  adults  without  legal  restrictions.  Nearly  all 
the  rest  according  to  the  magazine  "are  either  for 
making  the  information  available  to  all  married 
women  or  else  for  legally  permitting  doctors^to  give 
out  such  information  whenever  they  think  it's  need- 
ed to  safeguard  a  patient's  health.  Only  three  per- 
cent, not  even  a  twenty-fifth,  say  birtiti  control 
should  be  legally  forbidden  to  everybody." 

The  birth  control  referendum  to  allow  physicians 
to  prescribe  contraceptives  to  married  women 
whose  health  in  the  judgment  of  the  physician  re- 
quired it,  was  defeated  in  the  1948  Massachusetts 
election.  The  vote  was  Yes— 806,829;  No — 1,085,- 
320;  blank  ballots  on  this  issue— 263,168. 

The  aim  of  the  measure  was  to  place  contracep- 
tive advice  in  the  hands  of  the  medical  profession. 
It  was  endorsed  by  more  than  one  thousand  Prot- 
estant and  Jewish  clergy  and  by  a  majority  of  the 
resident  members  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical 
Society.  Four  thousand  volunteers  in  300  local 
committees  campaigned  to  repeal  the  State  law. 

Two  days  after  the  election,  Mrs.  Walter  E. 
Campbell,  president  of  the  Massachusetts  League 
issued  this  statement:  "We  are  confident  that  it 
will  not  be  long  before  this  merciless  law  is  amend- 
ed, for  Massachusetts  cannot  fail  to  demand  the 
same  skilled  medical  advice  for  its  mothers  that  is 
now  available  in  46  other  States;  family  life  is  too 
sacred  to  let  anything  stand  in  the  way  of  its  high- 
est fulfillment.  Massachusetts  citizens  have  too 
much  respect  for  the  wisdom  of  the  medical  profes- 
sion to  allow  our  doctors  to  remain  shackled  .  .  . 
a  firm  foundation  has  been  built  upon  which  we 
shall  unite  in  our  continuing  fight  to  implement 
the  civil  right  of  every  individual  and  every  reli- 
gious group  to  follow  the  dictates  of  their  own  con- 
science." 

In  order  to  broaden  the  use  of  conception  con- 
trol in  public  health,  a  demonstration  was  devel- 
oped to  evaluate  the  practical  efficiency  of  existing, 
simple  contraceptive  methods.  This  project  has  met 
with  the  acceptance  of  a  cross-section  of  private 
medical  opinion  and  State  health  departments.  The 
need  for  such  a  study  was  indicated  since  approxi- 
mately only  five  percent  of  patients  attending  pre- 
and  post-natal  public  health  clinics  receive  contra- 
ceptive information. 

The  fourth  annual  Lasker  Awards  in  Planned 
Parenthood  went  to  Dr.  John  Rock,  Harvard  Medi- 
cal School  and  Director  of  the  Fertility  and  Endo- 
crine Clinics  and  to  Dr.  Richard  N.  Pierson,  for- 
mer Federation  president  and  chairman  of  the 
Medical  Committee. 


PUSTICS 


437 


PJLAST/CS 


In  1948  the  Planned  Parenthood  Federation  was 
the  national  agency  and  clearing  house  for  15  State 
leagues  and  160  local  committees.  The  birth  con- 
trol clinics  in  the  United  States  numbered  557. 
These  services  were  in  242  public  health  clinics, 
62  hospital  clinics,  210  extra  mural  clinics  and  43 
referral  services.  Of  the  58  fertility  clinics  in  the 
United  States  listed  with  the  Federation,  13  were 
under  Planned  Parenthood  direction.  The  special 
contribution  of  the  extra  mural  clinic  supported  by 
expanding  public  education,  was  revealed  in  a  pa- 
tient load  far  in  advance  of  the  combined  totals 
for  both  hospitals  and  public  health  clinics.  The 
183  hospitals  and  public  health  clinics  which  re- 
ported gave  a  total  of  10,457  patients  while  the  165 
extra  mural  clinics  reporting  exceeded  the  figure  by 
115,539.  — CHAKLES  JE.  SCBIBNER 

PLASTICS.  There  are  several  significant  factors  in 
plastics*  growth  that  should  become  more  distinc- 
tive in  the  immediate  future.  Although  molding  and 
extrusion  compounds  are  now  the  dominant  factor 
insofar  as  chief  outlet  is  concerned,  the  sum  total 
of  all  other  uses  may  grow  even  faster  than  the 
molding  branch.  Applications  in  adhesives,  laminat- 
ing, calendering,  coating,  and  uses  of  resin  or  cel- 
lulosics  for  textile  and  paper  treatment  as  well  as 
with  wood  waste,  could  eventually  become  the 
plastics  industry's  greatest  contributions  to  the  na- 
tion's welfare. 

In  the  molding  and  extrusion  industry  alone, 
great  significance  attaches  to  the  ever-growing 
prominence  of  thermoplastics  which  in  1948  ex- 
ceeded thermosetting  molding-compound  con- 
sumption for  the  first  time  in  history. 

According  to  statistics  published  by  Modern 
Plastics  magazine,  the  estimated  production  of  syn- 
thetic resins  in  1948  totalled  1,400  million  Ib. 
Phenolics,  with  a  300  million  Ib.  total,  again  led 
the  plastics  industry  in  total  consumption  but  with 
a  slight  decline  from  1947.  Vinyls  of  all  types 
showed  a  healthy  increase  of  from  184  million  Ib. 
in  1947  to  230  million  Ib.  in  1948.  Polystyrene 
came  along  fast,  particularly  at  the  end  of  die  year, 
to  approach  150  million  Ib.,  a  55  percent  increase 
over  1947.  The  entire  plastics  industry  moved 
ahead  by  a  little  less  than  10  percent  in  1948  over 
1947. 

A  new  thermosetting  molding-compound  based 
on  a  polyester  type  resin  was  introduced  during 
1948.  This  compound  embodies  several  features 
which  make  it  extremely  attractive  to  molders  seek- 
ing high-speed  production.  It  is  extremely  fast 
curing  and  requires  relatively  low  pressures  for 
molding.  Its  outstanding  properties  are  dimensional 
stability,  resistance  to  heat,  and  extraordinarily 
high  arc  resistance. 

Styrene-butadiene  copolymers  made  with  a  high 
proportion  of  styrene  were  developed  by  several 
firms.  These  are  horny  substances  which  at  or- 
dinary temperatures  have  none  of  the  elastic  quali- 
ties of  rubber.  They  are  compounded  with  rubber 
to  produce  compositions  characterized  by  tough- 
ness, high  impact  strength,  and  heat  resistance. 
Primary  applications  are  in  shoe  soles,  floor  cover- 
ings, golf  ball  cover  stock,  football  helmets,  ship- 
ping containers,  and  carrying  cases. 

New  copolymers  of  styrene  and  isobutylene  pro- 
duced by  low  temperature  polymerization  were  an- 
nounced during  1948.  They  exhibit  rubberlike 
elastic  properties  in  addition  to  their  thermoplastic 
characteristics.  They  have  a  broad  softening  range, 
mix  well  with  waxes,  are  easily  processed  on  con- 
ventional equipment,  and  have  low  permeability 
to  moisture  and  gases.  Their  films  are  especially 


suitable  for  the  packaging  of  fresh  and  dried  fruit 
which  require  retention  of  moisture  and  controlled 
transmission  of  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  during 
prolonged  storage. 

Polystyrenes  with  improved  light  stability,  tough- 
ness, and  heat  resistance  were  announced  at  the 
National  Plastics  Exposition.  The  first  is  directed 
toward  resistance  to  yellowing  when  used  indoors 
or  when  the  product  is  not  exposed  directly  to  the 
weather,  as  in  automobiles.  The  impact  strength  of 
the  new  tough  styrene-type  resin  is  three  to  five 
times  greater  and  the  elongation  10  times  greater 
than  the  corresponding  values  for  regular  polysty- 
rene. The  increase  in  heat  resistance  of  one  type  of 
polystyrene  is  attributed  to  more  precise  control 
of  molecular  chain  forms  in  the  polymer  as  a  result 
of  the  application  of  principles  discovered  in  the 
course  of  fundamental  research. 

Commercial  production  in  limited  quantities  of 
polynionochlorotrifluoroethylene  (Kel-F)  was  an- 
nounced. It  combines  chemical  inertness  and 
toughness  over  a  wide  temperature  range  ( —  320 
to  390°  F. )  with  ready  fabrication  in  conventional 
equipment.  With  production  capacity  for  poly- 
ethylene more  than  tripled  during  the  year  (from 
15  million  to  approximately  55  million  Ib.),  interest 
in  this  versatile  plastic  continued  to  mount.  It  pos- 
sesses an  unusual  combination  of  desirable  quali- 
ties; namely,  high  dielectric  strength,  light  weight, 
flexibility  at  low  temperatures,  chemical  resistance, 
low  water-vapor  permeability,  freedom  from  taste 
and  odor,  non-toxicity,  transparency,  and  ease  of 
fabrication  without  plasticizer. 

Although  rubber  and  plastics  compete  for  many 
markets,  the  trend  toward  using  the  two  materials 
in  combination  to  achieve  superior  performance 
continues.  A  polyblend  stock  made  by  colloidal 
blending  of  polyvinyl-chloride  resin  and  butadiene- 
acrylonitrile  rubber  possesses  properties  hereto- 
fore obtained  only  by  mill  mixing.  By  varying  the 
ratio  of  nitrile  rubber  and  polyvinyl  chloride,  prod- 
ucts ranging  from  hard  plastic  materials  to  soft 
rubberlike  compositions  are  produced.  Thermo- 
plastic tubing  and  hose  can  be  made  which  are 
superior  to  plasticized  elastomers  in  dimensional 
stability  when  aged  at  high  temperatures  and,  in 
addition,  are  not  subject  to  stiffening  because  of 
plasticizer  extraction.  Such  tubing  can  be  used  for 
transferring  beverages,  gasoline,  oilsy  solvents,  and 
industrial  chemicals. 

The  development  of  a  flame-resistant  cellulose 
acetate  molding  compound  meeting  Underwriters' 
Laboratories  requirements  was  announced.  This 
material  is  based  on  high  acetyl  cellulose  acetate 
and  is  in  use  for  electric  mixer  and  shaver  housings, 
blanket  switches,  vacuum  cleaner  parts,  and  the 
like. 

Phenolic*,  A  sharp  slump  hit  the  phenolic  molding 
industry  in  the  late  spring  and  summer,  with  the 
result  that  molding-powder  consumption  for  the 
year  dropped  off  from  almost  200  million  Ib.  in 
1947  to  180  million  Ib.  in  1948,  All  other  phenolic 
classifications  held  about  even  with.  1947.  Con- 
sumption was  back  up  to  around  16  million  Ib.  in 
the  fall.  The  mild  shock  administered  to  phenolic 
molders  by  this  slump  will  probably  serve  as  a 
stimulant  to  developing  new  business.  In  the 
shortage  years,  new  uses  did  not  grow,  but  now 
healthy  growth  of  uses  will  further  develop  the  in- 
dustry. 

Indications  that  new  products  are  under  way  can 
be  found  in  tool  shops  where  molds  are  under  con- 
struction, but  most  of  them  are  still  in  the  confi- 
dential stage.  One  that  points  up  the  tendency  to 
mold  larger  pieces  is  a  dresser-drawer  to  be  mold- 


PLASTICS 


438 


PLASTICS 


ed  from  wood-filled  compound.  The  same  thing 
was  tried  unsuccessfully  years  ago,  but  new  tech- 
niques now  make  it  look  practical.  From  dresser- 
drawers  to  other  pieces  of  furniture  and  large-size 
moldings  is  only  a  step.  A  kitchen  cabinet  for  at- 
tachment to  walls  is  another  probability. 

Work  on  molded  laminates  is  also  progressing 
nicely,  with  such  items  as  window  frames  and  stair 
tread  and  riser  covers  under  consideration.  Even  a 
small  piano  with  a  molded  soundboard  is  a  possi- 
bility. These  things  may  be  out  of  line  for  most 
compression  molders,  but  it  has  been  a  frequent 
incident  in  this  industry  to  have^new^  products 
come  from  the  hands  of  men  who  "didn't  know  it 
couldn't  be  done." 

There  are,  of  course,  many  possibilities  in  the 
phenolic  field  aside  from  molding.  These  include 
such  things  as  brake  linings  and  abrasive  bondings 
which  have  grown  so  large  that  the  materials  manu- 
facturers have  set  up  separate  departments  to 
handle  them.  Mineral  wool  bonded  with  phenolic 
liquid  resin  is  now  manufactured  by  more  than  10 
companies.  Floor  coverings  frequently  employ  a 
phenolic  binder.  Honeycomb  cores  for  laminating 
to  aluminum  or  plywood  for  structural  panels  have- 
n't gone  as  far  ahead  as  expected  but  are  still  a 
promising  possibility. 

Most  exciting  of  all  current  possibilities  is  the 
use  of  phenolics  with  wood.  A  phenolic-treated 
paper  for  surfacing  plywood  that  will  withstand 
severe  weathering  was  announced  during  the  year. 
Its  structural  use  seems  assured.  Then  there  is  a 
wood  laminate  coming  along  that  may  fit  in  par- 
ticularly well  in  the  construction  and  furniture 
fields.  It  consists  of  a  core  of  Southern  pine,  a  cross- 
wise layer  of  a  phenolic-impregnated  paper,  and  a 
layer  or  aluminum  with  a  phenolic-paper  coating  on 
each  side,  the  entire  structure  being  faced  with 
wood  veneer  of  any  type  desired.  The  resulting 
laminate  will  compete  pricewise  with  any  material 
intended  for  similar  uses. 

Still  another,  and  perhaps  eventually  the  biggest, 
use  of  phenolics  in  the  wood  field  is  in  combination " 
with  sawdust  and  scrap.  It  is  claimed  that  a  prod- 
uct employing  10  percent  or  less  resin  can  be  made 
for  6  cents  a  board  foot,  or  about  $60  per  M  board 
feet,  and  can  be  used  as  lumber  in  most  any  appli- 
cation where  wood  is  needed.  Resin  producers  esti- 
mate they  will  be  selling  at  least  1  million  Ib.  of 
resin  a  month  for  this  material  by  the  end  of  1950. 

Vinyls.  Capacity  has  skyrocketed  to  an  estimated 
250  million  Ib.  annual  production  of  vinyl  resin — 
some  researchers  say  even  more.  Improvements  in 
vinyl  materials  and  technique  are  matters  of  almost 
week-to-week  development.  Research  on  plasti- 
cizers  is  continuing  to  solve  problems  of  brittleness 
at  low  temperature,  migration,  and  spewing.  Better 
stabilizers  to  improve  heat  and  sunlight  resistance 
are  promised  for  the  near  future.  Heat  sealing  of 
vinyl  film  is  not  yet  foolproof,  and  there  is  con- 
siderable difference  of  opinion  as  to  where  the  most 
improvement  can  be  made. 

One  of  the  outstanding  examples  of  better  heat- 
sealing  techniques  is  found  in  raincoat  production. 
Sewing  of  vinyl  film  was  never  particularly  suc- 
cessful because  fabricators  were  slow  to  learn  that 
vinyl  required  a  different  technique  than  fabric — 
that  round  needles,  long  stitches,  and  nylon  thread 
should  be  used.  Sewn  under-arm  seams  and  button- 
holes pulled  out.  Heat  sealing  lessens  the  tendency 
for  seams  to  open  up.  One  raincoat  manufacturer 
eliminated  all  sewing;  used  snaps  or  zippers  in- 
stead of  buttons  and  double  layers  of  vinyl  to  re- 
inforce the  pockets,  zipper,  or  snaps;  sealed  on  a 
hanger  strip  at  the  back  of  the  neck;  used  the  new 


metallic  colors  to  give  style  and  newness — and  sold 
200,000  raincoats  in  the  first  five  months  of  1948. 
Each  raincoat  required  about  1  Ib.  of  compound. 

There  has  been  a  tendency  for  vinyl-coated  fab- 
ric to  move  into  more  competition  with  unsupport- 
ed sheeting  now  that  the  fabric  is  in  better  supply 
and  cost  is  down  slightly.  There  are  authorities 
who  insist  that  the  trend  toward  coated  fabric  will 
become  more  noticeable  in  1949,  especially  in  the 
upholstery  field  where  some  upholsterers  claim 
they  want  the  added  strength  imparted  by  fabric. 
Unsupported  sheet  boosters,  on  the  other  hand, 
insist  that  proper  technique  in  applying  the  sheet 
will  eliminate  tearing  and  that  coated  fabric  does 
not  have  the  drape  or  luxurious  feel  of  unsupported 
sheet. 

It  seems  quite  obvious  that  pyroxylin-coated 
fabric  is  now  suffering  from  the  impact  of  vinyl 
and  will  suffer  more.  It  has  been  further  estimated 
that  the  upholstery  market  would  use  a  total  of 
some  40  million  yards  of  vinyl  material  and  less 
than  8  million  yards  of  pyroxylin-coated  cloth  in 
1948.  The  automobile  industry,  however,  still 
seems  to  be  using  about  50  percent  pyroxylin- 
coated  material  for  inner  linings,  trim,  tops,  kick 
plates,  etc.  Estimators  figure  that  every  automobile 
in  the  country  averages  about  2  yards  of  coated  or 
unsupported  material;  taxis  may  average  8  to  10 
yards.  Pastes  and  plastisols  are  growing  in  ac- 
ceptance in  the  vinyl  part  of  tiiese  applications, 
with  coated  fabric  running  a  close  race  to  catch  up 
with  unsupported  sheet. 

Vinyl  treatment  or  coating  of  paper  dropped  off 
in  1948  because  of  the  resurgence  of  oilcloth  for 
which  vinyl-coated  paper  had  been  pinch-hitting. 
However,  the  latter  is  on  the  market  to  stay.  Con- 
sumers still  like  it  as  shelf  paper,  etc.,  but  competi- 
tion is  at  work.  This  category  is  expected  to  in- 
crease again  in  1949  when  vinyl-coated  paper  win- 
dow drapes  make  their  impact  on  the  market. 

The  molding  and  extrusion  division  of  the  in- 
dustry is  still  dominated  by  wire  and  cable  insula- 
tion. Extrusions  such  as  belts  and  garden  hose  may 
account  for  10  million  or  12  million  Ib.;  some  30 
percent  of  all  garden  hose  produced  in  1948  is  esti- 
mated to  be  vinyl. 

Polystyrene.  Record-breaking  consumption  of 
around  15  million  Ib.  of  polystyrene  a  month  in  the 
latter  part  of  1948  presages  another  record-break- 
ing year  in  1949.  Trie  near  150  million  Ib.  total  in 
1948  represents  a  55  percent  increase  over  1947 
and  that  year  was  42  percent  over  1946. 

An  important  factor  in  the  big  poundage  for 
1948  was  the  steadily-increasing  size  of  molded 
pieces.  The  refrigerator  industry  in  particular  is 
using  large  numbers  of  crispers,  baffles,  throat 
pieces,  and  other  fixtures,  with  one  baffle  reported 
as  containing  30  oz.  of  polystyrene  and  having  an 
area  of  364  square  inches.  Refrigerators  now  fre- 
quently employ  at  least  8  to  10  Ib,  of  polystyrene 
each;  they  now  account  for  the  largest  poundage  of 
polystyrene,  with  housewares  running  second. 

Among  other  large  moldings  are  pastel-colored 
toilet  seats.  They  are  not  cored  out  like  many  other 
plastics  seats,  but  are  solid  pieces  weighing  almost 
5  Ib.  A  9^  Ib.,  one-piece  battery  case  is  another 
large-size  article.  Polystyrene  producers  insist  that 
their  material  has  permanently  taken  over  a  good 
portion  of  the  radio  cabinet  business.  Color  is  a  de- 
ciding factor  in  many  cases.  Higher  heat-resistant 
polystyrene  has  been  helpful  because  it  allows 
more  flexibility  of  design;  but  if  good  ventilation  is 
incorporated  in  the  design,  standard  polystyrene  is 
adequate. 

Molding  powder  still  accounts  for  over  90  per- 


PLASTICS 


439 


PIAST1CS 


cent  of  polystyrene  production,  but  other  things  are 
beginning  to  develop  now  that  material  is  available 
for  experimentation.  Extruded  polystyrene,  which 
may  currently  account  for  from  2  percent  to  5  per- 
cent of  all  consumption,  is  developing  slowly  but 
apparently  with  promise.  Filaments  for  brushes 
and  brooms  have  been  on  the  market  for  some 
time — improved  technique  will  undoubtedly  in- 
crease uses  and  volume  within  the  next  year  or  so. 
Large-size  extruded  sheets  are  now  being  tried  as 
over-lays  on  refrigerator  inner-door  panels  and 
have  also  been  suggested  as  wall  board  to  replace 
tile,  as  dashboards  in  automobiles,  and  in  other 
sizeable  pieces.  A  polystyrene  paper-base  laminate 
is  also  a  possibility,  not  for  table  tops,  but  possibly 
for  walls. 

Cellulosics.  Confronted  with  serious  competition 
from  other  materials,  cellulosic  molding  materials 
fell  off  again  in  1948,  but  producers  feel  confident 
that  the  spurt  evidenced  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
year  will  continue  on  into  1949  and  beyond.  Even 
though  other  thermoplastics  also  spurted  at  the 
same  time  to  indicate  a  general  uplift  in  all  injec- 
tion-molded products,  the  cellulosic  increase  in  the 
fall  to  around  4.5  million  Ib.  a  month  (exclusive  of 
ethyl  cellulose)  from  a  low  of  3.4  million  Ib.  in 
June  and  a  high  of  4  million  Ib.  in  March  indicated 
that  cellulosics  were  in  a  stronger  position. 

Pointed  out  as  typical  applications  for  cellu- 
losics in  the  toy  field,  for  example,  are  miniature 
vehicles  which  are  required  to  take  a  lot  of  banging 
around — motor  housings  for  toy  building  sets, 
dolls,  gun  stocks — anything  that  must  withstand 
the  punishment  resulting  from  youthful  exuber- 
ance. Further,  as  another  example,  butyrate  is  now 
the  most  commonly  used  plastic  in  telephone  bases. 
Other  cellulosics  are  under  experiment  for  the 
handpiece,  and  the  possibility  of  using  colored  cel- 
lulosics for  both  molded  base  and  handset  suggests 
a  possibility  for  employment  of  big  poundage.  A 
variation  of  this  is  found  in  colored  acetate  and 
butyrate  sheaths  for  phenolic  phone-set  bases. 

Development  of  a  flame-resistant  acetate  to  meet 
Underwriters'  Laboratory  specifications  is  expected 
to  be  a  boon  to  acetate,  particularly  for  use  in 
housings.  Housings  and  parts  for  electric  shavers, 
lightning  arresters,  Christmas-tree  lights,  cake  mix- 
ers, and  vacuum  sweepers  have  already  been  suc- 
cessfully molded  of  this  material. 

By  and  large,  the  acetate  and  butyrate  producers 
expect  to  get  a  larger  percentage  of  the  injection- 
molding-material  business  than  they  did  in  1948 
and  are  confident  that  it  won't  be  long  before  their 
poundage  surpasses  the  record  1946  figure  of  83 
million  Ib.  Producers  of  acetate  have  no  hope  of 
ever  approaching  the  polystyrene  total  poundage 
figure,  since  that  material  has  captured  many  mar- 
kets never  fitted  for  acetate.  Nevertheless,  there  is 
a  belief  that  the  acetate  situation  will  improve  in 
both  price  and  properties. 

Probably  the  decline  or  standstill  in  film  and 
sheeting  was  more  disappointing  to  the  cellulosics 
industry  than  the  decline  in  molding  material  It  is 
probably  explained  by  the  accident  which  in- 
capacitated a  principal  producer's  plant  early  in 
the  year,  but  still  there  has  not  been  the  expansion 
expected  in  this  branch  of  the  industry. 

Saran.  Sales  of  saran,  vinylidene  chloride  poly- 
mers, increased  around  100  percent  in  1948  over 
1947.  Screen  cloth,  woven  from  saran  monofila- 
ment,  was  reported  to  have  taken  from  30  to  40 
percent  of  the  total  output.  Volume  of  sales  for  the 
year  ending  June,  1948,  was  approximately  the 
same  as  the  corresponding  period  for  1947.  Ex- 
truded saran  pipe  is  making  slow,  steady  gains, 


but  usage  thus  far  is  limited  primarily  to  chemical 
and  industrial  plants  and  generally  only  when  cor- 
rosion is  a  problem.  Problems  in  molding  and  in 
the  larger-size  extrusions,  due  to  the  specific  gravity 
of  saran,  along  with  fabricating  difficulties,  are 
still  holding  up  any  large-scale  development  for 
molded  and  extruded  parts. 

Polyethylene.  A  "sleeper"  in  the  plastics  industry 
may  well  be  polyethylene,  or  Polythene,  as  it  is 
called  by  one  producer.  It  has  been  held  back  be- 
cause there  was  not  enough  material  to  supply  de- 
mand. But  the  17  million  or  18  million  Ib.  available 
in  1948  will  probably  be  advanced  to  more  than 
50  million  Ib.  in  1949  if  expanded  facilities  which 
were  completed  in  1948  are  operated  at  normal 
rates. 

A  versatile  material  with  some  properties  that 
eclipse  other  plastics,  polyethylene  has  wide  ranges 
of  usefulness.  It  is  the  lightest  in  weight  of  all 
plastics;  it  wall  float  on  water;  electrical  properties 
are  superb;  chemical  resistance  is  high.  In  fact,  the 
latter  two  properties  are  handicaps  in  some  cases 
because  of  their  excellence.  The  electrical  resist- 
ance is  so  great  that  polyethylene  cannot  be  elec- 
tronically heat  sealed;  its  solvent  resistance  makes 
it  difficult  to  adhere  to  other  material  or  to  print  on. 
It  has  very  low  moisture  absorption  and  remains 
flexible  at  low  temperature. 

First,  and  still  most  important  outlet  for  poly- 
ethylene is  in  the  electrical  insulation  field.  Some- 
where near  2.5  million  Ib.  a  month  may  soon  be 
used  for  that  purpose  if  present  applications  con- 
tinue to  expand.  Best  known  is  the  %-in.  diameter 
disk  used  as  coaxial  cable-spacers — there  are  as 
many  as  506,000  disks  per  mile  in  a  typical  cable. 

The  largest  potentiality  of  all  in  some  estimators 
opinions  is  polyethylene  film.  Extruded  in  thick- 
nesses of  from  1  mil  up  and  as  wide  as  54  or  72  in., 
the  2  mil  film  can  be  sold  at  75  cents  a  Ib.,  or  1,000 
sq.  in.  for  about  5  cents,  in  comparison  to  1,000  sq. 
in.  of  moisture-proof  cellophane  in  1.4  mil  thick- 
ness at  from  4.8  to  5.6  cents  per  M  sq.  in.  In  cast 
film,  the  polyethylene  cost  would  be  about  $1.00 
per  Ib.  Extruded  tubing  and  pipe  with  molded 
valves  and  joints  is  also  a  growing  business  for 
polyethylene.  Ease  of  processing  and  chemical  re- 
sistance make  such  products  ideal  for  chemical, 
paper,  and  textile  plants  where  corrosion  is  a  prob- 
lem. 

Acrylics.  The  poundage  of  acrylic  in  comparison 
to  the  total  poundage  for  the  entire  plastics  in- 
dustry is  small,  yet  acrylic  is  so  popular  and  its  uses 
are  so  spectacular  that  the  trade  names  Plexiglas 
and  Lucite  perhaps  symbolize  "plastics"  to  the 
public  more  than  any  other  coined  names. 

Acrylic  production  today  is  probably  less  than 
half  of  wartime  consumption,  when  it  was  slightly 
over  30  million  Ib.  Acrylic  molding  material  used 
primarily  for  automotive  applications,  high-style 
boxes  and  ornaments,  brush  backs,  high-grade  cos- 
tume jewelry,  and  similar  "class"  applications, 
probably  totals  less  than  1  million  Ib.  a  month.  At 
least  50  percent  of  present  usage  is  reported  as  be- 
ing in  automotive  applications — horn  buttons,  es- 
cutcheons, radiator  ornaments,  stop-light  lenses. 

An  interesting  new  molded  application  is  in  let- 
ters used  by  oil  companies  for  signs  for  stations 
and  trucks.  One  producer  is  molding  letters  that 
are  %  in,  thick  and  vary  from  6  to  15  in.  in  height. 
They  can  be  molded  at  less  cost  than  fabricated 
because  of  the  quantity  needed.  The  biggest  letter 
reported  uses  around  12  oz.  of  material  and  is 
molded  on  a  16-oz.  injection  press. 

Urea  and  Melamine.  The  1948  pattern  for  urea- 
molded  products  did  not  show  much  change  from 


PIASTJCS 


440 


POLAND 


former  years.  One  of  the  first  jobs  since  molding 
powder  came  into  free  supply  has  been  to  get  back 
whatever  end-products  may  have  been  lost  to 
other  materials  when  urea  was  difficult  to  obtain. 
Radio  cabinets,  molded  containers  or  boxes,  and 
various  types  of  housings  should  soon  be  appearing 
again  in  urea,  more  frequently  than  in  the  past 
three  or  four  years. 

Buttons  and  closures  now  require  an  estimated 
40  percent  of  the  urea  and  melarnine  output,  with 
buttons  alone  accounting  for  25  percent.  Such 
items  as  scales,  business  machines,  instrument  and 
clock  housings,  electrical  apparatus,  children's  toys, 
dishware,  and  stove  hardware  seem  firmly  estab- 
lished in  urea  or  melamine. 

Probably  the  biggest  news  in  melamine  molding 
during  1948  was  the  increased  popularity  and  sales 
of  melamine  dishware  for  both  commercial  and 
home  use.  There  are  a  few  complaints  from  users 
about  various  difficulties,  but  none  of  them  seems 
without  remedy.  A  cafeteria  survey,  where  the 
dishes  had  been  on  test  for  nine  months,  reports  a 
tableware  replacement  of  0.0013  cents  per  meal,  or 
around  $700  for  that  period,  for  melamine  dishes, 
compared  to  a  replacement  cost  of  from  $1,500  to 
$1,700  a  year  on  china.  Many  of  the  replacement 
losses  on  melamine  were  suffered  when  the  dishes 
were  carried  off  by  customers! 

Use  of  melamme  and  urea  in  wet  strength  paper 
has  increased  at  least  20  percent  over  1947.  Bags, 
toweling,  blueprints,  crate  liners  for  vegetable  ship- 
ping containers,  and  paper  drapes  are  some  of  the 
chief  outlets.  Melamine  laminates  increased  for 
decorative  purposes  during  1948  and  are  due  for 
further  expansion  when  builders  learn  that  the 
higher  initial  cost  of  laminated  window  sills,  doors, 
trims,  etc.,  is  soon  paid  for  by  low  maintenance 
cost  Television  sets,  furniture,  and  elevator  cars 
are  good  volume  potentials  for  laminates.  In  one 
factory  as  many  as  1,000  tables  a  day  have  been 
made  with  melamine  laminated  tops. 

Use  of  melamine  in  textiles  for  shrinkage  control, 
water  repellence,  and  wrinkle  resistance,  continued 
to  advance.  Shrinkage  resistance  in  wools  is  pres- 
ently limited  to  woven  goods  such  as  shirts.  A 
kindred  application  is  in  felt  belts  for  paper  mills 
where  treated  felt  will  last  some  13  days  in  com- 
parison to  a  former  life  of  7  days. 

Nylon.  Development  of  nylon  as  a  more  widely 
used  injection-molding  material  was  held  back  sev- 
eral years  by  scarcity,  price  of  $1.60  a  lb.?  and  lack 
of  interest  by  molders  who  were  busy  with  other 
things  and  thought  they  didn't  have  time  to  learn 
new  techniques.  But  1948  witnessed  a  revision  of 
molders*  opinions.  Today  there  are  at  least  50 
molders  who  can  or  have  molded  nylon  products 
successfully. 

Molded  nylon  coil-forms  no  more  than  0.005  in. 
thick  will  withstand  the  tension  of  electrical  wire 
wrappings  and  the  heat  used  to  bake  an  insulating 
varnish  over  the  finished  coil.  Millions  of  coil-forms 
are  produced  annually.  They  range  in  size  from 
tiny  ones  that  might  be  placed  three  on  a  thumb- 
nail to  some  that  are  4  in.  in  diameter.  One  molder 
is  now  selling  them  for  less  than  other  plastic 
forms.  His  economy  comes  from  injection  molding 
and  a  paucity  of  rejects — he  can  mold  to  minute 
tolerances. 

Nylon  dishware  in  use  in  State  and  government 
institutions  can  stand  abuse  and  can  be  sterilized. 
Similar  applications  in  restaurants  and  homes  might 
logically  follow  this  development  but  have  not  as 
yet.  Nylon  monofilament  for  brashes,  fishing  lead- 
ers, sutures,  tennis-racket  strings  and  even  harp 
strings,  is  not  quite  equal  to  molding  powder  on  a 


poundage  basis,  but  is  constantly  growing.  The 
market  for  all '  bristles,  animal  or  synthetic,  has 
grown  rapidly.  From  2  million  to  3  million  Ib.  of 
bristles  were  imported  before  the  war  and  about 
6  million  in  1947,  according  to  one  authority.  Four 
million  Ib.  are  used  for  paint  brushes  in  a  year. 
Nylon  bristles  are  now  employed  in  about  10  per- 
cent of  all  master  paint  brushes. 

— CHAKLES  A.  BEESEIN 

POLAND.  A  central  European  republic,  established 
Nov.  9,  1918.  It  was  invaded  by  Germany  Sept.  1, 
1939,  partitioned  between  Germany  and  the 
U.S.SJR.  by  the  treaty  of  Sept.  28,  1939,  and  com- 
pletely occupied  by  German  forces  after  the  out- 
break of  the  Russo-German  war  on  June  22,  1941. 
The  liberation  of  Poland,  begun  early  in  1944,  was 
completed  in  the  spring  of  1945. 

Area  and  Population.  The  territorial  limits  of  the 
new  Poland  have  not  yet  been  finally  drawn.  With- 
in the  provisional  boundaries  fixed  by  the  Yalta 
and  Potsdam  Agreements,  the  country  occupies  an 
area  of  121,131  square  miles,  with  an  estimated 
population  of  24,200,000  on  July  1,  1947  (23,929,- 
800  according  to  the  census  of  Feb.  14,  1946). 
Capital,  Warsaw  (est.  population  on  Mar.  1,  1948: 
585,470).  Populations  of  other  important  cities  in 
1947:  Lodz,  596,000;  Cracow,  303,000;  Poznan, 
268,000;  Wroclaw  (Breslau),  201,000;  Gdansk 
(Danzig),  170,000;  Katowice,  128,000. 

Education  and  Religion.  Elementary  and  secondary 
education,  up  to  the  age  of  18,  is  compulsory  and 
free.  In  1947,  there  were  3,260,000  pupils  in  ele- 
mentary schools;  225,200  in  secondary  schools;  and 
97,755  students  (32,904  of  them  women)  at  uni- 
versities and  other  institutions  of  higher  learning. 
The  population  is  chiefly  Roman  Catholic. 

Production.  In  the  new  Poland,  agricultural  and 
industry  are  fairly  balanced  as  the  principal  sourc- 
es of  national  income.  An  important  exporter  of 
foodstuffs  before  the  war,  Poland  was  a  food  deficit 
country  in  1945-47,  but  made  a  good  start  toward 
regaining  its  former  role  in  1948.  Bumper  crops 
of  wheat,  rye,  barley  and  oats  were  harvested  in 
1948,  bringing  the  total  cereal  yield  to  about  11 
million  tons,  as  compared  with  4  million  tons  in 
1947.  Poland  now  ranks  as  one  of  the  world's  fore- 
most coal-producing  and  exporting  countries.  In 
1947,  the  output  of  coal  was  59,130,335  tons,  as 
compared  with  47,288,000  tons  in  1946  and  20,- 
183,000  in  1945.  The  target  figure  for  1948  was 
set  at  80  million  tons.  In  the  first  six  months  of  the 
year,  33,400,000  tons  were  produced.  Poland  is 
also  an  important  producer  of  iron  and  steel.  The 
output  of  raw  steel,  in  the  first  half  of  1948,  was 
926,600  tons,  compared  to  1,220,000  tons  for  the 
whole  year  of  1946. 

Foreign  Trade.  According  to  official  estimates,  Po- 
land's foreign  trade  in  1948  exceeded  the  $1,000 
million  mark,  almost  doubling  the  country's  1947 
share  in  the  international  exchange  of  goods. 

Government.  A  permanent  new  constitution  has 
not  yet  been  drawn  up.  By  and  large  the  original 
constitution  of  1921  is  being  applied,  with  some 
important  modifications.  Theoretically  the  Sejm,  or 
parliament,  is  the  supreme  organ  of  the  state.  In 
the  444-man  Sejm,  elected  on  Jan.  19,  1947,  the 
(Communist-controlled)  Government  bloc  holds 
383  seats.  Since  March,  1947,  a  five-man  state 
executive  council,  headed  by  the  President  of  the 
republic,  has  been  empowered  to  rule  by  decree 
between  parliamentary  sessions,  subject  to  the 
Sejm's  approval  of  the  laws  thus  passed.  President, 
Boleslaw  Bierut,  elected  Feb.  5,  1947,  for  a  term 
of  seven,  years;  Premier,  Joseph  Cyrankiewicz. 


POUND 


441 


POLAND 


Events,  1948.  Three  international  developments 
left  a  strong  imprint  on  Polish  affairs  in  the  year 
under  review:  the  exacerbation  of  the  East- West 
conflict;  the  Communist  coup  in  Czechoslovakia; 
and  the  Tito  <fheresy"  in  Yugoslavia. 

In  all  three  cases,  Poland  slavishly  adhered  to 
the  Moscow  line,  though  not  without  some  internal 
convulsions.  By  the  end  of  the  year,  there  was 
hardly  any  shred  of  doubt  left  as  to  Poland's  com- 
plete domination  by  the  Communists  of  strict  Mus- 
covite observance. 

Poland's  primary  importance  in  the  "Molotov 
Plan"  for  European  Economic  Recovery,  as  op- 
posed to  the  Marshall  Plan,  was  highlighted  by  a 
state  visit  to  Moscow  early  in  1948  and  the  com- 
prehensive Russo-Polish  treaty  that  sprang  from  it 
On  Jan.  13,  Premier  Joseph  CyranJdewicz,  Vice 
Premier  Wladyslaw  Gomulka,  Minister  of  Indus- 
try Hilary  Mine,  and  his  deputy  Ludwig  Gross- 
feld  departed  for  Moscow  where  they  spent  two 
weeks  conferring  with  Soviet  leaders  on  political, 
economic  and  international  problems.  They  were 
joined  later  by  Marshal  Michael  Rola-Zymierski, 
Polish  Minister  of  National  Defense  and  Com- 
mander in  Chief  of  the  Army,  indicating  that  mili- 
tary topics  were  also  under  consideration.  The 
only  announced  outcome  of  these  talks  was  a  five- 
year  trade  treaty  providing  for  a  total  turnover  of 
$1,000  million  and  granting  Poland  an  investment 
credit  of  $450  million  for  capital  goods  to  be  pur- 
chased from  Russia  in  the  period  1948-56.  It  was 
pointed  out  that  this  figure  represented  the  largest 
credit  ever  granted  by  the  Soviet  Union  to  a  for- 
eign country. 

Rapprochement  with  Czecnos/ovaJcki.  The  Commu- 
nist coup  in  Prague,  in  February  (see  CZECHOSLO- 
VAKIA, under  Events,  1948)  opened  the  way  for 
close  political  and  economic  cooperation  between 
Poland  and  Czechoslovakia.  Such  a  rapprochement 
of  the  two  countries,  which  in  the  past  often  had 
been  rivals,  had  long  been  sought  by  Moscow  as  a 
means  of  strengthening  the  Soviet  satellite  system 
in  Eastern  Europe.  Previously,  however,  the  differ- 
ent political  hues  of  the  regimes  in  Warsaw  and  in 
Prague  had  been  an  obstacle;  the  Czechs  thought 
Poland  was  a  bit  too  strongly  tied  to  Russia's  apron- 
strings,  while  the  Poles  were  not  sure  of  Czechoslo- 
vakia's undivided  loyalty  to  the  Soviet  orbit. 

One  of  the  first  actions  of  the  new  Czechoslovak 
Foreign  Minister  Vladimir  dementis  was  to  pay  a 
visit  to  Warsaw,  on  March  13.  A  comprehensive 
accord  on  economic  cooperation  resulted  from  his 
talks  with  Polish  officials.  Potentially  the  most  im- 
portant feature  of  the  agreement  was  a  plan  for 
the  joint  establishment  and  operation  of  an  East 
European  "Ruhr  district"  in  Upper  Silesia.  De- 
tailed plans  for  this  huge  industrial  venture  were 
announced  on  August  8  in  a  communique  of  the 
Polish-Czechoslovak  Economic  Cooperation  Coun- 
cil. 

The  new  industrial  combine  is  to  be  centered  in 
the  area  between  Katowice  in  the  Polish,  and 
Moravska  Ostrava  in  the  Czech  portion  of  Silesia. 
The  arrangement  envisages  the  construction,  with- 
in the  next  twelve  years,  of  a  number  of  large  new 
steel  works  and  power  plants.  According  to  some 
reports,  an  annual  steel  production  of  4  million 
tons — largely  based  on  iron  ores  imported  from 
Sweden — is  being  aimed  at.  The  two  countries  also 
announced  that  they  intended  to  coordinate  their 
foreign  trade  policies,  in  order  to  avoid  "unhealthy 
competition"  in  foreign  markets. 

The  Warsaw  Conference.  Several  international 
meetings  and  rallies  were  held  in  Poland  during 
the  year.  The  most  important  of  these  was  the  For- 


eign Ministers"  conference  on  Germany  which  con- 
vened at  Wilanow  Palace  near  Warsaw  on  June  24. 
Organized  in  open  opposition  to  the  Western  pow- 
ers* London  Conference  on  Germany  (see  GEB- 
MANY,  under  Events)  the  Warsaw  meeting  was  at- 
tended by  the  foreign  ministers  of  the  eight  "So- 
viet bloc"  states:  Albania,  Bulgaria,  Czechoslo- 
vakia, Hungary,  Poland,  Rumania,  the  U.S.S.R. 
and  Yugoslavia.  The  communique  issued  at  the 
close  of  the  conference  was  devoted  mainly  to  a 
sharp  attack  on  the  London  decisions,  which  "do 
not  aim  at  preventing  the  possible  recurrence  of 
German  aggression,  but  rather  at  transforming  the 
western  part  of  Germany,  and  especially  the  heavy 
industry  of  the  Ruhr  Basin,  into  an  instrument  for 
rebuilding  the  military  potential  of  Germany  .  .  ." 

In  line  with  current  Soviet  policy,  the  Warsaw 
communique  deplored  die  breaking  up  and  dis- 
membering of  Germany*^ by  tine  Western  Allies,  a 
policy  which  was  said  to  "make  impossible  the  con- 
clusion of  a  peace  treaty  with  Germany,  without 
which  there  can  be  no  end  to  the  prolonged  ^ state 
of  war  and  the  occupation  regime  in  Europe."  The 
communique  was  silent,  however,  on  plans  for  the 
establishment  of  an  East  German  government, 
which  the  Russians  were  reported  to  be  favoring, 
while  the  Poles  were  said  to  be  opposed  at  this 
time. 

In  connection  with  the  Warsaw  Conference,  the 
Polish  Government  on  June  18  formally  protested 
in  Washington,  London,  and  Paris  against  the  six- 
power  decisions  on  Germany,  contending  that  these 
decisions  violated  .the  Potsdam  Agreement  and  that 
they  failed  to  take  Polish  interests  into  considera- 
tion. The  American  and  British  Governments  si- 
multaneously rejected  these  protests  on  July  7. 
The  American  note  pointed  out  that  Russia,  not 
the  Western  powers,  was  responsible  for  the  break- 
down of  quadripartite  control  over  Germany  and 
advised  the  Polish  Government  that  its  complaint 
"should  more  appropriately  be  addressed  to  the 
occupying  power  responsible  for  the  present  de- 
plorable division  of  Europe  and  Germany." 

On  a  different  level,  the  East-West  feud  was 
waged  with  no  less  bitterness  at  the  "World  Con- 
gress of  Intellectuals"  which  was  opened  at  Wroc- 
law (Breslau)  on  August  25.  Western  representa- 
tives were  in  a  decided  minority  at  this  convention, 
which  engaged  in  denunciations  of  alleged  Amer- 
ican imperialism  and  warmongering. 

Gomulka's  Fall  from  Grace.  On  the  domestic  politi- 
cal scene,  Tito's  rebellion  against  the  Kremlin  had 
unexpected  and  far-reaching  repercussions.  As  in 
Yugoslavia,  the  Polish  Communist  party  had  been 
divided  for  some  time  into  two  rival  factions,  one 
of  which  put  unquestioning  loyalty  to  Moscow 
above  all  other  considerations,  while  the  other 
had  the  national  interest  at  heart.  The  former 
group  was  headed  by  Hilary  Mine,  Minister  of  In- 
dustry, the  latter  by  Vice-Premier  Wladyslaw 
Gomulka,  the  secretary  general  of  the  Workers' 
(Communist)  party. 

The  struggle  between  the  two  factions  came  to 
a  head  in  August,  after  completion  of  the  break 
between  Tito  and  the  Cpminform.  At  a  meeting 
of  the  Communist  party's  central  committee,  in 
mid-August,  a  new  political  program  was  drawn 
up  which  in  all  respects  followed  the  Cominform 
line.  Among  other  things,  it  was  decided  to  organ- 
ize a  new  drive  against  "rich  peasants,"  and  to 
bring  all  small  and  medium  farmers  into  coopera- 
tives. On  this,  as  on  other  points  of  the  program, 
Gomulka  was  in  frank  opposition  to  the  party  ma- 
jority. At  first  an  attempt  was  made  to  gloss  over 
the  dispute,  but  when  Gomulka  refused  to  recant, 


POIO 


442 


POPl/lATION 


his  ouster  from  party  leadership  became  inevitable. 

On  September  3,  a  statement  issued  by  the  cen- 
tral committee  admitted  publicly  that  there  was  a 
"rightist  and  nationalist  deviation"  in  the  party. 
At  tlie  same  time  it  was  announced  that  the  com- 
mittee had  called  on  President  Bierut — who  hither- 
to had  been  ostensibly  a  non-party  man —  to  "re- 
turn to  active  political  work"  in  the  party  and  that 
the  President  had  agreed.  This  move  foreshadowed 
the  dismissal  of  Gomulka  from  his  post  as  Secretary 
General,  which  was  made  public  on  September  5, 
when  the  central  committee,  after  a  new  denun- 
ciation of  the  dissidents,  named  Bierut  to  the  key 
party  post. 

Gomulka,  realizing  that  he  had  lost  the  battle, 
capitulated.  On  September  6,  he  publicly  admitted 
his  "errors"  and  promised  to  abide  by  the  new 
party  line.  Although  he  had  previously  opposed  his 
party's  denunciation  of  Tito,  he  now  announced 
that  there  was  no  room  in  the  Polish  Workers*  party 
for  "Yugoslav-like  apostasies."  In  return,  he  was 
allowed  to  keep  his  posts  as  Vice-Premier  and 
Minister  for  the  Western  Territories. 

The  Communist  purge,  which  also  involved  nu- 
merous lesser  party  officials  throughout  the  coun- 
try, led  to  a  similar  crisis  in  the  Socialist  party. 
Since  early  in  the  year,  plans  had  been  afoot  to 
merge  the  two  parties — whose  differences  in  view- 
point and  policies  gradually  had  become  almost 
imperceptible — in  a  single  United  Workers  party. 
Those  plans  were  nearing  completion  at  the  time 
of  the  Gomulka  affair.  Now  the  new  Secretary 
General  of  the  Communist  party,  President  Bienit, 
demanded  that  the  Socialist  partner  reform  as 
thoroughly  before  the  fusion  project  could  become 
effective. 

Accordingly,  on  September  22,  the  central  com- 
mittee of  the  Socialist  party  purged  itself  and  the 
subordinate  National  Council  of  16  members 
charged  with  nationalism,  right-wing  tendencies, 
and  hampering  unity  with  the  Communists.  Among 
those  removed  from  the  central  committee  was 
farmer  Premier  Edward  Osubka-Morawsld.  The 
victorious  left-wing  faction  was  led  by  the  party's 
secretary  general,  Premier  Cyrankiewicz.  Thus  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  year,  a  virtual  one-party  rule 
was  established  in  Poland.  — JOACHIM  JOESTEN 

POLO.  The  mallet-swinging  stars  enjoyed  one  of 
their  biggest  years  in  1948  when  efforts  were  made 
to  make  the  sport  more  popular  with  the  general 
public.  More  contests  were  played  indoors  and  the 
admission  cost  to  big  outdoor  games  was  cut  with 
result  that  many  sports  fans  saw  polo  for  the  first 
time.  One  innovation  was  the  introduction  of  the 
game  to  the  Orange  Bowl  in  Miami,  Fla.,  where 
teams  using  indoor  rules  played  through  most  of 
the  Winter. 

Laddie  Sanford*s  Hurricanes,  led  by  the  ten- 
goal  Cecil  Smith,  captured  the  big  event  of  the 
campaign,  the  national  open  championship  on  In- 
ternational Field  of  the  Meadow  Brook  Club  at 
Westbury,  L.I.  Riding  with  Captain  Sanfprd  and 
Smith  were  Larry  Sheerin  and  Peter  Perkins.  The 
same  team  added  to  its  laurels  with  a  convincing 
triumph  in  the  Monty  Waterbury  Cup  tourney. 
Texas  came  through  to  the  title  in  the  National 
League's  outdoor  campaign.  * 

Arlington  Farms  of  Chicago  took  national  open 
indoor  honors,  the  junior  crown  falling  to  the  Mil- 
waukee Shamrocks.  The  University  of  Miami  team 
of  Florida  rode  off  with  the  national  intercollegiate 
trophy  and  the  Chicago  Black  Hawks  triumphed 
in  the  Sherman  Memorial  tournament. 

— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 


POPULATION.  The  most  fundamental  statistics  of 
any  geographic  area  are  the  statistics  of  its  popu- 
lation— the  count  of  the  number  of  persons  who 
live  in  the  area — since  it  is  through  these  persons 
fiat  the  area  acquires  importance,  either  as  a  mar- 
ket or  as  a  source  of  production  or  as  a  factor  in 
the  non-economic  affairs  of  the  nations.  For  some 
areas  the  best  population  statistics  available,  even 
now,  comprise  no  more  than  rough  estimates  of 
the  number  of  inhabitants,  without  classification, 
while  in  other  areas  there  have  been  painstaking 
counts  of  the  population  classified  by  age,  sex, 
marital  status,  education,  occupation,  income,  and 
other  characteristics. 

World  Population.  The  earliest  date  for  which  gen- 
erally acceptable  estimates  of  the  population  of 
the  world  have  been  made  is  around  1650,  or 
about  300  years  ago.  Even  now  no  more  than  two- 
thirds  or  three-fourths  of  the  world's  population  is 
covered  by  actual  censuses;  and  some  of  the  cen- 
suses are  far  from  meeting  the  highest  standards. 
Estimates  for  dates  from  1650  to  1933  are  pre- 
sented in  Table  1.  From  545  million  in  1650,  the 
world  population  increased,  according  to  these  es- 
timates, to  728  million  in  1750 — a  gain  of  33  per- 
cent in  100  years;  by  1850  the  figure  had  grown  to 
1,171  million,  an  increase  of  61  percent;  and  in 
1947,  at  the  end  of  almost  another  hundred  years, 
the  figure  was  about  twice  that  of  1850.  The  speed- 
ing up  in  the  rate  of  increase  which  has  thus  been 
noted  has  resulted  in  part  from  improvement  in 
health  conditions  effected  by  governmental  activi- 
ties in  the  field  of  public  health,  in  part  from  the 
greatly  increased  per  capita  output  attained 
through  the  use  of  modern  methods  in  both  agri- 
culture and  manufacturing,  and  in  part  from  the 
facility  with  which  modern  transportation  brings 
food  to  an  otherwise  famine-stricken  area  and  car- 
ries food  products  from  surplus  areas  to  deficit 
areas. 

TABLE  1— POPULATION  OF  THE  WORLD,  BY 

CONTINENTS:  1650  TO  1933* 

(Figures  in  millions) 

1650  1750  1800  1850  1900  19SS 

The  World 545  728  906  1,171  1,608  2,057 

Europe 100  140  187  266  401  519 

Asia 330  479  602  749  937  1,121 

Africa 100  95  90  95  120  145 

North  &  South  America.     13  12  25  59  144  262 

Oceania 2  2  2  2  6  10 

a  From  A.  M.  Carr-Saunders,  World  Population,  London, 
1937. 

In  the  more  highly  industrialized  areas,  where 
public  health  activities  long  ago  brought  about 
significant  reductions  in  the  death  rate,  the  birth 
rate  also  has  gone  down  significantly  in  recent 
decades,  so  that  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  is 
no  more — perhaps  even  less — than  it  was  100  or 
150  years  ago  when  both  rates  were  high.  In  these 
countries  the  Malthusian  menace  of  population 
overtaking  food  supply  is  no  longer  a  source  of 
worriment.  In  other  countries,  however,  where  the 
reduction  in  the  death  rate  through  governmental 
health  activities  is  recent,  the  birth  rate  is  still 
maintained  at  its  earlier  level;  and  we  have  cases 
where,  as  in  Puerto  Rico,  a  death  rate  of  13  is 
accompanied  by  a  birth  rate  of  43,  with  a  resulting 
3  percent  annual  increase  in  the  population — 
which,  in  Puerto  Rico,  is  already  twice  as  large  as 
the  land  can  well  support. 

The  latest  available  population  figures  are 
shown,  by  continents,  in  Table  2,  with  correspond- 
ing areas  and  population  densities.  In  the  matter 
of  growth  since  1933,  there  are  no  outstanding 
differences  among  the  continents,  and  the  minor 


POPULATION 


443 


POPULATION 


differences  in  favor  of  the  "newer"  continents  may 
reflect  nothing  more  than  the  relative  imperfections 
in  the  data. 

TABLE  2— POPULATION  AND  AREA  OF  THE 

WORLD,  BY  CONTINENTS:  1947 


Population  ° 
(thousands') 
The  World  2,314,955 
Europe  fexci.  U.S.S.R.).    386,198 
Asia  fexci.  U.S.S.R.)  .  .  .  1,230,876 
U.S.S.R.  (Europe  & 
Asia)  193,000 

Area 
(sq.  mi.} 

57,566,335 
1,907,902 
11,056,834 

8  443  710 

Population 
per  sq.  mi. 
402.1 
202.4 
111.3 

2286 

Africa  183,178 

11  610,615 

1578 

North  America                   206  246 

9  387  343 

219  7 

South  America  103,558 
Oceania  fine.  Australia,).      1  1  ,899 

6,855,294 
330,056 

151.1 
360.5 

c  From  Statistical  Office  of  the  United  Nations. 

Even  in  the  matter  of  population  density — the 
number  of  persons  per  square  mile  of  area — the 
differences  are  not  as  spectacular  as  between  one 
entire  continent  and  another,  since  every  continent 
contains  rather  large  areas  of  thinly  settled  terri- 
tory and  relatively  small  areas  with  the  extreme 
densities  represented  by  such  areas  as  the  Nether- 
lands (717),  Belgium  (713),  or  Puerto  Rico 
(628). 

Population  of  the  United  States.  The  population  of 
the  United  States  in  1790,  when  the  first  census 
was  taken,  was  just  short  of  4  million.  Each  sub- 

TABLE  3— POPULATION  OF  CONTINENTAL  UNITED 
STATES:  1790  TO  1948 


Date 
1790  

Population 
3,929,214 

Increase  over 
preceding  census 
Number       Percent 

1,379,269        35.1 
1,931,398        36.4 
2,398,572        33.1 
3,227,567        33.5 
4,203,433        32.7 
6,122,423        35.9 
8,251,445        35.6 
8,375,128        26.6 
10,337,334        26.0 
12,791,931        25.5 
13,046,861         20.7 
15,977,691         21.0 
13,738,354         14.9 
17,064,426         16.1 
8,894,229           7.2 
14,902,176         11.3 

Popula- 
tion per 
sq.  mi. 
4.5 
6.1 
4.3 
5.5 
7.3 
9.7 
7.9 
10.6 
13.4 
16.9 
21.2 
25.6 
30.9 
35.5 
41.2 
44.2 
49.2 

1800  

.    ..       5,308,483 

1810 

7  239  881 

1820 

9  638  453 

1830... 

.  .     12  866,020 

1840... 

.  .     17,069,453 

1850  

.    ..     23191,876 

1860... 

,  .     31,443,321 

1870  
1880 

.    ..     39,818,449  « 
50  155  783 

1890  . 

62  947  714 

1900 

.     75,994,575 

1910 

.  .     91  972,266 

1920... 

.  .   105,710,620 

1930  

.    .  .    122,775,046 

1940 

131  669  275 

1948 

146  571  451  & 

<*  Revised  figure.    b  Preliminary  estimate  for  July  1. 

sequent  decennial  census  up  to  1860  showed  an 
increase  of  about  one-third  over  the  preceding  cen- 
sus. From  that  date  to  1910  the  decennial  increase 
was  around  20  or  25  percent,  and  for  the  decades 
ending  in  1920  and  1930,  respectively,  15  or  16 
percent,  while  between  1930  and  1940  the  popula- 


Because  of  frequent  additions  of  thinly  settled 
areas  to  the  territory  of  the  United  States  between 
1790  and  1850,  there  were  no  marked  increases  in 
the  population  per  square  mile.  Between  1850  and 
1900,  however,  the  population  density  increased 
from  7.9  to  25.6,  and  continued  to  increase  rapid- 
ly, amounting  to  44.2  in  1940  (and  49.2  in  1948), 

Estimates  of  the  population  of  the  United  States 
as  a  whole  have  been  made  month  by  month  since 
1940  on  the  basis  of  current  records  of  births  and 
deaths  (adjusted  for  under-registration)  and  net 
immigration.  The  estimates  for  July  1  of  each  year 
are  presented  in  Table  4,  together  with  the  data 
on  births,  deaths,  and  net  immigration  on  which 
the  estimates  are  based. 

The  population  of  the  United  States  for  July  1, 
1948,  including  persons  in  military  service  abroad, 
was  thus  estimated  at  146,571,000,  which  repre- 
sents an  increase  of  2,538,000,  or  1.76  percent, 
over  the  estimate  for  July  1,  1947.  The  increase 
during  the  preceding  fiscal  year  (2,799,000),  a 
year  in  which  nearly  4  million  births  were  record- 
ed, was  appreciably  larger,  but  the  increase  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1948,  was  larger  by  many 
hundreds  of  thousands  than  the  increase  in  any 
year  prior  to  1947. 

The  estimate  for  1948  represents  an  increase  of 
14,902,000,  or  11.3  percent,  over  the  1940  census. 
This  8-year  period  thus  added  almost  twice  as 
much  to  the  population  as  the  entire  decade  be- 
tween 1930  and  1940;  and  the  complete  decade 
from  1940  to  1950  bids  fair  to  record  an  increase 
decidedly  larger  in  absolute  figures  than  any 
earlier  decade. 

This  situation,  which  represents  a  reversal  of  a 
long-time  trend  toward  slower  and  slower  popu- 
lation increase,  is  difficult  to  interpret;  and  ex- 
perts in  the  population  field  are  in  disagreement 
as  to  whether  it  is  a  purely  temporary  result  of  war 
conditions  or  may  foreshadow  population  increase 
at  a  higher  level  over  a  long  period  of  time. 

The  sources  of  the  increase  between  1947  and 
1948  may  be  analyzed  as  follows.  There  were  dur- 
ing the  year  ending  June  30,  1948,  3,700,000 
births,  from  which  may  be  subtracted  1,458,000 
deaths,  leaving  a  natural  increase  of  2,242,000 
which  represents  the  major  part  of  the  population 
increase.  The  remainder  was  made  up  of  net  civil- 
ian immigration  amounting  to  296,000,  including 
about  30,000  persons  coming  into  continental  Unit- 
ed States  from  the  territories  and  possessions. 

Among  these  factors,  the  number  of  births  is 
the  one  which  has  changed  materially  during  the 
past  30  years,  first  declining  from  a  maximum  of 
2,956,000  in  1921  to  a  minimum  of  2,275,000  in 


TABLE  4— ESTIMATES  OF  THE  POPULATION  OF  CONTINENTAL  UNITED  STATES  IN- 
CLUDING ARMED  FORCES  OVERSEAS:  1940  TO  1948 


April  1 
July  1, 
July  1, 
July  1, 
July  1, 
July  1, 
July  1, 
July  1, 
July  1, 
July  1, 

Date 
1940  (census) 

Population 
131,669,275 

Increase  over 
preceding  date 
Number           % 

30l",666        0.23 
1,233,000        0.93 
1,462,000        1.10 
1,832,000        1.36 
1,586,000        1.16 
1,502,000        1.09 
1,649,000        1.18 
2,799,000        1.98 
2,538,000        1.76 

Change  during  preceding  period 
Excess  of    Net  civilian 
births  over       arrivals 
Births             Deaths             deaths      from,  abroad 

623,666           353,666           270,666          31,000 
2,628,000        1,454,000        1,174,000          59,000 
2,808,000        1,415,000        1,393,000          69,000 
3,209,000        1,487,000        1,722,000        110,000 
3,017,000         1,556,000        1,460,000        126,000 
2,955,000         1,652,000        1,303,000        199,000 
2,897,000         1,440,000        1,457,000        192,000 
3,997,000         1,428,000        2,569,000        230,000 
3,700,000        1,458,000        2,242,000        296,000 

1940  .  .  . 

.   131,970000 

1941 

.   133,203,000 

1942  

134,665,000 

1943  

136,497,000 

1944     .... 

138,083,000 

1945  

139,586,000 

1946  

141,235,000 

1947  

144,034,000 

1948  

146,571,000 

tion  increased  only  7.2  percent,  or  less  than  half 
the  smallest  previous  decennial  increase.  The  data 
for  die  sixteen  censuses  are  given  in  Table  3,  to- 
gether with  the  population  per  square  mile  on  each 
census  date. 


1933,  and  then  increasing,  first  slowly  to  2,558,000 
in  1940,  and  then  more  rapidly  to  the  figures  quot- 
ed above.  The  number  of  deaths  was  1,442,000  in 
1920,  1,457,000  in  1930,  1,474,000  in  1940,  and 
1,460,000  in  the  calendar  year  1948.  Immigration 


P0PUIATJON 


444 


POPULATION 


averaged  around  300,000  per  year  between  1920 
and  1930,  slightly  less  than  zero  between  1930 
and  1940?  and  in  1948  was  again  approaching 
300,000  a  year. 

TABLE  5— POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

EXCLUDING  ARMED  FORCES  OVERSEAS, 
BY  STATES:  1948  AND  1940 


Division 

July  1,  1948 

April  1, 

Percent 

and 

(provisional 

1940 

of 

State 

estimate] 

(Census} 

increase  ° 

United  States  .  . 

146,114,000 

131,669,275 

11.0 

New  England: 

Maine  ,  . 

000,000 

£47,226 

6.2 

New  Hampshire  . 

548,000 

491,524 

11.6 

Vermont  .... 

374,000 

359,231 

4.1 

Massachusetts  -  . 

4,718,000 

4,316,721 

9.3 

Rhode  Island.  .    . 

748,000 

713,346 

4.8 

Connecticut  ...     . 

2,011,000 

1,709,242 

17.7 

Middle  Atlantic: 

New  York  

14,386,000 

13,479,142 

6.7 

New  Jersey.  .  . 

4,729,000 

4,160,165 

13.7 

Pennsylvania.  ,  .   . 

10,689,000 

9,900,180 

8.0 

East  North  Central: 

Ohio  

7,799,000 

6,907,612 

12.9 

Indiana  

3,909,000 

3,427,796 

14.1 

Illinois  

8,670,000 

7,897,241 

9.8 

Michigan  

0,195,000 

5,256,106 

17.9 

Wisconsin  

3,309,000 

3,137,587 

5.5 

West  North  Central 

Minnesota  

2,940,000 

2,792,300 

5.3 

Iowa  

2,625,000 

2,538,268 

3.4 

Missouri  

3,947,000 

3,784,664 

4.3 

North  Dakota  

560,000 

641,935 

-12.8 

South  Dakota.  .  .  . 

623,000 

642,961 

-3.2 

Nebraska  

1,301,000 

1,315,834 

-1.1 

Kansas 

1,968,000 

1,801,028 

9.3 

South  Atlantic: 

Delaware.  

297,000 

266,505 

11.5 

Maryland  

2,148,000 

1,821,244 

17.9 

Dist.  of  Columbia 

898,000 

663,091 

35.5 

Virginia  
West  "Virginia  .  .  . 

3,029,000 
1.9  15,000 

2,677,773 
1,901,974 

13.1 
0.7 

North  Carolina.  . 

3,715,000 

3,571,623 

4.0 

South  Carolina.  . 

1,991,000 

1,899,804 

4.8 

Georgia 

3,128,000 

3,123,723 

0.1 

Honda 

2,356,000 

1,897,414 

24.2 

East  South  Central: 

Kentucky  

2,819,000 

2,845,627 

-0.9 

Tennessee  

3,149,000 

2,915,841 

8.0 

Alabama  

2,848,000 

2,832,961 

0.5 

Mississippi  

2,121,000 

2,183,796 

-2.9 

West  South  Central: 

Arkansas  

1,925,000 

1,949,387 

-1.3 

Louisiana  

2,576,000 

2,363,880 

9.0 

Oklahoma            » 

2,362,000 

2,336,434 

1.1 

Texas  

7,230,000 

6,414,824 

12.7 

Mountain; 

Montana  

511,000 

559,456 

-8.6 

Idaho  

530,000 

524,873 

1.0 

Wyoming  
Colorado  

275,000 
1,165,000 

250,742 
1,123,296 

9.6 
3.7 

New  Mexico  

571,000 

531,818 

7.4 

Arizona  ,  

664,000 

499,261 

32.9 

Utah  

655,000 

550,310 

19.0 

Nevada  

142,000 

110,247 

28.4 

Pacific: 

Washington...,  .. 

2,487,000 

1,736,191 

43.3 

Oregon  
California  

1,626,000 
10,031,000 

1,089,684 
6,907,387 

49.2 
45.2 

*  A  minus  sign  ( — )  denotes  decrease. 

In  addition  to  the  estimates  of  the  total  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States  including  members  of  the 
armed  forces  overseas,  estimates  were  made  for 
the  civilian  population  and  for  the  population  in- 
cluding military  personnel  in  the  continental  Unit- 
ed States.  The  estimate  of  the  civilian  population 
for  July  1,  1948,  was  145,306,000,  and  the  estimate 
for  the  population,  excluding  only  those  armed 
forces  who  were  overseas,  was  146,114,000.  The 
latter  estimate  is  distributed  by  States  in  Table  5, 
which  shows  also  the  percentage  of  increase  over 
1940. 

The  figures  in  Table  5  indicate  that,  in  general, 
the  population  changes  resulting  from  the  con- 
centration of  war-production  effort  in  certain  areas 
have  been  maintained  up  to  1948,  that  is,  most  of 
the  States  which  showed  marked  increase  between 
1940  and  1948  were  States  to  which  there  was  a 
considerable  amount  of  migration  for  participation 


in  the  war-production  effort.  Seventeen  States  and 
the  District  of  Columbia  increased  at  a  higher  rate 
than  the  country  as  a  whole,  while  the  population 
of  seven  States  actually  decreased.  Nearly  one- 
third  of  the  entire  numerical  increase  took  place 
in  the  three  Pacific  Coast  States,  each  of  which 
showed  a  population  increase  well  above  40  per- 
cent, while  the  maximum  percentage  for  any  State 
outside  the  far  west  was  24.2  in  Florida. 

There  has  been  much  interest,  especially  in  re- 
cent years,  in  forecasts  of  the  population  for  future 
dates,  but  the  unexpectedly  large  numbers  of  births 
which  have  occurred  since  1940,  and  especially  in 
the  fiscal  years  1946-47  and  1947-48,  have  made 
increasingly  difficult  the  problem  of  making  such 
forecasts.  Revised  forecasts  of  the  population  of 
the  United  States  (two  alternative  series  based  on 
different  assumptions)  were  published  by  the  Bu- 
reau of  the  Census  early  in  1949.  The  higher  of 
these  two  series  of  official  estimates  gives  149,886,- 
000  for  1950  and  155,745,000  for  1955.  Even  these 
estimates  seem  to  be  rather  conservative,  however, 
in  view  of  the  actual  increases  during  1947  and 
1948,  and  the  situation  in  January,  1949,  seemed 
to  justify  somewhat  larger  estimates,  perhaps  as 
high  as  151  million  for  1950,  and  159  million  for 
1955. 

Urban  and  Rural  Areas.  The  urban  population  of 
the  United  States  comprises  in  general  all  persons 
living  in  incorporated  places  (cities,  towns,  vil- 
lages, or  boroughs)  having  a  population  of  2,500 
or  more,  while  the  remainder  of  the  population  is 
classified  as  rural.  One  of  the  most  significant  of 
the  changes  in  the  characteristics  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States  has  been  the  rapid  urbaniza- 
tion of  the  population.  In  1790,  94.9  percent  of 
the  population  was  rural  and  only  5.1  percent  ur- 
ban. By  1850  the  percentage  urban  had  increased 
to  15.3;  in  1900  it  was  39.7;  in  1920,  51.2;  in  1940, 
56.5;  and  in  1947,  59.0.  There  has  been  consistent 
and  rapid  increase  in  this  figure  from  one  census 
to  another  since  1830,  except  that  during  the  de- 
pression decade  between  1930  and  1940  She  urban 
population  increased  only  a  little  faster  than  the 
rural.  The  conditions  prevailing  during  this  period 
discouraged  the  usual  movement  of  the  population 
from  rural  to  urban  areas  and  also  reduced  some- 
what the  rate  of  natural  increase  so  that  the  urban 
areas  gained  far  less  than  in  previous  decades  from 
the  inflow  of  rural  migrants,  and  somewhat  less 
from  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths.  The  decen- 
nial figures  on  urban  and  rural  population  are  sum- 
marized for  the  entire  period  from  1790  to  1940 
in  Table  6,  together  with  estimates  based  on  a  sam- 
ple survey  of  the  civilian  population  made  in  1947, 
which  indicate  a  resumption  of  the  tendency  to- 
ward urban  residence. 

Sex  and  Color.  Since  1910,  at  which  time  there 
was  an  excess  of  2,692,288  males  in  the  population 
of  the  United  States  (partly  resulting  from  heavy 
immigration  during  the  years  just  preceding),  there 
has  been  a  fairly  rapid  decline  in  the  sex  ratio,  that 
is,  the  number  of  males  per  100  females.  This  fig- 
ure, which  stood  at  106.0  in  1910,  had  been  re- 
duced to  100.7  in  1940,  and  further  reduced  in 
1948  to  99.1.  Between  1940  and  1948,  an  excess 
of  453,909  of  males  in  the  population  had  disap- 

E eared  and  been  replaced  by  an  excess  of  642,421 
smales.  This  situation  represents  more  nearly  what 
might  be  termed  a  normal  relationship  between 
the  numbers  of  the  two  sexes,  since  under  present 
conditions  women  live  somewhat  longer,  on  the 
average,  than  men.  It  is  expected  that  this  excess 
of  females  will  increase  somewhat  as  the  years  go 
by,  but  that  it  will  never  reach  alarming  proper- 


POPl/lAT/ON 


445 


POPULATION 


TABLE  6— URBAN  AND  RURAL  POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES:  1790  TO  1947 


Year 
1790 

Percent  in- 
crease over 
preceding  census 
Urban     Rural 

59.9        33.8 
63.0        34.7 
31.9        33.2 
62.6        31.2 
63.7        29.7 
92.1        29.1 
75.4        28.4 
59.3         13.6 
42.7        25.7 
56.5         13.4 
36.4         12.2 
39.3          9.0 
29.0          3.2 
27.3          4.4 
7.9          6.4 
12.7  '         1.7 

Percent 
of  total 
population 
Urban     Rural 
5.1        94.9 
6.1        93.9 
7.3        92.7 
7.2        92.8 
8.8        91.2 
10.8        89.2 
15.3        84.7 
19.8        80.2 
25.7        74.3 
28.2        71.8 
35.1        64.9 
39.7        60.3 
45.7        54.3 
51.2        48.8 
56.2        43.8 
56.5        43.5 
59.0        41.0 

Total 
3,929,214 

Urban 
201,655 
322,371 
525,459 
693,255 
1,127,247 
1,845,055 
3,543,716 
6,216,518 
9,902,361 
14,129,735 
22,106,265 
30,159,921 
41,998,932 
54,157,973 
68,954,823 
74,423,702 
83,860,000 

Rural 
3,727,559 
4,986,112 
6,714,422 
8,945,198 
11,738,773 
15,224,398 
19,648,160 
25,226,803 
28,656,010 
36,026,048 
40,841,449 
45,834,654 
49,973,334 
51,552,647 
53,820,223 
57,245,573 
58,201,000 

1800                    .        .    . 

5,308,483 

1810     

7,239,881 

1820     , 

,  9,638,453 

1830  , 

12,866,020 

1840  

.    .    ,  17,069,453 

1850  

23,191,876 

I860  

31,443,321 

1870 

38  558  371 

1880 

50  155  783 

1890        

...           62  947  714 

1900        

.    .           75  994  575 

1910     

91  972  266 

1  920 

105  710  620 

1930 

199  775  046 

1940  

131  669,275 

1947  ° 

142  061  000 

0  Estimate  for  April  1 ;  civilian  population  only. 

tions  nor  even  approach  a  figure  equal  to  tlie  ex- 
cess of  males  which  obtained  In  1910.  The  data 
for  population  classified  by  sex  from  1850  to  1948 
are  presented  in  Table  7. 

TABLE  7— POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
BY  SEX:  1850  TO  1948 


Males 

per  100 

Year  Male  Female     females 

1850 11,837,660     11,354,216     104.3 

1880 25,518,820    24,636,963     103.6 


Excess 

males 

483,444 

881,857 


1910  ............  47,332,277  44,639,989  106.0  2,692,288 

1930  ............  62,137,080  60,637,966  102.5  1,499,114 


,,      , 
1940  ............  66,061,592  65,607,683 

1948  «  ...........  72,964,515  73,606,936 


100.7 
99.1 


453,909 
642,421  & 


0  Estimate  for  July  1.    6  Excess  of  females. 

The  percentage  of  nonwhite  persons  in  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  United  States  has  changed  very  fettle 
in  recent  times.  The  census  figures  show  a  slight 
decrease  from  12.1  percent  in  1900  to  10.2  percent 
in  1930  and  again  in  1940,  at  which  time  the  total 
nonwhite  population  amounted  to  13,454,405. 
Since  1940,  however,  the  nonwhite  population  has 
increased  somewhat  faster  than  the  white,  amount- 
ing in  1947,  according  to  a  sample  survey  of  the 
civilian  population,  to  15,017,000,  or  10.6  percent 
of  the  total.  During  this  same  period  there  was  a 
very  considerable  migration  of  nonwhite  persons 
from  the  rural  south  to  urban  centers  in  the  north 
and  west  Thus  while  the  nonwhite  population  of 
the  country  as  a  whole  increased  11.6  percent, 
the  nonwhite  population  actually  decreased  4.8 
percent  in  the  south,  and  increased  by  more  than 
50  percent  in  the  rest  of  the  country.  These  figures 
are  summarized,  by  regions,  in  Table  8. 

TABLE  8—  POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 
BY  COLOR,  BY  REGIONS:  1940  AND  1947 
__  __ 

Civilian  Total  Percent 

Area  and  classification     population  °  population  increase* 

Total  .............  142,061,000  131,669,275  7.9 

The  Northeastern  States.  39,315,000  35,976,777  9.3 

The  North  Central  States  42,663,000  40,143,332  6.3 

The  South  .............  42,773,000  41,665,901  2.7 

The  West  ..............  17,310,000  13,883,265  24.7 

White  ...............  127,044,000  118,214,870  .  7.5 

The  Northeastern  States.  36,973,000  34,566,768  7.0 

The  North  Central  States  40,410,000  38,639,970  4.6 

The  South  .............  33,243,000  31,658,578  5.0 

The  West  ..............  16,418,000  13,349,554  23.0 

Nonwhite  ............   15,017,000  13,454,405  11.6 

The  Northeastern  States.     2,342,000  1,410,009  66.1 

The  North  Central  States    2,253,000  1,503,362  49.9 

The  South  .............     9,530,000  10,007,323  -4.8 

The  West  ..............        892,000  533,711  67.1 

«  Estimates  based  on  a  small  sample.    *  A  minus  sign  (  —  )  de- 
notes decrease. 

Age  Distribution.  The  population  of  the  United 
States,  like  that  of  most  industrialized  countries, 


has  been  rather  rapidly  growing  older  for  a  long 
time,  partly  because  the  declining  birth  rate  has 
resulted  in  the  addition  of  relatively  smaller  num- 
bers of  children  in  successive  generations,  and 
partly  because  improvements  in  health  conditions 
have  increased  the  span  of  life.  The  median  age  of 
the  population  in  1820  was  16.7;  in  1870,  20.2;  in 
1910,  24.1;  and  in  1940,  29.0.  The  same  tendency 
is  indicated  by  the  increase  in  the  percentage  of 
the  population  65  years  old  and  over,  which  in- 
creased from  3.4  in  1880  to  7.5  in  1948. 

While  the  increase  in  the  percentage  of  the  pop- 
ulation in  the  older  age  groups  has  continued  since 
1940,  the  large  numbers  of  births,  already  referred 
to  above,  have  changed  the  pattern  of  the  age  dis- 
tribution with  respect  to  the  younger  age  groups. 
These  changes  are  clearly  shown  by  the  figures  in 
Table  9,  which  gives  the  age  data  for  1940  and 
1948. 

TABLE  9— POPULATION,  INCLUDING  MILITARY 
OVERSEAS,  BY  AGE:  1948  AND  1940 


Age 
(years) 
All  ages  ...... 

Population  J 
1948 
Number 
146,571,451 

uly  1, 

Percent 

100.0 
10.3 
8.8 
7.4 
7.5 
8.2 
8.2 
7.7 
7.3 
6.7 
6.1 
5.5 
4.9 
4.0 
3.0 
2.1 
2.4 

Population  April  1, 
1&40 
Number      Percent 
131,669,275     100.0 
10,541,524        8.0 
10,684,622        8.1  . 
11,745,935        8.9 
12,333,523        9.4 
11,587,835        8.8 
11,096,638        8.4 
10,242,388        7.8 
9,545,377        7.2 
8,787,843        6.7 
8,255,225        6.3 
7,256,846        5.5 
5,843,865        4.4 
4,728,340        3.6 
3,806,657        2.9 
2,569,532        2.0 
2,643,125        2.0 
29.0 

Under  5 

.   15  106  426 

5  to  9 

.   12  892  849 

10  to  14      ... 

.   .  .  .   10,879  788 

15  to  19  

10,981,908 

20  to  24   

12,013,111 

25  to  29 

11  999  596 

30  to  34 

11  239  717 

35  to  39   .  .  

10,665,695 

40  to  44      

9,765,025 

45  to  49  

8,934,173 

50  to  54 

8  072  218 

55  to  59 

.     7  221,142 

60  to  64 

.     5  850  220 

65  to  69      .    .  .  . 

,    ...     4,347,308 

70  to  74   . 

3,145,936 

3,456,339 

Msdi&n  3>ge 

298 

The  population  under  5  years  of  age,  which  de- 
creased sharply  between  1930  and  1940  and  was 
actually  smaller  in  1940  than  in  1910,  increased 
far  more  rapidly  between  1940  and  1948  than  any 
other  age  group,  gaining  43.3  percent  as  compared 
with  a  gain  of  only  11.3  percent  in  the  population 
as  a  whole,  and  representing  10.3  percent  of  the 
total  population  in  1948,  as  compared  with  8.0  per- 
cent in  1940.  The  population  5  to  9  years  old  like- 
*wise  increased  its  proportion  of  the  total  from  8.1 
percent  to  8.8  percent  On  the  other  hand,  the 
number  of  persons  from  10  to  19  years  of  age, 
comprising  mainly  persons  born  during  the  low- 
birth-rate  years  of  the  1930's,  was  smaller  by  more 
than  2  million  in  1948  than  in  1940.  The  popula- 
tion at  the  upper  end  of  the  age  scale  continued  to 
increase,  however,  at  a  rate  materially  above  that 


PORTS  ANO  HARBORS 


446 


PORTS  AND  HARBORS 


TABLE  10— POPULATION  BY  EMPLOYMENT  STATUS,  DECEMBEB,  1940  TO  1948 

(Institutional  population  excluded.  Employment  figures  are  based  on  a  small  sample.  Numbers  in  thousands) 


Employment  status 
Total  population  14  years  old  and  over.  .  . 

Dec., 

1948 
.  .  .  109,036 
.  62,828 

Dec., 

1947 
107,918 
60,870 

Dec., 

1946 
106,940 
60,320 

Dec., 

1944 
104,900 
65,030 

Dec., 
194^ 
103,010 
61,970 

Dec., 
1940 
100,780 
55,150 

.  .  .     1,453 

1,280 

1,890 

11,820 

6,290 

690 

.  .  ,  107,583 

106,638 

105,050 

93,080 

96,720 

100,090 

p.    ...  "  r  1™      , 

.  ..  61,375 

59,590 

58,430 

53,210 

55,680 

54,460 

.  ..   59,434 

57,947 

56,310 

52,710 

54,160 

47,550 

...      1,941 

1,643 

2,120 

500 

1,520 

6,910 

.  .  .   46,208 

47,047 

46,620 

39,870 

41,040 

45,630 

Employed  persons  by  sex: 
Male                         .         

.  ..   42,162 

41,653 

40,300 

34,180 

37,500 

35,880 

Female    • 

...    17,272 

16,294 

16,010 

18,530 

16,660 

11,670 

of  the  total  population.  Persons  55  to  64  years  of 
age  formed  8.9  percent  of  the  total  in  1948,  as 
compared  with  8.0  percent  in  1940,  and  the  per- 
centage of  the  population  65  years  old  and  over 
increased  from  6.9  in  1940  to  7.5  in  1948. 

Very  significant  increases  in  the  numbers  of  chil- 
dren of  school  age  can  be  definitely  forecast  on  the 
basis  of  current  data  on  children  of  pre-school  age 
— or  of  the  numbers  of  births  which  have  occurred 
in  specific  recent  years.  The  6-year-olds  entering 
school  in  the  fall  of  1948,  for  example,  were  mainly 
the  survivors  of  the  2,808,000  births  of  the  fiscal 
year  1941-42.  Those  who  will  enter  school  in  1953 
will  be  mainly  the  survivors  of  the  3,997,000  births 
of  1946-47  and  may  safely  be  counted  on  to  rep- 
resent a  similar  increase  (42.3  percent)  over  the 
new  enrollment  of  1948,  which,  in  turn,  was  20 
percent  larger  than  that  of  years  around  1939  or 
1940. 

Employment  Status.  Data  on  the  employment  sta- 
tus of  the  population  of  the  United  States  have 
been  published  each  month  since  1940  on  the 
basis  of  a  monthly  survey  of  a  widely  distributed 
sample  of  about  25,000  households.  Data  repre- 
senting the  number  of  persons  in  the  labor  force, 
the  number  of  employed  and  the  number  of  un- 
employed are  summarized  for  various  dates  from 
1940  to  1948  in  Table  10. 

The  decline  in  the  civilian  population  14  years 
old  and  over  from  100,090,000  in  December,  1940, 
to  93,080,000  in  December,  1944,  reflects  the  mo- 
bilization of  the  armed  forces  for  World  War  II, 
while  die  rapid  increase  in  the  civilian  population 
to  105,050,000  in  1946  reflects  the  approximate 
completion  of  demobilization.  The  recruitment  of 
additional  workers  for  war  production  is  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  while  the  civilian  population  de- 
clined "by  7  million  between  1940  and  1944,  the 
civilian  labor  force  declined  by  only  a  little  more 
than  1  million. 

The  maximum  wartime  employment  (56,290,- 
000  in  July,  1943)  was  equalled  in  December, 
1946,  and  exceeded  by  3  million  in  December, 
1948.  Unemployment,  which  dropped  to  a  very 
low  figure  during  the  war  (from  nearly  7  million 
in  1940)  was  maintained  at  a  level  between  1,500,- 
000  and  2,500,000  for  most  of  the  postwar  period. 
These  figures  represent  little  more  than  what  is 
sometimes  termed  "fractional  unemployment,"  that 
is,  the  number  of  persons  who  will  at  any  one  time 
be  in  process  of  transfer  from  one  job  to  another. 
The  estimate  of  unemployment  for  January,  1949, 
indicated  a  considerable  increase  over  December, 
1948,  though  still  within  the  range  indicated  above. 
— LEON  E.  TRUESDELL 

FORTS  AND  HARBORS.  The  year  1948  has  seen  some 
expansion  and  improvement  of  ports  and  harbors, 
but  the  principal  work  has  been  in  rehabilitation 
due  to  war  damage  and  neglect.  Increased  labor 
and  operating  costs  have  dictated  the  speedier 


turn-around  of  shipping  in  port  and  the  increased 
over-all  dimensions  of  ships  has  necessitated  ex- 
tensive modification  of  existing  facilities. 

In  the  Far  East,  with  the  exception  of  Hong 
Kong  and  some  of  the  Japanese  ports  now  used  by 
the  American  forces,  little  has  been  done  since 
the  war  and  conditions  generally  are  unsatisfactory. 
The  Philippine  Government  has  just  let  a  contract 
to  clear  Manila  harbor  of  wreckage. 

In  Europe,  Africa,  and  the  Near  East  the  recon- 
struction of  war  damage  is  well  under  way.  Rot- 
terdam, Leningrad,  and  the  Latvian  ports  of  Riga 
and  Libau  all  report  reconstruction  virtually  com- 
plete  and  an  increase  of  cargo-handling  equipment. 
Poland  is  spending  $22  million  on  ports.  Gdynia  is 
functioning  satisfactorily  and  Szczcin  (Stettin)  is 
being  made  into  the  principal  bulk-cargo  port* 
Small  fishing  ports  will  also  be  equipped  to  handle 
coal. 

In  France  temporary  equipment  erected  for  the 
Allied  armies  is  proving  satisfactory  and  will  last 
for  several  more  years.  Therefore  reconstruction  is 
of  a  permanent  nature,  often  along  prewar  expan- 
sion programs,  as  at  Marseilles.  Cherbourg  is  con- 
centrating on  passenger  facilities  now,  but  hopes 
to  maintain  much  of  her  wartime  importance  as  a 
freight  port. 

Reconstruction  in  England  is  slower,  due  partly 
to  its  extent  and  partly  to  strict  government  control 
of  all  construction.  However,  the  larger  British 
ports  are  operating  at  about  70  percent  of  prewar 
capacity.  Many  enclosed  ports  must  enlarge  their 
locks  to  accommodate  the  larger  postwar  vessels. 
New  handling  equipment  is  being  provided  and 
transit  sheds  are  being  built.  The  Manchester 
Canal  Company  plans  a  large  oil  dock  to  be  erect- 
ed outside  the  city. 

The  ERP  has  provisionally  agreed  to  construct 
an  oil  harbor  and  refinery  at  Antwerp  with  a  ca- 
pacity of  a  million  tons  a  year.  The  contract  has 
been  let  for  a  pier  and  causeway  to  extend  seven 
miles  into  the  Persian  Gulf  and  carry  pipelines  and 
standard  gage  railroad  track  for  the  Arabian  Amer- 
ican Oil  Co. 

In  the  United  States,  the  chief  handicap  is  in 
labor-management  relations  and  the  high  cost  of 
pier  construction.  Substructure  costs  have  doubled 
and  superstructure  costs  have  increased  two  and  a 
half  times  in  nine  years.  Considerable  work  has 
been  done  in  deepening  channels,  and  more  is  un- 
der way.  The  main  channel  in  New  York  from  Am- 
brose Light  to  59th  Street  is  now  45  ft.  At  Phila- 
delphia and  Norfolk  the  channel  has  been  in- 
creased to  40  ft  as  far  as  the  Navy  Yards,  and  at 
Baltimore  to  39  ft.  An  improvement  in  suction 
dredging  permits  pumping  at  practically  bottom 
consistency,  speeding  work. 

In  June  San  Francisco  joined  New  York  and 
New  Orleans  as  a  free  port  with  a  foreign  trade 
zone  where  goods  may  be  stored,  sorted,  processed, 
and  trans-shipped  without  payment  of  duty.  In  No- 


PORTUGAL 


447 


PORTUGAL 


vember  New  Orleans  opened  its  International 
Trade  Mart,  "a  global  showcase  for  bringing  to- 
gether buyers  and  sellers  from  all  parts  of  the 
world." 

Port  Newark  was  transferred  to  the  Port  of  New 
York  Authority,  March  31.  Basin  dredging  is  com- 
plete, piling  is  in  order,  and  fenders  and  trackage 
are  being  improved.  Five  millions  will  be  spent 
there  during  1949  in  a  7-year  expansion  program. 
Three  plans  were  submitted  for  the  modernization 
of  the  Port  of  New  York,  but  no  agreement  has 
been  reached. 

The  Hoosic  Terminal  under  construction  in  Bos- 
ton is  now  40  percent  completed.  The  B&M  Rail- 
road and  the  city  have  agreed  on  Mystic  Pier 
No.  1,  but  work  wiU  not  start  until  the  completion 
of  the  Hoosic  Terminal  The  C&O  Railroad's  new 
coal-handling  pier  under  construction  at  Norfolk 
will  increase  their  capacity  by  a  third.  It  will  be 
able  to  handle  6,000  tons  an  hour  by  means  of 
conveyer  belts  and  four  movable  towers  making 
ship  movement  unnecessary  during  loading.  At 
Toledo  the  New  York  Central  and  B&p  Railroads' 
rail  and  water  terminal,  put  into  service  in  1948, 
can  load  a  lake  vessel  holding  16,000  tons  of  coal 
in  six  hours.  This  terminal,  built  at  a  cost  of  $18.5 
million  has  three  movable  ore  unloaders  and  three 
coal  dumpers. 

Canada  plans  to  spend  $5,966,000  to  expand  her 
harbor  facilities  in  addition  to  $2,307,000  ear- 
marked for  maintenance  in  1949.  Work  is  well 
along  on  two  large  35-ft  draft  wharves  and  fire- 
proof transit  sheds,  one  at  Halifax,  and  the  other 
at  St.  John,  N.B. 

The  year's  most  interesting  development  in 
harbor  control  is  the  search  radar  installation  at 
Liverpool,  England  which  lies  14  miles  up  the 
Mersey  River.  Movement  is  virtually  impossible 
during  the  frequent  fogs.  This  equipment  enables 
port  authorities  to  observe  shipping  and  obstruc- 
tions constantly  and  inform  individual  pilots  of  con- 
ditions in  their  areas. 

The  15-ft.  scanner,  built  to  revolve  at  12  r.p.m. 
in  a  100  m.p.h.  gale,  is  installed  on  a  60-ft,  tower 
with  an  unobstructed  view  of  the  estuary.  The 
new  type  precision  viewers  are  installed  in  six 
units,  replaceable  for  maintenance.  The  first  gives 
the  entire  13-mile  range,  one  mile  to  the  inch  and 
adjustable  to  a  20-mile  range.  The  center  four 
give  larger  sectional  views  and  the  sixth  gives  any 
area  within  a  20  mile  radius.  — J,  W.  HAZEN 

PORTUGAL.  A  republic  of  southwestern  Europe, 
occupying  the  western  part  of  the  Iberian  Penin- 
sula. The  climate  is  temperate. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  of  continental 
Portugal  is  34,254  square  miles,  and  that  of  the 
Azores  and  Madeira  Islands  1,236,  a  total  of  35,- 
490.  Population:  8,402,000  (1948  est).  Principal 
cities:  Lisbon  (capital),  Oporto,  Funchal,  Setubal, 
Braga,  Evora,  Ponta  Delgada,  Faro,  and  Coimbra. 

Education  and  Religion.  Freedom  of  worship  exists, 
^ut  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  prevails  and  plays 
an  important  part  in  the  Me  of  the  nation.'  The 
country  has  a  Concordat  and  a  Missionary  Agree- 
ment with  the  Vatican.  Unofficial  estimates  show 
that  about  half  of  the  population  over  seven  years 
of  age  is  literate,  and  that  10,100  primary  schools 
with  over  half  a  million  pupils  function  in  the 
country.  In  1945,  there  were  43  secondary  schools 
with  17,281  pupils;  65  technical  schools  with  41,- 
343  students,  and  other  professional  and  technical 
institutions  for  secondary  education.  For  higher 
education,  there  are  four  universities  (Coimbra, 
two  at  Lisbon,  and  Oporto). 


Production.  Agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation, 
followed  by  mining,  fishing,  and  manufacturing. 
Principal  agricultural  crops  are  wheat,  maize,  rye, 
potatoes,  and  oats.  Other  important  products  are 
wine,  olive  oil,  and  wool.  Cork  is  exported  in  con- 
siderable amounts.  Portugal  has  valuable  mineral 
deposits,  but  for  lack  of  power,  many  mines  remain 
unexploited.  Production  of  coal  in  1947  was  37,000 
metric  tons  and  that  of  lignite  1,408,000  metric 
tons.  Other  products  of  that  year  (in  metric  tons) 
included  cotton  fabrics,  1,880;  cotton  yarn,  4,920; 
and  meat,  4,100. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  exports  in  1948  (8  months 
actual,  4  months  estimated)  were  valued  at  4,185 
million  escudos;  imports  at  9,504  million  escudos. 
For  1947:  exports,  4,243  million  escudos;  imports, 
9,462  million  escudos.  The  bulk  of  Portugal's  ex- 
ports go  to  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  Mo- 
zambique, Angola,  and  France;  imports  come 
mainly  from  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  An- 
gola, Mozambique,  and  Spain. 

Transportation.  Portugal  has  824  miles  of  national 
railways  and  1,177  miles  of  privately  owned  lines. 
There  are  16,015  miles  of  roads  of  all  kinds.  The 
merchant  marine  in  1943  had  315,534  tons  regis- 
tered. Lisbon  is  one  of  the  most  important  air  cen- 
ters of  Europe,  and  is  well  served  by  the  interna- 
tional airlines. 

Finance.  In  the  budget  for  1948,  revenue  was 
estimated  at  5,550,600,000  escudos;  expenditure 
at  5,549,500,000  escudos  ($U.S.  =  25.06  escudos). 
Currency  in  circulation  in  October,  1948,  was 
8,150  million  escudos;  bank  deposits  17,930  mil- 
lion escudos. 

Government.  Portugal  is  a  corporative  state  under 
a  constitution  adopted  in  1933,  which  provides  for 
a  President  elected  for  a  7-year  term,  a  Premier,  a 
Corporative  Chamber,  and  a  National  Assembly. 
The  President  appoints  the  Premier,  who  in  turn 
elects  the  Cabinet.  The  only  legal  party  is  the 
Uniao  National  ( Party  of  the  National  Union ) .  In 
the  elections  of  1942,  the  only  candidate  was  Gen. 
Antonio  Oscar  Fragoso  de  Carmona,  who  has  held 
office  since  1928,  and  he  was  reelected  for  seven 
years  more.  The  Government  is  a  dictatorship.  The 
President  is  a  figurehead,  political  power  being  in 
the  hands  of  Premier  Antonio  de  Oliveira  Salazar. 

Events,  1948.  On  the  domestic  front,  Portugal  had 
another  year  under  Dr.  Oliveira  Salazar,  with  no 
important  political  changes. 

Anniversary  of  the  "Revolution."  The  20th  anni- 
versary of  the  Fragoso-Salazar  regime  was  com- 
memorated with  nearly  as  much  pomp  as  last  year's 
celebration  of  the  80th  anniversary  of  Lisbon's  lib- 
eration from  the  Moors  ( see  YEAR  BOOK,  Events  of 
1947).  Numerous  official  speeches  lauded  the 
achievements  of  the  "Revolution,"  and  the  occasion 
was  used  to  announce  a  two-year  plan  for  public 
works.  The  plan,  which  provides  for  3,872  proj- 
ects in  different  parts  of  the  country,  was  given 
extraordinary  publicity  in  the  press. 

In  June,  an  American  naval  squadron  visited  the 
Tagus  River.  The  officers  were  lavishly  entertained 
by  government  officials,  indicating  the  interest  of 
the  administration  in  currying  favor  with  the 
United  States. 

End  of  War  Boom.  The  end  of  Portugal's  bonanza 
was  seen  early  in  September,  when  other  European 
countries  appeared  to  be  on  their  way  to  economic 
recovery.  During  the  war,  Portugal  benefited  great- 
ly from  exports  of  important  raw  materials.  A  peas- 
ant, digging  a  few  pounds  of  wolfram  soil,  could 
collect  as  much  in  one  day  as  he  could  earn  in  two 
years*  normal  work,  and  the  country  thus  accumu- 
lated unprecedented  gold  reserves  and  large  cred- 


PORTUGUESE  GUINEA 


448 


POTATOES 


its  against  the  United  Kingdom.  However,  they 
then  engaged  in  large-scale  owing  of  luxuries  and 

necessities,  and  the  effects  of  a  depression  soon 
made  themselves  felt.  Portugal  was  then  faced  with 
serious  problems,  such  as  a  shortage  of  foreign 
exchange,  diminishing  exports,  and  dependence 
upon  heavy  imports  of  basic  consumer  goods.  In 
addition,  local  industries,  artificially  developed  dur- 
ing the  war  to  meet  domestic  and  even  foreign 
demands,  found  they  could  no  longer  compete  with 
foreign  suppliers. 

/nfernoffono/  Front.  Portugal's  policy  during  the 
year  consisted,  as  in  1947,  mainly  in  efforts  to  gain 
admission  to  the  United  Nations,  and  especially  to 
draw  grants  from  the  Marshall  Plan  and  partici- 
pate in  the  distribution  of  EGA  supplies.  Her  fate 
in  this  respect  was  similar  to  that  of  Spain.  See 
SPAIN.  — MIGUEL  JOREJN 

PORTUGUESE  GUINEA.  A  Portuguese  colony  in  West 
Africa.  Area:  13,948  square  miles.  Population 
(1940):  351,089,  of  whom  347,547  are  Negroes. 
Agricultural  products  include  palm  oil  and  kernels, 
rice,  and  groundnuts.  Other  products  are  timber, 
wax  and  hides.  Foreign  trade  ( 1946 ) :  imports  95,- 
632,000  escudos;  exports  93,065,000  escudos. 
Budget  estimate  ( 1946 ) :  revenue  40,629,000  escu- 
dos; expenditure  37,956,000  escudos.  The  seat  of 
government  is  at  Bissau,  the  chief  port.  Governor 
of  the  colony:  Commander  Rodrigues  Sarmento. 

PORTUGUESE  INDIA.  A  Portuguese  colony  in  India, 
comprising  Goa  ( containing  the  capital  Nova  G6a, 
or  Pangim),  Damao,  and  Diu.  Total  area:  1,537 
square  miles.  Population  (1940);  624,177.  The 
main  crops  are  coconuts,  cashew  nuts,  salt,  and 
spices.  Foreign  trade  ( 1945 ) :  imports  224,052,000 
escudos;  exports  67,874,000  escudos.  Budget  esti- 
mates (1946)  were  balanced  at  48,005,000  escudos. 
A  governor  general  heads  the  administration. 

POST  OFFICE,  U.S.  The  United  States  Post  Office  De- 
partment is  the  world's  largest  business  operation, 
public  or  private.  With  nearly  42,000  post  offices 
in  every  community  in  the  nation,  it  numbers  on 
its  rolls  some  475,000  employees,  making  it  the 
largest  peacetime  agency  of  the  Federal  govern- 
ment. The  United  States  Postal  Service,  the  major 
communication  instrumentality  of  the  nation,  pro- 
vides a  common  bond  among  the  more  than  140 
million  Americans  in  the  cities  and  villages,  on 
the  farm  and  in  the  rural  areas. 

During  the  fiscal  year  1948,  the  Post  Office  De- 
partment handled  the  largest  volume  of  mail  and 
special  transactions  in  its  history.  This  was  accom- 
plished despite  difficult  postwar  problems,  includ- 
ing inadequate  motor-vehicle  equipment,  lack  of 
space  and  delay  in  obtaining  essential  items  of 
supply  and  equipment. 

The  Postal  revenues  for  the  year  reached  an  all- 
time  high  as  did  the  expenditures.  The  cost  of 
transporting  the  mails,  costs  of  supplies  and  equip- 
ment and  contractual  service  have  greatly  increased 
since  the  end  of  the  war.  These  added  costs  in- 
creased the  expenses  of  the  Postal  Service  during 
the  year  to  $1,719,943,288,  resulting  in  a  gross 
operating  deficit  of  $308,972,005.  The  revenues 
.  amounted  to  $1,410,971,284. 

Over  40,280  million  pieces  of  mail  were  han- 
dled, including  21,948  million  letters  and  cards 
containing  business  and  social  correspondence;  over 
6,344  million  newspapers  and  magazines;  more 
than  8,188  million  circulars  and  advertising  pieces; 
over  1,142  million  parcels  including  those  con- 
taining books  and  catalogs,  and  1,419  million  pieces 


of  mail  on  the  business  of  the  government  for 
which  no  postage  was  charged.  During  the  fiscal 
year  1948  there  were  nearly  184  ^million  pieces  of 
mail  insured,  and  approximately  70  million  pieces 
on  which  collect  on  delivery  charges  were  made, 
as  well  as  some  91,266,000  registered  pieces  of 
mail.  There  were  approximately  117  million  pieces 
of  special  delivery  and  special  handling  mail. 

The  Post  Office  Department  also  serves  in  a 
banking  and  insurance  capacity.  The  United  States 
Postal  Note,  established  in  1945,  continued  to 
prove  popular  with  the  mailing  public,  and  during 
the  year  73,049,000  postal  notes  were  issued.  Over 
291  million  money  orders  were  issued  during  the 
year.  The  Postal  Savings  System  issued  16,630,521 
certificates  and  paid  18,787,757.  Great  advances 
were  made  in  the  use  of  Air  Mail.  On  Mar.  15, 
1948,  the  Post  Office  Department  inaugurated  for- 
eign air  parcel  post  service,  and  on  September  1 
of  the  same  year  domestic  air  parcel  post  service 
was  instituted. 

At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1948  there  were 
130,093  miles  of  domestic  air  mail  routes,  an  in- 
crease of  27,637  over  June  30,  1947.  During  the 
year  the  domestic  air  mail  service  performed  a 
total  of  68,000  million  Ib.  miles  of  service.  The 
rural  delivery  routes  in  operation  at  the  end  of  the 
1948  fiscal  year  required  a  daily  travel  of  1,465,198 
miles  by  rural  carriers  in  providing  service  to  over 
30  million  patrons.  During  the  fiscal  year  1948  it 
was  impossible  to  deliver  100,457  letters,  a  de- 
crease of  0.46  percent  from  the  previous  year.  A 
total  of  4,466,166  letters  were  returned  to  the  send- 
ers from  the  Dead  Letter  Offices.  Some  736,158 
unclaimed  parcels  were  found  in  the  mails,  and 
the  sale  of  these  parcels  at  public  auctions  realized 
$174,335. 

Several  new  highway  post  office  routes  were  put 
into  operation,  bringing  the  total  of  such  routes 
now  in  operation  to  20.  During  the  year  the  De- 
partment began  the  installation  in  post  offices 
throughout  the  country  of  stamp  vending  machines. 
These  machines  vend  five  one-cent  stamps  for  a 
nickel;  five  three-cent  stamps  for  a  dime  and  a 
nickel,  and  two  five-cent  air  mail  stamps  for  a  dime. 

POTATOES.  The  1948  production  of  potatoes  in  the 
United  States,  according  to  the  December,  1948, 
report  of  the  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  was  esti- 
mated at  445,850,000  bushels,  compared  with  the 
1947  production  of  389,048,000  bu.  harvested  in 
1947  and  the  10-year  average  (1937-46)  of  392,- 
143,000  bu. 

In  1948  the  yields  of  the  chief  producing  States 
(in  bushels)  were:  Maine  73,340,000,  California 
46,800,000,  Idaho  42,630,000,  New  York  38,005,- 
000,  Colorado  20,670,000,  North  Dakota  20,295,- 
000,  Pennsylvania  19,425,000,  Minnesota  16,740,- 
000,  Michigan  16,350,000,  New  Jersey  13,629,000, 
Washington  11,600,000,  Virginia  11,529,000,  Or- 
egon 11,480,000,  Nebraska  11,395,000,  Wisconsin 
10,875,000,  North  Carolina  10,508,000,  Ohio  6,- 
765,000,  Texas  4,356,000,  Indiana  4,140,000. 

World  Production.  In  1948  for  the  first  time  since 
the  war,  world  potato  production  was  estimated 
to  exceed  prewar  levels.  In  the  80  countries  for 
which  potato  data  are  available  the  1948-49  crop 
was  expected  to  aggregate  about  8,900  million 
bushels.  This  compares  with  7,500  million  bushels 
in  1947  and  the  8,400  million  bushel  average  in 
the  prewar  years  ( 1935-39).  Estimated  production 
in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  8,700  million  bush- 
els; Southern  Hemisphere,  188  million  bushels. 

Sweetpotatoes.  United  States  production  of  sweet- 
potatoes  in  1948  totaled  49,806,000  bu.  (harvested 


POWER 


449 


PRICES  AND  LIVING  COSTS 


from  513,800  acres),  compared  with  55,746,000 
bu.  in  1947  and  the  10-year  average  (1937-46)  of 
64,866,000  bu.  Yields  of  the  chief  producing  States 
in  1948  (in  bushels)  were:  Louisiana  7,315,000, 
North  Carolina  5,635,000,  Georgia  4,930,000,  Ala- 
bama 4,505,000,  Mississippi  4,300,000,  Virginia  3a- 
510,000,  Texas  3,250,000,  New  Jersey  2,550,000, 
Tennessee  2,000,000. 

POWER,  Division  of.  A  division  in  the  office  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior 
which  coordinates  the  power  activities  of  the  vari- 
ous agencies  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 
Director:  Walton  Seymour. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  The.  A  religious  system  oc- 
cupying an  intermediate  position  between  Congre- 
gationalism and  Episcopacy,  and  adhering  to  a 
system  of  church  government  by  presbyters,  or  eld- 
ers. The  earliest  Presbyterian  immigration  to  the 
U.S.  was  that  of  French  Huguenots  in  South  Caro- 
lina and  Florida,  between  1562-64.  Francis  Ma- 
kemie,  an  Irish  Presbyterian,  is  considered  the  fa- 
ther of  American  Presbyterianism,  having  organized 
several  churches  in  Maryland  as  early  as  1683. 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  One  of  the  Pres- 
byterian bodies  whose  chief  strength  is  in  16  south- 
ern States.  The  denomination  was  organized  in 
1810  because  of  its  attitude  towards  revivalism.  In 
1906  the  major  part  of  the  denomination  merged 
with  the  Presbyterian  Church,  U.S.A.,  the  minority 
of  the  denomination  retaining  its  identity.  The  total 
membership  of  78,009  is  served  by  761  ministers, 
and  1,031  churches.  Church  buildings  and  manses 
are  valued  at  $5,996,615.  Moderator,  Rev.  Paul  F. 
Brown,  104  East  Grand  Ave.,  Marshall,  Tex.  Stated 
Clerk,  Rev.  Wayne  Wiman,  117  Eighth  Ave., 
South,  Nashville,  Term. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States.  The  divi- 
sion of  the  Presbyterian  denomination  which  covers 
the  territory  commonly  known  as  the  Southern 
States.  It  was  composed  in  1948  of  17  synods  and 
87  presbyteries  with  3,560  organized  churches, 
2,663  ministers,  and  638,652  members,  exclusive  of 
ministers.  During  the  year  26,140  members  were 
received  on  profession  of  faith,  and  43,597  on  cer- 
tificate. There  were  31,151  infant  and  adult  bap- 
tisms. Total  contributions  during  1948  amounted 
to  $30,489,730.  Value  of  church  property:  approx- 
imately $100  million. 

At  the  88th  General  Assembly  in  May,  1948, 
plans  for  a  reunion  with  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States  of  America  was  directed  to  be 
held  in  abeyance  for  a  period  of  5  years.  During 
this  time  steps  looking  toward  eventual  reunion 
should  be  confined  to  exploring  avenues  of  ac- 
quaintance and  cooperation  only,  except  that  the 
plan  should  be  completed  by  Mar.  1,  1949.  The 
General  Assembly  reendorsed  its  own  Program  o£ 
Progress:  a  5-year  program  of  evangelism,  church 
building,  and  development  at  home  and  abroad. 

A  total  of  12,483  students  were  enrolled  in  37  ed- 
ucational institutions;  1,712  children  were  cared  for 
in  homes.  Moderator:  Rev.  C.  Derby  Fulton,  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.  Stated  Clerk,  Rev.  E.  C.  Scott.  Office 
of  the  General  Assembly:  1120  Liberty  Bank  Build- 
ing, Dallas  1,  Tex. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
This  body,  distinguished  by  its  representative  form 
of  government  and  its  Calvinistic  theology,  was 
established  about  1640.  It  has  in  the  United  States 
8,500  churches,  9,500  ministers,  and  a  total  mem- 
bership of  2,300,000.  Membership  in  Sunday 
Church  schools  totals  1,325,000.  The  Church  prop- 
erty had  an  estimated  value  of  $500  rnallion,  in 


1948.  Contributions  totaled  $64,972,639.  Mod- 
erator, Rev.  Jesse  H.  Baird,  San  Anselmo,  Calif. 
Office  of  the  General  Assembly:  514  Witherspoon 
Building,  Philadelphia  7,  Pa. 

United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North  America.  A 
union  of  the  Associate  Presbyterian  Church  and  the 
Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  1858. 
Membership  in  the  United  States:  205,677.  Mod- 
erator, Rev.  A.  H.  Baldinger,  D.D.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Principal  Clerk,  Rev.  O.  H.  Milligan,  D.D.,  Ali- 
quippa,  Pa. 

PRICES  AND  UVJNG  COSTS.  Purchasing  power  de- 
rived from  very  high  levels  of  incomes  and  invest- 
ment generated  heavy  demands  for  goods  and 
services  of  almost  all  kinds  during  1948.  The  down- 
ward trend  in  the  prices  of  agricultural  and  many 
non-durable  commodities,  which  appeared  in  1948, 
particularly  in  the  second  half  of  the  year,  reflected 
not  so  much  diminished  demand  as  greatly  in- 
creased supplies,  with  some  consumer  resistance  to 
high  prices  for  individual  commodities.  The  de- 
mand for  durable  goods,  particularly  metals  and 
metal  products,  was  kept  high  by  heavy  commit- 
ments for  new  industrial  plant  and  equipment, 
record-breaking  construction  activity  and  govern- 
ment requirements  for  defense  and  foreign  aid. 
Since  the  supply  of  these  types  of  commodities 
can  not  be  rapidly  expanded,  the  pressure  of  de- 
mand pushed  prices  steadily  upward. 

Among  the  more  important  developments  of  far- 
reaching  effects  were: 

a)  In  April,  the  Supreme  Court  upheld  the  Fed- 
eral Trade  Commission  complaint  against  basing- 
point  price  practices  of  the  Cement  Institute. 
This  was  widely  interpreted  to  mean  that  an 
industry-wide  basing-point  system  of  prices  was 
in  restraint  of  trade  and,  therefore,  illegal.  As  a 
result  of  the  decision,  the  cement  industry  shift- 
ed to  f.o.b.  miU  pricing,  followed  by  many  other 
industries,  notably  steel,  various  food  processors, 
and  some  textile  manufacturers.  The  immediate 
effect  of  this  shift  on  prices  was  not  clear,  al- 
though the  costs  of  some  industrial  consumers 
were  raised;  but  the  long  run  effect  had  many 
implications  with  respect  to  the  price  structure 
of  various  industries  and  products,  and  with  re- 
spect to  plant  and  industry  locations  as  well 

b)  The  inauguration  of  the  European  Recovery 
Program  and  the  step-up  of  military  purchases 
also  had  profound  effects  on  certain  markets. 
The  ERP  immediately  'bolstered  a  declining  ex- 
port market  for  some  agricultural  and  textile 
products,  but  its  main  effect  was  to  add  another 
element  to  an  excessive  demand  for  machinery, 
metal  products,  and  capital  equipment.  In  con- 
junction with  the  military  program  (including 
stockpiling),  the  demand  for  metals,  both  steel 
and  nonferrous,  resulted  in  steadily  rising  prices 
and  some  stimulus  to  mining  lower-grade  mar- 
ginal resources. 

c)  A  declining  trend  in  agricultural  prices  was 
touched  off  in  the  first  week  in  February  by  a 
sharp  collapse  of  prices  quoted  on  commodity 
exchanges.  The  immediate  impetus  to  this  de- 
cline was  a  more  realistic  appraisal  of  improved 
crop  prospects  here  and  abroad,  particularly  in 
comparison  to  the  relatively  poor  crops  of  1947. 
Although  the  break  itself  did  not  last  long,  ex- 
tremely large  domestic  crops  of  most  agricul- 
tural commodities,  particularly  cotton,  corn,  and 
wheat,    acted   as   depressing  factors    on   farm 
prices  all  year.  This  general  trend  was  obscured 
during  the  first  haS-year  by  rising  livestock 
prices,  but  from  summer  on  the  decline  was  very 


PRICES  AND  IIVING  COSTS 


450 


PJ2/CES 


1/VJAfG  COSTS 


clear.  Abundant  crops,  both  actual  and  prospec- 
tive, had  an  immediate  effect  on  prices,  and 
motivated  the  extension  by  the  Congress  o£  the 
agricultural  price-support  program.  The  new 
price-support  program  is  designed  to  insure 
maintenance  or  the  purchasing  power  of  the 
fanner  relative  to  other  consumers,  and  will  pre- 
vent a  collapse  of  farm  prices  comparable  to  the 
debacle  of  1920-1921  and  the  agricultural  de- 
pression which  followed.  The  change  in  1950 
from  the  90-percent-of -parity  formula  character- 
istic of  the  1948  and  earlier  programs  to  a  modi- 
fied parity  formula  would  permit  some  further 
decrease  in  farm  prices,  out  these  decreases 
would  still  be  limited  by  the  Boor  of  price  sup- 
ports. 

d)  Higher  costs  were  built  into  the  price  structure 
for  manufactured  goods  in  several  ways  during 
the  year.  The  so-called  "third  round"  of  postwar 
wage  increases  became  comparatively  universal; 
there  were  several  important  increases  in  general 
freight  rates;  and  the  cost  of  raw  materials,  pri- 
marily metals  and  fuels,  advanced  considerably. 
In  most  cases  these  increased  costs  were  im- 
mediately passed  on  in  the  form  of  higher  prices, 
and  have  become  fairly  well  solidified  in  the 
cost  structure  of  many  industries.  Their  effects, 
therefore,  are  not  only  immediate,  but,  potential- 
ly also  of  a  long-range  nature. 
The  effects  of  these  individual  developments  and 
the  divergent  price  trends  discussed  above  can  be 
seen  in  the  differences  in  the  movement  of  the  three 
official  price  indexes  maintained  by  the  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Labor. 

( 1 )  The  sensitive  daily  index  of  spot  prices  on  or- 
ganized exchanges  and  commodity  markets  start- 
ed the  year  very  close  to  its  peak  and  then  de- 
clined approximately  12  percent  as  large  de- 
creases in  agricultural  prices  offset  increases  in 
nonferrous  metals. 

(2)  The  comprehensive  wholesale  price  index  in- 
cludes a  large  proportion  of  fabricated  commodi- 
ties and,  therefore,  reflects  to  a  greater  extent 
continuing  increases  in  labor  and  distribution 
costs.  This  index  reached  an  all-time  peak  in 
August,  but  at  the  end  of  the  year  it  had  dropped 
to  about  where  it  was  at  the  beginning.  A  de- 
cline in  farm  prices  was  offset  by  the  sizable  ad- 
vances for  metals,  fuels,  and  building  materials. 

(3)  The  consumers*  price  index  of  the  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics  advanced  to  an  all-time  peak  in 
August  and  September,  1948,  and  then  turned 
lower,  in  line  with  sharp  reductions  in  retail 
food  prices;  the  end-of-the-year  decline,  how- 
ever, was  not  large  enough  to  offset  the  earlier 
long  advance,  and  the  index  ended  about  2  per- 
cent higher  than  it  had  been  in  December  1947. 
Retail  food  prices  fluctuated  comparatively  vio- 
lently as  they  dipped  sharply  in  February  and 
March  in  sympathy  with  the  break  in  the  com- 
modity markets,  recovered  to  reach  a  record 
high  in  July,  and  then  declined  more  than  5  per- 
cent by  the  year  end.  By  December  average  re- 
tail food  prices  were  slightly  below  the  level  of 
the  end  of  1947.  Rents,  under  control,  advanced 
slowly  all  year;  fuel  and  miscellaneous  goods 
and  services  also  moved  steadily  higher.  Both 
retail  apparel  prices  and  housefurnishings  halted 
their  advance  in  November  and  December  with 
very  small  declines;  however,  late  December, 
1948,  saw  the  start  of  price  reductions  in  apparel 
and  nousefurnishings  (principally  textiles)  on  a 
nationwide  scale  and  the  possibility  of  apprecia- 
ble declines  in  these  groups  in  early  1949  be- 
came more  of  a  reality. 


During  the  second  half  of  1948  employment  con- 
sistently ran  above  60  million  people  and,  except 
for  temporary  dislocations  among  individual  plants 
and  areas,  just  about  everyone  who  wanted  to 
work,  and  possessed  any  degree  of  skill,  could  ob- 
tain a  satisfactory  job.  Average  weekly  earnings  of 
factory  workers  rose  to  $54.18  a  week  in  Sep- 
tember, an  increase  of  7,3  percent  over  the  same 
period  in  1947.  During  this  same  12  month  period, 
consumers  prices  advanced  6.5  percent,  so  that 
"real"  earnings  advanced  only  fractionally.  Since 
V-J  day,  weekly  earnings  have  risen  30  percent, 
but  "real"  earnings  have  decreased  about  5  percent 
as  prices  rose  35  percent. 

National  income  (which  measures  earnings  ac- 
cruing to  the  residents  of  the  nation  from  current 
production)  rose  to  a  record  annual  rate  of  $227,000 
million  in  the  third  quarter  of  1948,  an  increase  of 
$5,600  million  above  the  second  quarter;  the  esti- 
mate for  the  full  year  is  $224,000  million.  Gross 
national  product,  the  market  value  of  the  country's 
goods  and  sendees,  is  about  $253,000  million.  A 
large  portion  of  this  record,  however,  is  due  to  the 
increase  in  prices. 

Full  employment,  high  wages,  a  reduction  in 
taxes,  and  booming  business  added  up  to  an  all- 
time  record  of  dollar  spending  by  American  con- 
sumers. Disposable  personal  income — income  of  all 
lands  after  taxes — is  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  at  an  annual  rate  of  $194,000 
million  in  the  third  quarter  of  1948  compared  with 
$174,000  million  in  1947  and  $70,000  million  in 
1939.  The  1948  Survey  of  Consumer  Finances  by 
the  Federal  Reserve  Board  showed  that  consumers 
have  added  to  their  stock  of  liquid  assets,  although 
at  a  slower  rate  than  in  previous  postwar  years. 
Relatively,  liquid  assets  in  the  hands  o£  wage- 
earners  were  down  while  those  held  by  persons  in 
business  and  other  self-employed  groups  were 
higher. 

One  of  the  major  steps  ever  taken  in  establish- 
ing and  measuring  "Ainerican  living  standards" 
was  the  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 
(B.L.S.)  in  its  study  of  the  City  Workers'  Family 
Budget.  In  the  spring  of  1945  the  Labor  and  Fed- 
eral Security  Subcommittee  of  the  Committee  on 
Appropriations  of  the  House  of  Representatives  di- 
rected the  Bureau  "to  find  out  what  it  costs  a 
workers*  family  to  live  in  the  large  cities  of  the 
United  States."  The  subcommittee  indicated  that  it 
wanted  to  know  the  relative  differences  in  living 
costs  between  cities  and,  in  addition,  the  total  num- 
ber of  "dollars  required  for  the  average  worker  in 
overalls  to  live  in  these  cities." 

To  carry  out  this  request  most  effectively,  the 
B.L.S.,  with  the  approval  of  the  subcommittee,  ap- 
pointed a  Technical  Advisory  Committee  to  assist 
in  developing  basic  standards  and  methods  to  be 
used  in  the  project.  The  technical  committee  con- 
sisted of  specialists  and  technicians  who  because  of 
their  training  and  experience  are  considered  re- 
sponsible authorities  in  studies  of  living  costs. 
Guided  by  the  standards  established  by  the  Tech- 
nical Advisory  Committee  and  following  the  meth- 
ods which  it  outlined,  the  B.L.S.  first  developed 
the  list  of  items  and  quantities  making  up  a  budget 
for  a  city  worker's  family,  and  then  obtained  prices 
for  this  list  of  goods  and  services  and  worked  out 
dollar  totals  for  34  large  cities  in  the  United  States. 

In  determining  this  budget,  a  family  of  four 
was  used  as  the  basis  for  the  calculation.  The  fam- 
ily of  four  includes  an  employed  father,  a  house- 
wife not  gainfully  employed,  and  two  children  un- 
der 15.  The  budget  was  designed  to  represent  the 
estimated  dolkr  cost  required  to  maintain  this  fam- 


PRICES  AND  LIVING  COSTS 


451 


PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND 


ily  at  a  level  of  adequate  living — to  satisfy  prevail- 
ing standards  of  what  is  necessary  for  health, 
efficiency,  the  nurture  of  children,  and  for  partici- 
pation in  community  activities.  Thisjs  not  a  "sub- 
sistence'7 budget,  nor  Is  it  a  "luxury"  budget;  it  is 
an  attempt  to  describe  and  measure  a  modest  but 
adequate  standard  of  living. 

In  general,  whenever  appropriate  scientific  stand- 
ards are  available  they  have  been  used  as  a  start- 
ing point.  These  technical  standards  were  then 
translated  into  a  list  of  foods  and  into  a  description 
of  housing  by  reference  to  the  actual  buying  and 
renting  practices  of  families  with  moderate  in- 
comes. 

For  clothing  and  other  goods  and  services,  allow- 
ances were  established  to  meet  prevailing  standards 
of  what  is  necessary  for  health,  efficiency,  and  par- 
ticipation in  social  and  community  activities,  with 
adjustments  to  take  account  of  geographical  differ- 
ences. Here  also,  actual  lists  were  made  on  the 
basis  of  records  of  family  purchases  obtained  in 
surveys  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 
over  a  period  of  years  by  interviews  with  house- 
wives. 

The  budget  is  unique  in  that  it  represents,  not 
an  "ideal"  budget,  or  a  "judgment"  budget  devised 
by  a  few  people,  but  rather  the  actual  choices  of 
American  families.  It  was  determined  objectively. 
In  considering  this  budget,  emphasis  should  be 
placed  upon  the  quantities  and  kinds  of  goods  of 
which  it  is  composed.  Judgment  on  its  adequacy 
should  be  based  upon  the  level  of  living  that  it 
represents  in  a  period  of  more  nearly  normal 
prices  rather  than  upon  its  dollar  cost  at  today's 
high  prices. 

The  cost  of  goods  and  services  included  in  the 
city  workers*  family  budget  for  four  persons  in 

TOTAL  COST  OF  GOODS  AND  SERVICES 


June 

1947 

March  1946 

Total 

Est. 

Total 

Eat. 

City 

cost  of 

total 

cost  of 

total 

goods  <fe 

cost  of 

goods  & 

cost  of 

services 

budget 

services 

budget 

Washington,  D.C  

...$3,111 

S3.45S 

$2,718 

§2,985 

Seattle,  Wash  

...  3,054 

3,388 

2,660 

2,913 

New  York,  N.Y  

...  3,019 

3,347 

2,583 

2,820 

Milwaukee,  Wis  

.  ..  2,988 

3,317 

2,575 

2,811 

Boston,  Mass  

...  2,981 

3,310 

2,598 

2,842 

Detroit,  Mich  

...  2,974 

3,293 

2,578 

2,813 

Pittsburgh,  Pa  

...  2,973 

3,291 

2,535 

2,761 

Minneapolis,  Minn.  .  , 

.  ..  2,965 

3,282 

2,550 

2,779 

Chicago,  111  

...   2,965 

3,282 

2,561 

2,793 

San  Francisco,  Calif.  . 

...  2,964 

3,317 

2,582 

2,853 

Baltimore,  Md  

.  ..  2,944 

3,260 

2,565 

2,797 

St.  Louis,  Mo  

.  ..  2,928 

3,247 

2,580 

2,824 

Mobile,  Ala  

...  2,925 

3,276 

2,557 

2,826 

Norfolk,  Va  

...  2,919 

3,241 

2,563 

2,804 

Memphis,  Tenn  

...   2,912 

3,220 

2,524 

2,750 

Los  Angeles,  Calif.  .  . 

...   2,910 

3,251 

2,512 

2,766 

Birmingham,  Ala.  .  .  . 

.  ..   2,904 

3,251 

2,521 

2,781 

Richmond,  Va  

...   2,904 

3,223 

2,542 

2,776 

Cleveland,  Ohio  

.  ,.  2,897 

3,200 

2,495 

2,712 

Portland,  Maine  .... 

.  ..  2,894 

3,200 

2,511 

2,735 

Denver,  Colo  

.  ..  2,870 

3,168 

2,494 

2,711 

Philadelohia,  Pa  

...  2,867 

3,203 

2,442 

2,681 

Scranton,  Pa  

.  ..  2,866 

3,163 

2,422 

2,623 

Savannah,  Ga  

.  ..  2,855 

3,150 

2,502 

2,721 

Portland,  Oreg  

.  ..  2,854 

3,161 

2,521 

2,748 

Atlanta,  Ga  

...  2,853 

3,150 

2,475 

2,691 

Jacksonville,  Fla.  .  .  . 

...  2,843 

3,135 

2,466 

2,677 

Manchester,  N.H.... 

...  2,837 

3,132 

2,481 

2,700 

Cincinnati,  Ohio  .... 

.  ..  2,830 

3,119 

2,467 

2,678 

Buffalo,  N.Y  

...  2,810 

3,095 

2,415 

2,615 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

..    2,790 

3,098 

2,440 

2,667 

Kansas  City,  Mo.  .  .  . 

...  2,739 

3,010 

2,405 

2,603 

Houston,  Tex  

...  2,735 

3,007 

2,345 

2,532 

New  Orleans,  La.  .  .  . 

...  2,734 

3,004 

2,381 

2,573 

June,  1947,  ranged  from  $2,734  in  New  Orleans  to 
$3,111  in  Washington,  D.C.,  the  lowest  and  the 
highest  cost  cities  among  the  34  surveyed  by  the 
B.L.S.  The  estimated  total  cost  of  the  budget  for 
these  two  cities — including  taxes,  insurance,  and 


occupational  expenses,  which  add  from  8  to  12 
percent  to  the  cost  of  goods  and  services — amount- 
ed to  $3,004  and  $3,458,  respectively,  in  June, 
1947.  These  totals  dp  not  take  account  of  the  rise 
in  retail  prices  of  living  essentials — especially  food 
— which  took  place  after  June,  1947. 

In  March,  1946,  when  the  budget  was  first 
priced,  and  prior  to  the  rapid  rise  in  prices  of  liv- 
ing essentials  which  accompanied  the  discontinua- 
tion of  price  controls  in  the  summer  of  1946,  the 
total  cost  of  goods  and  services  ranged  from  $2,345 
in  Houston  to  $2,718  in  Washington,  D.C.  Addi- 
tion of  taxes,  insurance,  and  occupational  expenses 
brought  the  totals  at  that  time  to  $2,532  in  Houston 
and  $2,985  in  Washington. 

The  cost  of  the  city  worker's  family  budget  for 
each  of  the  34  cities  surveyed  for  the  Bureau  $  con- 
sumers* price  index  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
table  in  which  the  cities  are  arranged  in  descending 
order  of  the  total  cost  of  goods  and  services  ( only) 
in  June,  1947.  — FRANCIS  S.  STEIN 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND.  An  eastern  maritime 
province  of  Canada.  This,  the  smallest  province,  is 
about  120  miles  in  length,  with  an  average  width 
of  20  miles,  and  has  an  area  of  2,184  square  miles. 
Population  (1941  census),  95,047;  estimated 
(1948)  at  93,000.  Principal  religious  membership 
(1941  census):  Roman  Catholic,  42,743;  United 
Church,  24,005;  Presbyterian,  14,724;  Anglican, 
5,739;  and  Baptist,  5,443.  In  1946  there  were  2,793 
live  births,  874  deaths,  and  837  marriages.  Educa- 
tion (1945-46):  20,632  students  enrolled  in  schools 
and  colleges.  Chief  towns:  Charlottetown  (capital), 
14,821  inhabitants  in  1941;  Summerside,  5,034. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural  out- 
put in  1947  was  $21,547,000.  Value  of  all  major 
field  crops  produced  on  485,000  acres  in  1947 
amounted  to  $21,242,000.  Chief  field  crops  (1947): 
oats,  4,270,000  bu.  ($3,459,000);  mixed  grains, 
2,459,000  bu.  ($2,090,000);  potatoes,  5,873,000 
cwt  ( $9,456,000);  field  roots,  3,300,000  cwt  ($2,- 
475,000).  Livestock  (June  1,  1947)  included  95,- 
300  cattle  ($6,825,000),  23,800  horses  ($2,592,- 
000),  68,700  swine  ($1,891,000),  48,600  sheep 
($551,000)  and  1,369,000  poultry  ($1,600,000). 
Fox  breeding  is  carried  on  extensively.  There  were 
503  fur  farms  in  1946  with  502  farms  reporting 
fox.  Value  of  fur  pelt  production  in  the  season 
1946-47  was  $658,962.  The  value  of  fish  marketed 
in  1946  was  $4,470,877.  Lobster  fishery  is  the 
greatest  factor  in  the  fisheries  of  the  Island,  fol- 
lowed by  cod,  hake,  mackerel,  and  herring.  In 
1947  the  estimated  production  of  creamery  butter 
was  3,660,000  lb.,  valued  at  $2,050,000.  Cheese 
production  amounted  to  658,000  lb.,  with  a  value 
of  $207,000.  The  estimated  total  farm  value  of 
farm  poultry  meat  and  eggs  was  $3,141,000. 

Manufacturing:  In  1946  there  were  246  manufac- 
turing establishments  employing  1,755  persons;  sal- 
aries and  wages  paid  totaled  $1,651,469;  cost  of 
materials  amounted  to  $7,582,046;  gross  value  of 
manufactured  products"  during  1946  was  $11,200,- 
310.  The  two  most  import  nt  industries  are  fish 
curing  and  packing,  and  butter  and  cheese,  ac- 
counting for  58  percent  of  the  entire  gross  produc- 
tion. There  were  86  sawmills  in  operation  in  1946, 
reporting  a  gross  value  of  production  of  $562,631. 

Government.  Finance  (year  ended  Mar.  31,  1948): 
net  combined  revenue  $5,515,416  ( 1949  est.  $5,~ 
220,680);  net  combined  expenditure  $7,228,693 
(1949  est  $6,791,412). 

Executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  lieutenant 
governor  who  is  advised  by  a  ministry  of  the  legis- 
lature. In  the  Legislative  Assembly  there  are  30 


PJRISONS,  PARQU-,  AND  CRIME  CONTROl 


452 


PRISONS,  PARQIM,  4M>  CRIME  CONTROL 


members  elected  for  a  five-year  term.  Four  mem- 
bers in  the  Senate  and  four  elected  members  in  the 
House  of  Commons  represent  the  province  in  the 
Dominion  Parliament  at  Ottawa.  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor, J,  A.  Bernard  (app.  May  18,  1945);  Premier, 
J.  Walter  Jones  (Liberal).  At  the  provincial  gen- 
eral election  of  Dec.  11,  1947,  there  were  elected 
24  Liberals  and  6  Progressive  Conservatives.  See 
CANADA. 

PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME  CONTROL.  Some  years 
ago,  Professor  Roscoe  Pound  of  the  Harvard  Law 
School  said,  in  one  of  his  public  lectures,  that  we 
nave  more  crime  in  this  country  for  the  same  rea- 
son that  we  have  more  automobiles,  more  radios, 
more  newspapers  and  magazines,  more  railroads, 
and  more  large  cities.  Implicit  in  this  statement  is  a 
deep-seated  sociological  truth,  that  a  highly  de- 
veloped technological  society,  such  as  ours,  with  its 
high  rates  of  mobility  and  change  creates  constant 
pressure  upon  the  individual  for  adjustment  and 
readjustment.  Certainly,  the  search  for  the  cause  or 
the  causes  of  crime  has  been  futile  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  a  criminal  law  based  on  an  equation 
of  offense  to  punishment  is  an  18th  century  philos- 
ophy practiced  in  a  20th  century  society. 

While  the  core  of  the  older  system  of  criminal 
justice  still  remains  and  is  strongly  entrenched  in 
tradition,  it  has  not  entirely  withstood  the  attempts 
to  change  and  adapt  the  system  to  modern  knowl- 
edge and  social  needs.  Thus,  probation,  the  juve- 
nile court,  recent  legislation  on  the  treatment  of  the 
alcoholic  and  sex  offender,  and  the  establishment 
of  Youth  and  Adult  Correction  authorities,  have 
added  increasing  discretionary  powers  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice  which  minimizes  the  im- 
portance of  the  offense  as  contrasted  to  the  need 
for  understanding  and  treating  the  individual  in 
terms  of  his  maladjustment  and  readjustment  to 
society. 

Similar  changes  are  taking  place  in  the  admin- 
istration of  "correctional  programs"  as  contrasted  to 
the  administration  of  "penal  institutions/*  This  field 
of  work  is  attracting  an  increasing  number  of  bet- 
ter qualified  and  professionally  trained  persons 
than  was  true  even  ten  years  ago.  Several  universi- 
ties have  established  special  curricula  in  correc- 
tional administration  to  prepare  young  men  for  a 
career  in  this  area  of  service;  notably  New  York 
University,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Notre  Dame 
University,  Ohio  State  University,  and  University 
of  Maryland. 

As  a  result  the  agencies  of  treatment  within  the 
institutional  setting,  classification,  education,  med- 
ical and  psychiatric  facilities,  will  become  of  in- 
creasing concern  to  institutional  administrators  and 
will  reflect  the  new  critical  spirit  among  the  young- 
er and  better-trained  prison  worker. 

Is  Crime  Increasing.  Aside  from  these  theoretical 
considerations  which  are  slowly  being  translated 
into  practical  terms,  the  extent  of  crime  throughout 
the  country  as  reflected  in  the  reported  crime  rates 
has  this  year  in  some  areas  taken  a  downward 
trend.  According  to  the  Uniform  Crime  Reports 
published  by  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation, 
the  first  six  months  of  the  year  show  a  total  decline 
in  offenses  reported  of  1.8  percent  as  compared  to 
the  first  six  months  of  1947.  These  figures  are 
based  on  reports  of  the  police  in  2,094  cities  repre- 
senting 88  percent  of  the  nation's  urban  popula- 
tion. With  the  exception  of  such  offenses  as  aggra- 
vated assault  which  increased  4.0  percent  and 
larceny  which  increased  0.6  percent,  all  other  of- 
fenses showed  a  decrease.  Auto  theft  decreased 
12.7  percent,  robbery  5.6  percent,  murder  2.3  per- 


cent, burglary  1.9  percent,  and  rape  0.4  percent. 

On  the  other  hand,  crime  in  the  rural  areas  has 
shown  a  total  increase  of  3.8  percent  for  the  first 
six  months  of  this  year  over  the  same  period  last 
year.  In  these  areas,  rape,  robbery,  and  auto  theft 
have  decreased  9  to  7  percent,  respectively,  while 
murder,  burglary,  and  larceny  have  increased  one 
to  almost  9  percent,  respectively.  From  these  fig- 
ures, it  is  not  possible  to  conclude  definitely  that 
crime  is  either  decreasing  or  increasing.  These  fig- 
ures must  be  interpreted  in  relation  to  increases  in 
population  as  well  as  in  shifts  of  population  from 
urban  to  rural  areas. 

Prison  Population.  In  contrast  to  the  figures  on 
crime  rates,  the  statistics  on  court  commitments 
and  prison  population  reveal  a  somewhat  different 
situation.  Data  available  from  the  Census  Bureau 
is  to  the  effect  that  the  adult  prison  population  was 
higher  at  the  end  of  1947  than  in  any  other  year 
since  1941.  On  Dec.  31,  1947,  there  were  153,199 
persons  in  the  State  and  Federal  adult  institutions. 
This  is  an  increase  of  more  than  8  percent  over  the 
year-end  population  of  1946  or  an  increase  of  11,- 
795  persons  confined  in  penal  institutions.  These 
figures  do  not  include  commitments  or  population 
statistics  for  juvenile  institutions,  military  and 
naval  correctional  institutions,  and  local  jails  and 
workhouses.  Unfortunately,  the  information  for 
1948  is  not  yet  available. 

While  the  population  in  State  institutions  has 
increased,  in  Federal  institutions,  the  situation  is 
the  reverse.  The  following  table  shows  the  number 
of  Federal  prisoners  committed  over  the  4-year 
period  of  1945-48. 

FEDERAL  PRISONERS  RECEIVED 
(Fiscal  Year  Ended  June  SO) 

1945  1946  1947  1948 

Total 21,200  20,112  19,626  16,787 

War-related  offenses0...  6,588  4,805  3,475  1,673 

Other  offenses 14,612  15,307  16,151  15,114 

Immigration 3,996  3,629  3,989  3,200 

Juvenile  Delinquency 

Act 911  1,221  870  677 

Liquor 2,988  2,425  1,996  1,838 

Narcotic  drugs 1,134  1,261  1,447  1,443 

NMVTA 1,072  1,997  2,740  2,612 

Others 4,511  4,774  5,109  5,344 

a  Selective  Service,  other  war  offenses,  and  military  prisoners. 

One  of  the  probable  reasons  for  this  decline  in 
Federal  prison  population  may  be  due  to  the  de- 
crease in  automobile  thefts  which  comes  under  the 
Federal  Dyer  Act  and  to  a  general  decrease  in 
Juvenile  delinquency. 

Army  and  Navy  Correctional  Programs.  Both 
branches  of  the  military  service  have  continued  the 
development  of  their  correctional  programs  con- 
sistent with  the  best  thinking  and  progressive  treat- 
ment programs.  As  of  June,  1948,  there  were  8,980 
general  prisoners  in  confinement.  This  compares 
with  a  peak  load  of  34,766  confined  in  November, 
1945.  Of  the  total  of  8,980  prisoners  confined, 
5,004  were  in  U.S.  Disciplinary  Barracks,  3,150  in 
Federal  prisons,  376  in  Guard  houses  in  the  U.S., 
and  450  overseas. 

Of  the  approximately  94,000  general  prisoners 
in  confinement  from  January,  1940,  through  June, 
1948,  about  43,000  have  been  restored  to  duty.  Of 
these,  approximately  4,200  have  been  reconfined, 
or  a  rate  of  less  than  10  percent 

Because  of  the  rapidly  declining  population,  the 
Rehabilitation  Centers  were  discontinued  and  at 
present  the  Army  is  operating  only  5  Disciplinary 
Barracks.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  Army  to  encourage 
as  many  qualified  general  prisoners  as  possible  to 
earn  restoration  to  duty  with  a  view  to  eventual 


PRISONS,  PAROII,  AND  CRIME  CONTROi. 


453 


PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND  CRIME  CONTROL 


honorable  discharge.  If  this  does  not  appear  pos- 
sible, every  effort  is  made  toward  a  constructive  re- 
turn to  civil  life. 

The  Navy  is  operating  4  installations,  2  Disci- 
plinary Barracks,  located  at  Terminal  Island,  Calif., 
and  Portsmouth,  N.H.;  and  2  Retraining  Com- 
mands at  Mare  Island,  Calif.,  and  Norfolk,  Va.  A 
Corrective  Services  Division  had  been  established 
in  the  Bureau  of  Naval  Personnel  charged  with 
the  responsibility  of  developing  a  modern  penal 
and  correctional  program.  The  top  confinement 
population  in  all  Navy  installations  reached  a  total 
of  over  16,000  men  in  1945. 

As  of  June  30,  1948,  there  were  2,346  general 
court-martial  prisoners  confined  in  the  4  naval  in- 
stallations. This  figure  does  not  include  301  pris- 
oners in  Federal  institutions.  During  the  first  three 
months  of  this  fiscal  year  983  general  court-martial 
prisoners  were  released.  Of  this  group  about  24 
percent  were  restored  to  duty. 

Juvenile  Delinquency.  The  rates  of  juvenile  delin- 
quency throughout  the  country  have  shown  a  gen- 
eral decline,  especially  since  1945,  the  last  year 
of  the  war.  The  two  sources  of  statistics  on  juvenile 
delinquency  are  the  reports  on  arrests  published 
by  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Investigation  and  the 
reports  on  juvenile  court  cases  by  the  U.S.  Chil- 
dren's Bureau.  These  reports  show  that  in  1943, 
the  second  full  year  of  our  participation  in  the 
war,  the  juvenile  delinquency  problem  became 
quite  spectacular. 

In  that  year,  there  was  reported  about  47,800 
arrests  of  juveniles,  an  increase  of  26  percent  over 
the  previous  year,  and  about  82,800  juvenile  court 
cases,  or  an  increase  of  34  percent  over  the  pre- 
vious year.  The  peak  was  reached  in  1945  with 
about  49,500  arrests  and  84,600  court  cases.  In 
1947,  however,  they  had  dropped  to  a  little  more 
than  37,800  arrests  and  about  73,400  court  cases. 
Both  figures  are  lower  than  in  any  year  since  1938. 

The  conclusions  which  may  be  drawn  from  these 
data  are  that  such  social  forces  as  the  disruption 
of  family  life,  the  entrance  of  mothers  into  the 
labor  market,  increased  mobility  of  families  and 
young  people,  and  the  migration  from  rural  to 
urban  industrial  centers  could  well  be  the  deter- 
mining factors  in  the  rate  of  Juvenile  delinquency. 
Another  important  factor,  undoubtedly,  has  been 
the  impetus  given  by  the  continuing  efforts  of  the 
Attorney  General's  Conference  on  Prevention  and 
Control  of  Juvenile  Delinquency  and  the  resulting 
concern  on  the  part  of  communities  regarding  local 
responsibilities  for  the  prevention  of  juvenile  de- 
linquency. Eighteen  reports  of  the  National  Con- 
ference on  Juvenile  Delinquency  are  now  available 
in  printed  form  from  the  U.S.  Government  Print- 
ing Office. 

The  Problems  of  the  Sex  Offender.  The  inadequacies 
of  dealing  with  the  sex  and  constitutional  psycho- 
path in  accordance  with  the  traditional  legal  and 
corrective  methods  is  another  problem  being  given 
serious  consideration  in  many  States.  The  law  in 
most  States  relating  to  sex  offenses  do  no  more 
than  specify  the  punishment  for  certain  types  of 
sex  offenses.  The  application  of  the  well  worn  tests 
of  insanity  and  mental  deficiency  have  not  worked 
out  and  modern  psychiatry  has  shown  that  the  sex 
offender  is  neither  insane  nor  feeble  minded  but 
may  actually  be  an  abnormal  individual  in  need 
of  restraint  and  treatment  for  the  protection  of  the 
community. 

So  far  California,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
and  the  District  of  Columbia  have  enacted  legis- 
lation which  recognizes  this  fact.  The  Massachu- 
setts State  Legislature  has  some  legislation  under 


consideration.  During  the  past  year.,  the  New  York 
State  Legislature  has  appropriated  $35,000  to  the 
State  Department  of  Mental  Hygiene  for  a  study 
of  the  medical,  psychiatric,  and  psychological  as- 
pects of  sex  crimes.  The  study  will  be  conducted 
at  Sing  Sing  Prison,  to  which  all  sentenced  sex 
psychopaths  will  be  sent. 

The  answer  to  the  problem  of  the  abnormal  sex 
offender  would  seem  to  be  in  the  establishment  of 
competent  boards  who  would  determine  whether 
the  offender  is  suffering  from  a  morbid  personality 
or  some  other  abnormality,  and  legal  provisions 
for  indefinite  commitment  to  an  institution  for 
psychiatric  care  and  treatment. 

Probation  and  Parole.  While  probation  and  parole 
are  accepted  as  essential  parts  of  a  modern  cor- 
rectional program,  there  are  still  a  number  of 
States  in  which  both  exist  in  name  only.  However, 
each  year  marks  some  advance  and  progress,  as 
reflected  in  State  legislation  during  the  year. 

In  New  Jersey,  a  parole  law,  enacted  in  accord- 
ance with  the  recently  adopted  constitution,  estab- 
lishes in  the  Department  of  Institutions  and  Agen- 
cies an  autonomous  parole  board  of  3  members 
appointed  by  the  governor  for  staggered  terms  of 
6  years.  Michigan  has  enlarged  its  parole  board 
from  3  to  4  members.  In  Louisiana,  a  part-time 
parole  board  has  been  reestablished  with  die  mem- 
bers* terms  concurrent  with  that  of  the  governor. 
A  parole  officer  and  other  employees  serving  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  governor  are  provided  for  to  do  the 
work  now  being  done  by  the  Department  of  Wel- 
fare. 

Enabling  legislation  in  Kentucky,  Mississippi, 
and  South  Carolina  passed  this  year  authorizes  the 
governors  of  these  States  to  execute  the  interstate 
compact  for  probation  and  parole  supervision.  This 
reduces  to  4  the  number  of  States  which  have  not 
acted  on  the  compact:  Georgia,  Nevada,  North 
Carolina,  and  Texas. 

In  Kentucky,  prisoners  serving  first  sentences 
of  15  years  or  less  may  now  apply  for  parole  after 
serving  one  third  of  the  sentence,  or  at  least  0 
months,  which  is  a  reduction  in  the  minimum  time 
required  for  parole  eligibility.  And  in  Massachu- 
setts, the  salaries  of  the  parole  board  have  been 
increased  from  a  range  of  $2,250  to  $5,500  to  a 
range  of  $4,000  to  $9,000. 

Other  State  Action  and  Legislation.  One  of  the  very 
important  pieces  of  State  legislation  was  passed  in 
Massachusetts  which  now  becomes  the  fourth  State 
to  set  up  a  Youth  Correction  Authority  with  the 
establishment  of  a  Youth  Service  Board.  The  other 
States  now  having  similar  legislation  are  Califor- 
nia, Minnesota,  and  Wisconsin.  The  Massachusetts 
board  consists  of  3  full-time  members  (Serving 
staggered  terms  of  5  years)  appointed  by  the 
governor.  All  juvenile  offenders  will  be  committed 
to  the  Youth  Service  Board  by  the  courts  rather 
than  to  specific  institutions  and  all  training  schools 
have  been  placed  under  the  authority  of  the  board. 

Practically  all  of  the  other  progressive  legisla- 
tion in  other  States  is  concerned  with  improve- 
ments in  the  treatment  of  the  juvenile  delinquent. 
New  legislation  in  New  York  provides  that  children 
under  15  years  of  age  charged  with  capital  crimes 
shall  be  considered  juvenile  offenders  and  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  juvenile  authorities. 
Children  between  15  and  16  years  of  age  accused 
of  such  offenses  may  be  transferred  from  the  crim- 
inal court  to  juvenile  jurisdiction  at  the  discretion 
of  the  judge.  Formerly  these  offenses  were  excluded 
from  juvenile  court  jurisdiction. 

This  is  in  line  with  recent  similar  and  perhaps 
more  progressive  legislation  in  California,  Con- 


PRISONS,  PAROIE,  AND  CRIME  CONTKOl 


454 


PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


necticut,  Indiana,  Michigan,  and  Minnesota  which 
placed  all  offenders  under  the  age  of  18,  regardless 
of  charge,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  juvenile 
courts. 

The  Juvenile  Code  Commission  of  Kansas  which 
was  granted  an  appropriation  by  the  1947  State 
Legislature  to  study  needed  changes  in  State  laws 
pertaining  to  children,  is  prepared  to  submit  its 
recommendations  to  the  1949  session.  The  recom- 
mendations will  include  sweeping  revisions  of  stat- 
utes relating  to  juvenile  courts,  adoptions,  child 
labor,  and  licensing  of  boarding  homes. 

In  Missouri,  measures  substantially  increasing 
appropriations  and  providing  for  more  flexible 
programs  at  the  3  State  training  schools,  Boone- 
ville,  Chillicothe,  and  Tipton  were  passed  and 
submitted  to  the  governor.  The  new  appropriation 
will  make  possible  an  increase  in  personnel,  new 
cottages,  an  education  building,  and  a  new  power 
plant  at  Booneville.  A  second  measure  establishes 
a  minimum  age  of  12  for  all  commitments  to  these 
institutions  and  a  maximum  age  of  17  for  boys  and 
21  for  girls,  and  authorizes  the  commitment  of 
children  under  the  minimuin  age  to  the  guardian- 
ship of  the  division  of  welfare. 

A  State  reorganization  act  in  Virginia  consoli- 
dated the  Welfare  and  Corrections  Department, 
the  parole  board,  and  the  program  of  hospital  care 
and  treatment  for  indigents  formerly  in  the  Health 
Department,  to  form  the  Department  of  Welfare 
and  Institutions. 

The  Virginia  Advisory  Legislative  Council  was 
directed  to  study  the  advisability  of  establishing  a 
statewide  system  of  district  juvenile  and  domestic 
relations  courts,  to  be  governed  by  a  Court  Com- 
mission. The  results  of  this  study  is  to  be  reported 
to  the  General  Assembly  by  Sept.  1,  1949. 

A  number  of  States  have  instituted  programs 
looking  toward  the  construction  of  new  facilities 
and  institutions.  In  Florida  plans  have  been  com- 
pleted for  a  new  institution  for  women  to  be  called 
the  Female  Correctional  Institution,  located  at 
Ocala,  Fla,,  at  an  estimated  total  cost  of  about  $5 
million.  Construction  has  been  started  on  a  cor- 
rectional institution  for  the  younger  male  offender 
to  be  located  at  Apalachee.  In  South  Carolina  the 
construction  of  a  new  State  penitentiary  located  at 
Columbia  has  been  approved.  In  California,  prog- 
ress is  reported  in  the  construction  of  the  new 
medium-security  prison  at  Soledad  and  a  reception 
unit  at  Chino.  Plans  for  future  construction  to 
round  out  the  State  prison  system  include  a  State 
vocational  institution  at  Tracy  and  a  State  medi- 
cal center, 

Federal  Prison  Industries,  Inc.  Federal  Prison  In- 
dustries, Inc.,  is  a  Government  Corporation  au- 
thorized by  Congress  in  June  1934,  and  established 
in  December  1934  by  an  Executive  Order  of  the 
President  The  Board  of  Directors,  appointed  by 
the  President,  serve  without  compensation  and 
consist  of  5  persons,  one  each  representing  indus- 
try, labor,  agriculture,  retailers  and  consumers,  and 
one  representing  the  Attorney  General.  The  Cor- 
poration is  required  to  make  an  annual  report  to 
the  Congress  on  the  business  of  the  Corporation 
and  on  the  condition  of  its  funds. 

The  Corporation  operated  39  different  industries 
in  17  of  the  Federal  penal  and  correctional  insti- 
tutions providing  employment  for  about  3,100 
prisoners.  Products  are  sold  only  to  other  Federal 
Government  departments  and  agencies  at  current 
market  prices.  During  the  war,  Federal  Prison  In- 
dustries produced  approximately  $80  million  worth 
of  vitally  needed  war  goods.  In  addition,  the  Cor- 
poration is  financing  an  extensive  vocational  and 


trade  training  program  in  all  Federal  institutions. 

The  industries  operated  by  the  Corporation  in- 
clude the  manufacture  of  brooms  and  brushes; 
shoes;  textile  and  canvas  goods;  clothing;  mat- 
tresses; office  furniture,  both  wood  and  steel;  and 
the  canning  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  The  total 
sales  of  goods  during  the  past  fiscal  year  exceeded 
$14,785,000  of  which  the  net  earnings  during  the 
same  period  amounted  to  slightly  less  than  $3  mil- 
lion which  represented  an  increase  of  about  $1 
million  over  the  last  fiscal  year.  Wages  to  each  in- 
mate employed  averaged  from  $15  to  $20  per 
month  and  these  earnings  are  kept  either  as  a 
savings  account  for  the  inmate  or  sent  out  to  the 
inmates*  dependents. 

All  funds  of  the  Corporation  are  held  in  the 
Treasury  of  the  United  States  and  during  the  year 
the  Corporation  paid  to  the  U.S.  Treasury  a  divi- 
dend of  $2  million,  making  a  total  dividend  paid 
to  the  U.S.  Treasury  up  to  June  1948  of  $11,688,- 
000. 

Prison  Industries  in  State  Institutions,  This  situation 
however  is  not  generally  true  in  State  prison  sys- 
tems. For  about  20  years,  prison  industries  and  the 
full  utilization  of  prison  labor  has  provided  the 
most  disheartening  picture  of  the  whole  prison 
system.  Even  the  best  State  prisons  have  had  their 
programs  undermined  by  the  presence  of  hundreds 
of  men  deteriorating  in  idleness.  Federal  and  State 
legislation,  beginning  in  1929  and  culminating  in 
1940,  prohibited  the  interstate  shipment  of  prison- 
made  goods  and  practically  paralyzed  industry  in 
most  State  prisons. 

With  the  exception  of  the  war  years,  when  State 
prisons  were  permitted  to  manufacture  goods  for 
the  Federal  Government,  only  about  20  percent 
of  the  inmates  in  State  institutions  have  at  any 
time  been  employed  in  productive  industries.  With 
the  increase  in  population  in  State  penal  institu- 
tions, the  problem  of  idleness  is  once  again  harass- 
ing the  prison  administrator  and  except  for  a  few 
States  very  little  is  being  done  to  solve  the  problem 
of  idleness.  The  State  use  system  which  is  the  only 
practical  substitute  for  the  contract  and  the  open 
market  system  has  so  far  not  been  adequately  de- 
veloped or  exploited.  The  need  for  a  concerted 
attack  on  a  cooperative  national  level  supported  by 
adequate  legislation  is  becoming  more  and  more 
obvious.  — JAMES  V.  BENNETT 

PRODUCTION  AND  MARKETING  ADMINISTRATION.  An 

agency  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  cre- 
ated Aug.  20,  1945,  which  consolidated  several 
existing  agencies.  It  consists  of  9  commodity 
branches  and  11  functional  branches.  Under  au- 
thorization by  Congress  and  the  bylaws  of  the 
Commodity  Credit  Corporation,  it  has  been  dele- 
gated authority  to  carry  out  programs  of  the  Cor- 
poration. One  commodity  branch  exists  for  each 
of  the  following:  cotton,  dairy  products,  fats  and 
oils,  fruits  and  vegetables,  grain,  livestock,  poultry, 
sugar,  and  tobacco.  Each  branch  is  responsible  for 
the  commodities  over  which  it  has  jurisdiction!,  for 
production,  adjustment,  price  support,  marketing 
research  and  services,  and  distribution.  The  agency 
may  establish  programs  to  effect  economies  in  proc- 
essing and  marketing  food,  and  may  cooperate  with 
industry  and  other  agencies  of  the  Department  in 
developing  new  or  substitute  products.  It  super- 
vises market  news  services  and  sets  and  maintains 
standards  and  performs  inspection  and  grading. 
Administrator:  Ralph  S.  Trigg. 

PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH.  This  body  entered 
the  colonies  in  1607,  as  the  Church  of  England.  It 


PSYCHIATRY 


455 


PSYCHIATRY 


became  autonomous  and  adopted  its  present  name 
in  1789.  On  Jan.  14,  1947,  Henry  Knox  Snerril!  was 
formally  installed  as  the  20th  Presiding  Bishop  of 
the  Episcopal  Church,  Bishops  consecrated  during 
1948  included  George  T.  Gunn,  Coadjutor,  South- 
ern Virginia;  Charles  F.  Hall,  New  Hampshire; 
Louis  C.  Melcher,  Coadjutor,  Southern  Brazil;  J. 
Wilson  Hunter,  Coadjutor,  Wyoming;  F.  Eric  Bloy, 
Los  Angeles;  Lauriston  L.  Scaife,  Western  New 
York;  William  J.  Gordon,  Alaska;  Russell  S.  Hub- 
bard,  Suffragan,  Michigan;  Charles  A.  Clough, 
Springfield;  Theo.  N.  Earth,  Coadjutor,  Tennessee; 
M.  George  Henry,  Western  North  Carolina;  Ham- 
ilton West,  Coad'jutor,  Florida;  Walter  M.  Higley, 
Suffragan,  Central  New  York. 

On  Apr.  7,  1948,  in  Manila,  three  Bishops  con- 
secrated three  Filipinos  as  Bishops  for  the  Philip- 
pine Independent  Church.  The  Philippine  Church, 
with  some  2  million  baptized  members  and  35 
Bishops,  comprises  about  10  percent  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  island. 

During  the  year  the  Church  gave  more  than  a 
million  dollars  toward  European  and  Asiatic  relief. 
This  money  together  with  thousands  of  pounds  of 
clothing,  food,  etc.,  is  administered  through  Church 
World  Service,  the  cooperative  relief  agency  of  the 
Churches  of  America.  A  similar  sum  will  be  raised 
in  1949. 

In  July  and  August  66  Bishops  journeyed  to 
London  to  attend  the  Lambeth  Conference,  meet- 
ing at  Lambeth  Palace  under  the  presidency  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  A  total  of  329  Bishops 
attended,  representing  all  parts  of  the  Anglican 
Communion. 

Communicants  in  7,864  parishes  totaled  1,650,- 
538  in  1948.  The  baptized  persons  numbered 
2,436,589;  baptisms  during  the  year  totaled  110,- 
618,  and  confirmations,  73,251.  A  total  of  149 
priests  were  ordained,  bringing  the  total  number  of 
clergy  to  6,506.  Enrollment  in  Church  schools  to- 
taled 462,179.  The  General  Convention  approved 
a  1949  budget  of  $3,910,000. 

Outstanding  events  in  1949  will  be  the  400th 
Anniversary  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and 
the  triennial  General  Convention,  meeting  in  San 
Francisco,  in  September-October. 

Headquarters  of  the  National  Council,  which  is 
also  the  boaid  of  directors  of  the  Domestic  and 
Foreign  Missionary  Society,  are  in  the  Church 
Missions  House,  281  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York  10, 
N.Y.  The  official  periodical  is  Forth,  of  which  Wil- 
liam E.  Leidt  is  the  editor.  President  of  the  Na- 
tional Council,  Rt  Rev.  Henry  Knox  Sherrill. 

PSYCHIATRY.  The  most  discussed  event  of  the  year 
in  psychiatry  was  the  International  Congress  on 
Mental  Health,  held  in  London,  August  11-21,  un- 
der the  presidency  of  Dr.  J.  R.  Rees,  and  reported 
in  the  British  Medical  Journal,  Aug.  21  and  Aug. 
28,  1948.  Some  2,000  delegates  from  more  than  50 
countries  were  in  attendance. 

Administratively  the  significant  issue  of  the  Con- 
gress was  the  setting  up  of  a  permanent  interna- 
tional organization,  the  World  Federation  for  Men- 
tal Health,  whose  purposes  are  implied  in  its  title. 
The  World  Federation  is  to  be  made  up  of  the  pro- 
fessional societies  in  the  several  countries  repre- 
senting various  aspects  of  mental  health  in  its 
broadest  terms — anthropologists,  sociologists,  edu- 
cationists, psychologists,  and  psychiatrists.  By  this 
composition  a  fact,  long  recognized  by  many,  was 
given  world-wide  currency,  namely,  that  the  health 
of  the  mind  is  much  more  than  merely  a  medical 
question  in  the  traditional  sense  and  involves  dis- 
ciplines dealing  with  all  human  relationships. 


An  executive  committee  of  12  members  was  pro- 
vided, representing  different  countries  and  it  is 
proposed  to  hold  annual  assemblies  in  various  parts 
of  the  world.  A  Russian  delegation,  although  in- 
vited, was  not  present  at  the  Congress. 

Space  permits  mention  of  but  few  features  of 
this  10-day  meeting.  Up  to  World  War  II  psychia- 
try^ had  made  little  headway  in  China,  as  Dr. 
Ch'eng  pointed  out.  He  indicated  that  social  stabil- 
ity had  been  favored  by  the  characteristic  closely- 
knit  family  relationships  in  that  country,  and  that 
contact  with  western  civilization  had  not  strength- 
ened these  standards.  Because  of  these  age-old  fam- 
ily ties  and  a  strong  sense  of  filial  obligation  invo- 
lutional  psychoses  are  comparatively  rare.  From 
other  sources,  too,  we  have  had  evidence  that  de- 
pressions in  later  life  are  infrequent  in  China  be- 
cause of  the  customary  respect  for  and  care  of  the 
aging  person. 

The  very  important  subject  of  pathogenic  pub- 
licity media  was  touched  on  by  Professor  Gokay 
of  Turkey  who  reported  studies  of  the  effects  of 
gangster  films  in  developing  adolescent  criminals, 
A  wholesome  step  has  been  taken  in  that  country 
in  prohibiting  accounts  of  suicide  in  the  press. 

The  psychiatric  problems  of  childhood  were  dis- 
cussed at  considerable  length  during  the  Congress, 
with  attention  focussed  largely  on  the  concepts  of 
"aggression,"  "frustration/*  "guilt,"  etc.,  that  have 
been  elaborated  so  extensively  and  variously  in  re- 
cent years.  Modern  psychiatry  in  its  intensive  search 
for  causes  of  mental  illness  turned  naturally  and 
fruitfully  to  the  childhood  years,  and  child  psychia- 
try has  emerged  as  a  most  important  division  of  the 
larger  field.  Here,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  situ- 
ation, the  responsibility  of  the  investigator  is  very 
great;  and  while  extremists  are  perhaps  more  prone 
to  appear  in  psychiatry  than  in  any  other  branch 
of  medicine,  one  may  venture  to  express  regret 
that  they  should  be  found  dealing  with  childhood. 
One  reason  why  today  so  many  children  are  in  the 
hands  of  psychiatrists  may  well  be  that  they  have 
not  so  good  homes  to  live  in  as  they  had  in  other 
years.  Without  doubt  there  would  be  general  agree- 
ment that  studies  of  the  early  years  of  life  are  fun- 
damental to  an  understanding  of  mental  health  and 
unhealth  at  all  ages,  and  that  prevention  of  mental 
troubles  in  adult  life  involves  not  only  the  question 
of  heredity  and  constitution  but  also  the  discipline, 
habit  formation,  and  human  environment  of  child- 
hood; it  must  also  be  said  that  there  is  sharp  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  the  validity  and  even  the  le- 
gitimacy of  certain  practices  of  so-called  child 
analysis. 

A  development  from  which  much  may  be  hoped 
was  the  organization  of  the  International  Associa- 
tion of  Child  Psychiatry  with  Dr.  Frederick  Allen 
of  Philadelphia  as  first  president.  The  next  interna- 
tional conference  will  be  held  in  the  latter  city. 

One  session  of  the  Congress  had  to  do  with  psy- 
chiatry in  the  field  of  relations  between  nations, 
as  an  instrumentality  to  promote  peace  and  abolish 
war.  Here  psychiatry  and  all  the  social  sciences  • 
need  to  proceed  warily.  It  is  all  too  evident  that 
an  excess  of  zeal — even  if  in  the  right  direction — 
on  the  part  of  the  more  assured  and  optimistic 
members  of  the  profession  does  not  inspire  confi- 
dence on  the  part  of  government  agencies.  Psy- 
chiatry has  been,  especially  since  World  War  II, 
a  victim  of  too  much  publicity  and  the  suspicion 
of  pretentions  beyond  capacity  of  performance, 
and  is  itself  in  part  responsible  for  this  state  of 
affairs. 

There  have  been  two  previous  international  con- 
gresses of  psychiatrists  and  mental  hygienists 


PSYCHIATRY 


456 


PSYCHIATRY 


(Washington,  1930;  Paris,  1937),  but  the  recent 
one  was  of  broader  scope,  and  the  permanent  body, 
open  to  all  nations,  which  is  set  up  with  machinery 
for  continuous  exchange  and  collaboration  encour- 
ages hope  that  social  sanity  among  the  peoples 
may  not  be  an  utter  and  ultimate  impossibility; 
and  if  not*  that  the  social  sciences  may  contribute 
their  humble  part  to  such  a  consummation.  Pos- 
sibly the  wisest  pronouncement  during  the  Lon- 
don Congress  was  the  quotation  by  Professor  Mac- 
Caiman  of  Aberdeen  of  a  Chinese  proverb:  "If 
there  is  righteousness  in  the  heart  there  will  be 
beauty  in  the  character;  if  beauty  in  the  character, 
harmony  in  the  home;  if  harmony  in  the  home, 
order  in  the  nation;  if  order  in  the  nation,  peace 
in  the  world." 

Trends  in  Psychiatry.  The  earliest  observations  nat- 
urally dealt  with  conspicuous  symptoms — excite- 
ment (mania),  depression  (melancholia),  mental 
enfeeblement  (dementia).  Through  the  centuries 
new  diagnostic  terms  were  added,  many  became 
obsolete  or  were  replaced  by  others.  Gradually  the 
list  of  types  of  mental  disorder  expanded,  syn- 
dromes replaced  symptoms,  and  with  more  inten- 
sive study  of  the  behavior  of  patients,  objective 
differential  criteria  were  refined,  sometimes  to  a 
point  that  made  agreement  between  different  cli- 
nicians difficult.  Kraepelin  eventually  described  9 
subtypes  of  dementia  praecox,  although  specifically 
stating  that  the  delimitation  of  the  several  clinical 
groups  was  artificial  and  that  many  transitional 
forms  occurred. 

With  the  rise  of  histologic  techniques  and  espe- 
cially differential  staining  methods  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  19th  century  and  the  demonstration  of 
characteristic  changes  in  the  central  nervous  sys- 
tems associated  with  certain  mental  diseases;  no- 
tably paresis,  arteriosclerosis,  toxic,  defective,  and 
senile  states;  the  organic  aspect  of  psychiatry  came 
into  prominence;  and  around  the  turn  of  the  cen- 
tury hope  was  growing  that  eventually  a  pathologi- 
cal basis  would  be  established  for  most  forms  of 
psychical  disorder.  Particularly  fruitful  were  tihe 
histo-pathological  studies  of  Nissl,  Alzheimer,  and 
others  during  a  period  of  great  research  activity 
in  many  quarters,  strengthening  the  bonds  between 
psychiatry  and  the  other  medical  sciences. 

At  this  time,  too,  another  tendency  was  develop- 
ing— emphasis  on  the  psychology  and  the  psycho- 
logical factors  of  mental  illness.  Kraepelin,  a  pupil 
of  Wundt,  had  established  at  Heidelberg  the  first 
experimental  laboratory  for  the  study  of  psychotic 
and  neurotic  patients.  The  work  of  Charcot,  Janet, 
Bernheim,  Freud,  Prince,  and  others  called  atten- 
tion to  the  possibility  of  purely  psychogenic  origin 
of  certain  abnormal  mental  states.  And  if  such 
states  could  be  caused  by  psychological  factors, 
they  should  be  curable  by  the  same  means,  as  Ba- 
binsky  set  forth,  i.e.,  by  psychotherapy.  There  was 
much  controversy  between  those  who,  taking  their 
cue  from  traditional  medicine,  insisted  upon  an  or- 
ganic basis  for  psychiatric  disorders — that  mental 
disease  meant  brain  disease — and  those  who  laid 
stress  on  psychogenesis,  pointing  out  that  in  the 
majority  of  mental  cases  related  brain  pathology 
could  not  be  demonstrated.  Was  the  patient  suffer- 
ing from  a  "brain  spot"  or  a  "mind  twist,"  as 
Southard  vividly  put  it? 

The  proponents  of  psychogenesis  and  psycho- 
therapy fell  into  several  groups.  There  were  those 
who  might  be  called  the  eclectic  or  conservative 
group  but  who  adhered  to  no  "school,"  using  sug- 
gestive therapy  in  accordance  with  commonly 
accepted  psychological  principles  as  part  of  a 
multi-dimensional  treatment  program.  Myerson 


used  the  expression  "total-push"  to  describe  such  a 
holistic  method. 

Followers  of  the  doctrines  of  Freud  constituted 
a  second  group  of  a  strictly  "school"  or  sectarian 
type;  and  that  this  school  has  attracted  more  at- 
tention than  all  the  others  put  together  requires 
no  mention  here.  Its  popularity  has  within  recent 
years  been  particularly  manifest  in  the  United 
States;  much  less  so  in  Austria,  the  country  of  its 
origin,  or  in  France.  Spokesmen  of  this  group  have 
sometimes  taken  the  unfortunate  standT  that  psy- 
choanalysis is  essential  in  good  psychiatric  practice 
and  that  the  student's  training  in  psychiatry  is  in- 
complete without  a  personal  analysis. 

Regrettably  the  zeal  of  the  Freudians  and  their 
derivatives  has  tended  to  produce  schism  in  the 
ranks  of  the  profession  and  thus  impair  confidence 
in  the  mino!s  of  a  public  that  has  no  criteria  for 
distinguishing  psychiatry  as  such  from  its  sectarian 
offshoot.  Critics  both  within  and  without  the  pro- 
fession have  not  been  lacking.  The  most  recent,  Dr. 
Hiram  K.  Johnson  (Psychiatric  Quarterly,  April, 
1948)  has  anatomized  the  Freudian  gnosis  in  very 
thorough  and  scholarly  fashion.  He  likens  psycho- 
analysis "to  the  vogue  of  phrenology  and  animal 
magnetism  in  the  preceding  century."  An  editorial 
in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association 
(Oct.  16,  1948)  takes  approving  notice  of  John- 
son's criticisms. 

Another  imposing  group  of  psychotherapists  is 
that  of  the  clinical  psychologists.  Devising  intelli- 
gence tests,  personality  inventories,  scales  for  meas- 
uring aptitudes  and  morbid  tendencies,  the  psy- 
chologists have  made  most  valuable  contributions 
to  psychiatric  procedure.  But  the  borders  of  psy- 
chology have  .widened  pari  passu  with  those  of 
psychiatry  and  as  both  focus  on  the  person  they 
inevitably  overlap.  Each  discipline  is  concerned 
with  both  normal  states  and  deviations  therefrom; 
and  the  deviations  are  discussed  respectively  under 
the  captions  "abnormal  psychology"  and  "psycho- 
pathology" — terms  which  mean  essentially  the 
same  thing. 

Naturally  enough  the  clinical  psychologists,  as 
their  field  expanded,  took  on  treatment  as  well  as 
diagnostic  functions,  and  this  border  area  between 
psychology  and  psychiatry  has  been  a  particularly 
controversial  one.  The  situation  is  unsatisfactory. 
Psychologists  are  accepting  and  treating  patients 
with  psychiatric  disorders  who,  the  doctor  holds, 
should  be  under  medical  care.  This  accords  with 
the  position  of  contemporary  medicine  that  gener- 
ally speaking  a  person  is  not  sick  exclusively  in 
mind  or  exclusively  in  body  but  rather  as  a  bio- 
logical (psychobiological)  unit  and  as  such*  be- 
comes a  medical  problem.  The  recent  vogue  of 
so-called  psychosomatic  medicine  is  in  line  with 
this  view.  The  American  Psychiatric  Association 
and  the  American  Psychological  Association  are 
endeavoring  to  arrive  at  a  common  understanding 
in  these  matters. 

One  of  the  unsavory  by-products  of  clinical  psy- 
chology is  the  fact  that  it  encourages  quackery. 
Totally  unqualified  persons  posing  as  psychologists 
open  offices  and  carry  on  consulting  practices.  The 
variety  and  scope  of  this  abuse  were  admirably  ex- 
emplified in  Steiner's  book,  Where  Do  People  Take 
Their  Troubles  ( Houghton-Mifflin,  1945).  Dael 
Wolfle,  Executive  Secretary  of  the  American  Psy- 
chological Association  (Transaction$>  N.Y.  Acad- 
emy of(Sciences,  March,  1948)  outlines  steps  to  be 
taken  "to  protect  society  against  the  psychological 
racketeer,"  chief  of  which  is  the  establishment  of 
licensing  laws  such  as  regulate  the  practice  of  med- 
icine and  ensure  the  prosecution  of  quacks. 


PSYCHIATRY 


457 


PSYCHIATRY 


The  extraordinary  range  of  the  more  legitimate 
forms  of  psychotherapy,  from  both  the  psychologi- 
cal and  psychiatric  standpoints,  is  set  forth  in  con- 
siderable detail  by  Snyder  (Psychological  Bulletin, 
July,  1947). 

In  psychiatry  probably  more  than  in  other  medi- 
cal disciplines  when  the  pendulum  swings,  it 
swings  too  far.  There  have  been  those  who  have 
felt  mat  the  whole  concept  of  psychogenesis  and 
psychotherapy,  important  as  it  is,  has  been  over- 
worked, at  times  to  the  neglect  of  other  factors  and 
indications.  Sargant  and  Slater's  book,  Physical 
Methods  of  Treatment  in  Psychiatry  (2nd  ed., 
1948,  Wifliams  and  WiUcins,  Baltimore)  marks  a 
timely  reaction  and  bids  psychiatrists  remember 
that  after  all  mental  patients  have  bodies  as  well 
as  minds  and  that  there  are  physical  and  physio- 
logical routes  to  the  psyche  as  well  as  psychological 
ones. 

Studies  in  connection  with  the  somewhat  heroic 
treatment  measures  of  recent  years — insulin  coma, 
electroshock,  psychosurgery,  and  accelerated  in- 
terest in  the  biochemistry  and  electrophysiology  of 
mental  deviations,  as  well  as  the  increasing  atten- 
tion to  psychosomatic  relationships  on  the  part  of 
all  branches  of  medicine,  all  of  which  have  been 
referred  to  in  previous  editions  of  the  YEAR  BOOK, 
seem  to  indicate  a  return  swing  of  the  pendulum 
whereby  American  psychiatry,  capitalizing  on  its 
splendid  accomplishments  and  correcting  its  errors, 
may  become  even  more  closely  integrated  into  the 
corpus  of  medicine. 

Nosophobia  (fear  of  disease).  It  is  not  irrelevant 
to  note  that  the  law  of  supply  and  demand  operates 
in  medicine  as  well  as  in  economics.  Published  de- 
scription of  a  "new"  disease  tends  to  arouse  fear 
in  nervous  persons  that  they  may  have  this  disease. 
It  is  not  an  altogether  unreasonable  question 
whether  the  excessive  publicity  of  psychiatric  is- 
sues, in  association  with  and  following  World  War 
n,  has  not  favored  an  increase  of  neuroticism  in 
and  out  of  the  armed  services. 

Nosophobia  was  the  subject  of  the  twenty-first 
Maudsley  lecture  by  Professor  Ryle  of  Oxford 
(Journal  of  Mental  Science,  January,  1948).  He 
stressed  the  ubiquity  of  this  dis-ease  and  many 
of  its  avoidable  causes.  In  determining  the  order 
of  frequency  of  the  common  diseases  seen  by  him 
in  a  general  consulting  practice,  Ryle  found  that 
Anxiety  (without  evidence  of  serious  organic  trou- 
ble) came  second  on  the  list  of  the  12  more  fre- 
quent diagnoses. 

Sometimes  these  fears  Lave  their  origin  in  the 
doctor's  office.  "Specialists  in  the  physical  branches 
of  medicine  too  often  err  through  concentration  on 
a  part  of  the  body  to  the  neglect  of  the  whole  per- 
son." And  again,  "the  mechanistic,  objective  char- 
acter of  modern  investigations  also  tends  to  distract 
the  doctor's  from  the  patient's  thought  and  to  di- 
rect attention  away  from  private  sensibilities  and 
present  needs."  Tnere  will  be  general  agreement 
with  Professor  Ryle  that  "fears  of  disease  are  wide- 
ly engendered  through  the  advertisements  of  pro- 
prietary medicines;  by  the  outpouring  of  ill-judged 
medical  articles  in  the  lay  press,  of  a  type  even 
more  familiar,  perhaps,  to  American  than  British 
readers;  and  by  unorthodox  practitioners." 

Publicity  campaigns  in  support  of  research  in 
heart  disease  and  cancer  have  also  their  seamy  side 
in  causing  unnecessary  anxiety  in  the  victims  of 
these  diseases  and  phobias  in  others  who  have  them 
not.  As  Ryle  points  out  cancer  phobia  without  can- 
cer is  much  commoner  than  cancer  phobia  with 
cancer.  In  this  field  of  anxiety  and  fears  concerning 
disease,  real  or  imagined,  there  is  need  of  an 


everyday  kind  of  psychiatry  that  every  doctor 
should  conscientiously  practice. 

Hospital  Services.  After  long  and  careful  prepara- 
tion the  Rating  and  Inspection  Service,  sponsored 
by  the  Psychiatric  Foundation  (see  1948  YEAK 
BOOK  )  has  begun  operation  under  the  directorship 
of  Dr.  Ralph  W.  Chambers,  a  psychiatrist  of  wide 
experience  in  all  aspects  of  hospital  procedure  and 
administration.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  im- 
portant step  within  the  present  century  in  prac- 
tical service  in  a  field  that  represents  in  magnitude 
the  greatest  public  health  problem.  According  to 
the  inspection  and  raring  plan,  mental  hospitals, 
public  and  private,  may  make  application  for  in- 
spection by  trained  inspectors  who  wiH  appraise 
every  aspect  of  hospital  activity  against  a  set  of 
minimum  standards. 

To  meet  these  standards  specific  recommenda- 
tions will  be  made,  with  a  reasonable  time  for  put- 
ting them  into  effect.  Failure  to  achieve  results 
within  the  specified  time  will  automatically  classify 
the  institution  as  substandard,  thus  affording  a 
basis  for  legislative  and  community  leaders  to  de- 
mand ways  and  means  for  the  necessary  corrective 
measures.  While  the  initiative  is  thus  left  with  in- 
dividual hospitals,  it  is  believed  that  few  will  wish 
to  remain  unrated  as  such  failure  would  ipso  facto 
reflect  unfavorably  upon  the  institution. 

Three  major  requisites  to  raise  mental  hospital 
standards  to  suitable  level  are:  ( 1 )  increasedf  ac- 
commodation to  relieve  serious  overcrowding  that 
exists  virtually  everywhere,  and  to  provide  for  ris- 
ing admission  rates  as  the  population  increases; 
(2)  increase  in  the  number  of  trained  physicians 
and  of  all  other  ranks  of  hospital  personnel;  (3) 
decrease  in  mental  hospital  loads  by  extension  of 
psychiatric  services  in  general  hospitals  and  of  out- 
patient clinics  and  other  extramural  services. 

Federal  grants  to  assist  in  building  operations  to 
increase  bed  accommodation  were  referred  to  in 
the  1948  YEAR  BOOK.  For  training  personnel,  and 
also  for  research  and  development  of  mental  health 
facilities,  under  the  National  Mental  Health  Act, 
Congress  authorized  an  appropriation  of  $9,028,000 
for  the  fiscal  year  1949.  This  is  to  supplement  par- 
allel work  being  carried  on  by  the  Public  Health 
Service  and  the  Veterans  Administration.  The 
latter  organization,  by  improved  techniques,  has 
been  able  for  the  first  time  to  raise  its  discharge 
rate  of  neuropsychiatric  patients  above  its  admis- 
sion rate.  The  recent  trend  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing figures: 

Period  Admissions  Di&charffes 

July-December,  194$ 26,528  25,29$ 

January- June,  1947 29,841  29,128 

July-December,  1947 31,508  31,773 

January-June,  1948 29,268  30,892 

In  Canada  the  Federal  Government  appropri- 
ated $4  million  for  provincial  mental  health  pro- 
grams in  the  past  fiscal  year,  with  subsequent  an- 
nual increases  to  $7  million  a  year.  The  Federal 
Department  of  Health  set  up  an  advisory  com- 
mittee on  mental  health  consisting  of  provincial 
mental  health  authorities  and  representatives  of 
university  departments  of  psychiatry.  Immediate 
objectives:  training  of  personnel  and  research. 

Extramural  Psychiatry.  Widely  extended  organiza- 
tion of  various  types  of  out-patient  clinics  is  the 
third  means  of  raising  hospital  standards  and  at 
the  same  time  meeting  the  service  needs  of  the 
country  at  large.  1948  recorded  a  noteworthy  ad- 
vance in  this  direction.  Aided  by  grants  by  the 
U.S.  Public  Health  Service,  36  states  have  estab- 
lished full  or  part-time  out-patient  clinics  and  may 


PSYCHIATRY 


458 


PUBLIC  FINANCE 


have  been  able  to  expand  their  clinic  activities.  Al- 
together, 46  states  now  provide  community  psychi- 
atric services  under  the  National  Mental  Health 
Act.  The  Veterans  Administration  increased  its 
mental  hygiene  clinics  from  84  to  51  during  the 
year. 

Pollock  (Amer.  J.  Psychiat.  January,  1949)  re- 
ports that  family  care  of  mental  patients  is  em- 
ployed in  10  states  and  3  Canadian  provinces.  Ex- 
pansion of  this  very  desirable  supervised  care  fa- 
cility has  been  retarded  since  1941  because  of  war 
and  postwar  conditions.  Nevertheless  there  has 
been  progress  in  family  care  in  California,  Illinois, 
Ohio,  and  New  York.  It  is  gratifying  to  note  that 
this  type  of  community  service  for  which  Gheel, 
Belgium,  has  long  been  famous,  has  now  been  re- 
stored at  Gheel  which  suffered  so  grievously  during 
the  war. 

Industrial  Relations.  Psychiatry  entered  industry 
in  1915  when  Dr.  C.  C.  Burlingame  joined  the  staff 
of  the  Cheney  Silk  Company  in  Connecticut.  (Di- 
gest of  Neurology  and  Psychiatry.,  August,  1948) 
The  National  Industrial  Conference  Board  had  re- 
cently been  organized  for  a  systematic  study  of 
labor  relations  and  problems;  and  it  was  this  Board 
that  brought  medicine,  and  with  it  psychiatry, 
into  the  field  as  an  integral  part  of  the  industrial 
program.  Burlingame  traces  this  development,  in- 
dicates accomplishments  so  far,  and  the  vastly 
greater  tasks  that  lie  ahead. 

A  major  contribution  was  the  psychologically 
based  recommendation  that  an  injured  employee 
be  kept  on  the  job  whenever  possible,  and  on  full 
pay,  even  if  his  production  were  temporarily  de- 
creased. May  not  the  early  ambulation,  advocated 
by  surgeons  today,  hark  back  in  part  at  least  to 
that  psychiatric  principle  enunciated  more  than 
thirty  years  ago? 

Six  George  Schuster  of  the  British  Government's 
Committee  on  Industrial  Productivity  (Brit.  Med. 
Jour.  Sept.  11,  1948),  discusses  human  relations  in 
industry  as  Plato  might  have  done  in  The  Repub- 
lic, and  indicates  how  indispensable  to  the  medical 
officer  is  that  "specialized  understanding"  that  good 
psychiatry,  firmly  rooted  in  common  sense,  repre- 
sents. Sir  George  states  the  ends  of  industrial  ac- 
tivity: (1)  excellence  (arete)  of  production — pro- 
ducing the  right  tilings  with  minimal  expenditure 
of  human  effort  and  material  resources;  (2)  satis- 
factory work  conditions  as  the  basis  of  a  good  life; 
(3)  the  industrial  life  fitted  satisfactorily  into  the 
over-all  social  pattern  of  the  nation. 

Genetics.  Controversy  continues  between  expo- 
nents of  heredo-constitutional  factors  and  propo- 
nents of  environmental  or  cultural  factors  in  deter- 
mining personality  and  behavior.  Both  sets  of  fac- 
tors are  of  course  involved  and  the  problem  is  to 
establish  their  relative  values.  The  geneticists  ap- 
pear to  be  consolidating  a  solidly  scientific  position. 
Kluckhohn  and  Murray  (Personality  in  Nature,  So- 
ciettf  and  Culture,  Knopf,  1948)  deprecate  "the 
tendency  of  certain  psychiatrists,  sociologists,  and 
anthropologists  to  neglect  constitutional  factors 
in  theories  of  personality  formation  almost  com- 
pletely;" and  Gregg  (American  Psychologist  3:397) 
comments  that  medicine  and  pyschology,  having 
neglected  human  genetics,  are  responsible  for  the 
old  misconception  'that  heredity  is  a  study  of  one's 
•uncontrollable  ancestors  whereas  it  is  one  of  the 
few  fields  that  offer  any  dependable  control  over 
one's  descendants." 

KaHmann  (Psychiat.  Quarterly,  October,  1947) 
reviews  the  present  state  of  our  information  as  to 
the  psychiatric  aspects  of  heredity  and  constitu- 
tion. Heredity  is  "the  transmission  of  potential 


physical  and  mental  properties  from  parents  to 
children  through  genes/'  Not  the  disease  but  the 
predisposition  is  inherited.  "Each  predispositional 
faculty  of  response  is  related  to  the  action  of  a 
certain  gene  or  a  combination  of  genes."  The 
sources  of  all  psychic  and  somatic  functioning 
(total  behavior)  in  "vital  organic  phenomena,  de- 
termined by  heredity"  must  be  evaluated  as  pre- 
liminary to  any  psychological  or  social  interpre- 
tation. 

For  example,  while  an  individual  is  not  predes- 
tined from  birth  to  become  a  manic-depressive  or 
a  schizophrenic,  the  tendency  to  develop  either  of 
these  disorders  "cannot  be  explained  without  the 
assumption  of  a  specific  predisposition.  .  .  . 
There  is  no  known  constellation  of  purely  environ- 
mental circumstances  that  would  produce  a  true 
schizophrenia  or  manic-depressive  psychosis  .  .  . 
in  persons  who  do  not  have  specific  predisposi- 
tion/' Kallmann  offers  statistical  estimates  of  aver- 
age expectancy  of  schizophrenia  as  follows: 

Percent 

In  the  general  population 0.85 

In  children  of  one  schizophrenic  parent 16,4 

In  grandchildren  of  one  schizophrenic  parent  4.3 

In  nephews  and  nieces  of  one  schizophrenic  parent. . .  3.9 

In  children  of  two  schizophrenics  parent ca.  80. 

In  identical  twin  partners  of  schizophrenics 85.8 

**The  chance  of  developing  a  schizophrenic  psy- 
chosis increases  in  direct  proportion  to  the  degree 
of  blood  relationship  to  a  schizophrenic  index  case 
— a  conclusive  proof  of  the  operation  of  heredity." 

— CLARENCE  B.  FARBAR 

PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  ADMINISTRATION.  A  unit  of  the 
Federal  Works  Agency,  authorized  to  design 
and  construct  any  type  of  Federal  building,  either 
by  direct  appropriation  or  by  reimbursement  from 
appropriations  made  to  other  agencies.  It  operates, 
maintains,  and  protects  buildings  under  its  Juris- 
diction, and  disposes  of  certain  types  of  real  prop- 
erty declared  surplus  to  the  neeas  of  the  Govern- 
ment. It  maintains  a  backlog  of  industrial  plants, 
equipment,  and  machine  tools  that  constitutes  an 
emergency  reserve  of  productive  capacity.  The 
components  of  PBA  are  the  Offices  of  Design  and 
Construction,  Real  Estate  Management,  Buildings 
Management,  Administration,  Solicitor,  and  Divi- 
sion of  Industrial  Properties.  Commissioner:  W.  E. 
Reynolds. 

PUBLIC  FINANCE.  During  1948,  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment's receipts  exceeded  expenditures  by  a  record 
amount,  and  for  the  second  year  since  the  ending 
of  the  war  the  U.S.  Treasury  was  able  to  effect  a 
large  reduction  in  the  public  debt.  Because  of  the 
reduced  taxes  and  increased  armament  expendi- 
tures, however,  the  surplus  was  largely  eliminated 
in  the  second  half  of  the  year.  As  a  result,  the  im- 
portance of  the  surplus  as  an  anti-inflationary 
factor,  through  its  use  in  retiring  debt  held  by  the 
banking  system,  was  greatly  reduced. 

'The  1948  Budget,  Budget  receipts  in  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1948,  totaling  $42,211  million, 
were  $2,168  million  above  those  o£  the  1947  fiscal 
year  and,  coupled  with  a  large  decline  in  expendi- 
tures, resulted  in  a  budget  surplus  of  $8,419  mil- 
lion for  the  year.  Expenditures  for  the  year  totaled 
$33,791  million,  a  decline  of  $5,498  million  from 
1947.  The  excess  of  receipts"  over  expenditures  of 
$8,419  million  comparea  with  a  corresponding 
figure  of  $754  million  in  the  preceding  fiscal  year 
and  was  the  krgest  budget  surplus  in  United 
States  history.  During  the  period  almost  $6,000 


PUBLIC  FINANCE 


459 


PUBLIC  FINANCE 


million  of  Government  securities  were  redeemed, 
leaving  the  outstanding  public  debt  $255,300  mil- 
lion on  June  30. 


fN  BILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 


100 


1931  1939    9940    1941    J942   1943    1944  '1945    1944    1947    1948    194? 
THE  FEDERAL  BUDGET 

Direct  taxes  on  individuals  brought  in  almost 
$1,500  million  more  than  in  the  1947  fiscal  year, 
while  corporation  taxes  yielded  an  additional  $498 
million.  These  totals  did  not  yet  reflect  the  reduc- 
tion in  taxes  provided  by  the  Revenue  Act  of  1948, 
which  became  law  in  April.  The  increase  in  income 
tax  receipts  was  partially  offset  by  a  decline  in 
proceeds  of  sales  of  surplus  property. 

On  the  expenditure  side,  the  largest  decline, 
amounting  to  more  than  $3,500  million,  was  ac- 
counted for  by  national  defense.  Almost  half  of  this 
reduction  was  due  to  a  decrease  of  $1,700  million 
in  leave  payments  made  to  the  armed  forces.  Bud- 
get expenditures  for  naval  defense  were  nearly 
$1,400  million  less  than  in  1947. 

Expenditures  for  international  affairs  and  finance 
in  the  fiscal  year  1948  were  almost  $1,800  million 
less  than  in  the  previous  year.  The  principal  reason 
for  the  reduction  was  the  fact  that  the  United 
States  subscriptions  to  the  International  Bank  and 
the  International  Monetary  Fund,  totaling  $1,400 
irnllion,  were  made  in  the  1947  fiscal  year.  In  ad- 
dition, drawings  on  the  $3,750  million  loan  to 
Great  Britain  were  $400  million  less  than  in  1947, 
the  loan  being  completely  used  up  by  Mar.  1. 
1948. 

The  Economic  Cooperation  Act  of  1948  provided 
that  the  sum  of  $3,000  million  be  transferred  to 
the  Foreign  Economic  Cooperation  Trust  Fund 
and  "considered  as  expended  during  the  fiscal  year 
1948,  for  the  purpose  of  reporting  governmental 
expenditures."  The  effect  of  this  bookkeeping 
transaction  was  to  charge  the  budget  in  the  fiscal 
year  1948  for  expenditures  to  be  made  in  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1949. 

Thus,  nominally  the  budget  surplus  for  1948 
was  reduced  from  $8,419  million  to  $5,419  million, 
while  the  estimated  expenditures  for  1949  were 
correspondingly  decreased.  While  this  transfer 
made  no  difference  whatsoever,  so  far  as  actual 
expenditures  and  receipts  of  the  Government  were 
concerned,  it  provided  a  means  of  offsetting  part 
of  the  loss  in  tax  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year  1949 
brought  about  by  the  reduction  in  tax  rates  enacted 
by  the  Revenue  Act  of  1948. 

On  a  cash  basis,  the  Treasury  surplus  for  the 
1948  fiscal  year  amounted  to  $9,000  million  as 
compared  with  $7,600  million  in  1947.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  cash  surplus  and  the  budget 
surplus  is  primarily  a  matter  of  accounting.  The 
former,  indicating  the  actual  flow  of  cash  receipts 
from  and  payments  to  the  public,  include  the  oper- 
ations of  the  various  government  trust  funds,  such 


as  the  Federal  Old-Age  and  Survivors  Insurance 
Trust  Fund,  as  well  as  cash  outlays  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  securities  previously  issued  to  cover  govern- 
ment expenditures.  On  the  other  hand,  the  budget 
figures  include  certain  intra-governmental  trans- 
actions and  non-cash  payments  to  the  public  in  the 
form  of  securities,  such  as  the  Armed  Forces  Leave 
Bonds.  The  cash  surplus  was  used  primarily  to 
effect  a  reduction  of  $6,000  million  in  the  public 
debt  and  to  increase  the  General  Fund  of  the 
Treasury  by  $1,600  million  during  the  fiscal  year. 

The  1949  Budget  Estimates.  Based  on  estimates 
made  available  by  the  President  in  his  budget  mes- 
sage of  Jan.  10,  1949,  budget  expenditures  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1949,  were  scheduled 
to '  total  $40,180  million  while  receipts  were  to 
total  $39,580  million,  leaving  a  budget  deficit  of 
$600  million.  The  estimated  outlays  were  $6,389 
million  above  the  actual  expenditures  for  1948.  On 
the  other  hand,  estimated  receipts  were  $2,631 
million  less,  thus  wiping  out  the  huge  surplus  of 
the  previous  year. 

The  principal  rise  in  estimated  expenditures  for 
1949  was  in  the  allotment  for  international  affairs 
and  finance,  which  showed  an  increase  of  $2,437 
million  over  actual  1948  outlays.  The  major  part  of 
this  item  was  accounted  for  by  the  European  Re- 
covery Program,  which  was  started  in  April,  1948, 
and  entailed  expenditures  of  $4,600  million  for  the 
1949  fiscal  year.  Included  in  the  total  were  also 
large  expenditures  for  providing  military  supplies 
to  various  countries  abroad.  Foreign  relief  opera- 
tions, scheduled  at  $1,817  million,  were  about  9 
percent  below  those  of  1948.  The  principal  activ- 
ities in  this  group  were  the  Army's  program  of  ad- 
ministration and  relief  in  occupied  areas,  mainly 
Germany  asid  Japan. 


IN.BILLfONS  OF  DOLLARS 


'40  '48  '49  'SO    '40  '48*49  "SO 
KATIOMAL  INTER- 

DEFENSE  NATIONAL 


'40  '48'49  '50 
VETERANS 
PROGRAMS 


'40  '4S  '49  '50    *40  '48'49  '50 
INTEREST  ON  ALL 

PUBLIC  DEBT         OTHER 


FEDERAL  EXPENDITUHES 

By  far  the  largest  outlays  in  the  1949  budget 
were  those  for  national  defense,  which  totaled 
$11,745  million  as  against  $10,924  million  the  year 
before.  This  reflected  a  substantial  increase  in  pro- 
curement of  aircraft  and  in  purchase  of  equipment 
and  strategic  and  critical  materials  as  well  as  the 
cost  of  the  draft.  Under  the  increased  budget,  the 
military  strength  of  the  Armed  Forces  was  raised 
from  1,394,000  regulars  and  reserves  on  full-time 
duty  on  Apr.  1,  1948,  to  1,604,000  on  Dec.  1,  1948. 
In  addition,  on  the  latter  date  there  were  655,000 
reserves  in  regular  training  status  and  1,950,000 
other  reserves. 

Veterans'  services  and  benefits,  estimated  at  $6,- 
799  million,  were  slightly  above  the  figure  for  the 


PUBIJC  FINANCE 


460 


f»l/BlfC  FINANCE 


fiscal  year  1948.  Of  the  total,  expenditures  for  edu- 
cation and  training  took  $2,481  million,  the  pro- 
gram involving  about  2  million  veterans.  Pensions 
paid  to  more  than  2,900,000  individuals  and  fami- 
lies absorbed  an  estimated  $2,140  million,  and 
hospitals,  other  services  and  administration  costs, 
$1,130  million.  Unemployment  and  self-employ- 
ment allowances  to  the  amount  of  $424  million 
went  to  about  400,000  veterans. 

Interest  on  the  national  debt,  estimated  at  $5,- 
325  million,  increased  by  2.6  percent  over  1948, 
tax  reductions  provided  in  the  1948  Revenue  Act 
making  it  impossible  to  effect  any  sizable  reduction 
in  the  public  debt.  The  combined  expenditures  for 
national  defense,  international  affairs  and  finance, 
veterans'  services  and  benefits,  and  interest  on  the 
public  debt  amounted  to  $31,088  million,  or  77 
percent  of  the  total  budget.  Thus,  more  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  outlays  in  the  1949  fiscal  year  repre- 
sented the  cost  of  past  wars  and  of  the  existing 
military  establishment.  This  total  does  not  include 
expenditures  for  atomic  energy  development  and  a 
number  of  other  activities  related  to  national  de- 
fense. 

Other  items  showing  substantial  increases  in  the 
1949  budget  as  compared  with  outlays  in  1948  in- 
cluded housing  and  community  facilities,  agricul- 
tural aid,  development  of  natural  resources,  and 
Eromotion  of  transportation  and  communications 
acUities.  Housing  and  community  expenditures  of 
$349  million  included  $222  million  for  public  hous- 
ing programs.  Expenditures  for  flood  control,  rec- 
lamation and  similar  projects  totaled  an  estimated 
$804  million,  a  rise  of  $319  million,  and  develop- 
ment and  control  of  atomic  energy  $634  million,  an 
increase  of  $159  million. 

Assistance  to  agriculture  amounted  to  $1,805 
million,  the  major  part  of  the  increase  of  $1,230 
million  being  represented  by  outlays  of  $866  mil- 
lion by  the  Commodity  Credit  Corporation  for  sup- 
port of  farm  prices.  Development  of  transport  and 
communication  facilities  were  slated  to  total  $1,757 
million  in  1949,  a  gain  of  $490  million.  The  prin- 
cipal items  included  in  this  category  were  the 
postal  service,  highways,  navigation  aids  and  facil- 
ities, and  promotion  of  aviation  and  the  merchant 
marine. 

Social  welfare  activities,  budgeted  at  $1,963 
million,  were  estimated  at  $110  million  more  than 
in  1948.  The  major  functions  in  this  group  were 
old  age  and  other  relief  payments,  $1,075  million; 
outlays  of  the  Railroad  Retirement  Board,  $569 
million;  and  promotion  of  public  health,  $198 
million.  General  government  expenditures,  totaling 
$1,187  million,  showed  a  decline  of  $317  million 
from  1948.  Almost  two-thirds  of  this  decrease  was 
due  to  the  tapering  off  of  the  surplus  property 
disposal  programs,  mainly  under  the  War  Assets 
Administration.  Outlays  for  the  Bureau  of  Internal 
Revenue  and  other  Treasury  bureaus  made  up  30 
percent  of  total  general  government  expenditures. 

The  reduced  income  tax  rates  in  the  Revenue 
Act  of  1948,  passed  over  the  President's  veto,  re- 
sulted in  a  decline  in  estimated  receipts  from  direct 
taxes  on  individuals  of  $2,569  million.  Because 
of  high  business  activity  and  increased  profits,  rev- 
enue from  taxes  on  corporations,  however,  showed 
a  gain  of  $1,535  million.  Direct  taxes  on  individ- 
uals and  corporations  constituted  78  percent  of  all 
budget  receipts  while  excise  taxes,  totaling  $7,715 
mflMon,  accounted  for  19  percent  of  the  estimated 
total 

Actual  receipts  and  expenditures  in  the  fiscal 
years  1947  and  1948  and  the  estimated  totals  for 
1949  are  shown  in  Table  lf  *~ 


TABLE  1— BUDGET  RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENDITURES 
{In  millions  of  dollars.  Years  are  fiscal  years} 


1947 


1Q48 


1949 
Estimate 


Receipts 

Direct  taxes  on  individuals $20,408      $21 ,896      S19.327 

Direct  taxes  on  corporations. ..     9,676        10,174        11,709 

Excise  taxes 7,270          7,402          7,715 

Employment  taxes 2,039          2,396          2,610 

Customs 494  422  407 

Miscellaneous  receipts, 4,621          3,809          2,276 

Deduct: 

Appropriation  to  Federal 
old-age  and  eurvivors'  in- 
surance trust  fund 1,459  1,616  1,754 

Refunds  of  receipts  (exclud- 
ing interest) 3,006  2,272  2,709 

Total  Budget  receipts 40,043        42,211        39.580 

Expenditures  by  major 
functions 

International  affairs  and  fi- 
nance  S  6,542      $  4,782      $  7,219 

National  defense 14,281         10,924        11,745 

Veterans' services  and  benefits .     7,370          6,567          6,799 

Social  welfare,  health,  and  se- 
curity      1,300          1,853          1,963 

Housing  and  community  facili- 
ties          348  82  349 

Education  and  general  research         76  75  85 

Agriculture  and  agricultural 
resources 1,245  575          1,805 

Natural  resources m,       616          1,091          1,616 

Transportation  and  communi- 
cation         587          1,267          1,757 

Finance,  commerce,  and  indus- 
try         102  88  102 

Labor 194  183  184 

General  government 1 ,364          1 ,504          1 , 1 87 

Interest  on  public  debt 4,958          5,188         5,325 

Reserve  for  contingencies .  <  •  45 

Adjustment  to  daily  Treasury 
statement  basis 305          -388 

Total  expenditures 39,289        33,791        40,180 

Excess  of  expenditures .  -  -  600 

Excess  of  receipts 754          8,419 


The  Public  Debt.  At  the  end  of  the  1947-48  fiscal 
year  the  gross  public  debt  amounted  to  $252,300 
million,  a  decline  of  $5,990  million  during  the  year. 
Interest-bearing  marketable  public  debt  issues 
were  reduced  by  $8,356  million  during  the  fiscal 


MM  BILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 


300 


1938    1939    1940    1941     1942    1943    1944    1945    1946    1947    194$    1*949   1950 
THE  PUBLIC   DEBT 

year,  mainly  by  the  use  of  the  Treasury  surplus. 
This  reduction  was  offset  to  some  extent,  however, 
by  increases  in  special  bond  issues  sold  to  govern- 
ment trust  funds  and  investment  accounts  to  a 
total  of  $2,845  million,  by  a  net  increase  of  $1,926 
million  in  savings  bonds  outstanding,  and  net  sales 
of  2^  percent  investment  Treasury  bonds  totaling 
$959  million.  Redemption  of  Treasury  notes  in 
excess  of  sales  were  $1,159  million,  due  primarily 
to  the  use  of  the  notes  for  payment  of  taxes.  Net 


PUBLIC  FINANCE 


461 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE 


retirement  of  armed  forces  leave  bonds  totaled 

$1,229  million  and  repayment  of  the  special  non- 
interest-bearing  notes  held  by  the  International 
Bank  and  the  International  Monetary  Fund  ac- 
counted for  $913  million. 

The  composition  of  the  outstanding  public  debt 
at  the  end  of  the  1947  and  the  1948  fiscal  years 
is  shown  in  Table  2. 

TABLE  2— PUBLIC  DEBT  OUTSTANDING 
[ In  millions  of  dollars] 

June  SO,      June  80, 


TABLE  3—  ESTIMATED  OWNERSHIP  OF  INTERJEST- 

BEAKING  SECURITIES  ISSUED  OR  GUARAN- 

TEED BY  THE  U.S.  GOVERNMENT 

(In  millions  of  dollars) 

Aug.  SI,  Sept.  SO, 

Held  by                               1947  1948 

Commercial  banks  ....................  S  69,700  S  62,500 

Federal  Reserve  Banks,..,  ............     22,200  23,400 

Individuals  ..........................     66,300  67,500 

Insurance  companies  ..................     24,900  22,300 

Mutual  savings  banks  .......  ,  ........     12,200  11,700 

Other  corporations  and  associations.  ....     21,800  21,100 

State  and  local  governments  ...........      6,400  7,300 

U.S.    Government   agencies    and   trust 

funda  .............................     33-700        36-800 


Total  ...........................  S257.200    3252.700 

Marketable  obligations: 

Treasury  bills  ...................  $15,775      S  13,757  T      irwo        ,         r  0     .       „         .         ,        ,      .          , 

Certificates  of  indebtedness  .......     25,296          22,588  In  1948,  Sales  of  Series  E  Savings  bonds,  ISSUed 

Treasury  notes  ..................      8,142        11,375  in  denominations  of  up  to  $1,000,  totaled  $4,224 

other  bonds-/:.:  ""Ill       11211  Billion,  a  gain  of  3  percent  over  1947  and  the  ie* 

-  -  ord  amount  ever  sold  in  any  peacetime  year.  Sales 
Total  marketable  obligations....  168,702       160,346  exceeded  redemptions  by  $494  million  as  against 

Nonmarketabie  obligations:  $155  million  in  1947.  The  improvement  was  due 

Armed  forces  leave  bonds  ........      1,793            563  mainly  to  the  larger  volume  of  individual  savings 

Treasury  savings  notes       .......     5,560         4,394  fa  1Q48  and  the  drive  launched  May  15  to  sell 

S^^cffkSSta^^riii:                        959  more  savings  bonds  as  an  anti-inflationary  measure, 

Depositary  bonds  ...............        325            316  A  feature  of  this  campaign  was  the  effort  to  pro- 

Total  no       k  t  bie  br  mote  more  sales  through  payroll  deductions.  The 

gations  ..........  .     ,~  .....    59,045        59,506  amount  of  E  bonds  in  the  hands  of  the  public  at 

-  1  —  .      —  !  —  £jje  en(j  Of  the  year  reached  the  new  high  level  of 
Total  public  issues  ............  227,747        219,852  $32,188  million. 

Special  issues  to  Government  trust  funds  The  policy  of  supporting  prices  of  Federal  ob- 

and  agencies  ......................  27,366  30,211  ligations  in  order  to  maintain  the  stability  of  the 

Matured  deU  on  which  interest  has  government  bond  market  was  continued  in  1948 

ceased  ...........................  231  280  through  the  cooperation  of  the  Treasury  and  the 

Debt  bearing  no  interest:  Federal  Reserve  System.  The  objective  of  this  pok 

International  Bank  and  Monetary  ^  ^  icy?  wHch  fcept  ^  price  Q£  Iong.term  government 

Other  ............................        802            722  bonds  at  a  level  yielding  a  return  of  2%  percent, 

Total  gross  public  debt  ........  15^o*       ^^  W™   t0   keeP   PriceS  £0m   ^^f  t0?   f^ 

Guaranteed  debt  either  up  or  down.  It  was  felt  that  a  decline  in 

Not  owned  by  the  Treasury  ........         90             73  prices  might  shake  the  confidence  of  many  inves- 

Total  public  and  guaranteed                 '  tors   an^  Pernaps  lead  to   wholesale  liquidations, 

debt  .........  .  .....  ,  .......  258,376       252,366  particularly  by  holders  of  the  $55,000  million  of 

General  fund  balance                              3,308          4,932  savings  bonds  outstanding.  Moreover,  the  higher 

interest  rate  would  increase  the  cost  to  the  govern- 
ment  of  servicing  the  public  debt.  Finally,  the 
possible  drastic  deflationary  effects  of  such  a  policy 

As  a  result  of  reduced  receipts  and  increased  ex-  were  feared.  In  carrying  out  the  price-support  pro- 

penditures,  during  the  second  half  of  the  calendar  gram   the   Federal   Reserve  Banks   bought  large 

year  1948  the  budget  surplus  was  cut  to  $125  mil-  amounts  of  long-term  government  bonds  from  in- 

lion  as  against  a  surplus  of  $1,659  million  in  the  vestors  at  a  pegged  price.  Because  of  simultaneous 

corresponding  period  of  the  previous  year.  Sales  redemption    of   short-term    obligations,    however, 

of  special  issues  to  government  trust  funds  ex-  there  was  only  a  relatively  small  increase  in  the 

ceeded  the  reduction  in  the  public  issues  outstand-  holdings  of  government  obligations  of  the  Federal 

ing.  As  a  result,  the  gross  public  debt  was  increased  Reserve  System.               —  SAMUEL  S.  SHTPMAN 
by  $507  million  and  on  Dec.  31,  1948  totaled  $252,- 

780  million.  PUBLIC  HEAU.TH  SERVICE,  U.S.  The  Public  Health 

The  average  rate  paid  on  the  interest-bearing  Service  celebrated  its  150th  anniversary  in  1948, 

public  debt  outstanding  June  30,  1948,  was  2.182  commemorating  the  establishment  in  1798  of  the 

percent  as  against  2.107  percent  the  year  before.  United  States  Marine  Hospital  Service.  Originally 

The  rise  was  due  mainly  to  the  increase  in  the  created  to  provide  medical  and  hospital  care  for 

short-term  rates  on  bills  and  certificates  and  the  American  Merchant  Seamen,  the  Public   Health 

continued  issue  of  non-marketable  and  special  is-  Service  now  conducts  many  broad  programs  for 

sues  at  higher  than  average  rates.  the  protection  and  improvement  of  national  health. 

As  of  the  end  of  September  1948,  individuals  These  include:  research  in  medical  and  related 

held  about  27  percent  of  the  public  debt,  commer-  sciences;  foreign  and  interstate  quarantine;  control 

cial  banks  25  percent,  U.S.  Government  agencies  of  biologic  products  sold  in  interstate  commerce; 

and  trust  funds  almost  15  percent,  the  Federal  financial  and  technical  assistance  to  the  States  for 

Reserve  Banks  9  percent,  insurance  companies  a  the  expansion  of  public  health  programs  and  the 

little  under  9  percent,  and  other  corporations  and  control  of  widespread  diseases. 

associations  8  percent.  The  remainder  was  owned  In  1948,  activities  of  the  Public  Health  Service 

by  mutual  savings  banks  and  State  and  local  gov-  were  expanded  by  Congress,  through  laws  estab^ 

ernments.  The  reduction  in  tlie  debt  from  a  year  lishing  new  programs  and  through  increased  ap- 

before  was  accounted  for  mainly  by  retirement  of  propriations.  Programs  for  the  control  of  cancer 

obligations  held  by  banks.  and  cardiovascular  diseases  were  added  and  two 

Changes  in  ownership  of  the  U.S.  direct  and  new  research  institutes,  on  heart  diseases  and  dental 

guaranteed  debt  are  shown  in  Table  3.  research,  were  created.  A  program  for  the  control 


HEALW  SERVICE 


462 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  SfRV/CE 


o£  water  pollution  also  was  established.  Appropria- 
tions to  the  Public  Health  Service  for  the  fiscal  year 
1948  totaled  $126,691,697;  in  addition,  Congress 
authorized  contractual  obligations  for  subsequent 
years,  which  totaled  about  $74  million.  Appropria- 
tions for  1947  totaled  $104  million.  Grants-in-aid 
to  State  agencies  for  public  health  activities  and  to 
scientific  institutions  and  individual  scientists  for 
research  absorbed  the  major  part  of  the  increases  in 
appropriations  and  contract  authorizations. 

The  health  status  of  the  nation,  as  measured  by 
death  rates  and  the  incidence  of  communicable 
diseases  in  1947,  remained  at  about  the  same  level 
as  in  former  years.  The  general  death  rate  for  1947 
was  10.1  per  1,000  population,  excluding  the  armed 
forces  overseas.  Poliomyelitis  and  measles  were  epi- 
demic during  1947—48,  but  cases  of  other  com- 
municable diseases  were  at  or  below  expected  num- 
bers. 

Motional  Institutes  of  Health.  The  National  Insti- 
tutes of  Health  comprise  the  National  Cancer  Insti- 
tute, Experimental  Biology  and  Medicine  Institute, 
National  Heart  Institute,  National  Institute  of 
Dental  Research,  and  Microbiological  Institute. 
The  last  three  of  these  were  established  in  1948. 
Appropriations  to  the  National  Institutes  of  Health 
for  the  fiscal  year  1948  amounted  to  $24  million, 
compared  with  less  than  $8  million  in  1947.  Of  this 
sum,  $14  million  was  appropriated  for  the  com- 
bined program  of  cancer  research,  professional 
training,  and  control.  The  Public  Health  Service 
was  also  authorized  to  make  grants  to  scientific  and 
educational  institutions  for  'drawing  plans,  erec- 
tion of  buildings  and  acquisition  of  land  therefor 
for  cancer  research  and  training  projects." 

Congress  also  authorized  the  construction  of  a 
600-bed  clinical  and  laboratory  research  center  in 
connection  with  the  Institutes.  The  center  will  be 
completed  in  1950  and  will  provide  laboratory 
and  clinical  facilities  for  an  integrated  program  of 
basic  and  applied  research  on  physical  and  mental 
diseases. 

During  the  past  year,  a  number  of  notable 
achievements  were  credited  to  scientists  of  the 
National  Institutes  of  Health.  One  causative  agent 
of  the  common  cold  was  isolated.  In  a  cooperative 
study  with  university  and  public  health  authorities, 
Q  fever  was  found  to  be  endemic  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. Organisms  identified  as  Coxiella  'burneti> 
the  cause  of  Q  fever,  were  recovered  from  raw 
milk.  A  vaccine  for  the  prevention  of  mumps  was 
developed  and  tested  clinically;  it  provides  tempo- 
rary protection  for  male  adults  exposed  to  mumps. 

New  drugs  and  antibiotics  were  developed  and 
tested  for  their  value  in  the  treatment  of  tubercu- 
losis. In  nutrition  studies,  addition  of  niacin  to  the 
o!iet  of  experimental  animals  resulted  in  the  correc- 
tion of  abnormal  conditions  of  the  blood  and  re- 
sumption of  growth;  these  results  may  have  a  bear- 
ing on  the  treatment  of  clinical  anemia. 

A  6-year  study  at  a  training  school  for  boys  was 
completed,  showing  that  ultraviolet  radiation  in 
dormitories  failed  to  affect  the  incidence  of  air- 
borne diseases. 

Radioactive  penicillin  was  produced  by  the  use 
of  radioactive  sulfur  in  the  media  on  which  the 
PenidEium  notatum  fungus  grew.  By  means  of 
radioactive  penicillin,  it  should  be  possible  to  ob- 
tain more  information  on  how  penicillin  destroys 
bacteria. 

New  knowledge  of  the  internal  structure  of  the 
molecule  was  gained  from  electron  microscope  pic- 
tures, obtained  by  technics  developed  at  the  Na- 
tional Institutes  of  Health. 

Fifty  new  chemotherapeutic  agents  that  produce 


destructive  effects  on  tumors  in  mice  were  discov- 
ered in  the  systematic  testing  of  many  newly  syn- 
thesized chemical  compounds.  Improvements  in 
technic  were  made,  which  afforded  larger  cultures 
of  cancer  cells  than  ever  grown  before  in  test 
tubes.  Recent  studies  also  demonstrated  that  sex 
hormones  do  not  influence  tissue  growth  when  cer- 
tain vitamins  are  lacking  and  that  anti- vitamin  com- 
pounds are  potential  neutralizes  of  the  harmful 
effects  of  hormones  in  cancer  of  the  breast  and 
prostate. 

The  National  Advisory  Health  Council,  the  Na- 
tional Advisory  Cancer  Council,  and  the  National 
Advisory  Mental  Health  Council,  whose  members 
are  leading  authorities  in  these  fields,  recommended 
986  research  grants  amounting  to  $12  million  for 
non-Federal  institutions  and  scientists.  Research 
fellowships  were  awarded  to  133  men  and  women. 

Hospital  Construction.  At  the  close  of  the  second 
year  of  the  Hospital  Survey  and  Construction  Act 
(1946),  all  States  and  Territories  (except  Nevada) 
had  submitted  and  received  approval  of  long- 
range  State  plans.  More  than  350  individual  proj- 
ects had  been  approved.  Congress  authorized  the 
Public  Health  Service  to  assume  obligations  up  to 
$75  million  in  1948.  This  5-year  program  is  aimed 
at  building  more  than  1,250  million  dollars'  worth 
of  health  Facilities  by  1952. 

Industrial  Hygiene.  The  Public  Health  Service  con- 
tinued its  cooperative  programs  with  the  58  state 
and  local  industrial  hygiene  units  through  various 
types  of  assistance.  An  investigation  of  sodium  fluo- 
ride as  a  health  hazard  in  the  manufacture  of 
rimmed  steel  was  made  at  the  request  of  the  Unit- 
ed Steelworkers  of  America,  CIO,  and  the  Republic 
Steel  Corporation.  Sodium  fluoride  was  exonerated 
but  other  irritating  factors  were  discovered  in  the 
course  of  the  survey  and  recommendations  made 
for  their  control.  A  major  study  of  health  hazards 
in  24  foundries  was  completed. 

The  Public  Health  Service  continued  its  system- 
atic collection  and  classification  of  information  on 
poisons  and  their  control,  and  consultation  on 
chemical  problems  increased.  Laboratory  facilities 
were  planned  for  the  analysis  of  radioactive  ma- 
terials. A  mobile  dental  unit  was  used  in  extensive 
studies  of  the  relation  of  industrial  hazards  to  oral 
diseases.  Industry-wide  conferences  were  held  on 
the  incidence  of  cancer  in  the  chromate  industry 
and  on  health  hazards  associated  with  the  use  of 
beryllium. 

Tuberculosis  Control.  The  death  rate  from  tubercu- 
losis reached  an  all-time  low  in  1947:  33  per  100,- 
000  population  as  compared  with  36.4  in  1946,  and 
46  in  1940.  The  nationwide  program  launched  in 
1944  has  contributed  to  this  encouraging  trend. 
The  Public  Health  Service  continued  its  cooperative 
activities  in  this  field  with  State  and  local  health 
authorities  and  voluntary  agencies.  Five  major  ob- 
jectives are  sought:  (1)  prevention,  (2)  case  find- 
ing, (3)  isolation  and  medical  care,  (4)  rehabili- 
tation and  after-care,  and  (5)  economic  and  social 
protection  for  families  of  the  tuberculous.  The 
Service  concentrated  its  activities  upon  aid  to 
States,  research  and  training  of  professional  and 
technical  personnel.  During  the  year,  over  one 
million  X-rays  were  taken  by  Public  Health  Service 
X-ray  equipment,  of  which  662,764  were  taken  by 
Service  staff  in  community-wide  X-ray  surveys  in 
Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  Oak  Ridge,  Term.,  and 
Washington,  B.C. 

Studies  of  the  effectiveness  of  BCG  vaccine  in 
preventing  tuberculosis  now  include  approximately 
9,000  persons.  A  long-range  investigation  of  early 
tuberculous  lesions  among  student  nurses  con- 


PUBIIC  HEAIJH  SERVICE 


463 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE 


filmed;  more  than  24,000  nurses  are  participating. 
The  search  went  on  for  an  effective  and  universally 
applicable  antibiotic  agent.  A  coordinated,  coop- 
erative program  was  undertaken  to  evaluate  the  ef- 
fectiveness of  streptomycin  In  tuberculosis  therapy. 
Two  new  cooperative  laboratories  were  established 
to  explore  the  chemotherapy  of  tuberculosis  and  to 
expand  medical  mycological  research.  Extensive 
studies  were  undertaken  in  epidemiology,  clinical 
problems,  and  the  post-sanatorium  follow-up  of 
tuberculous  patients.  In  radiology,  research  projects 
conducted  by  Public  Health  Service  scientists  re- 
sulted in  the  development  of  new  X-ray  materials 
and  equipment  which  will  improve  radiological 
technics  materially. 

Venereal  Disease  Control  Major  activities  in  vene- 
real disease  control  included  the  rapid  treatment 
center  program,  community-wide  public  education 
and  case  finding  projects,  research,  and  evaluation 
studies.  During  the  fiscal  year  1948,  3,000  clinics 
made  over  2  million  diagnostic  examinations,  find- 
ing about  431,000  cases  of  venereal  disease.  These 
cases  included  about  44,000  cases  of  primary  and 
secondary  syphilis,  53,000  cases  of  early  latent 
syphilis,  and  about  273,000  cases  o£  gonorrhea. 
About  65  percent  of  the  syphilis  cases  were  referred 
to  rapid  treatment  centers  for  in-patient  penicillin 
treatment,  while  97  percent  of  the  gonorrhea  cases 
were  treated  with  penicillin  in  the  clinics.  Rapid 
treatment  centers  were  maintained  in  41  States,  the 
District  of  Columbia,  Alaska,  and  the  Virgin  Is- 
lands. 

State  and  local  health  departments  continued  to 
emphasize  case-finding  and  contact  investigation 
as  fundamental  parts  of  their  control  program. 
Health  departments  reported  that  about  640,000 
epidemiologic  investigations  were  made  during  the 
year,  from  which  more  than  150,000  previously  un- 
treated cases  of  venereal  disease  were  brought  to 
treatment. 

Communicable  Disease  Control.  The  CDC  at  At- 
lanta, Ga.,  conducted  a  program  of  malaria  control 
in  13  States,  Puerto  Rico,  and  the  Virgin  Islands. 
Typhus  control  work  continued  in  endemic  areas  of 
southern  and  southwestern  parts  of  the  country. 

The  Center  trained  more  than  300  laboratory  di- 
rectors and  technicians  in  various  diagnostic  tech- 
nics, such  as  the  recovery  of  viruses  of  neutrotropic 
disease,  seriological  diagnosis  of  virus  and  rickett- 
sial  diseases,  detection  of  amebic  dysentery,  and 
sputum-culture  diagnosis  of  tuberculosis.  The  Cen- 
ter also  provided  extensive  services  to  State  and 
local  health  agencies  in  the  investigation  and  con- 
trol of  diarrhea!  diseases,  poliomyelitis,  plague, 
dengue  fever,  encephalitis,  rabies,  and  other  com- 
municable diseases.  Nine  field  training  stations  are 
operated  to  give  instruction  and  field  practice  to 
State  and  local  health  personnel  in  the  use  of  new 
control  methods. 

Demonstrations.  Demonstrations  conducted  during 
the  year  served  the  multiple  purposes  of  investiga- 
tion, application  of  new  concepts  in  public  health 
practice,  exploration  and  perfection  of  specific  con- 
trol methods,  demonstration  of  new  technics  to 
State  and  local  health  workers,  and  training  of  per- 
sonnel in  newly  developed  fields.  Demonstrations 
continued  in  nutritional  services,  heart  disease  and 
diabetes  control,  and  dental  health. 

Congress  appropriated  $1  million  for  a  demon- 
stration in  each  State  of  the  topical  application  of 
sodium  fluoride  to  children's  teeth,  as  a  means  of 
preventing  dental  caries.  Demonstration  teams  in- 
clude one  dentist,  two  dental  hygienists  and  a  rec- 
ords clerk.  They  travel  in  trailers,  using  portable 
equipment  to  demonstrate  the  technic  to  dentists 


and  dental  hygienists.  A  10-year  study  of  the  effects 
of  adding  fluorine  to  community  water  supplies 
was  continued.  Communities  and  health  depart- 
ments were  shown  the  technics  of  nutrition  sur- 
veys, and  health  department  personnel  were  given 
in-service  training  in  nutrition.  Four  demonstration 
field  units  were  assigned  to  State  health  depart- 
ments in  various  parts  of  the  country.  In  addition, 
the  Public  Health  Service  participated  in  a  co- 
operative nutrition  project  with  the  California 
State  Health  Department,  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the 
University  of  California. 

Demonstrations  in  heart  disease  and  diabetes 
control  concentrated  on  the  development  of  ef- 
fective methods  of  detecting  these  conditions  in 
large  groups  of  supposedly  healthy  people.  The 
electrokymograph,  adapted  to  the  detection  of 
heart  disease  several  years  ago  by  Doctor  Bert 
Boone  of  the  Public  Health  Service,  is  now  in  use 
in  a  number  of  institutions.  Field  studies  to  evalu- 
ate its  effectiveness  continued.  New  technics  were 
developed  for  mass  use,  whereby  blood  samples 
can  be  tested  for  sugar  content,  as  a  means  of  de- 
tecting diabetes. 

Cancer  control  activities,  begun  during  the  fiscal 
year  1948?  included:  public  health  nursing  and 
cancer  education  for  nurses;  cancer  teaching  in 
medical  and  dental  schools;  surveys  to  evaluate 
cancer  control  methods;  and  general  cancer  educa- 
tion. The  Public  Health  Service  allotted  funds  to 
State  agencies  and  to  professional  schools  for  these 
purposes. 

Mental  Health.  In  the  fiscal  year  1948,  Federal 
funds  were  available  for  the  first  time  for  a  nation- 
wide attack  upon  the  growing  problems  of  mental 
illness.  With  an  appropriation  of  about  $4.5  mil- 
lion, the  Public  Health  Service  was  able  to  carry 
the  program  authorized  by  the  National  Mental 
Health  Act  of  1946  from  the  planning  stage  into 
the  realm  of  positive  action. 

The  program  concentrated  on  meeting  three  ma- 
jor areas  of  need:  research  in  mental  and  nervous 
diseases;  training  of  psychiatrists,  psychologists, 
psychiatric  social  workers,  and  nurses;  and  strength- 
ening of  State  and  community  mental  health 
services.  To  stimulate  additional  research,  grants  to- 
taling $373,665  were  made  to  38  non-Federal  insti- 
tutions and  individual  investigators.  Twenty  fellow- 
ships totaling  $64,122  were  awarded  to  scientists. 
Applications  for  the  support  of  professional  educa- 
tion were  received  from  173  training  centers  and 
totaled  $5  million.  On  the  basis  of  funds  authorized, 
it  was  possible  to  pay  a  total  of  $1.2  million  for  62 
training  grants  and  stipends.  Grants-in-aid  totaling 
about  $2  million  were  made  to  46  States  and  Terri- 
tories, 24  of  which  had  no  preventive  mental  health 
program  prior  to  July,  1947. 

Foreign  Quarantine.  Despite  the  rising  incidence 
of  smallpox,  cholera,  and  other  communicable  dis- 
eases ^abroad,  no  cases  of  the  "quarantinable  dis- 
eases" (smallpox,  cholera,  typhus,  plague,  yellow 
fever,  anthrax,  psittacosis)  were  introduced  into 
this  country  during  the  fiscal  year  1948. 

The  Public  Health  Service  established  a  stricter 
requirement  of  smallpox  immunization  for  persons 
arriving  from  abroad.  Persons  entering  the  United 
States  must  give  definite  proof  of  having  been  vac- 
cinated during  the  preceding  12  months,  or  submit 
to  vaccination  on  entering.  The  procedure  for  radio 
pratique,  or  advance  quarantine  clearance,  was  ex- 
tended to  qualifying  fishing  vessels  arriving  at  Los 
Angeles.  Sodium  Fluoracetate  ("1080")  and  DDT 
continued  to  compare  favorably  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas  fumigation  of  ships  as  means  of  rodent 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE 


464 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  SERVICE 


control.  Approximately  30,000  arriving  aircraft 
were  inspected  to  prevent  introduction  o£  disease- 
transmitting  insects. 

Marine  Hospitals.  The  Public  Health  Sendee  op- 
erates 24  hospitals  (called  Marine  Hospitals  be- 
cause they  were  established  originally  to  care  for 
seamen  only)  and  120  out-patient  clinics  and  of- 
fices for  the  care  of  its  beneficiaries.  Beneficiaries 
include  American  merchant  seamen,  Coast  Guard 
personnel,  civil  service  employees  injured  on  the 
job.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  officers  and  crew 
members,  and  other  groups  for  whom  the  Federal 
Government  is  responsible. 

The  Marine  Hospitals  include  21  general  hos- 
pitals, 2  tuberculosis  sanatoria,  and  a  hospital  at 
Carville,  Louisiana,  for  the  treatment  of  persons 
with  leprosy.  The  hospitals  are  located,  for  the 
most  part,  at  major  American  seaports,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  along  the  principal 
rivers. 

Clinical  research  projects  conducted  in  the  hos- 
pitals during  1948  included:  electrokymography  in 
the  diagnosis  of  heart  disease,  the  use  of  strepto- 
mycin in  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis,  and  the  role 
of  sulfone  drugs  in  the  treatment  of  leprosy.  Most 
of  these  projects  are  conducted  in  cooperation  with 
other  research  units  of  the  Public  Health  Service. 
The  Council  on  Medical  Education  and  Hospitals 
of  the  American  Medical  Association  has  approved 
11  of  the  Marine  Hospitals  for  internships,  and  10 
for  training  of  residents.  Several  are  affiliated  with 
medical  schools.  Intern  training  programs  are  also 
available  for  dietitians  and  hospital  administrative 
personnel. 

During  the  fiscal  year  1948,  the  Marine  Hospitals 
reported  nearly  80,000  admissions.  The  average 
daily  in-patient  census  was  5,700,  and  bed  occu- 
pancy 85  percent  of  standard  capacity. 

Environmental  Health  and  Wafer  Pollution  Control. 
The  Water  Pollution  Control  Act,  approved  June 
30,  1948,  provided  for  joint  action  by  the  Federal 
Security  Agency  and  the  Federal  Works  Agency  to 
conserve  the  water  resources  of  the  nation  by  con- 
trolling pollution  of  watercourses.  Specifically,  the 
Act  directed  the  Public  Health  Service  to  admin- 
ister a  program  of  grants-in-aid  to  the  States  for 
research  and  surveys  on  the  control  of  industrial 
wastes.  These  provisions  greatly  expand  the  work 
of  the  Public  Health  Service  in  this  field.  The  law 
authorized  the  appropriation  of  $£2.5  million  an- 
nually for  each  of  the  next  five  fiscal  years,  to  be 
used  as  loans  to  States,  municipalities,  and  inter- 
state agencies  for  the  construction  of  sewage  treat- 
ment works.  Loans  are  dependent  upon  approval  by 
the  Public  Health  Service  of  the  proposed  construc- 
tion. A  new  laboratory  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  was  au- 
thorized. The  Public  Health  Service  completed  its 
plans  for  14  river  basin  stations  throughout  the 
United  States  to  be  the  focal  points  for  all  inter- 
state activities  in  connection  with  water  pollution 
control. 

Important  new  public  health  engineering  activi- 
ties were  begun.  They  include  intensive  study  of 
the  disposal  of  radioactive  and  industrial  wastes 
and  study  of  housing  standards  in  relation  to  health 
and  safety.  An  agreement  was  reached  between  the 
Public  Health  Service  and  the  Canadian  Depart- 
ment of  National  Health  and  Welfare  which  facili- 
tates the  exchange  of  information  on  shellfish  sani- 
tation between  Canada  and  the  United  States.  One 
result  of  this  agreement  is  the  inclusion  of  the 
names^of  Canadian  shippers  on  routine  releases  and 
the  joint  endorsement  of  control  measures  by  the 
two  participating  health  agencies. 
Action  was  initiated  to  revise  the  Interstate  Quar- 


antine Regulations  as  they  relate  to  the  interstate 
shipment  of  lather  brushes  for  the  control  of  an- 
thrax. Supervision  of  the  policies  and  technical 
phases  of  the  milk  and  food  sanitation  program 
was  continued.  Sources  of  water  used  on  trains 
and  airplanes  were  inspected  to  determine  compli- 
ance with  the  Drinking  Water  Standards  prescribed 
in  the  regulations. 

The  Environmental  Health  Center  at  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  conducted  numerous  cooperative  investiga- 
tions. Pollution  of  international  boundary  waters 
between  the  United  States  and  Canada  was  under 
study  throughout  the  year.  A  study  of  septic  tank 
systems  for  home  sewage  disposal  was  launched. 
In  addition,  the  Center  cooperated  in  a  stream  pol- 
lution survey  of  the  Kansas  River  Basin  and  a  study 
of  bathing  beaches  in  the  Chicago  area.  A  mobile 
laboratory  and  personnel  were  sent  to  Florida  on  an 
investigation  of  the  public  health  aspects  of  water 
hyacinth  control  with  2,4-D.  Consultative  services 
were  provided  to  the  Atomic  Energy  Commission 
by  staff  members  in  connection  with  liquid  waste 
disposal  problems. 

World  Health  Relations.  Among  the  international 
meetings  in  which  the  Public  Health  Service  par- 
ticipated were  the  First  World  Health  Assembly, 
the  Directing  Council  and  Executive  Board  of  the 
Pan-American  Sanitary  Organization,  and  the  Fi- 
nance and  Transfer  Commission  of  the  Office  Inter- 
national d'Hygiene  Publique.  In  addition,  the  Serv- 
ice arranged  for  appropriate  representation  at  in- 
ternational congresses  on  cystology,  microbiology, 
ophthalmology,  leprosy,  venereal  diseases,  tropical 
medicine  and  malaria,  and  BCG  vaccine. 

The  Public  Health  Service  administered  training 
programs  for  public  health  students  from  Latin 
America,  the  Philippines,  and  Greece,  and  assisted 
in  placing  fellows  of  the  World  Health  Organiza- 
tion and  of  private  organizations  and  foreign  coun- 
tries in  schools,  hospitals,  institutions,  and  labora- 
tories throughout  the  United  States.  The  Public 
Health  Mission  to  Liberia,  the  American  Mission 
for  Aid  to  Greece,  and  the  health  program  of  the 
Philippine  Republic  were  serviced  by  officers  of  the 
Public  Health  Service,  assigned  to  these  organiza- 
tions. 

The  Nation's  Health.  A  few  local  outbreaks  of  in- 
fluenza were  reported  in  1948,  but  the  incidence 
was  below  that  for  the  two  preceding  seasons,  and 
the  small  excess  of  deaths  in  the  major  cities  of  the 
United  States  indicated  the  clinical  mildness  of  the 
disease.  The  outbreaks  were  generally  characterized 
by  gastro-intestinal  symptoms.  Where  identified,  it 
was  due  to  type  "A"  influenza  virus.  The  periodic 
epidemic  cycle  for  measles  occurred  during  1947— 
48,  and  a  total  of  586,282  cases  was  reported  dur- 
ing the  measles  season  as  compared  with  208,389 
in  1947  and  577,159  in  1946  for  the  corresponding 
periods. 

Poliomyelitis  was  epidemic  in  1948  for  the  sixth 
consecutive  year,  with  21,515  cases  through  the 
week  ended  Oct  16,  1948,  as  compared  with  20,- 
686  for  the  same  period  in  1946.  Although  tie 
death  rate  from  poliomyelitis  has  increased  since 
1942,  the  increase  has  not  been  so  great  as  the 
increase  in  incidence.  This  disparity  indicates  that 
a  large  proportion  of  mild,  non-paralytic  cases  are 
being  reported. 

Other  reportable  diseases  are  approximately  at  or 
below  the  median  expectancies.  Only  53  cases  of 
smallpox  were  reported  up  to  the  week  ended 
Oct.  16,  1948,  as  compared  with  151  for  the 'same 
period  last  year,  the  previous  low  for  the  period. 

Since  June,  1946,  the  Public  Health  Service  has 
been  the  chief  Federal  agency  responsible  for  the 


WBJJC  ROA0S  ADMSNISTRATIOM 


465 


PUERTO  K/CO 


collection  and  publication  of  national  vital  sta- 
tistics, including  data  on  births,  stillbirths,  deaths 
and  causes  of  death,  marriages,  and  divorces. 

In  1947  the  birth  rate  was  25.8  per  1,000  popula- 
tion including  the  armed  forces  overseas,  the  high- 
est reported  since  the  birth  registration  area  was 
established  in  1915.  The  crude  death  rate  from  all 
causes  for  1947  was  10.1  per  1,000  population,  ex- 
cluding armed  forces  overseas.  This  was  the  sec- 
ond lowest  rate  ever  reported  for  the  United  States: 
the  lowest  was  10.0  in  1946. 

The  1947  marriage  rate  was  12.9  per  1,000  pop- 
ulation excluding  armed  forces,  and  the  divorce 
rate  was  3.3  per  1,000  population  including  armed 
forces  overseas.  During  the  80  years  (1867-1947) 
for  which  estimates  are  available,  this  marriage 
rate  has  been  exceeded  only  once,  in  1946.  The 
divorce  rate  was  exceeded  only  twice  previously,  in 
1945  and  1946. 

PUBLIC  ROADS  ADMINISTRATION  (PRA).  The  highway 
program  in  the  United  States  gained  momentum 
in  1948,  despite  continued  shortages  of  materials, 
labor  and  engineering  personnel.  Contract  awards 
by  State  highway  departments  for  all  classes  of 
road  work,  incluoling  Federal-aid  and  non-Federal 
projects,  passed  the  $1,000  million  mark  for  the 
first  time  in  history. 

The  total  construction  cost  of  all  highway  jobs 
placed  under  contract  during  the  year  by  State 
agencies  was  approximately  $1,150  million.  Of  this 
amount,  an  estimated  $746  million  was  for  im- 
provements on  routes  in  the  Federal-aid  systems. 
Approximately  $15  million  of  Federal  work  in 
parks  and  forests  is  also  included.  These  figures  do 
not  include  cost  of  right-of-way,  engineering  costs, 
and  contingencies.  The  improvements  involved 
work  on  about  40,000  miles  of  road. 

An  important  event  of  the  year  was  passage  by 
Congress  of  the  Federal-aid  Highway  Act  of  1948, 
authorizing  an  appropriation  of  $450  million  for 
each  of  the  fiscal  years  1950  and  1951,  to  assist 
the  States  in  developing  Federal-aid  primary  and 
secondary  roads. 

Passage  of  the  1948  act  makes  it  possible  for 
the  States  to  continue  the  postwar  Federal-aid 
highway  program  authorized  by  the  Federal-aid 
Highway  Act  of  1944,  which  authorized  an  appro- 
priation of  $500  million  for  each  of  the  first  three 
postwar  fiscal  years  for  Federal-aid  projects.  At 
the  end  of  1948  nearly  all  funds  available  under 
provisions  of  the  act  had  been  assigned  to  specific 
projects. 

In  1948  considerable  progress  was  made  in  the 
improvement  of  National  Interstate  highways  and 
Federal-aid  secondary  roads.  Development  of  ur- 
ban expressways  to  relieve  traffic  congestion  in 
large  cities  also  was  well  advanced  at  the  end  of 
the  year.  Commissioner  in  1948:  Thomas  H.  Mac- 
Donald. 

PUERTO  RICO.  A  West  Indian  island,  forming  a  Ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States;  acquired  from  Spain 
through  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1898.  The  adjacent 
islands  of  Vieques,  Mona,  and  Culebra  are  included 
in  its  jurisdiction.  The  area  of  Puerto  Rico  is  ap- 
proximately 3,423  square  miles. 

Population.  As  of  July  1,  1948,  the  population 
was  estimated  at  2,146,686,  or  over  640  persons 
per  square  mile*  making  the  territory  one  of  the 
most  densely  populated  agricultural  countries  in 
the  World.  Chief  cities:  San  Juan  (capital),  230,- 
235  inhabitant;  Ponce,  119,097;  Mayaguez,  90,- 
000.  Seventy-six  percent  of  the  people  are  native- 
born  whites  and  the  remaining  24  percent  are  foi* 


the  most  part  Negroes  and  Mulattoes,  The  birth 
rate  increased  in  1947  to  43.5  live  births  per  1,000 
population  as  compared  with  42.7  in  the  previous 
year.  The  death  rate  fell  from  14.1  per  1,000  popu- 
lation in  1945  to  12.0  in  1947. 

Education.  School  enrollment  in  1947  was  460,- 
000 — an  increase  of  110,085  over  the  previous 
year.  The  University  of  Puerto  Rico,  located  at 
Rio  Pieilras,  10  miles  from  San  Juan,  had  in  the 
academic  year  of  1947-48  a  daytime  registration 
totaling  8,000  students.  Enrollment  in  all  the  col- 
leges, including  evening  extension,  totaled  10,651. 
Illiteracy  has  been  reduced  in  Puerto  Rico  to  29 
percent. 

Production.  The  island  is  predominantly  agricul- 
tural, with  about  825,000  acres  under  cultivation 
out  of  a  total  area  of  some  2  million  acres.  In  1945- 
46,  agriculture  produced  26  percent  of  the  island's 
net  income,  the  most  important  crops  being  sugar, 
tobacco,  coffee,  and  starchy  vegetables.  In  1948, 
a  total  of  1,108,260  tons  of  sugar  was  produced. 
The  Sugar  Act  of  1948  sets  the  quota  for  shipment 
of  sugar  to  the  continental  United  States  at  910,- 
000  tons. 

Manufacturing  has  increased  in  importance.  In 
1939—40,  manufacturing  net  income  was  only  37 
percent  as  large  as  that  of  agriculture  as  compared 
with  50  percent  for  1945-46.  Sugar  and  tobacco 
processing,  rum,  and  needlework  are  among  the 
established  industries.  The  local  Government, 
mainly  through  the  Puerto  Rico  Industrial  Devel- 
opment Company  and  the  Puerto  Rico  Develop- 
ment Bank,  is  making  an  effort  to  industrialize  the 
island.  The  Development  Company  is  already  op- 
erating subsidiary  corporations  for  the  production 
of  cement,  glass  containers,  paper,  clay  products, 
and  shoes.  Total  sales  of  the  Company  and  its 
subsidiaries  during  1946-47  were  $4,296,426  as 
compared  to  $3,680,011  for  the  previous  year. 
New  industries  are  tax-exempted  by  law. 

Trade.  Exports  during  1947  totaled  $191.8  mil- 
lion or  in  value  129  percent  higher  than  in  1940. 
Imports  were  calculated  for  the  same  period  at 
$308.6  million  or  197  percent  above  the  1940 
value.  Exports  from  sugar  alone  added  up  to  $124.4 
million.  Textiles  followed  with  $25.7  million. 

Finance.  Revenues  from  the  general  fund  and 
other  funds  of  the  Insular  Government  totaled 
$132,494,893  for  1946-47  as  compared  with  $125,- 
113,230  for  1945-46.  While  revenues  from  the 
shipment  of  firm  to  the  mainland  declined,  infla- 
tion of  income  has  brought  about  a  substantial  in- 
crease from  Insular  income  taxes. 

Government.  Under  the  Organic  Act  that  was 
passed  by  the  U.S.  Congress  in  1917  and  later 
amended,  Puerto  Rico  has  the  status  of  an  organ- 
ized territory  of  the  United  States.  Its  citizens  are 
U.S.  citizens.  A  new  law,  providing  for  an  elective 
governor  in  1948,  was  signed  by  President  Truman 
on  Aug.  5,  1947.  Luis  Munoz  Marin,  president  of 
the  Popular  Democratic  Party,  was  elected  gover- 
nor of  Puerto  Rico  on  November  2. 

The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  Legislature 
of  two  houses  which  is  elected  by  popular  vote  for 
a  4-year  term.  In  addition  there  is  a  Resident  Com- 
missioner to  the  United  States  who  is  elected  by 
the  popular  vote  for  a  4-year  term.  Dr.  Antonio 
Fernos  Isern  is  the  present  Resident  Commissioner. 

Events,  1948.  The  year  was  marked  by  intense  po- 
litical activity  as  a  preliminary  to  the  election  of 
the  first  native  governor.  Relations  were  friendly 
between  the  local  and  the  federal  administrations. 
The  industrialization  program  went  rapidly  ahead, 
and  there  was  an  upward  swing  in  the  economy, 
although  inflation  continued.  On  February  21, 


Pl/lfTZER  PRIZES 


466 


Qi/EBfC 


President  Truman  visited  the  island  and  was  en- 
thusiastically received.  In  an  address,  he  praised 
the  government's  program  of  industrial  and  agri- 
cultural development  and  added:  "Too  often  we 
have  had  our  attention  directed  to  Puerto  Rico's 
problems.  We  have  heard  too  little  of  your  achieve- 
ments. In  less  than  half  a  century  you  have  raised 
your  wages  and  standard  of  living,  have  devel- 
oped universal  free  schooling,  highways,  hospitals, 
utilities,  and  all  the  other  institutions  of  modern 
society.  I  have  said  to  the  Congress  several  times 
and  I  repeat  it  here — that  the  Puerto  Rican  people 
should  have  the  right  to  determine  for  themselves 
Puerto  Rico's  political  relationship  to  the  Conti- 
nental United  States." 

On  April  20,  Representative  Fred  L.  Crawford 
of  Michigan  urged  the  House  to  lift  quantitative 
restrictions  on  trade  between  the  island  and  the 
United  States.  Crawford  argued  against  the  statutes 
which  prevent  Puerto  Rico  from  refining  more 
than  about  15  percent  of  its  own  sugar  and  urged 
that  the  island's  sugar  cane  industry  get  the  same 
treatment  as  the  beet  sugar  industry  in  the  West- 
ern states.  A  bill  to  do  away  with  present  restric- 
tions was  introduced  by  the  Puerto  Rican  Resident 
Commissioner. 

A  strike  at  the  University  of  Puerto  Rico  on 
April  14,  headed  by  a  small  group  of  students, 
received  widespread  publicity  in  the  United  States. 
Classes  were  suspended  on  April  15  and  reopened 
on  May  3.  The  rebellious  students  tried  on  several 
occasions  to  interrupt  activities  within  the  campus 
and  in  the  graded  and  secondary  schools.  The  Uni- 
versity authorities  suspended  classes  indefinitely, 
but  examinations  were  held  with  an  attendance  of 
more  than  90  percent.  The  strikers  tried  again  to 
interrupt  classes  in  September,  but  failed  to  have 
the  support  of  the  student  body. 

The  local  elections  were  contested  by  3  political 
groups.  The  Popular  Democratic  Party  favored  in- 
creased industrialization,  a  better  distribution  of 
the  insular  wealth,  and  a  territorial  constitution 
until  the  island's  economy  would  permit  choosing 
between  statehood  and  independence.  The  Puerto 
Rican  Independentist  Party  advocated  complete 
independence  after  a  transition  period.  A  coalition 
of  Republicans,  Socialists  and  Reformists  favored 
statehood  and  a  revision  of  the  social  legislation 
and  other  measures  of  the  party  in  power.  Luis 
Munoz  Marin,  leader  of  the  Popular  Democratic 
Party,  was  elected  governor  by  a  landslide  in  a 
peaceful  and  orderly  election.  Resident  Commis- 
sioner Fernos  was  returned  to  Washington. 

— ARTUBO  MORALES-CABBIQN 

PULITZER  PRIZES.  The  annual  awards  in  journalism 
and  in  letters,  established  under  the  terms  of  the 
will  of  the  late  Joseph  Pulitzer,  publisher  of  the 
New  York  World,  are  awarded  by  the  trustees  of 
Columbia  University  on  recommendation  of  the 
Advisory  Board  of  the  School  of  Journalism  ( Grad- 
uate) at  Columbia  University.  Awards  made  on 
May  3,  1948,  which  are  for  work  done  in  the  pre- 
ceding year,  1947,  are  listed  below. 

Journalism.  Pufa/ic  Service — $500  gold  medal:  The 
St.  Louis  Post-Dispatch,  for  its  coverage  of  the 
Centralia,  III,  mine  disaster  on  Mar.  25,  1947,  and 
the  succeeding  stories  which  "resulted  in  impressive 
reforms  in  mine-safety  laws  and  regulations/* 

Reporting — $500:  (Locd) — George  E.  Goodwin 
of  The  Atlanta  Journal,  for  his  history  of  the  Telf air 
County,  Ga.,  vote  fraud  during  the  election  of  Nov. 
5,  1946.  (National) — Two  awards:  Bert  Andrews, 
of  the  A/eto  YorJc  Herald  Tribunes  Washington  Bu- 
reau, for  his  story  of  the  summary  dismissal  of  one 


State  Department  employee  on  the  basis  of  a  dis- 
loyalty accusation;  and  Nat  S.  Finney,  of  The  Min- 
neapolis Tribune's  Washington  Bureau,  for  his 
articles  concerning  government  proposals  to  form 
a  type  of  censorship  on  government  acts  and  ut- 
terances in  peacetime.  (International) — Paul  W. 
Ward  of  T/i€  Baltimore  Sun,  for  his  series  of  articles 
on  *'Life  in  the  Soviet  Union," 

Editorial  Writing — $500;  Virginius  Dabney,  editor 
of  The  Richmond  Times-Dispatch. 

Cartoon — $500:  Reuben  L.  (Rube)  Goldberg  of 
The  New  "York  Sun,  for  his  cartoon  entitled  "Peace 
Today." 

Newspaper  Photography — $500:  Frank  Gushing  of 
The  Boston  Traveler,  for  his  picture  of  a  boy  gun- 
man using  another  small  boy  as  a  shield. 

letters.  Novel — $500:  James  A.  Michener,  for 
Tales  of  the  South  Pacific  (in  the  form  of  a  collec- 
tion of  short  stories). 

Drama — $500:  Tennessee  Williams,  for  A  Street- 
car Named  Desire. 

History — $500:  Bernard  De  Voto,  for  Across  the 
Wide  Missouri. 

Biography — $500:  Margaret  Clapp,  for  her  For- 
gotten  First  Citizen:  John  Bigelow. 

Poefry — $500:  W.  H.  Auden,  for  his  long  poem 
The  Age  of  Anxiety. 

Musk — $500:  Walter  Piston,  for  his  Symphony 
No.  3. 

Special  Award — $1,500  scholarship:  Philip  An- 
thony Moose  of  New  York  City. 

QATAR.  An  Arabian  sheikdom  occupying  a  penin- 
sula in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Area,  8,500  square  miles. 
Population:  estimated  at  25,000.  Capital,  El  Beda. 
Relations  with  Great  Britain  are  regulated  by  the 
Treaty  of  Nov.  3,  1916.  Sheik,  Abdullah  ibn  Jasim 
a!  Thani.  In  1947  Petroleum  Development  Ltd.,  a 
subsidiary  of  the  Iraq  Petroleum  Company,  en- 
gaged in  searches  for  oil  deposits  on  the  Qatar 
Peninsula. 

QUEBEC.  A  province  in  eastern  Canada.  Area  594,- 
860  square  miles  (523,860  sq.  mi.  land  area  and 
71,000  sq.  ml  water).  Population  (census,  1941) 
3,331,882;  3,792,000  (1948  est).  According  to 
principal  religious  denominations  in  1941,  2,894,- 
621  were  Roman  Catholics;  162,056  Anglicans; 
100,196  United  Church;  56,086  Presbyterian; 
65,683  Jewish.  In  1946  there  were  111,285  live 
births;  33,690  deaths;  36,650  marriages.  Education 
(1945-46):  712,249  students  enrolled  in  schools 
and  colleges.  Chief  cities:  Quebec  (capital)  150,- 
757  inhabitants  in  1941;  Montreal  903,007;  Ver- 
dun 67,349;  Three  Rivers  42,007;  Sherbrooke 
35,965;  Hull  32,947,  Outremont  30,751;  West- 
mount  26,047;  Shawinigan  Falls  20,325;  Lachine 
20,051. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction in  1947  was  $344,377,000.  In  1947  there 
were  6,390,000  acres  in  field  crops  valued  at  $162,- 
410,000.  Chief  field  crops  (1947):  oats  26,639,000 
bu.  ($22,643,000),  mixed  grains  5,568,000  bu. 
($5,457.000),  barley  2,885,000  bu.  ($3,231,000), 
buckwheat  1,523,000  bu.  ($1,919,000),  potatoes 
10,558,000  cwt  ($26,078,000),  field  roots  3,453,- 
000  cwt  ($3,798,000),  hay  and  clover  5,935,000 
tons  ($92,171,000),  fodder  corn  713,000  tons 
($5,276,000).  Livestock  (June  1,  1947):  2,033,- 
500  cattle  including  1,120,800  milk  cows  ($166,- 
078,000),  316,600  horses  ($41,442,000),  1,061,- 
200  swine  ($27,428,000),  571,700  sheep  ($6,634,- 
000),  14,004,300  poultry  ($19,482,000). 

The  number  of  fur  farms  in  1946  was  1,768 
with  fur  animals  valued  at  $2,595,564.  Value  of 


RA11MOAD  RETIREMENT  BOARD 


467 


RAILWAYS 


fur  pelt  production  in  1946-47  was  $3,913,915, 
Total  marketed  value  of  fish  in  1946  was  $7,927,- 

022.  Cod  was  the  main  fishery  followed  by  lob- 
sters, herring,  mackerel,  and  salmon.  A  total  of 
97,527,000  ID.  of  creamery  butter  was  produced 
in  1947  valued  at  $52,665,000;  factory  cheese  was 
24,812,000   Ib.   valued   at    $7,851,000;    estimated 
total  farm  value  of  poultry  meat  and  eggs  was 
$37,783,000. 

Maple  syrup  produced  in  1947  was  2,831,000 
gal  valued  at  $9,852,000;  honey,  5,399,000  Ib., 
valued  at  $1,458,000;  fruit  amounted  to  $3,548,- 
000.  The  1948  tobacco  crop  was  estimated  at  11,- 
148,000  Ib.  There  were  1,989  sawmills  in  operation 
in  1946  and  the  value  of  lumber  sawn  was  $55,- 
249,378;  gross  value  of  products  in  the  pulp  and 
paper  industry  (1947)  "was  $346,119,699;  news- 
print production  (1947)  was  2,596,604  tons. 

Quebec  is  the  second  largest  manufacturing 
province  in  Canada,  Manufacturing  establishments 
numbered  10,818  in  1946.  They  furnished  em- 
ployment to  357,276  persons  who  received  $565,- 
986,105  in  salaries  and  wages.  The  gross  value  of 
products  was  $2,497,971,521  from  materials  cost- 
ing $1,297,009,099.  The  production  of  pulp  and 
paper  occupied  first  position.  Other  leading  indus- 
tries, in  the  order  named,  were:  clothing,  non- 
ferrous  metal  smelting  and  refining,  railway  rolling 
stock,  cotton  yarn  and  cloth,  slaughtering  and 
meatpacking,  tobacco,  cigars  and  cigarettes. 

Government.  Finance  (year  ended  Mar.  31, 
1947):  revenue  $147,434,000;  ordinary  expendi- 
ture $82,057,350;  total  direct  and  indirect  liabilities 
(less  sinking  funds)  $412,811,099.  The  executive 
authority  is  vested  in  a  lieutenant  governor  who 
is  advised  by  a  ministry  of  the  legislature.  There 
are  24  members  (appointed  for  life)  in  the  Leg- 
islative Council,  a*nd  92  members  ( elected  by  male 
and  female  suffrage)  in  the  Legislative  Assembly 
( 82  Union  Nationale,  8  Liberals,  and  2  Independ- 
ent were  elected  at  the  provincial  general  election 
of  July  28,  1948).  Twenty-four  members  (ap- 
pointed for  life)  in  the  Senate  and  65  elected 
members  in  the  House  of  Commons  represent  Que- 
bec province  in  the  Dominion  Parliament  at  Ot- 
tawa. Lieutenant  Governor,  Maj.  Gen.  Sir  Eugene 
Fiset  (app.  Dec.  30,  1939).  Premier,  Maurice  L. 
Duplessis  (Union  Nationale),  elected  Aug.  8, 
1944,  (reelected  July  28,  1948).  See  CANADA. 

RADIO  BROADCASTING.  See  tibe  article  on  U.S.  RADIO 
BROADCASTING. 

RAILROAD  RETIREMENT  BOARD.  An  independent  ex- 
ecutive agency  of  the  U.S.  Government  which  ad- 
ministers the  Railroad  Retirement  and  Railroad 
Unemployment  Insurance  Acts,  laws  which  pro- 
vide retirement,  survivor,  and  unemployment  ben- 
efits for  railroad  employees.  Chairman:  William  J. 
Kennedy. 

During  the  fiscal  year  which  ended  June  30, 
1948,  $283,900,000  was  paid  to  over  700,000  rail- 
road employees  and  their  families,  of  which  $187,- 
800,000  went  to  237,000  retired  employees; 
$37,100,000  to  139,000  survivors  of  railroad  em- 
ployees; $32,400,000  to  210,000  railroad  workers 
who  were  unemployed  because  of  lack  of  work; 
and  $26,600,000  to  150,000  railroad  workers  who 
were  unemployed  because  of  sickness  or  injury. 

Major  legislation  enacted  by  Congress  on  Jun'e 

23,  1948,  increased  retirement  benefits  by  20  per- 
cent, and  guaranteed  each  railroad  worker  that  if 
the  total  of  all  benefits  paid  to  him  and  his  sur- 
vivors would  be  less  than  the  amount  he  had  paid 
in  retirement  taxes,  plus  an  allowance  for  interest, 


the  difference  would  be  paid  to  some  one  desig- 
nated by  the  worker,  or  to  one  or  more  of  his  sur- 
vivors, or  to  his  estate,  as  provided  in  the  Act. 

RAILWAYS.  The  immediate  necessity  of  taking  up 
deferred  maintenance  was  the  dominant  factor  in 
operation  of  the  railways  of  the  United  States  in 
1948.  Increased  cost  of  materials  and  increased 
wage  payments  made  it  difficult  to  operate  at  a 
profit.  Truck  and  inland  waterway  competition 
made  it  difficult  to  increase  or  even  retain  the  level 
of  gross  revenues. 

That  cars,  locomotives,  and  track  were  brought 
up  to  a  fairly  good  condition  is  attested  to  by  the 
fact  that  there  was  not  an  unusual  number  of  ac- 
cidents due  to  defective  equipment  or  track.  There 
were,  however,  accidents  due  to  human  failures. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  any  large  part  of  deferred 
repairs  to  cars,  locomotives,  and  track  has  been 
made  good.  Neither  the  materials  nor  the  labor  has 
been  available  at  any  price.  American  ingenuity  in 
"make  do'*  is  the  more  likely  explanation  of  the 
railway  accident  record  in  1948. 

Changes  in  types  of  locomotives  and  cars  that 
took  place  during  the  10  years  1938-1948  were  of 
great  importance  both  to  the  financial  results  in 
1948  and  to  the  problems  presented  to  railway 
managements  in  that  year.  A  shop  and  its  personnel 
fitted  to  repair  8-wheel  steam  locomotives  may 
have  to  be  somewhat  enlarged  to  repair  a  moun- 
tain-type locomotive  with  73-inch  driving  wheels 
but  it  does  not  have  to  be  fundamentally  changed. 
A  shop  fitted  to  repair  30- ton  wooden  boxcars  can 
readily  be  adapted  to  repair  50-ton  wooden  box- 
cars. But  a  shop  fitted  to  repair  steam  locomotives 
cannot  be  used  to  service  Diesel  locomotives,  and 
neither  can  a  shop  suitable  for  repairs  of  wooden 
cars  be  adapted  to  repair  steel  cars. 

Freight  Rates.  In  an  effort  to  secure  more  revenue 
to  meet  increased  expenses,  the  railways  applied 
to  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  for  per- 
mission to  raise  freight  rates  generally  by  13  per- 
cent In  connection  with  this  application  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad  submitted  proof  that  it  was  cost- 
ing 85.19  percent  more  to  operate  their  property  in 
1948  than  it  cost  in  1940,  while  revenues  were 
only  47.20  percent  greater  in  1948  than  they  were 
in  1940.  Revenues  increased  47.19  percent,  so  that 
gross  revenues  amounted  to  $176,628,000  in  1948. 
Expenses  increased  85.19  percent,  so  they  totaled 
$185,190,000  in  1948.  Thus  there  would  have  been 
an  operating  profit  of  $20  million  in  1940  and  an 
operating  loss  of  $11,310,000  in  1948. 

It  is  significant  that  in  opposing  the  first  request 
for  an  increase  in  rates  it  was  claimed  that  it 
would  bring  the  railways  less  revenue  because 
higher  railway  rates  would  divert  business  from 
the  railways  to  trucks  and  inland  waterways.  Here- 
tofore shippers  had  based  their  opposition  to  higher 
rates  on  the  contention  that  the  railways  did  not 
need  larger  revenues.  When  it  was  suggested  that 
regional  hearings  be  held  on  the  application  the 
railways  asked  for  an  emergency  increase  of  8  per- 
cent. This  plea  was  met  by  shippers  attempting  to 
show  that  an  emergency  increase  was  not  needed. 
The  hearings  were  still  going  on  in  December. 

Labor.  An  attempt  was  made  to  force  further 
wage  increases  for  both  skilled  and  unskilled  rail- 
way workers  through  strike  threats.  Uninterrupted 
railway  operation  was  absolutely  dependent  on 
trainmen  doing  their  work.  President  Truman  let 
it  be  known  that  he  would  take  over  the  railways, 
under  the  authority  granted  the  Commander  in 
Chief  during  the  war,  rather  than  permit  an  inter- 
ruption of  railway  transportation. 


RAILWAYS 


468 


RAILWAYS 


Car  Building,  With  a  severe  car  shortage  threat- 
ening at  the  beginning  of  1948  railway  manage- 
ments called  on  car  builders  to  increase'  their  out- 
put. A  goal  of  10,000  cars  a  month  was  set.  This 
goal  was  attained  in  only  two  or  three  months  of 
1948,  but  for  the  entire  year  the  output  of  new  cars 
by  commercial  concerns  was  slightly  over  110,000 
cars.  With  85,000  cars  so  badly  in  need  of  repair 
as  to  be  unserviceable  the  net  gain  in  usable  cars 
was  25,000. 

Reorganizations.  In  1946  the  Seaboard  Air  Line 
Railway  property  was  turned  over  to  a  new  com- 
pany, The  Seaboard  Air  Line  Railroad  Company. 
The  owners  of  the  property,  holders  of  the  Rail- 
way Company  common  and  preferred  stock,  had 
been  entirely  wiped  out  and  its  creditors,  the  bond 
holders,  alone  had  participated  in  the  distribution 
of  the  Railroad  Company  stock.  From  the  start  of 
operations  of  the  new  company  interest  on  its  bonds 
had  been  paid  and,  in  December,  1948,  a  dividend 
of  $1  a  share  on  the  new  (Railroad)  stock  was  de- 
clared. The  property  consists  of  a  single-track  line 
from  Richmond,  Va,,  to  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  from 
where  it  continues  south  to  Tampa  on  the  west 
coast  of  Florida. 

A  line  from  Norfolk,  Va.,  that  connects  with  the 
Richmond-Jacksonville  line  gives  the  Seaboard  Air 
Line  two  northern  termini,  one  a  source  of  fuel 
coal  (Norfolk)  and  the  other  a  destination  for 
Florida  products.  There  is  also  an  east  and  west 
line  to  Birmingham,  Ala. 

Dividends.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  resumed 
the  payment  of  dividends  which  had  been  passed 
in  1947.  The  company  has  only  one  class  of  stock 
—common.  It  has  a  par  value  of  $50  a  share  and 
is  very  widely  held  by  small  investors.  Up  to  1947 
it  had  been  paying  $1  a  share  all  through  the  de- 
pression and  for  100  years  before  that.  Resumption 
was  at  the  rate  of  §1  per  share,  2  percent  on  par 
value. 

Taken  as  a  whole  the  dividend  changes  in  1948 
give  a  significant  picture  of  the  financial  condition 
and  prospects  of  the  railways  of  the  United  States. 
The  Seaboard,  connecting  population  centers  with 
Florida  and  carrying  fruit,  vegetable,  and  luxury 
passenger  traffic,  was  able  after  drastic  reorganiza- 
tion to  inaugurate  dividends.  The  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,  carrying  coal  and  steel,  was  able  to  re- 
sume dividends;  as  also  was  the  New  York  Central, 
carrying  miscellaneous  freight  over  its  water-level 
route.  In  other  words,  railways  peculiarly  well 
adapted  to  their  situation  were  making  a  satis- 
factory profit. 

Motive  Power.  Officers  in  the  mechanical  depart- 
ments of  American  railways  have  come  to  a  general 
agreement  that  Diesel  engines  are  more  satisfac- 
tory as  motive  power  than  steam  engines.  The 
recent  widespread  building  of  railway  shops  espe- 
cially designed  to  repair  and  service  Diesels 
marked  the  acceptance  of  Diesels  as  standard  mo- 
tive power.  There  is  still  a  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  the  most  economical  weight.  The  two  figures 
most  often  mentioned  are  60,000  and  100,000  Ib. 
At  the  end  of  1946  the  railways  owned  37,255 
steam  locomotives  and  4,222  Diesel  and  electric 
locomotives.  On  Dec.  1,  1948,  they  had  32,854 
steam  locomotives  and  6,201  Diesel  and  electric 
locomotives. 

Earnings.  la  1948  the  railways  earned  the  largest 
gross  income  for  any  year  in  their  history.  It 
amounted  to  $9,626  million  and  compared  with  the 
$9,437  million  earned  in  1944,  the  largest  hereto- 
fore. The  volume  of  business  done  in  1948  was 
smaller,  but  the  rates  were  higher  and  so  were  the 
expenses.  The  accompanying  table  gives  a  con- 


RAIWAY  REVENUE  AND  EXPENDITURE,  1947-1048 
[000  omitted] 


1948 

Total  operating  revenue 19,626,000 

Total  operating  expense 7,498,000 

Taxes 987,000 

Operating  income 970,000 

Net  after  bond  interest 653,000 

Operating  revenue 

Freight  revenue 7,952,000 

Passenger  revenue 954,000 

Mail  revenue 191,000 

Express  revenue 121,000 

Other  revenue 408,000 


1947 

$8,685,000 

6,797,000 

936,000 

781,000 

479,000 


7,041,000 
963,000 
170,000 
116,000 
395,000 

Total 9,626,000  8,685,000 

Operating  expense 

Maintenance  of  way,  structure 1,365,000  1,212,000 

Maintenance  of  equipment 1,702,000  1,476,000 

Traffic 195,000  176,000 

Transportation 3,831,000  2,538,000 

General 405,000  375,000 

Total 87,498,000        $6,797,000 


densed  income  account  for  class  I  (companies 
earning  a  million  dollars  or  more  annually;  rail- 
ways of  the  United  States. 

The  average  revenue  per  ton  per  mile  in  1948, 
based  on  the  first  nine  months,  was  1.238  cents 
compared  with  1,076  cents  in  1947.  The  average 
revenue  per  passenger  per  mile  in  1948  was  2.294 
cents  compared  with  2.097  cents  in  1947. 

Record  Operation.  The  number  of  net  tons,  per 
freight-train  hour  was  18,768  in  1948  compared 
with  18,126  in  1947. 

Transportation  Produced.  The  railways  of  the 
United  States  carried  640,000  million  tons  of 
freight  one  mile  in  1948.  In  1947  they  carried 
654,728  tons  one  mile  and  in  1944,  the  peak  year, 
they  carried  737,246.  It  is  inaccTiirate  to  say  that 
higher  freight  rates  alone  accounted  for  the  higher 
revenue  in  1948.  The  nature  of  the  commodity  car- 
ried has  quite  a  lot  to  do  with  the  revenue  earned. 

Carloads  of  coal  carried  in  1948  amounted  to 
8,730,000,  which  was  less  by  358,000  cars  than  the 
amount  of  coal  carried  in  1947.  On  the  other  hand 
carloads  of  ore  carried  in  1948  totaled  2,781,000, 
which  was  129,000  cars  more  than  was  carried  in 
1947.  There  were  4,000  more  cars  of  coke  carried 
in  1948  than  in  1947.  Carloads  carried  of  all  other 
commodities  showed  a  decrease  in  1948  as  com- 
pared with  1947.  The  average  revenue  per  ton  per 
mile  in  1948  was  1.238  cents  compared  with  1.076 
cents  in  the  previous  year. 

Employment.  The  average  number  of  men  em- 
ployed by  the  railways  of  the  United  States  in  1948 
was  1,327,000  and  the  total  payroll  was  $4,743 
million  in  that  year.  In  the  previous  year  the  total 
number  of  men  was  1,351,961  and  the  total  pay- 
roll was  $4,350  million.  The  compensation  per  em- 
ployee per  year  was  $3,575  in  1948  and  $3,318  in 
1947. 

Railroad  Retirement  Board.  The  number  of  benefi- 
ciaries on  the  retirement  rolls  on  Oct.  31,  1948, 
was  332,471  compared  with  267,556  on  that  date 
in  1947.  Total  retirement  benefit  disbursements 
during  the  month  of  October,  1948,  amounted  to 
$23,243,506  compared  witih  $18,885,910  in  Oc- 
tober, 1947.  This  is  at  the  rate  (in  1948)  of  about 
$70  a  month  for  each  beneficiary.  In  the  first  10 
months  of  1948  a  total  of  $24,271,441  was  paid  for 
unemployment  compensation  compared  with  $34,- 
355,342  paid  in  the  first  10  months  of  1947. 

Railroad  Credit  Corporation.  This  corporation, 
which  made  its  final  distribution  in  1948,  was  set 
up  in  1932  and  during  its  existence  made  loans 
totaling  $73,691,000.  It  had  only  minor  losses,  paid 


KAP10  TRANSIT 


469 


RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORATION 


all  its  operating  expenses,  and  returned  to  the  con- 
tributing railways  slightly  more  than  100  percent 
of  the  original  fund.  — WILLIAM  E.  HOOPER 

RAPID  TRANSIT.  In  spite  of  high  operational  and  la- 
hor  costs  during  1948,  the  rapid  transit  field  was 
characterized  by  a  gradual  replacement  of  badly- 
worn  equipment  and  improvement  in  service.  In 
the  first  half  of  1948  traffic  showed  gains,  with 
city  travel  up  6.7  percent  and  suburban  up  1.2  per- 
cent. 

Most  rapid  transit  systems  which  had  not  pre- 
viously raised  fares  (and  some  which  had)  were 
granted  increases,  but  often  the  rise  was  barely 
sufficient  to  meet  increased  labor  and  operating 
costs  leaving  nothing  for  improvement.  New  York 
raised  subway  fares  from  the  traditional  nickel  to 
10  cents  and  bus  fares  have  been  raised  first  to  6, 
later  to  7  cents,  but  many  companies  claim  that  10 
cents  is  the  operational  minirnum. 

Although  new  trolley  cars  are  being  built  and, 
in  many  large  cities,  have  proved  efficient  where 
rush-hour  peaks  exceed  2,500  persons  an  hour,  the 
number  in  use  in  this  country  and  elsewhere  is 
declining  annually.  In  Kingston,  Jamaica,  people 
are  proud  of  their  shiny  new  American  buses,  but 
miss  the  convenience  of  boarding  the  open  trams 
on  the  run  at  any  point  which  suited  their  fancy. 
However,  in  San  Francisco,  while  they  love  their 
ancient  cable  cars,  they  agree  the  trolley  coaches 
which  are  replacing  them  are  more  convenient. 

New  York  has  removed  the  trolley  cars  from  the 
Williamsburg  Bridge  and  the  Norton  Avenue  line 
to  Coney  Island.  Forty  of  these  cars  were  to  be  sent 
to  Vienna  under  the  ERP.  All  trolley  lines  in  the 
Bronx  have  been  supplanted  by  buses.  New  Or- 
leans has  converted  2  car  lines  to  trolley  coaches 
this  year  and  plans  2  more  in  1949.  Halifax,  N.S., 
has  converted  from  small  one-man  cars  to  trolley 
coaches  and  increased  its  mileage.  The  city  and  the 
transit  company  have  developed  an  interesting 
profit-sharing  agreement. 

In  Cleveland  existing  bus  lines  have  been  cut  in 
half.  The  congested  central  part  of  the  line  is 
served  by  local  buses  while  extra-fare  expresses 
stop  only  at  transfer  points  until  they  reach  out- 
lying districts.  A  new  development  in  trolley 
coaches  permits  express  coaches  to  pass  locals  on 
the  same  line. 

More  than  20  cities  have  installed  revenue-pro- 
ducing radios  in  buses.  Installed  in  the  rear  they 
draw  passengers  to  the  back  of  the  bus.  During 
1949,  Chicago  will  spend  $11  million  for  400  new 
buses  and  130  new  elevated  cars,  the  first  new  cars 
to  be  purchased  in  24  years. 

The  London  Underground's  Central  Line  was 
extended  on  both  ends  for  a  total  of  10  miles.  It 
now  runs  from  West  Ruislip  to  Greenford.  Work 
on  this  extension  commenced  before  the  war  and 
was  completed  in  November  at  a  cost  of  $8  million. 
To  increase  passenger  comfort,  doors  are  opened 
individually  by  push  buttons,  thus  eliminating 
draft  when  no  one  wishes  to  enter  or  leave  the 
car. 

The  IND  division  of  the  New  York  subway  sys- 
tem opened  a  4-station  extension  in  Brooklyn  on 
the  Fulton  Street  Line  to  Euclid  Avenue,  during 
November.  This  was  constructed  at  a  cost  of  $47 
million.  At  the  same  time  a  $2  million  push-button 
signal  and  control  system  was  inaugurated.  One 
man  sitting  at  a  horseshoe  panel  can  route  all 
trains  on  the  new  line.  Automatic  safety  devices 
make  mistakes  virtually  impossible  even  with  trains 
running  on  90  second  headways. 

With  the  fare  increase  on  the  subways,  New 


York  further  consolidated  its  3  subways  allowing 
passage  from  one  division  to  another  without  pay- 
ment of  additional  fare.  Many  platforms  were  ex- 
tended to  accommodate  longer  trains. 

Stockholm,  Sweden,  is  building  a  subway  to  be 
completed  about  1950.  One  is  under  study  for  Sao 
Paulo,  Brazil,  and  another  from  Catia  to  Petare, 
Venezuela.  Cincinnati  plans  to  discontinue  its  sub- 
way system  and  convert  all  transportation  to  buses, 
using  the  tubes  for  other  purposes.  The  Dearborn 
Street  Subway  in  Chicago  is  due  to  be  completed 
early  in  1949. 

In  Moscow,  work  has  been  going  on  for  a  belt 
line  connecting  the  7  major  railway  stations  which 
are  located  on  the  edge  of  the  city.  It  was  hoped 
that  this  would  be  completed  by  tie  end  of  1948. 
In  Calcutta,  work  is  scheduled  to  start  on  a  $150 
million  electric  railway  to  circle  the  city  on  a  high 
level  viaduct  — J.  W.  HAZEN 

RECLAMATION,  Bureau  of  A  Bureau  of  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  the  Interior  which  constructs  and  op- 
erates multipurpose  reclamation  projects  in  the  17 
Western  States.  During  1948  the  Bureau  supplied 
irrigation  water  to  4,500,000  acres  of  the  approxi- 
mately 5  million  irrigable  acres  in  project  areas, 
while  electric  power  production  totaled  nearly  17,- 
000  million  kilowatt-hours.  Other  benefits  include 
river  regulation  and  flood  control,  preservation  of 
fish  and  wildlife,  recreation,  and  water  for  munici- 
pal and  industrial  use.  Crops  valued  at  more  than 
$555  million  were  produced  in  1947. 

Projects  upon  which  there  was  a  substantial 
amount  of  construction  during  1948  include,  Cen- 
tral Valley  in  California,  Columbia  Basin  in  Wash- 
ington, Davis  Dam  in  Arizona  and  Nevada, 
Colorado-Big  Thompson  in  Colorado,  and  units 
of  the  Missouri  River  Basin  Project  in  Montana, 
North  and  South  Dakota,  Wyoming  and  Nebraska. 
Commissioner,  1948:  Michael  W.  Straus. 

RECONSTRUCTION  FINANCE  CORPORATION.  Pursuant 
to  the  provisions  of  Public  Law  548,  80th  Con- 
gress, 2nd  Session,  approved  May  25,  1948,  the 
Reconstruction  Finance  Corporation  was  given 
succession  through  June  30,  1956.  The  Corporation 
was  originally  established  by  the  Congress  Jan. 
22,  1932,  and  began  operations  February  2  of  that 
year.  The  capital  stock  of  the  RFC,  originally  fixed 
at  $500  milh'on,  all  of  which  was  subscribed  by 
the  United  States,  has  been  reduced  to  an  out- 
standing amount  of  $100  million  through  retire- 
ment at  par  of  $175  million  in  1941  and  $225 
million  in  1948. 

Management  of  the  Corporation  is  vested  in  a 
bipartisan  Board  of  five  Directors,  appointed  by 
the  President  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate.  It  functions  through  a  principal 
office  at  Washington,  D.C.,  thirty-one  Regional 
Offices  located  throughout  the  continental  United 
States,  and  Special  Representatives  at  San  Juan, 
Puerto  Rico,  and  Honolulu,  T.H. 

Under  existing  law  RFC  is  authorized:  (1)  To 
make  loans  to  business  enterprises.  Loans  to  rail- 
roads engaged  in  interstate  commerce  or  air  car- 
riers engaged  in  air  transportation  require  the 
approval  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
or  the  Civil  Aeronautics  Board,  respectively.  (2) 
(a)  To  make  loans  to  financial  institutions;  (b) 
to  subscribe  to  or  make  loans  upon  non-assessable 
preferred  stock  in  insurance  companies  if  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  certifies  that  funds  for  capi- 
tal purposes  are  needed.  (3)  To  make  loans  to  or 
purchase  the  obligations  of  States,  municipalities, 
political  sub-divisions  of  States,  or  other  public 


RECONSTRUCT/ON  FINANCE  CORPORATION 


470 


R£D  CROSS 


agencies  and  bodies  to  aid  in  financing  projects 
authorized  under  Federal,  State  or  municipal  law. 
(4)  To  make  loans  determined  to  be  necessary  or 
appropriate  because  of  floods  or  other  catastrophes. 
(5;  To  make  loans  to  business  enterprises  to  pro- 
vide financial  assistance  for  the  production  of  pre- 
fabricated houses  or  prefabricated  housing  com- 
ponents, or  for  large  scale  modernized  site 
construction.  For  all  purposes  enumerated  above, 
the  total  amount  of  investments,  loans,  purchases 
and  commitments  made  subsequent  to  June  30, 
1947  shall  not  exceed  $2,050  million  outstanding 
at  any  one  time. 

The  Corporation  may  make  loans  to  business 
enterprises  either  directly  or  in  participation  with 
banks,  provided  the  credit  sought  is  not  otherwise 
available  on  reasonable  terms  and  that  such  loans 
are  of  such  sound  value  or  so  secured  as  reasonably 
to  assure  repayment.  During  the  fiscal  year  1948 
more  than  fifty  percent  of  the  number  of  all  busi- 
ness loans  authorized  by  the  Corporation  were 
made  in  participation  with  banks  and  approxi- 
mately ninety  percent  were  in  amounts  of  $100,- 
000  or  less.  From  June  30,  1947,  to  July  1,  1948, 
RFC  authorized  4,725  business  loans  aggregating 
approximately  $277  million  and  in  2,622  of  those 
loans  banks  participated  in  an  aggregate  amount 
of  approximately  $53  million.  The  outstanding 
amount  of  business  loans  as  of  June  30,  1948,  was 
$303,417,000.  In  addition  to  business  loans,  other 
loans  and  investments  authorized  by  the  Corpora- 
tion over  the  same  period  included  those  to  public 
agencies  amounting  to  approximately  $24,342,000, 
catastrophe  loans  aggregating  $1,814,000,  and  pur- 
chase of  home  loans  made  pursuant  to  the  Na- 
tional Housing  Act,  as  amended,  in  the  amount  of 
$286,000,000.  Total  loans  and  investments  out- 
standing as  of  June  30,  1948,  amounted  to  $1,178,- 
000,000. 

Federal  National  Mortgage  Association,  an  RFC 
subsidiary,  is  authorized  to  purchase  mortgages 
insured  subsequent  to  April  30,  1948,  under  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  National  Housing  Act,  as 
amended,  and  to  purchase  real  estate  mortgages 
on  homes  and  farms  guaranteed  after  April  30, 
1948,  under  the  provisions  of  the  Servicemen's  Re- 
adjustment Act  of  1944,  as  amended.  (Public  Law 
864, 80th  Congress,  2nd  Session,  July  1,  1948;  Pub- 
lic Law  901,  80th  Congress,  2nd  Session,  Aug.  10, 
1948.)  The  objective  of  the  program  is  to  establish 
and  maintain  a  secondary  market  for  such  mort- 
gages with  a  view  to  encouraging  the  extension  of 
credit  to  assist  in  financing  the  purchase  of  homes 
and  the  construction  of  rental  housing.  Such  mort- 
gages must  meet  certain  requirements  prescribed 
in  the  legislation  in  order  to  be  eligible  for  pur- 
chase by  the  Association, 

The  only  tin  smelter  of  consequence  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere  was  constructed  at  Texas 
City,  Texas,  by  RFC  at  a  cost  of  approximately 
$8,650,000  to  insure  a  domestic  supply  of  tin  in 
the  United  States.  Since  completion  in  1942,  the 
smelter  has  been  operated  for  the  account  of  RFC, 
and  during  the  1948  fiscal  year  the  Corporation's 
sales  of  tin  amounted  to  $118,591,000.  The  Corpo- 
ration is  authorized  to  operate  this  smelter  by  lease 
or  otherwise;  to  buy,  sefl  and  transport  tin,  tin  ores 
and  concentrates;  and  to  finance  research  in  tin 
smelting  and  processing  until  June  30,  1951,  or 
until  such  earlier  time  as  the  Congress  shall  other- 
wise provide.  (Public  Law  824,  80th  Congress, 
2nd  Session,  approved  June  29,  1948.) 

RFC's  investment  in  synthetic  rubber  manu- 
facturing plants  and  related  facilities  which  were 
built  during  the  national  defense  and  war  periods 


amounted  to  approximately  $672  million  at  the 
close  of  the  war.  A  few  of  these  plants  have  been 
sold;  some  have  been  placed  in  stand-by  condition; 
and  others  have  been  continued  in  operation  for 
the  account  of  RFC.  During  the  period  July  1, 
1947,  to  June  30,  1948,  the  Corporation's  sales  of 
synthetic  rubber  of  all  types  totalled  $197,720,000. 
Under  the  provisions  of  Public  Law  469,  80th 
Congress,  2nd  Session,  approved  March  31,  1948 
and  Executive  Order  9942,  Apr.  1,  1948,  RFC  is 
authorized  to  continue  the  production  and  sale  of 
synthetic  rubber  and  the  component  materials 
thereof  until  June  30,  1950.  The  Act  requires  that 
a  study  be  made  with  the  objective  of  determining 
and  formulating  a  program  for  disposal  to  private 
industry  by  sale  or  lease  of  the  government-owned 
rubber  producing  facilities,  and  a  report  made  to 
the  President  and  to  the  Congress  not  later  than 
Apr.  1,  1949. 

The  vast  stockpiles  of  more  than  two  hundred 
strategic  minerals  and  metals  and  other  critical 
and  strategic  supplies  acquired  by  RFC  for  na- 
tional defense  and  war  purposes  have  been  in  proc- 
ess of  liquidation  since  the  cessation  of  hostilities, 
and  during  the  1948  fiscal  year  such  materials  and 
supplies  amounting  to  approximately  $,470  million 
were  sold  or  transferred  to  the  national  stockpile. 
As  of  June  30,  1948,  inventories  of  such  materials 
and  supplies  were  carried  at  a  book  value  of  $35,- 
295,000. 

The  gross  wartime  investment  of  RFC  in  in- 
dustrial plants,  equipment,  flying  schools  and  other 
facilities  including  related  expense  applicable  to 
land,  plants,  machinery  and  equipment  amounted 
to  approximately  $7,800  million.  As  of  June  30, 
1947,  the  remaining  plants  and  facilities  were  car- 
ried at  a  book  value  of  $1,245  million  exclusive  of 
the  synthetic  rubber  plants,  the  Texas  tin  smelter, 
and  the  fiber  plantations  in  Central  America,  Pan- 
ama, and  Haiti.  Liquidation  of  these  facilities 
through  sales  and  declarations  as  surplus  to  War 
Assets  Administration  has  reduced  the  Corpora- 
tion's investment  in  such  facilities  to  $141,500,- 
000  as  of  June  30,  1948.  The  gross  original 
investment  in  the  synthetic  rubber,  tin,  and  fiber 
facilities  amounted  to  approximately  $694  million. 

Plants  and  equipment  formerly  owned  by 
Smaller  War  Plants  Corporation  were  transferred 
to  RFC  for  liquidation  purposes  pursuant  to  Exec- 
utive Order  issued  in  December,  1945.  On  June 
30,  1947,  the  remaining  plants  and  equipment 
were  carried  at  a  book  value  of  $4,349,000  and 
this  book  value  was  reduced  to  $1,407,000  as  of 
the  close  of  the  1948  fiscal  year,  through  sales,  sur- 
plus declarations,  and  disposals  otherwise. 

Late  in  December,  1947,  the  two  remaining  pro- 
grams of  U.S.  Commercial  Company,  an  RFC  sub- 
sidiary, namely  the  "Pacific  Ocean  Operations" 
and  ^Trade  with  Occupied  and  Liberated  Coun- 
tries/* were  taken  over  by  the  Department  of  the 
Navy  and  the  Department  of  the  Army,  respec- 
tively. Upon  consummation  of  a  few  miscellaneous 
transactions,  the  Company  will  be  dissolved. 

Tbe  net  profits  from  operations  of  the  war  dam- 
age insurance  program  amounting  to  $209,827,- 
810  were  paid  into  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States  in  August,  1947,  and  with  the  exception  of 
some  pending  claims  and  unfinished  audits,  liq- 
uidation of  tiie  affairs  of  RFC's  subsidiary,  War 
Damage  Corporation,  has  been  substantially  com- 
pleted. 

RED  CROSS.  The  International  Red  Cross  is  com- 
prised of  the  International  Committee  of  the  Red 
Cross,  an  independent,  neutral  body  entrusted 


REFUGEES  AND  DISPLACED  PERSONS 


473 


REFUGEES  AND  DISPLACED  PERSONS 


in  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy  challenged  the  re- 
sources of  governments  and  international  agencies. 
They  were  the  residue  of  the  slave-laborers,  prison- 
ers of  war,  and  other  persons  deported  by  the  Ger- 
mans, as  well  as  those  who  at  or  after  the  end  of 
the  war  had  fled  from  Eastern  Europe  to  escape 
Communist  rule  or  incidents  of  anti-Semitism. 

During  1945,  1946,  and  the  first  half  of  1947  ap- 
proximately 7  milhon  had  been  repatriated  by  the 
Western  military  authorities  and  UNRRA,  and 
additional  numbers  by  the  Soviet  authorities.  The 
overwhelming  majority  of  those  who  remained 
(mostly  Poles,  Baits,  Ukrainians,  Yugoslavs,  and 
Jews)  were  non-repatriable  refugees,  unwilling  to 
accept  repatriation  because  of  political,  social  or 
economic  changes  which  had  taken  place  in  their 
home  countries.  Permanent  settlement  in  Germany, 
Austria,  and  Italy  also  proved  impractical  for  eco- 
nomic and  psychological  reasons.  Resettlement  in 
other  countries  mainly  overseas  remained  as  the 
only  possible  hope  of  reducing  the  displaced  per- 
sons problem. 

In  order  to  provide  for  the  repatriation  or  reset- 
tlement of  refugees  and  for  their  interim  care  and 
maintenance  pending  ultimate  disposition,  the  In- 
ternational Refugee  Organization  was  created  by  a 
decision  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  United 
Nations  in  December,  1946.  The  Constitution  of 
the  IRO  provided  that  the  organization  would 
come  into  formal  existence  when  15  governments, 
whose  allocated  contributions  to  the  operational 
budget  constituted  75  percent  of  the  total,  had  be- 
come parties  to  the  Constitution.  Before  these  re- 
quirements were  fulfilled  the  Preparatory  Com- 
mission for  IRO,  originally  set  up  as  a  planning 
body,  assumed  and  performed  the  function  of  an 
operating  agency  from  July  1,  1947,  up  to  Aug.  20, 
1948,  when  the  IRO  was  finally  constituted. 

As  long  as  the  Preparatory  Commission  func- 
tioned as  an  interim  organization,  its  funds  proved 
inadequate  as  the  Commission  was  dependent  on 
advance  voluntary  contributions  from  governments. 
Such  funds  as  were  available  had  to  be  spent  pri- 
marily for  the  care  and  maintenance  of  refugees 
and  displaced  persons,  and  the  Commission  was 
not  in  a  position  during  the  period  to  exploit  fully 
all  opportunities  for  the  resettlement  of  refugees. 
When  the  IRO  came  into  existence  the  contribu- 
tions of  governments  were  placed  on  a  contractual 
basis  and  thus  income  more  adequate  to  the  task 
was  assured. 

The  changed  financial  position  of  IRO  was  how- 
ever not  reflected  in  IRO  operations  until  the  fall 
of  1948.  Up  to  July,  1948,  the  main  reception 
country  was  the  United  Kingdom  which  during 
the  operational  year  July  1  1947,  to  June  30,  1948, 
had  received  69,788  displaced  persons  under  the 
movement  known  as  Westward  Ho;  in  the  second 
half  of  1948  resettlement  to  England  declined 
sharply.  Likewise  Belgium,  after  having  recruited 
over  20,000  displaced  persons  in  order  to  cover  her 
urgent  need  of  miners,  received  smaller  numbers 
in  the  last  half  of  the  year.  On  the  other  hand,  re- 
settlement in  Canada,  which  in  the  operational 
year  1947-48  had  received  25,244  displaced  per- 
sons, was  steadily  increasing.  There  was  also  an  in- 
crease in  the  movement  to  Venezuela  and  Australia. 
The  prospects  of  larger  resettlement  in  the  United 
States  and  Palestine  also  developed. 

The  U.S.  Displaced  Persons  Act  of  1948,  which 
came  into  force  on  June  25, 1948,  permits  entrance 
into  the  United  States  of  200,000  displaced  persons 
who  had  reached  the  Allied  occupation  areas  before 
Dec.  27,  1945,  and  2,000  Czechoslovaks  from 
among  refugees  who  escaped  in  1948  from  their 


Communist  dominated  countries.  These  displaced 
persons  and  refugees  will  be  admitted  without  re- 

fard  to  immigration  quotas,  but  their  numbers  will 
e  charged  annually  against  future  quotas  of  the 
respective  countries,  up  to  50  percent  of  the  perti- 
nent quota.  In  addition,  3,000  displaced  orphans 
will  be  admitted  as  non-quota  immigrants. 

The  Act  also  provides  for  regularization  of  the 
status  of  15,000  displaced  persons  who  had  been 
admitted  to  the  United  States  on  a  temporary  basis 
before  Apr.  1,  1948.  Finally,  the  Act  reserves  50 
percent  of  the  German  and  Austrian  quotas  in  the 
fiscal  years  1948-49  and  1949-50  to  Germans  from 
Poland,  Czechoslovakia,  Hungary,  Rumania,  and 
Yugoslavia  who  had  been  expelled  from  their  coun- 
tries and  who  were  in  Germany  and  Austria  on  the 
effective  date  of  the  Act. 

The  Act  establishes  preferences  according  to  the 
country  of  origin  of  the  displaced  persons  and  to 
their  occupational,  equipment.  With  regard  to  the 
country  of  origin,  40  percent  of  the  visas  are  re- 
served for  displaced  persons  from  territories  an- 
nexed by  a  foreign  power  (the  Baltic  States  and 
Eastern  Poland).  As  to  occupational  equipment,  30 
percent  of  the  visas  are  reserved  for  agricultural 
workers,  a  further  priority  being  granted  to  certain 
categories  of  skilled  workers,  construction  and 
clothing  workers,  professionals,  and  others.  An  as- 
surance is  required  that  the  prospective  immigrant 
will  be  employed  and  housed  in  the  United  States 
without  displacing  other  persons  from  employment 
or  housing. 

Admissions  to  the  United  States  of  2,499  refugees 
under  the  Act  in  the  course  of  the  year  1948  were 
disappointing.  This  resulted  from  delays  in  estab- 
lishing the  procedures  of  admission  and  from  in- 
adequate funds  for  implementation  of  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Act. 

The  number  of  displaced  persons  resettled  in 
Palestine  greatly  increased  after  the  establishment 
of  the  state  of  Israel.  By  December,  1948,  over 
40,000  Jewish  refugees  had  entered  the  country. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  during  the  next  two 
years  the  state  of  Israel  will  provide  homes  for  all 
the  Jewish  displaced  persons  desiring  to  settle 
there. 

From  July  1,  1947,  when  the  Preparatory  Com- 
mission for  the  IRO  started  functioning,  up  to  the 
end  of  September,  1948,  a  total  of  255,779  were 
resettled.  During  the  same  period  57,117  displaced 
persons  were  repatriated  to  their  homelands.  Of 
this  total  7,772  were  overseas  Chinese  who  had  fled 
during  the  war  to  China  from  Burma,  Malaya,  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies,  and  the  Philippines  and 
were  helped  to  return  to  their  former  countries  of 
residence.  Repatriated  European  displaced  persons 
numbered  49,345  of  whom  32,433  returned  to 
Poland. 

A  survey  made  by  the  IRO  has  shown  that  the 
displaced  persons  are  mostly  people  in  the  best 
productive  years  with  many  mucn  needed  skills. 
As  of  Mar.  31, 1948,  there  were  nearly  600,000  per- 
sons receiving  IRO  care  and  maintenance  in  Ger- 
many, Austria  and  Italy.  The  survey  covered  340,- 
000  persons  in  the  working  ages  of  16  to  65  ( ex- 
cepting mothers  with  children  under  12  years). 
Over  98,000  were  skilled  and  24,000  semi-skilled 
workers,  particularly  in  the  clothing  and  textile 
trades  and  the  construction  industry.  Furthermore, 
the  survey  listed  76,000  agricultural,  30,000  pro- 
fessional and  14,000  domestic  workers.  Only  11 
percent  of  displaced  persons  covered  by  the  survey 
had  no  previous  work  experience. 

Apart  from  displaced  nationals  of  United  Na- 
tions countries,  there  are  in  Germany  and  Austria 


ROJGJOUS  ORGANIZATIONS 


474 


REPUBLICAN  PARTY 


numbers  of  displaced  Germans  constituting  a  prob- 
lem of  a  different  character.  In  Germany  their  num- 
ber amounts  to  9,500,000  including  Reich  Germans 
from  the  part  of  Germany  under  Polish  administra- 
tion, Sudeten  Germans  and  ethnic  Germans  from 
Poland  and  Hungary  who  fled  or  were  transferred 
to  Germany  under  the  Potsdam  Agreement  of  1945. 
Their  resettlement  in  Germany  is  considered  the 
only  apparent  solution.  However,  their  integration 
into  the  German  economy  has  proceeded  slowly. 

There  are  also  in  Austria  250,000  ethnic  German 
refugees  from  Czechoslovakia,  Hungary,  and  the 
Balkan  countries.  The  problem  of  the  eligibility  of 
these  Volksdeutsche  in  Austria  for  IRO  assistance 
has  been  discussed  at  length  in  its  legal  and  ethno- 
logical aspects.  However,  only  single  groups  of 
Volksdeutsche  appear  to  fall  within  the  scope  of 
the  IRO.  Pending  further  examination  of  the  gen- 
eral problem,  the  eligibility  of  Volksdeutsche  in 
1948  was  determined  on  an  individual  basis. 

After  the  end  of  the  war  Czechoslovakia  faced, 
apart  from  the  problem  of  the  Sudeten  Germans, 
the  serious  problem  of  another  minority — the  Hun- 
garian. This  problem  embittered  Hungarian-Czech- 
oslovak relations.  A  part  of  the  Hungarians  who 
lived  in  Slovakia  were  exchanged  for  Slovaks  for- 
merly resident  in  Hungary,  others  were  moved  from 
the  solidly  Hungarian  southern  strip  of  Slovakia  to 
various  parts  of  Bohemia.  On  Dec.  4, 1948,  Czecho- 
slovakia announced  that  Hungarians  who  had  been 
moved  to  Bohemia  could  return  to  Slovakia,  not 
necessarily  to  the  same  land  from  which  they  had 
been  earlier  expelled,  but  to  equivalent  holdings. 
The  Hungarians  were  urged,  however,  not  to  return 
to  southern  Slovakia  but  to  apply  for  farms  in  the 
western  frontier  area  where  land  was  available  re- 
sulting from  the  expulsion  of  the  Sudeten  Germans. 
A  new  displacement  of  population  took  place  in 
Palestine  as  a  consequent  of  the  Arab- Jewish  con- 
flict. The  number  of  refugees  from  Jewish-held 
Palestine  exceeded  500,000,  Within  the  state  of 
Israel  there  were  7,000  Jewish  refugees  from  Arab- 
held  Palestine. 

The  partition  of  the  Indian  Empire  into  two 
dominions  produced  a  mass  movement  of  refugees 
in  1947  which  continued  into  the  first  half  of  1948. 
More  than  11  million  people  were  involved — Hindu 
refugees  from  Pakistan  to  the  Indian  Union  and 
Moslem  refugees  in  the  opposite  direction.  The 
movement  constituted  in  effect  an  exchange  of  pop- 
ulation. By  the  end  of  1948,  however,  some  4  mil- 
lion of  the  refugees  remained  unsettled. 

— GEORGE  L.  WARREN 

RELIGIOUS  ORGANIZATIONS.  Church  membership  in 
the  United  States  in  1947  numbered  77,386,188 
persons,  the  largest  total  in  the  nation's  history. 
Four  major  groups  account  for  the  majority  of  re- 
ligious membership:  Protestant  bodies,  46,149,676 
members;  Roman  Catholic,  26,075,697  members; 
Orthodox,  575,000  members;  Jewish,  4,641,000 
members.  For  further  information  on  the  larger  de- 
nominations, see  separate  articles. 

RELIGIOUS  SOCIETY  OF  FRIENDS  (QUAKERS),  The.  A  re- 
ligious society  developed  from  the  conviction  of 
George  Fox  (1624-91)  that  there  is  something  of 
God  in  every  man  to  which  God  speaks.  If  men 
will  keep  silent  they  will  hear  God's  message  in 
their  hearts.  There  are  about  170,000  Friends  in 
the  world  today,  of  whom  about  114,000  are  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  There  are  28  Yearly 
Meetings  in  America.  The  most  recent,  which  was 
set  up  in  1947,  is  called  Pacific  Yearly  Meeting  and 
includes  nearly  20  small  meetings  scattered  from 


Mexico  to  British  Columbia.  The  largest  groups  of 
Friends  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Richmond,  Ind.,  and  Whittier,  Calif.  Eleven  of 
the  Yearly  Meetings  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada are  affiliated  with  the  Five  Years  Meeting  of 
Friends  with  headquarters  in  Richmond,  Ind.  Six 
Yearly  Meetings  are  affiliated  with  the  Friends 
General  Conference  with  headquarters  in  Phila- 
delphia. The  other  11  Yearly  Meetings  are  inde- 
pendent bodies,  but  are  in  fellowship  with  the 
other  groups. 

There  are  12  Friends  Colleges  located  in  Penn- 
sylvania, Indiana,  Kansas,  North  Carolina,  Ne- 
b'raska,  Oregon,  California,  Iowa,  Ohio,  and  On- 
tario, Canada.  Friends  secondary  schools  are  main- 
tained in  12  different  States.  There  are  3  main 
Quaker  journals  published  in  the  United  States — 
TJie  American  Friend,  published  in  Richmond, 
Ind.,  The  Friends  Intelligencer  and  The  Friend, 
published  in  Philadelphia. 

The  London  Yearly  Meeting  is  the  largest  and 
in  some  ways  the  leader  among  the  yearly  meet- 
ings. Since  World  War  I  small  groups  of  Friends 
have  formed  Yearly  Meetings  in  France,  Germany, 
Denmark,  and  Austria. 

At  home  the  Service  Committee  seeks  to  pro- 
mote understanding  by  holding  Institutes  of  inter- 
national relations,  Seminars  on  industrial  relations, 
and  to  promote  friendly  race  relations  between  all 
peoples.  Young  people  of  high  school  and  college 
age  participate  in  Work  Camps,  gaining  new  in- 
sights into  social  and  industrial  problems  by  work- 
ing with  their  hands  while  discussing  questions 
with  leaders  of  labor  and  capital. 

The  Friends,  a  small  denomination,  are  able  to 
do  all  this  by  the  generosity  of  the  public  in  giving 
funds  and  supplies.  In  particular,  men  and  women 
have  contributed  used  clothing  for  European  relief 
so  that  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  Sept  30th,  1948, 
the  American  Friends  Service  Committee  shipped 
1,133  tons  of  clothing,  shoes,  household  linen,  bed- 
ding, soap,  and  textiles  to  Europe  and  Asia.  Much 
more  could  have  been  used. 

The  Friends  World  Committee  for  Consultation, 
with  headquarters  in  London,  keeps  in  touch  with 
Friends  groups  throughout  the  world  by  inter- 
visitation  and  conferences.  The  next  conference  of 
the  American  Section  will  be  in  Jamaica,  British 
West  Indies,  in  April,  1949.  There  are  54  organized 
groups  of  Friends  throughout  the  world.  Through 
the  Friends  World  Committee  they  are  organized 
into  3  sections,  namely,  the  American  Sections,  the 
European  Section,  and  the  Pacific  Area.  The  last 
Friends  World  Conference  was  held  in  Swarth- 
more,  Pa.  in  1937.  The  next  Friends  World  Confer- 
ence is  expected  to  be  held  in  England  in  1952. 

The  American  Friends  Board  of  Missions  has 
missions  in  Palestine,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  British 
East  Africa.  The  last  named  set  up  in  1947  as  a 
Yearly  Meeting,  the  second  largest  in  the  world, 
with  about  20,000  members.  There  are  also  Friends 
missions,  under  other  Boards,  in  Japan,  China,  In- 
dia, and  Bolivia. 

REPUBLICAN  PARTY.  The  Republican  National  Com- 
mittee was  authorized  at  the  Republican  National 
Convention  in  Philadelphia  in  June,  1856.  The 
chief  purpose  of  the  Committee  today  is  to  con- 
duct the  National  Convention  every  four  years, 
and  to  assist  in  the  election  of  the  Republican 
Presidental  candidate  nominated  at  that  Conven- 
tion, as  well  as  in  the  election  of  other  Republican 
candidates  for  national  office.  This  includes  the 
raising  of  funds  for  the  Presidential  election  cam- 
paign. The  Committee  cooperates  with  and  pro- 


REUNION 


475 


RHODESIA 


vides  services  for  Republican  members  of  Con- 
gress, state  and  local  Republican  organizations, 
the  Young  Republicans,  and  women's  Republican 
groups.  It  publishes  The  Republican  News  and 
works  to  promote  the  Republican  cause  through 
press  and  radio  releases.  Membership:  106.  Chair- 
man, Hugh  D.  Scott,  Jr.;  Secretary,  Mrs.  Charles 
P.  Howard;  Treasurer,  James  S.  Kemper;  General 
Counsel,  Barak  T.  Mattmgly.  Headquarters:  1337 
Connecticut  Ave.,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

REUNION.  An  overseas  department  of  France,  420 
miles  east  of  Madagascar.  Area:  970  square  miles. 
Population  ( 1946) :  242,343.  Chief  towns:  St.  Den- 
is (capital),  35,982  inhabitants;  St.  Paul,  25,959; 
St.  Louis,  24,004;  St.  Pierre,  22,289.  The  main  port 
is  Pointe-des-galets.  Education  (1946):  242  schools 
and  33,576  pupils.  Products  include  sugar,  rum, 
manioc,  coffee,  vanilla,  and  spices.  Foreign  trade 
(1946):  712,700,000  francs;/ exports  1,326,400,000 
francs.  On  Mar.  19,  1946,  Reunion  was  made  a  de- 
partment of  France,  effective  from  Jan.  1,  1947, 
and  was  represented  in  the  National  Assembly  (3 
deputies),  in  the  Council  of  the  Republic  (2  coun- 
cillors), and  in  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Union 
(1  delegate). 

REYNOIDS  FOUNDATION,  The  Z.  Smith.  Established  in 
1936  by  Richard  J.  Reynolds,  Mrs.  Mary  Reynolds 
Babcock,  and  Mrs.  Nancy  Reynolds  Bagley,  for 
charitable,  civic,  and  eleemosynary  purposes 
within  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  by  a  grant  of 
all  the  property  received  by  them  from  the  estate 
of  their  late  brother,  Zachary  Smith  Reynolds  of 
Winston-Salem,  N.C.  Since  its  organization  the 
Foundation  has  made  annual  grants  to  the  North 
Carolina  State  Health  Department  for  the  inaugu- 
ration and  maintenance  of  a  campaign  for  the  con- 
trol of  venereal  disease  in  the  State,  totaling 
$1,541,000.  Contributions  for  other  charitable  pur- 
poses since  organization  have  amounted  to  $773,- 
000,  and  administrative  expenses  to  $16,454. 

Since  July  1,  1947,  the  Foundation  has  pledged 
its  income  to  Wake  Forest  College  for  the  latter's 
program  of  expansion  and  relocation  near  Winston- 
Salem.  With  an  original  endowment  of  $7  million, 
the  present  assets  of  the  Foundation,  as  of  Dec. 
31,  1947,  were  $10,457,020,  and  total  amount  ex- 
pended to  date,  $2,330,454. 

The  Trustees  of  the  Foundation  are:  Richard  J. 
Reynolds,  Mrs.  Mary  Reynolds  Babcodk,  Mrs. 
Nancy  Reynolds  Bagley,  W.  N.  Reynolds,  Thomas 
B.  Butler,  Charles  H.  Babcock,  Henry  Walker 
Bagley,  and  L.  D.  Long.  Secretary,  Stratton  Coy- 
ner.  Offices:  1206  Reynolds  Building,  Winston- 
Salem  3,  N.C. 

RHODE  ISLAND.  A  New  England  State.  Area:  1,300 
sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  748,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  713,346.  Chief  city: 
Providence  (capital),  253,504  inhabitants  in  1940. 
See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND 
METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES, 
VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $45,683,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $58,895,000. 

Legislation.  The  General  Assembly  met  in  annual 
session  January  6  and  adjourned  April  29.  In- 
creased costs  and  expanded  services  resulted  in 
record  level  appropriations.  A  sum  of  $3  million 
in  annual  State  aid  to  cities,  begun  in  1947,  was 
continued,  and  authorization  was  given  for  a 
State  airport  at  Hillsgrove,  The  State  retirement 
system  was  broadened  to  cover  teachers,  and  the 


minimum  annual  pension  was  boosted.  The  Gov- 
ernor's salary  was  increased  and  a  constitutional 
amendment  initiated  to  raise  salaries  of  legislators, 
now  among  the  lowest  in  the  United  States,  to 
$1,500  per  year. 

Other  enactments  included  laws  of  an  "open 
competition"  nature  regulating  fire  and  casualty 
insurance;  an  arrest  law  requiring  immediate  no- 
tice to  families  of  persons  arrested  for  misdemean- 
ors; expansion  of  Department  of  Public  Works 
functions  to  include  airport  control;  and  consoli- 
dation of  the  Port  Authority  and  the  Industrial 
Commission  into  a  new  Port  and  Industrial  Com- 
mission which  also  supersedes  the  State  Planning 
Board.  Primary  and  election  laws  were  revised 
and  a  constitutional  amendment  initiated  to  pro- 
vide permanent  registration. 

Elections.  The  4  electoral  votes  went  to  Truman 
who  received  188,619  votes  to  Dewey's  134,892 
and  Wallace's  2,587.  Truman's  plurality  was  slight- 
ly larger  than  Roosevelt's  in  1944.  Democratic 
Senator  Theodore  Francis  Green  was  reelected. 
Democrats  retained  the  2  House  seats.  Governor 
John  O.  Pastore,  Democrat,  was  reelected.  Other 
State  officers  elected  were:  Lieutenant  Governor — 
John  S.  McKiernan;  Secretary  of  State — Armand  H. 
Cote;  Attorney  General — William  E.  Powers; 
Treasurer — Raymond  H.  Hawksley. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  John  O.  Pastore;  Lieut. 
Governor,  John  S.  McKiernan;  Secretary  of  State, 
Armand  H.  Cote;  Attorney  General,  John  H.  No- 
Ian;  State  Treasurer,  Russell  H.  Handy;  Director  of 
Finance  (Acting),  Howard  A.  Kenyon;  Controller, 
M.  Joseph  Cummings. 

RHODESIA,  Northern.  A  British  protectorate  in  the  in- 
terior of  southern  Africa.  Estimated  total  area: 
287,640  square  miles.  Population  (1946  census): 
1,565,547,  of  whom  21,809  were  Europeans  and 
1,115  Asiatics.  Capital:  Lusaka.  Education  (1946): 
2,119  schools  and  156,347  pupils. 

Production,  etc.  Agricultural  products  include 
maize,  tobacco,  wheat,  and  livestock.  The  most  im- 
portant timber  product  is  the  Rhodesian  "red- 
wood." Mineral  production  in  1947  included  (in 
metric  tons):  copper  192,000,.  lead  15,840,  and 
zinc  21,480.  Other  minerals  are  cobalt  alloy,  iron 
ore,  selenium,  vanadium,  and  silver.  Total  value  of 
mineral  output  (1946):  £14,503,196.  Foreign 
trade  (1946):  imports  £7,400,000;  exports  £12,- 
600,000. 

Government.  Budget  estimates  (1947):  revenue 
£4,295,543;  expenditure  £4,352,611.  Public  debt 
(Jan.  1,  1947):  £2,347,007.  The  protectorate  is 
administered  by  a  governor  with  the  aid  of  an  Ex- 
ecutive Council  and  a  Legislative  Council.  Gov- 
ernor: Sir  Gilbert  McCall  Rennie. 

RHODESIA,  Southern.  A  British  self-governing  col- 
ony in  the  interior  of  southern  Africa,  grouped  with 
British  Central  Africa  territories.  Area,  150,333 
square  miles.  Population  (1946),  1,777,000.  Chief 
towns:  Salisbury,  (capital)  69,098  inhabitants, 
Bulawayo  52,723,  Umtali,  Gwelo,  Gatooma  and 
Oue  Oue.  Education  (1946):  2,000  schools  and 
195,255  pupils. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  chief  agricultural  prod- 
ucts include  maize,  tobacco,  citrus  fruits,  tea, 
dairy  products,  groundnuts,  and  livestock.  Mineral 
products  include  gold,  chrome  ore,  asbestos,  tung- 
sten, coal,  and  tin.  The  value  of  base  metals  out- 
put in  1946  was  £2,912,634;  gold  £4,697,526. 
Foreign  trade  (1947):  imports  £33,360,000;  ex- 
ports £19,080,000.  Chief  exports:  tobacco,  gold, 
and  asbestos. 


RICE 


476 


ROADS  AND  STREETS 


Government.  Budget  estimates  (1947-48):  reve- 
nue £11,148,000;  expenditure  £21,603,387.  Pub- 
lic debt  (Mar.  31, 1946):  £24,684,264.  The  colony 

has  a  responsible  government,  headed  by  a  gov- 
ernor who  is  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  and  a 
Legislative  Assembly  of  30  members.  The  latter  is 
elected  for  a  five-year  term  by  British  subjects  over 
21  years  of  age,  subject  to  certain  qualifications. 
The  constitution  limits  the  powers  of  the  Legislative 
Council  with  respect  to  appropriation  and  taxation 
bills.  Governor:  Sir  John  Noble  Kennedy.  Prime 
Minister:  Sir  Godfrey  M.  Huggins. 

RICE.  The  1948  output  of  rice  in  the  United  States, 
according  to  the  December  report  of  the  Bureau  of 
Agricultural  Economics,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
was  estimated  at  81,170,000  bushels,  compared 
with  78,259,000  bu.  in  1947  and  the  10-year  av- 
erage (1937-46)  of  60,460,000  bu.  Yields  of  the 
chief  producing  States  for  1948  were  (in  bushels): 
Louisiana  23,522,000,  Texas  23,040,000,  Arkansas 
19,740,000,  California  14,868,000. 

World  Rke.  According  to  the  Nov.  8,  1948,  issue 
of  foreign  Crops  and  Markets  ( U.S.  Dept  of  Agri- 
culture), the  1948-49  forecast  ( preliminary )  of 
world  rice  production  was  7,318  million  bu.,  com- 
pared with  7,102  million  bu.  in  1947.  Yields  of  the 
principal  producing  countries  for  1948-49  were  (in 
million  bushels):  China  2,275,  Indian  Union  1,550, 
Japan  576,  Pakistan  550,  Netherlands  East  Indies 
(Indonesia)  275  (in  1947-48),  Burma  260,  French 
Indochina  250,  Siam  240,  Korea  150,  Philippine 
Republic  119.  The  world  area  sown  to  rice  in  1948- 
49  was  estimated  at  213,300,000  acres,  compared 
with  210,800,000  acres  in  1947-48. 

ROADS  AND  STREETS.  The  mileage  for  Federal-aid 
road  construction  completed  during  the  fiscal  year 
July  1, 1947,  to  June  30, 1948,  is  not  available  as  of 
this  writing;  however>  the  dollar  volume  of  the 
Federal-aid  highway  work  under  construction,  as 
of  July  31,  1948,  of  approximately  $906  million  is 
far  in  excess  of  that  of  any  previous  dollar  volume 
in  history.  The  Federal-aid  Highway  Act  of  1948 

APPROXIMATE  APPORTIONMENT  OF  FEDERAL-AID 

HIGHWAY  PROGRAM 


State  or 

Territory  Amount 

Alabama §  8,708,000 

Arizona 5,113,000 

Arkansas 6,707,000 

California 19,789,000 

Colorado 6,826,000 

Connecticut 4,241 ,000 

Delaware.. 1,805,000 

Florida 6,238,000 

Georgia 10,281,000 

Idaho 4,394,000 

Illinois 20,490,000 

Indiana 10,716,000 

Iowa 9,860,000 

Kansas 9,473,000 

Kentucky 7,949,000 

Louisiana 6,655,000 

Maine 3,471,000 

Maryland 4,264,000 

Massachusetts . .  9, 186,000 

Michigan 14,786,000 

Minnesota 11,018,000 

Mississippi 7,137,000 

Missouri 12,757,000 

Montana 7,066,000 

Nebraska 7,466,000 

Nevada 4,308,000 


State  or 

Territory  Amount 
New  Hampshire .  $    2,047,000 

New  Jersey 8,375,000 

New  Mexico ....  5,698,000 

New  York 30,081,000 

N.  Carolina 10, 136,000 

N.Dakota 5,286,000 

Ohio 17,792,000 

Oklahoma 9,006,000 

Oregon 6,322,000 

Pennsylvania ...  22, 196,000 

Rhode  Island . . .  2,623,000 

S.  Carolina 5,540,000 

S.Dakota 5,554,000 

Tennessee 8,946,000 

Texas 25,599,000 

Utah 4,156,000 

Vermont 1,813,000 

Virginia 7,817,000 

Washington 6,574,000 

W.Virginia 4,784,000 

Wisconsin 10,448,000 

Wyoming 4,276,000 

Hawaii 1,975,000 

Dist.  of  Col 2,644,000 

Puerto  Rico 2,733,000 

Total $450,000,000 


(Public  Law  No.  834)  authorizes  the  appropria- 
tion of  $450  million  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1950,  and  a  like  sum  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1951.  Forty-five  percent  of  the  total  is  to 
be  allocated  to  projects  on  the  Federal-aid  High- 
way System,  SO  percent  for  projects  on  the  second- 


ary system,  and  25  percent  on  the  Federal-aid 
Highway  Systems  in  urban  areas.  Matching  of 
funds  is  on  a  50-50  basis. 

Public  Roads  Administration  lias  developed  an 
approximate  apportionment  of  the  $450  million  by 
States,  including  Hawaii,  Washington,  B.C.,  and 
Puerto  Rico.  Those  States  with  the  greatest  high- 
way mileage  will  receive  the  largest  apportionment, 
as  indicated  in  the  accompanying  table.  On  this 
basis,  New  York  will  receive  more  than  $30  million 
as  tiie  largest  percentage  apportionment  while  Del- 
aware will  receive  the  lowest  percentage. 

During  the  year  1948  problems  of  design,  con- 
struction, and  maintenance  received  more  atten- 
tion probably  than  at  any  time  in  history.  High- 
way problems  were  magnified  by  traffic  accidents, 
shortage  of  engineering  personnel,  and  increased 
use  of  the  highways  by  heavy  trucks.  In  regard  to 
the  shortage  of  highway  engineering  personnel, 
the  American  Association  of  State  Highway  Of- 
ficials conducted  a  survey  among  the  nation's  en- 
gineering schools  to  determine  interests  of  the 
undergraduate  engineering  student  body.  Of  the 
21,000  engineering  students  who  expected  to  gradu- 
ate in  1948,  only  one  seventh  were  in  civil  engineer- 
ing, and  of  this  number,  only  600  indicated  any 
interest  in  highway  engineering. 

This  is  creating  a  serious  problem  both  because 
of  the  unprecedented  highway  construction  pro- 
grams throughout  the  country  and  the  fact  that 
young  engineering  personnel  has  not  been  recruited 
for  a  number  of  years  because  of  the  war.  In  1949 
it  is  likely  that  highway  departments  will  initiate 
better  salary  scales  and  will  adopt  changes  in  per- 
sonnel policies.  A  committee  on  highway  engineer- 
ing personnel  has  been  formulated  by  the  American 
Road  Builders  Association  and  the  universities  are 
initiating  research  programs,  which  in  the  end, 
should  interest  more  engineers  in  highway  en- 
gineering. 

A  gratifying  accomplishment  during  the  year 
1948  was  the  striking  reduction  in  the  traffic 
death  rate.  In  May  of  1946  this  rate  was  approx- 
imately 12  for  each  100  million  miles  traveled. 
This  death  rate  has  steadily  decreased  and  in  1948 
the  figure  may  drop  as  low  as  7.0  per  100  million 
miles  of  travel.  Although  there  have  been  many 
factors  operating  in  lowering  the  death  rate,  it  is 
apparent  that  the  action  program  that  has  grown 
out  of  the  President's  First  Highway  Safety  Con- 
ference has  been  of  primary  importance. 

Travel  on  the  nation's  highways  was  extremely 
heavy  during  the  year  1948,  particularly  in  con- 
nection with  commercial  transportation.  Public 
Roads  Administration  reports  truck  registrations  of 
6.5  million  in  1947  as  compared  with  something 
under  4.5  million  in  1941,  while  automobile  regis- 
trations increased  from  approximately  29.5  million 
in  1941  to  approximately  30.5  million  in  1947. 
Coupled  with  the  increased  number  of  trucks  was 
the  fact,  that  the  average  load  was  much  heavier. 
Increased  frequencies  of  18,  20,  and  22,000  Ib. 
axle  loads  were  indicated  throughout  the  country 
and  axle  loads  above  25,000  Ib.  and  ranging  up  to 
41,600  Ib.  occurred  in  "almost  every  State. 

Highway  engineers  became  greatly  interested  in 
pavement  design  as  a  result  of  the  indicated  cor- 
relation between  the  increase  in  number  and  mag- 
nitude of  truck  loads  and  pavement  pumping.  In- 
creased use  of  base  courses  was  indicated  in  many 
States  where  pavement  pumping  had  become  a 
problem  and  two  large  experimental  projects  were 
built — one  in  Illinois  and  one  in  New  Jersey — in 
which  continuous  reinforcement  was  employed. 
The  1938  Indiana  experimental  project  with  con- 


R0405  AND  STREETS 


477 


kOADS  AND  SHOOTS 


tinuous  reinforcement  was  receiving  more   than 
average  attention. 

Maintenance  practice  operations  were  used  in 
correcting  pavement  pumping  by  undersealing 
with  bituminous  materials,  the  use  of  cement-slurry 
mixtures,  and  in  various  types  of  resurfacing  pro- 
cedures. Snow  removal  was  an  expensive  project  in 
most  of  the  northern  States  and  in  many  of  the 
large  cities  such  as  New  York,  Buffalo,  Chicago, 
Detroit,  St.  Paul,  and  Minneapolis.  Increased  use 
of  magnetic  sweepers  that  travel  over  the  road  in 


sylvania  Turnpike  from  its  present  eastern  terminus 
at  Carlyle,  Pa.  to  Philadelphia.  Paving  was  com- 
pleted on  the  Maine  Turnpike — the  longest  and 
most  costly  road  project  in  the  United  States  since 
the  last  world  war.  Programs  were  developing  in 
connection  with  express-ways  for  Detroit,  Chicago, 
and  several  other  large  cities. 

Research  made  important  contributions  to  the 
highway  profession  in  1948.  Many  highway  de- 
partments have  established  research  organizations 
at  universities  and  State  colleges.  During  the  past 


HIGHWAYS,  MOTOR  VEHICLES,  MOTOR  FUEL  CONSUMPTION,  AND  TAXES,  BY  STATES 


State 
Ala  

State-cont 
ways 
Total 
mileage 
..     7,316 

rotted  high- 
(1946) 
Surfaced 
mileage 
7,228 
3,301 
9,280 
13,401 
10,415 
3,111 
3,081 
8,433 
9,744 
4,318 
11,863 
10,425 
9,684 
9,460 
10,353 
15,806 
9,703 
4,572 
1,927 
9,250 
11,200 
6,499 
16,413 
7,533 
8,872 
3,441 
3,772 
2,013 
7,151 
13,656 
36,383 
6,650 
18,444 
9,361 
6,841 
35,674 
874 
8,667 
5,648 
7,632 
26,048 
4,179 
1,909 
36,046 
6,136 
15,762 
10,392 
4,131 
124 

Number  of  Motor  Vehicles  Registered  (1947) 
Private 
Public                             owned 
Total           owned      Automobiles     Buses        Trucks 
492,079          8,089           359,403        3,499        121,088 
190,919          4,875           142,945           804          42,295 
357,734          4,876           241,120        1,092        110,646 
3,527,128        48,628        2,992,060        7,473        478,967 
429,594          6,669           326,970        1,218          94,737 
595,769          6,118           505,277        2,580          81,794 
80,690          1,188             62,711           469          16,322 
704,954         10,628           553,019        3,758        137,549 
658,306          9,771           499,600        3,684        145,251 
195,389          4,024           140,006           222          51,137 
2,045,833        15,832        1,748,482        3,770        277,749 
1,160,392          9,235           950,072        8,504        192,581 
825,361          8,576           677,829        1,196        137,760 
704,952          7,735           534,097           570        162,550 
556,572          6,875           428,423        2,813        118,461 
470,315          3,659           357,288        3,410        105,958 
284,465          3,523           212,232           531          68,179 
544,510          4,913           445,041        3,747          90,809 
1,047,319          9,676           889,530        5,794        142,319 
1,824,958        25,380        1,597,137        1,960        200,481 
883,865          8,823           724,207        2,302        148,533 
359,102          6,987          239,092        3,750        109,273 
1,046,689          7,540           829,151        4,540        205,458 
198,481          5,098           131,468          734         61,181 
471,923          5,076           369,975           853          96,019 
58,743          1,791             44,447           175          12,330 
153,294          3,023            114,608           620          35,043 
1,233,946        13,312        1,028,389        6,013        186,232 
158,388          2,901            113,052        1,604          40,831 
2,923,408        34,199        2,481,478      11,363        396,368 
781,502        15,268           615,574        2,957        147,703 
215,191           1,883            152,208           323          60,777 
2,263,840        24,638        1,965,307        3,611        270,284 
620,572          9,496           465,686        2,312        143,078 
531,875          9,375           405,015        1,640        115,845 
2,392,881         26,195        1,985,275        9,180        372,231 
209,461          1,869           178,608           832          28,152 
456,967          7,148           356,416        2,931          90,472 
221,745          2,839           167,991           292          50,623 
609,578          8,696           476,056        2,715        122,111 
2,052,379        28,878        1,585,645        2,035        435,821 
188,548          3,808           148,517          553         35,670 
108,333             864             92,599           464          14,406 
711,453        10,762           564,676        3,019        132,996 
727,124        15,540           576,655        1.514        133,415 
354,628          5,329           270,961        1,398          76,940 
990,126        13,189           792,891        2,603        181,443 
102,258          2,645             73,357           511          25,745 
159,726          3,593           138,022        2,355          15,756 

Motor-fuel 
1947  Motor-         Tax        Rate 
fuel    t          receipts    per  gal. 
consumption        (1947}      (cents') 
1,000  gals.         $1,000       1948 
434,620          25,653        6 
195,527           9,630        5 
302,312          18,346        6.5 
3,362,318        106,638        4.5 
374,416          19,418        6 
423,626          13,795        4 
78,064           3,025        4 
653,110          40,906        7 
590,965          34,969        6 
170,000            9,838        6 
1,847,395          54,914        3 
969,670          36,674        4 
793,632          30,665        4 
641,710          18,872        4 
455,241          22,358        5 
418,548          27,354        7 
200,931          10,106        6 
420,720          18,007        5 
819,293          24,030        3 
1,623,835          42,544        3 
770,125          29,517        4 
335,862          19,666        6 
879,534          17,553        2 
191,745            9,222        5 
368,767          17,974        5 
66,435            2,538        4 
112,415            4,372        4 
1,030,834          29,609        3 
181,372            8,535        5 
2,139,331          80,128        4 
708,509          40,604        6 
238,354            9,192        4 
1,774,103          69,989        4 
583,735          26,142        5.5 
437,779          21,576        5 
1,816,247          71,102        4 
145,368            5,424        4 
351,349          20,591        6 
227,588           9,029        4 
531,340         34,552        7 
2,297,324          82,378        4 
170,164           6,528       4 
85,369           3,530        4.5 
601,377          35,713        6 
575,192          27,458        5 
288,646          14,165        5 
799,664          30,575        4 
108,384           4,245        4 
159,109            5,098        4 

Ariz  

.  .     3,867 

Ark  

.     9,753 

Calif.  . 

.   13721 

Colo. 

12  221 

Conn. 

3  114 

Del 

3899 

Fla  

.  .     8  657 

Ga  

.   14282 

Idaho 

<     5  172 

HI. 

11  881 

Ind  
Iowa.  .  .  * 

..   10,430 
9,716 

Kans.. 

9899 

Ky..... 

10384 

La....     " 

.     18510 

Maine.  ,  . 

.  .     9,896 

Md  

.  .     4,590 

Mass  

.  .     1,927 

Mich.  .  .  . 

9,475 

Minn.  .  .  . 

..   11,227 

Miss.  .  . 

6,538 

Mo  

..   16,434 

Mont.  .  .  , 

.  .     8,756 

Nebr..... 

9,189 

Nev.... 

5,602 

N.H  

.  .     3,777 

N.J 

2  136 

N.M  

.  .     9,958 

N.Y.  

15,093 

N.C.... 

62,194 

N.D.    . 

7,048 

Ohio 

18472 

Okla  

.     10,138 

Ore  

7,096 

Pa  

.     40,929 

R.I.  .      . 

890 

s.c  

15,568 

S.D  

.  .     6,077 

Tenn* 

7,669 

Tex  

..  26,821 

Utah  

5,427 

Vt  

1,909 

Va     .    . 

.  47,164 

Wash.  .  .  . 

.  .     6,466 

W.Va.... 
Wis.. 

..  33,234 
10,392 

Wyo.   „ 

4,372 

D.C  

124 

Total.. 

..579,410 

486,826 

37,883,265 

481,035 

30,750,568 

130,293 

6,521,369 

32,751,954 

1,304,747 

4.25 

a  number  of  States  picking  up  nails  and  other 
objects  dangerous  to  tires,  reached  a  new  peak  in 
1948.  The  use  of  two-way  radio  hook-ups,  partic- 
ularly in  connection  with  maintenance  operations, 
was  indicated  in  many  States  throughout  the  coun- 
try. 

The  damage  to  roads  during  the  spring  breakup 
received  more  than  average  attention  during  the 
past  year.  The  Highway  Research  Board  estab- 
lished a  committee  to  study  the  change  in  strength 
characteristics  of  pavements  and  subgrades  as  in- 
fluenced by  seasonal  and  climatical  variations. 

It  is  of  interest  to  know  that  the  Canadian  Gov- 
ernment will  erect  the  world's  first  aH-aluminum 
bridge  across  the  Saguney  River  in  Canada,  and 
that  air-entrained  concrete  to  eliminate  surface 
scale  as  a  result  of  ice  control  became  standard 
practice,  particularly  in  the  northern  tier  of  States. 
Plans  were  being  made  in  1948  to  extend  the  Perm- 


year  additional  research  units  were  established  in 
several  sections  of  the  country.  These  activities, 
coupled  with  those  of  the  Public  Roads  Admin- 
istration and  other  governmental  units,  the  re- 
search endeavors  by  industrial  concerns,  and  ma- 
terials producers,  added  emphasis  to  research  de- 
velopment. Consideration  is  being  given  to  the 
use  of  plastics  for  traffic  signs.  Purdue  University 
has  experimented  with  the  use  of  plastics  as  center- 
line  markers. 

Drainage  maps  and  soil  maps  are  being  con- 
structed by  the  use  of  contact  aerial  photographs 
and  large-scale  experiments  with  lime  as  an  admix- 
ture were  initiated,  both  in  the  field  in  Texas  and 
in  several  research  laboratories.  The  use  of  rubber 
as  an  additive  to  bituminous-aggregate  mixes  was 
tried  experimentally  in  Akron,  Ohio,  on  a  city 
street  and  the  Michigan  State  Highway  Depart- 
ment installed  electric  beating  elements  on  two 


ROCKEfELtER  FOUNDATION 


478 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


sections  of  one  of  the  Michigan  State  highways  in 
an  experiment  to  determine  tne  feasibility  of  keep- 
ing heavily  traveled  highways  free  of  ice  and  snow. 
— KENNETH  B.  WOODS 

ROCKEFELLER  FOUNDATION,  The.^  Chartered  in  1913 
for  the  permanent  purpose  of  "promoting  the^well- 
being  of  mankind  throughout  the  world,"  the 
Foundation  is  at  the  present  time  concerned  with 
the  extension  and  application  of  knowledge  in  cer- 
tain definite  fields  of  the  medical,  natural,  and  so- 
cial sciences,  the  humanities,  and  public  health. 
Except  to  a  limited  extent  in  public  health  the 
Foundation  is  not  in  general  an  operating  organi- 
zation. Its  activities  are  confined  to  support  of 
the  work  of  other  agencies — universities,  labora- 
tories, and  research  institutes — and  to  the  opera- 
tion of  a  fellowship  program  which  aims,  through 
postdoctoral  grants  to  especially  qualified  men 
and  women,  to  increase  the  supply  of  competent 
personnel  in  the  various  fields  of  knowledge. 

In  the  field  of  medical  science  the  Foundation's 
interest  centers  mainly  on  research  in  the  sphere 
of  nervous  and  mental  diseases  and  on  the  im- 
provement of  medical  education.  Illustrative  of 
the  assistance  given  during  1948  for  work  along 
these  lines  are  grants  to  Johns  Hopkins  University 
($100,000)  for  its  department  of  psychiatry;  Har- 
vard University  ($74,880)  for  teaching  and  re- 
search in  psychiatry,  and  ($54,000)  for  investi- 
gation of  dynamics  of  personality  development; 
University  of  Oxford  ($83,025)  for  neurological 
research;  Western  Reserve  University  School  of 
Medicine  ($70,000)  for  research  in  biochemistry 
related  to  mental  diseases;  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania ($100,000)  and  Harvard  University  ($100,- 
000)  for  the  development  of  departments  of 
dermatology  in  their  Schools  of  Medicine;  Meharry  " 
Medical  College  ($185,000)  for  general  support; 
National  Health  Council,  Inc.  ($225,000)  for  ex- 
penses of  a  program  in  coordination  of  voluntary 
health  agencies;  Child  Research  Council  of  Den- 
ver ($125,000)  for  study  in  child  growth  and  de- 
velopment. 

In  the  natural  sciences  the  emphasis  is  chiefly 
on  experimental  biology.  Among  the  institutions 
receiving  grants  were  the  California  Institute  of 
Technology  ($700,000)  toward  support  of  com- 
bined research  programs  in  biology  and  chemistry; 
University  of  Wisconsin  ($100,000)  for  scien- 
tific equipment  for  a  broad  program  of  research  in 
enzyme  chemistry;  Columbia  University  ($82,- 
500)  for  research  in  genetics  and  experimental 
zoology;  Harvard  University  ($60,000)  for  basic 
studies  in  chemotherapy;  and  for  completion  of 
the  200-inch  telescope  at  Mt.  Palomar,  $300,000 
to  California  Institute  of  Technology. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  program  in  the 
natural  sciences  was  assistance  to  certain  Latin 
American  countries  in  the  development  of  agricul- 
tural research.  The  agricultural  program  of  the 
Foundation  in  Mexico,  which  is  operated  in  col- 
laboration with  the  Mexican  Government,  and 
which  is  aimed  at  improving  the  volume  and  qxial- 
ity  of  the  basic  food  crops  of  Mexico  and  the  train- 
ing of  Mexican  personnel,  was  continued  through 
the  year. 

In  the  social  sciences  the  special  fields  of  interest 
during  the  year  were  projects  contributing  to  the 
understanding  of  important  social  problems  and  to 
the  development  of  personnel  and  method.  Grants 
were  made  to  Cornell  University  ($110,000)  for 
study  of  the  relation  of  civil  rights  to  the  control 
of  subversive  activities  in  the  United  States;  Co- 
lumbia University  ($100,000)  for  support  of  a 


program  of  the  Institute  for  Urban  Land  Use  and 
Housing  Studies;  University  of  Chicago,  Cowles 
Commission  ($100,000)  for  research  in  economics; 
Cornell  University  ($94,270)  for  research  in  field 
of  group  hostility  and  prejudice,  using  one  com- 
munity as  a  laboratory;  Yale  University  ( $68,400 ) 
for  studies  of  communication  and  the  related  atti- 
tude changes  of  persons  exposed  to  specific  com- 
munications; University  of  Chicago  ($45,000)  for 
a  program  of  research  in  agricultural  economics; 
Stanford  University  ($25,000)  for  a  study  of  Soviet 
Russian  Economics;  University  of  Chicago  ($15,- 
000 )  for  research  on  the  determinants  of  construc- 
tive union-management  relations. 

In  the  humanities  the  emphasis  is  chiefly  on  pro- 
grams which  tend  to  raise  the  general  cultural  level 
and  to  promote  cultural  interchange  between  coun- 
tries. Among  the  grants  made  during  the  year  were: 
Colegio  de  Mexico  ($53,000)  toward  support  of 
a  center  for  research  and  teaching  in  all  aspects  of 
Spanish  and  Spanish  American  culture,  and  $10,- 
000  for  preparation  of  a  history  of  modern  Mexico; 
Korean  Language  Society  ($45,000)  for  cost  of 
publishing  five  unpublished  volumes  of  its  new 
dictionary  of  the  Korean  language;  University  of 
Stockholm  ( $50,000 )  for  Far  Eastern  studies;  Co- 
lumbia University  ( $36,246 )  for  use  by  the  Ameri- 
can Press  Institute  in  training  program  for  German 
press  personnel;  University  of  Minnesota  ($25,- 
000)  for  studies  of  Northwestern  history;  Cornell 
University  ($25,000)  for  support  of  the  Division 
of  Modern  Languages;  University  of  Wisconsin 
($15,000)  for  development  of  a  state  program  in 
drama  and  allied  arts. 

The  Foundation  appropriated  $2,200,000  for 
the  work  in  public  health  in  1948.  From  this  fund 
sums  were  allocated  for  malaria  and  anopheline 
studies  in  Mexico,  Colombia,  Peru,  Tobago,  Vene- 
zuela, Corsica,  and  China;  for  yellow  fever  investi- 
gations in  Colombia,  Brazil,  and  Africa;  for  studies 
of  rodent  ecology  and  control  at  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University  and  for  a  typhus  epidemological  study 
in  Florida;  for  the  development  of  divisions  of 
state  health  services  in  Mexico  and  Bolivia,  and 
of  local  health  services  in  Egypt  and  Chile;  for 
support  of  public  health  education  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  School  of  Hygiene  and  Public 
Health,  the  University  of  Toronto,  the  University 
of  California,  the  Institute  of  Preventive  Medicine, 
Leiden,  Netherlands,  and  the  National  School  of 
Hygiene,  Bogota,  Colombia;  for  nursing  education 
at  Le  Bon  Secours  School  of  Nursing,  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  the  Helsinki  College  of  Nursing,  Fin- 
land, the  University  School  of  Nursing,  Montevid' 
eo,  Uruguay,  and  the  National  School  of  Nursing, 
Ceylon. 

A  total  of  $220,000  was  appropriated  toward  the 
general  objective  of  European  reconstruction.  As 
an  example  of  such  aid  is  a  grant  of  $120,000  which 
is  being  used  by  the  University  of  Chicago  to  send 
from  its  own  staff  to  the  University  of  Frankfurt 
six  to  ten  professors  who  will  serve  for  a  semester 
or  two  and  then  be  replaced  by  others. 

Officers  of  the  Foundation  in  1948  were:  Ray- 
mond B.  Fosdick,  President  until  June  30  (retired); 
Chester  I.  Barnard,  President  from  July  1;  Thomas 
B.  Appleget,  Vice-President;  Flora  M.  Rhind,  Sec- 
retary; Edward  Robinson,  Treasurer;  George  J. 
Beal,  Comptroller.  Headquarters:  49  West  49th 
St.,  New  York  20,  N.Y. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  As  Church  Unity  Octave 
was  observed  throughout  the  Catholic  world,  Pope 
Pius  XII  expressed  hope  that  the  United  States 
Friendship  Train,  touring  Italy  with  relief  supplies 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


479 


ROWING 


would  bring  a  new  birth  of  generosity  that  woiild 
lead  all  men  to  lasting  peace.  However,  a  few 
months  later  as  a  political  coup  tumbled  Czecho- 
slovakia into  Communism's  basket,  tension  mounted 
in  Italy  over  Communist  prospects  in  the  April  18th 
elections,  when  Rome  received  news  that  Albania's 
Communists  had  executed  Bishops  Francis  Gjini  of 
Alessio  and  George  Volaj  of  Sappa.  At  the  same 
time,  the  Pope  in  his  Ash  Wednesday  address  by 
radio  opened  the  Lenten  campaign  of  3  million 
United  States  Catholic  school  students  in  the  §5 
million  1948  Bishop's  Fund  for  Victims  of  War. 

In  France,  as  the  Lourdes  Shrine  marked  the 
90th  anniversary  of  the  appearance  of  Our  Lady  to 
Bernadette,  and  in  Ireland  the  new  Irish  Parliament 
with  Premier  John  Costello,  opened  with  a  Votive 
Mass,  the  *48  Annuaire  disclosed  a  great  growth  of 
the  Church  during  the  present  Pontificate.  A  Ne- 
gro, Indian  Mission  Report  also  showed  343,830 
Catholics  among  15  million  colored  population.  A 
North  China  Survey,  however,  showed  many  Cath- 
olic schools  had  been  closed,  and  many  churches 
turned  into  Red  Training  Centers. 

During  March  as  Pope  Pius  XII  marked  his  ninth 
coronation  jubilee  and  72nd  birthday,  religious 
education  in  the  United  States  was  hard  hit  when 
the  Supreme  Court,  in  the  McCollum  Case,  ruled 
released-time  classes  conducted  in  public  schools 
unconstitutional.  During  this  month,  Douglas 
Hyde,  editor  of  the  London  (England)  Daily 
Worker  forsook  Communism  and  with  his  wife  and 
two  daughters  joined  the  Catholic  Church. 

In  April,  world  attention  focused  on  Italy  and 
the  ballot-box  straggle  between  Christian  Demo- 
crats and  Communists  during  the  general  elec- 
tions. The  Communists  were  defeated.  Other  April 
events  included  the  beatification  of  Christian 
Brother  Benildus,  the  Centenary  of  the  Marianite 
Nuns  and  the  Daughters  of  Charity  in  China. 

In  May,  Pope  Pius  issued  an  Encyclical  urging  a 
month's  prayer  to  Mary  for  speedy,  just  settlement 
of  world  unrest;  and  Jacques  Maritain,  1948  Sheil 
School  Award  recipient,  resigned  as  French  Am- 
bassador to  the  Vatican,  and  accepted  a  philosophy 
professorship  at  Princeton  University. 

In  June,  Most  Reverend  Francis  D.  Gleeson,  S.J., 
installed  in  Juneau  as  Alaska's  third  Bishop,  took 
over  his  590,000  square  mile  vicariate,  and  Pope 
Pius,  in  his  name-day  address  proclaimed  that  in 
1950  the  25th  Holy  Year  in  the  Church's  history 
will  be  observed.  Other  events  during  June  includ- 
ed the  acceptance  of  the  Catholic  religion  by  the  7 
children  of  Borman — Hitler's  missing  aide  and  foe 
of  the  Church;  the  19th  missionary  was  slain  in 
Indochina;  the  Vatican  lauded  Catholics  in  Hun- 
gary as  the  Church-state  struggle  neared  a  climax; 
a  school  nationalization  bill  was  passed  in  Hungary 
— those  in  favor  incurred  excommunication. 

In  July,  unrest  was  intensified  in  Yugoslavia, 
Hungary  and  in  Italy.  Despite  a  sharp  break  in  re- 
lations between  Moscow  and  Marshal  Tito,  Church 
persecution  continued  unabated  and  before  the 
month's  end  Bishop  Peter  Cule  of  Mostar  was 
sentenced  to  11  years,  and  three  priests  and  five 
nuns  given  terms  from  six  months  to  eight  years  in 
Yugoslav  prisons.  Joseph  Cardinal  Mindszenty, 
Primate  of  Hungary,  writing  to  a  London  Catholic 
Paper,  asserted  the  Church  was  far  from  free  in 
his  nation.  The  Holy  See  announced  diplomatic  re- 
lations were  established  with  the  new  state  of 
India  and  appointment  of  Archbishop  Leo  P.  Kier- 
kels,  C.P.,  as  the  first  Papal  Internuncio,  with  his 
legation  at  Delhi. 

In  August,  7  Cardinals,  40  Archbishops  and  Bish- 
ops, and  thousands  of  tie  faithful  celebrated 


the  700th  anniversary  of  the  dedication  of  the 
Cologne  Cathedral  in  Germany.  The  Catholic  Near 
East  Welfare  Association,  in  this  month,  asked  a 
United  Nations  probe  of  reports  that  Catholics 
were  maltreated,  Christian  shrines  desecrated  in 
Palestine,  and  the  third  Inter-American  Catholic 
Social  Action  Congress  was  held  in  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Tension  in  Communist  dominated  Czechoslo- 
vakia reached  new  heights  in  September  following 
the  disclosure  that  confidential  documents  came  to 
light  indicating  Communist  plans  to  besmirch  and 
attempt  to  split  the  Church  in  the  nation,  and  the 
publication  of  a  pastoral  by  the  Czech  Bishops  as- 
serting opposition  to  the  Church  in  their  nation 
was  being  carried  out  according  to  a  well  organ- 
ized pattern.  It  was  also  revealed  that  Rev.  Antonin 
Zemek,  prior  of  a  Dominican  monastery,  was  sen- 
tenced to  18  years  in  prison;  others  drew  terms 
ranging  from  2  to  15  years  on  charges  that  they 
had  aided  political  refugees  to  flee  from  Czechoslo- 
vakia. 

During  this  month  the  Vatican  payed  tribute  to 
Queen  Wilhelmina  as  she  relinquished  her  throne. 
Austria's  Chancellor,  Dr.  Leopold  Figl,  asserted 
that  the  Faith  is  the  source  of  Austria's  strength. 

During  October  die  first  shipload  of  Europe's 
Displaced  Persons  arrived  in  New  York  under  the 
new  United  States  DP  law.  Of  the  813  aboard,  523 
were  Catholics.  The  Holy  See  created  the  Karachi 
diocese,  first  in  Pakistan,  and  Msgr.  Alcuin  Van 
Miltenburg  was  consecrated  as  its  first  Bishop.  Pope 
Pius  issued  an  Encyclical  on  an  international- 
ized Jerusalem  and  free  access  to  Holy  Land 
shrines.  Other  events  during  October:  Archbishop 
and  religious  remained  at  their  posts  as  Tsinan, 
China,  fell  to  the  Communists.  Pius  XII  Institute 
opened  in  Florence,  as  a  gift  of  Myron  Taylor  to 
the  Pope.  Some  60,000  of  205,553  apostates  in 
Austria  returned  to  the  Church.  The  Holy  Father 
received  U.S.  Secretary  of  State  Marshall  and  Mrs. 
Marshall. 

In  November,  Bishops  Stephen  A.  Appelhans  and 
Leo  Arkfeld  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Word, 
were  consecrated  Vicars  Apostolic  of  Eastern  and 
Central  New  Guinea,  respectively.  War  Relief 
Services,  National  Catholic  Welfare  Council,  re- 
ported it  had  shipped  $15,793,000  worth  of  relief 
supplies  during  1947-48.  In  Hungary,  arrests  of 
priests  continued  in  the  regime's  war  on  the 
Church. 

During  December  Bishop  Ignatius  Krause, 
C.M.,  of  Shunteh,  China,  once  imprisoned  by 
China's  Communists,  visited  the  United  States  and 
said  if  the  Communists  succeeded  to  power  in 
China,  it  would  not  mean  the  end  of  the  Catholic 
faith  in  that  country.  Bishop  Aloisius  J.  Muench  of 
Fargo,  Apostolic  Visitator  in  Germany,  returned 
to  the  United  States  and  gave  a  generally  hopeful 
picture  of  the  Church's  situation  in  Germany.  Ref- 
ugees reaching  Vatican  City  reported  that  a  new 
persecution  of  the  Church  had  broken  out  in  Ru- 
mania. In  Japan,  it  was  reported  that  Catechu- 
ments  totaled  1,000  in  Japan's  universities.  See 
CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES;  VAT- 
ICAN CITY.  — BROTHER  AJUSXANDER  JOSEPH 

ROWING.  Freshman,  junior  varsity,  and  varsity 
eights  from  the  University  of  Washington  made  the 
first  sweep  of  the  Poughkeepsie  Regatta  since  1937, 
but  it  remained  for  California,  second  to  the  Hus- 
kies in  the  Hudson  varsity  grind,  to  capture  the 
year's  most  coveted  honors — a  victory  in  the  Olym- 
pics. Surviving  a  series  of  record-breaking  trials  on 
Lake  Carnegie  at  Princeton,  California's  John 
Stack,  Justus  Smith,  David  Brown,  Lloyd  Butler, 


RUBBER 


480 


RUBBER. 


George  Ahlgren,  James  Hardy3  David  Turner,  Ian 
Turner,  and  Coxswain  Ralph  Purchase  earned  the 
right  to  represent  the  United  States  in  England* 

Harvard  retained  its  championship  of  the  East- 
ern Association  of  Rowing  Colleges  and  captured 
its  annual  race  with  Yale  on  the  Thames  at  New 
London,  Conn.,  in  the  record  time  of  19  minutes 
21  and  four-tenths  seconds.  The  Crimson  also  took 
the  Adams  Cup  in  a  meeting  with  Navy  and  Penn 
on  the  SchuyBdll  at  Philadelphia  and  the  Comptpn 
Cup  in  a  race  with  Princeton  on  Lake  Carnegie. 

Princeton  kept  the  Childs  Cup — oldest  of  row- 
ing trophies — by  leading  home  Penn  and  Columbia 
on  Lake  Carnegie  and  Yale  annexed  the  Blackwell 
Cup  in  a  race  with  Penn  and  Columbia  on  the 
Harlem  in  New  York.  Cambridge  set  a  new  mark 
of  17  minutes  50  seconds  in  defeating  Oxford  in 
their  ninety-fourth  meeting  on  the  Thames. 

Princeton's  150-pound  crew  visited  England  and 
brought  back  the  Thames  Challenge  Cup  after  de- 
feating the  Royal  Air  Force  eight  in  the  final  of 
the  Royal  Henley  Regatta,  The  Diamond  Sculls 
trophy,  chief  prize  in  the  singles,  was  won  by  M. 
Wood,  young  Australian,  Jack  Kelly,  Jr,,  who 
passed  the  defense  of  his  title  on  the  Thames  to 
take  part  in  the  Olympic  trials,  captured  the  Far- 
ragut  Cup  in  the  American  Henley  on  the  Schuyl- 
kill,  honors  for  eight-oared  crews  going  to  Yale. 
Kelly  went  on  to  finish  first  in  the  Olympic  trials, 
but  failed  in  his  bid  for  the  big  singles  award  in 
the  Olympic  Games.  See  OLYMPIC  GAMES. 

The  Buffalo  West  Side  Rowing  Club  swept  to 
its  second  straight  club  championship  in  the  Ca- 
nadian Henley  at  Port  Daihousie,  Ontario,  and  Ken 
Niinn  of  the  Toronto  Argonauts  won  the  singles 
crown.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

RUBBER.  For  the  third  consecutive  year,  the  rubber 
manufacturing  industry  in  the  United  States  con- 
sumed more  than  one  million  tons  of  rubber  in 
1948.  This  was  double  the  annual  average  con- 
sumption for  the  prewar  decade  and  accurately 
reflects  the  tremendous  growth  of  manufacturing 
operations  in  the  postwar  period. 

Consumption,  estimated  at  1,075,000  tons  of 
natural  and  synthetic  rubber,  was  second  highest 
in  the  industry's  history.  This  figure  compares  with 
the  record  1,122,000  tons  used  in  1947.  Forecasts 
at  the  year's  end  within  the  industry  were  that 
consumption  during  1949  would  be  approximately 
as  large  as  it  was  in  the  preceding  year.  The  high 
rate  of  rubber  consumption  throughout  the  in- 
dustry was  also  reflected  in  the  production  of  some 
50,000  different  end  products  carrying  an  estimated 
value  of  3,500  million  dollars. 

Output  of  passenger  tires  totaled  67  million 
units.  This  was  down  10  million  units  from  1947 
but  substantially  ahead  of  1946  production  and  is 
ahead  of  the  50.9  million  casings  produced  in 
1940.  The  latter  had  long  stood  as  the  greatest  of 
the  so-called  normal  peacetime  years.  Production 
of  truck  and  bus  tires  totaled  14,700,000  units  as 
compared  with  17,754,000  units  in  1947  and  15,- 
832,000  units  in  1946.  The  combined  production  of 
truck,  bus,  and  passenger  car  tubes  totaled  72  mil- 
lion units  in  1948. 

The  year  saw  a  continuation  of  a  long-term  trend 
toward  the  increased  consumption  of  rubber  in 
both  existing  products  and  new  products.  In  the 
field  of  mechanical  rubber  goods  this  was  particu- 
larly true.  The  same  applies  in  the  rapidly  growing 
field  of  latex-foam  products.  It  also  prevailed  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  extent  in  such  other  lines  as  rub- 
ber footwear,  rubber  drug  sundries,  hard  rubber 
goods,  rubber  flooring,  rubber-coated  materials, 


and  others.  Nor  was  there  any  apparent  interrup- 
tion in  the  long-term  trend  toward  the  replacement 
by  rubber  of  certain  competing  materials  such  as, 
for  example,  leather,  steel,  and  textiles  in  appli- 
cations to  footwear,  containers,  conveying  mechan- 
isms, and  to  garments  and  proofed  fabric  cover- 
ings. 

The  industry  singled  out  as  the  most  significant 
development  of  the  year  in  the  transportation  field 
its  introduction  of  the  extra  low-pressure  tire,  now 
in  large-scale  production.  This  tire  is  claimed  by 
the  industry's  engineers  to  afford  a  greater  measure 
of  comfort  and  a  higher  degree  of  road  safety 
through  greater  road  contact  than  any  other  de- 
velopment in  a  generation. 

Raw  Materials.  Substantial  progress  was  made 
during  1948  in  the  rapidly  growing  field  of  rnan- 
made  rubbers.  A  number  of  new  polymers  of  the 
so-called  GR-S  type  were  introduced.  Those  placed 
in  production  proved  themselves  adapted  to  do 
specific  jobs  better  than  any  raw  materials  hereto- 
fore available. 

One  new  polymer  in  particular  was^  brought  into 
production  in  1948  and  by  the  year's  end  it  was 
"the  talk  of  the  industry."  This  was  known  as  the 
low-temperature  synthetic  rubber,  or  "cold"  rub- 
ber, so-called  because  it  is  made  at  41 p  F.  as  com- 
pared with  preceding  types  of  GR-S  which  were 
polymerized  at  much  higher  temperatures.  Produc- 
tion of  cold  rubber  at  the  year's  end  was  at  an  an- 
nual rate  of  21,000  tons.  During  1949  production 
is  being  increased  to  a  rated  capacity  of  183,000 
tons  by  the  extensive  conversion  of  a  number  of 
polymerization  plants.  That  figure  would  be  equiva- 
lent to  47  percent  of  the  total  GR-S  production  in 
1948,  This  work  was  authorized  and  is  being  done 
under  the  direction  of  the  Reconstruction  Finance 
Corporation. 

Cold  rubber  was  giving  evidence  in  widespread 
tests  by  early  1949  of  being  able  to  outwear 
previous  tire-tread  stock  rubber  by  as  much  as  30 
percent.  In  some  quarters  it  was  hailed  by  the  in- 
dustry as  the  best  tire-tread  stock  ever  developed. 
Many  of  the  industry's  scientists  promise  it  a  bril- 
liant future  because  of  its  high  resistance  to  abra- 
sion. They  expect  it  to  find  wide  application  in  cer- 
tain areas  of  the  rubber  mechanical  goods  field, 
particularly  in  belting.  At  the  year's  end  the  in- 
dustry's demand  for  cold  rubber  far  outstripped 
available  supply. 

Consumption- wise,  the  year  of  1948  saw  natural 
rubber  consumed  in  favor  of  synthetic  rubber  at 
the  ratio  of  approximately  3  to  2.  The  industry  conr 
sumed  625,000  tons  of  natural  rubber,  450,000  tons 
of  synthetic  rubber.  This  was  approximately  60,000 
tons  more  of  natural  rubber  and  110,000  tons  less 
synthetic  rubber  than  was  consumed  a  year  ago. 

There  was  a  hidden  significance  in  these  figures, 
however.  It  lies  in  the  fact  that  in  1948  synthetic 
rubber  consumption  represented  a  relatively  high 
proportion  of  voluntary  use  except  for  the  tire, 
tube,  and  camelback  makers.  All  segments  of  the 
rubber  manufacturing  industry  in  this  country  were 
legally  freed  from  mandatory  use  of  synthetic  rub- 
ber by  amendment  to  the  controlling  Government 
regulation  dated  Sept.  9,  1947,  and  officially  made 
a  part  of  the  Government's  continuing  policy  upon 
the  adoption  of  the  Rubber  Act  of  1948  on 
March  31  of  that  year. 

Legislation.  The  Rubber  Act  of  1948  requires  the 
rubber  industry,  in  the  interests  of  national  secur- 
ity, to  consume  a  minimum  of  225,000  tons  of  gen- 
eral purpose  and  special  purpose  synthetic  rubber 
a  year.  Consumption  of  synthetic  rubber  in  1948 
actually  doubled  required  or  mandatory  usage, 


RUMANIA 


481 


RUMANIA 


thanks  in  a  large  measure  to  voluntary  demand  for 
the  American-made  synthetic  rubbers. 

Far  East  Supply.  The  past  year  saw  substantial  im- 
provement in  natural  rubber  supply  by  reason  of 
the  progressive  restoration  of  plantations  and  native 
producing  areas  in  the  Far  East  and  particularly  in 
the  Netherlands  East  Indies.  The  natural  rubber 
producing  areas  have  a  potential  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  1.8  million  tons  to  2.1  million  tons. 
With  American-made  rubber  in  the  picture,  new 
rubber  supplies  have  been  thus  more  than  ample 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustry in  this  country  and  to  meet,  simultaneously, 
the  schedules  set  up  for  achieving  the  United  States 
Government's  security  stockpile  objectives.  As 
against  this  supply  picture,  world  consumption  of 
rubber  was  1,735,000  tons  in  1947.  It  has  been 
estimated  at  perhaps  as  much  as  1,900,000  tons  in 
1948. 

Security  Planning.  In  conformity  with  its  long- 
standing policy  to  maintain  a  close  working  co- 
operation with  the  administrative  agencies  of  Gov- 
ernment, the  rubber  manufacturing  industry, 
through  its  designated  advisory  committees,  de- 
voted much  of  its  time  throughout  the  year  to  the 
Munitions  Board,  Reconstruction  Finance  Corpora- 
tion, and  the  National  Security  Resources  Board  in 
implementing  the  security  stockpile  program,  in 
developing  plans  for  the  disposal  of  Government- 
owned  synthetic  rubber  plants,  and  in  drafting  a 
blueprint  for  the  quick  and  effective  industrial 
mobilization  of  plant  capacity  in  the  event  of  a 
national  emergency. 
— RUBBER  MANIJFACTURERS  ASSOCIATION,  INC. 

RUMANIA.  A  republic  (proclaimed  Dec.  30,  1947) 
in  the  Balkans.  Xing  Michael  I,  who  ascended  the 
throne  upon  the  abdication  of  his  father,  Carol  II, 
on  Sept.  6,  1940,  abdicated  on  Dec.  30,  1947. 

Area  andi  Population.  The  area  (1946)  was  92,- 
000  sq.  miles  ( assumed  to  be  the  1941  area  which 
excluded  Bessarabia,  Northern  Bucovina  and  South- 
ern Dobrodja;  plus  Northern  Transylvania  as  in- 
cluded in  the  1941  census  of  Hungary),  and  the 
population  was  15,872  (census  of  Jan.  25,  1948). 
Chief  cities  (1948):  Bucuresti  (capital),  1,041,- 
807;  Cluj,  117,915;  Timisoara,  11,987;  Ploesti,  95,- 
632;  Braila,  95,514;  lasi,  94,075. 

Vital  statistics:  males,  7,671,569  (48.3  percent); 
females,  8,201,855  (51.7  percent).  Nationality: 
Rumanian,  13,597,613  (85.7  percent);  Magyar, 
1,499,851  (9.4  percent);  German,  343,913  (2.2 
percent).  Illiterates  (over  the  age  of  7):  3,197,278 
(23.1  percent).  Urban  population,"  3,713,139  (23.4 
percent);  rural,  12,159,773  (76.7  percent);  den- 
sity, 66.8  inhabitants  per  sq.  kilometer. 

Education  and  Religion.  Free  and  universal  educa- 
tion is  given  "where  there  are  schools."  There  were 
(1942-1943)  11,041  elementary  schools,  716  sec- 
ondary schools  (1937-1938).  For  higher  education 
there  are  universities  at  Bucharest,  lasi,  Cluj,  and 
Timisoara.  About  73  percent  of  the  population  be- 
longs to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church. 

Production.  The  economic  wealth  rests  chiefly  on 
agriculture;  76.7  percent  of  the  population  is  clas- 
sified as  "rural."  In  addition  to  vast  forests,  Ru- 
mania has  large  quantities  of  excellent  oil  ( 320,000 
metric  tons  of  crude  petroleum  produced  in  March, 
1947),  inexhaustible  salt  deposits,  much  coal,  some 
iron,  even  gold  and  silver,  and  extensive  fisheries. 
By  far  the  most  important  source  of  mineral  wealth 
lies  in  the  oil  deposits.  All  branches  of  industrial 
production  are  represented,  the  foremost  being 
foodstuffs.  In  1946,  on  2,739  thousand  hectares, 
1,609,000  metric  tons  of  wheat  were  produced. 


Foreign  Trade.  In  1947,  Rumania's  total  imports 
and  exports  amounted  to  $96  million.  Trade  with 
the  U.S.S.R,  was  $47  million;  Czechoslovakia,  $12 
million;  Hungary,  $6,600,000;  Bulgaria,  $6,600,- 
000;  Switzerland,  $3  million;  Yugoslavia,  $1,400,- 
000;  Poland,  $1,300,000;  Turkey,  $1,300,000.  A 
U.S.  Commerce  Department's  report  on  general 
trade  in  1947  showed  that  Rumania's  exports  to 
the  United  States  were  $15,079,000,  and  imports 
$435,000. 

Finance.  The  national  budget  planned  for  the  pe- 
riod Aug.  15,  1947,  through  Mar.  31,  1948,  as 
amended  on  Mar.  22,  1948,  was  in  balance,  with 
revenue  and  expenditure  amounting  to  55,100  mil- 
lion lei  ($367,500,000).  The  official  rate  of  ex- 
change from  August  to  October,  1948,  was  $U.S. 
=  150  lei. 

Transportation.  In  1945  there  was  a  total  of  43,- 
163  highway  miles,  including  7,499  miles  of  na- 
tional roads,  15,940  miles  of  departmental  roads, 
and  19,724  million  passenger-kilometers  for  De- 
cember, 1946,  and  during  the  same  month  311  mil- 
lion ton-kilometers  of  freight  traffic  were  handled. 

Government.  On  King  Michael's  abdication  on 
Dec.  30,  1947,  his  functions  were  taken  over  by  a 
Presidium  of  the  following  five  personalities:  Pro- 
fessor Constantin  Parhon,  Chairman  (on  the  ground 
of  his  seniority  of  years),  a  medical  authority  of 
world-wide  repute;  Mihai  Sadoveanu,  Chairman 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  a  brilliant  novelist  of 
peasant  origin;  Stefan  Voitec,  Social  Democratic 
Minister  of  Education;  Ion  Niculi,  Deputy  Chair- 
man of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies;  and  George 
Stere,  Councillor  of  the  Court  of  Appeals,  acting 
as  Secretary.  The  Presidium,  legally  and  collec- 
tively, discharged  the  functions  of  "Head  of  the 
State."  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  (the  Senate  having  been  abol- 
ished). On  Jan.  21,  1948,  the  National  Assembly 
modified  the  electoral  law  which  prevailed  under 
the  old  Constitution.  In  future  all  citizens  over  20 
years  of  age  will  have  the  vote;  parliamentary  can- 
didates must  be  23  years  old.  "The  reactionaries 
will  forfeit  their  rights  as  electors."  Any  deputy 
expelled  from  his  political  party  will  simultaneous- 
ly lose  his  mandate.  "Disorderly  elements,  as  well 
as  the  politically  rotten,  will  thus  be  discarded  in 
a  determined  fashion."  On  April  13,  the  National 
Assembly  passed  the  new  Constitution.  C.  Parhon 
was  reelected  President  of  the  Presidium  of  the 
Rumanian  Peoples'  Republic;  the  Presidium  has 
14  members  (among  whom  4  are  women). 

Events,  1948.  The  announcement  by  Premier 
Groza  of  his  intention  to  dissolve  all  that  remained 
of  his  much  purged  Parliament  in  February  and  to 
hold  new  elections  in  March,  marked  another  mile- 
stone on  the  road  towards  full  Communist  dicta- 
torship. The  elections,  of  course,  came  out  "right,'* 
and  the  Communist-dominated  Popular  Democratic 
Front  (which  replaced  the  old  National  Demo- 
cratic Front),  received  90.8  percent  of  the  votes 
cast  on  March  28,  with  405  seats  in  the  new  Na- 
tional Assembly.  The  opposition  won  9  seats  (the 
dissident  Liberal  Parry,  led  by  George  Tatarescu, 
7,  and  the  Democratic  Peasant  Party,  led  by  Dr. 
Lupu,  2). 

On  January  9,  the  government  turned  over 
nearly  all  the  powers  of  the  Rumanian  throne  to 
a  "High  Presidium."  The  decree  also  gave  Rumania 
a  new  coat  of  arms  and  a  flag;  the  coat  of  arms  is 
a  tractor  and  three  furnaces  on  a  rising  sun  field; 
surrounded  by  a  bundle  of  wheat  spears  tied  with 
a  ribbon  and  inscribed  "Rumanian  Popular  Re- 
public"; the  flag  is  of  blue,  yellow  and  red  verti- 
cal stripes,  with  the  new  coat  of  arms  in  the  center. 


RUMANfA 


482 


RURAL  ELECTRIFICATION  ADMINISTRATION 


That  there  was,  however,  a  considerable  oppo- 
sition to  Groza's  regime  was  evident  from  the  con- 
tinuous purges,  in  spite  of  the  formal  protests  of 
the  U.S.  Department  of  State  that  Rumania  was 
failing  in  every  respect  to  live  up  to  her  pledges 
of  a  democratic  government  stipulated  in  the  Peace 
Treaty.   Nevertheless,   Groza  was  eliminating  all 
opposition;  on  February  21,  Social  ^Democrats  dis- 
appeared in  Communist  "Workers'"  groups  and 
the  "Popular  Democratic  Front"  was  formed  by 
the  Workers'  Party,  the  Plowmen's  Front  of  Groza, 
the  National  Liberal  Party  and  the  Hungarian  Pop- 
ular Union.  On  April  13,  the  National  Assembly 
adopted  the  new  Constitution  which  provided  for 
the  nationalization  of  mines,  oil,  and  mineral  rights, 
transport,  telegraph,  telephone,  and  radio  services. 
On  April  22,  a  government  decree  provided  that 
prosecutor  for  the  so-called  Popular  Courts  take 
over  the  system  of  justice  corresponding  to  that 
in  the  U.S.S.R.;  under  it,  the  General  Prosecutor 
will  supervise  the  "prosecution  and  punishment  of 
those  who  commit  crimes  against  the  democratic 
order  and  liberties,  against  the  economic  interests, 
the  national  independence  and  sovereignty  of  the 
Rumanian  state."  On  April  16,  the  Ministry  of 
Mines  and  Petrol  clamped  down  on  the  Romano 
Americano,  Rumanian  subsidiary  of  the  Standard 
Oil  Company  of  New  Jersey,  and  appointed  a  su- 
pervising administrator;  similar  action  was  taken 
against  the  Shell  Oil  and  Phoenix  Transport  (two 
British  subsidiaries)  in  December,  1947.  Currency 
reform  stripped  property  owners,  merchants,  peas- 
ants, and  factory  workers  alike  of  their  savings. 
Before  the  revaluation  of  currency  one  American 
dollar  was  worth  3  million  Rumanian  Lei;  the  new 
rate  was  pegged  at  one  for  140.  Citizens  were 
ordered  to  exchange  all  their  old  money — but  in 
the  banks  all  persons  got  back  only  3  million  Lei, 
the  actual  equivalent  of  one  dollar.  The  rest  was 
held  by  the  government  "for  safekeeping/"  This 
maneuver  was  timed  just  after  most  farmers  had 
sold  their  autumn  crops.  On  May  14,  the  govern- 
ment decided  upon  a  state  monopoly  of  foreign 
trade.  Thereafter,  the  government  intensified  the 
nationalization  of  all  industrial,  mining,  banking, 
insurance,  and  transport  companies,  and  started 
taking  steps  for  the  collectivization  of  agriculture. 
In  foreign  affairs,  Rumania  was  integrated  in  the 
Soviet  net  of  alliances.  On  January  16  the  Ru- 
manian-Bulgarian Treaty  of  Friendship,  Collabora- 
tion and  Mutual  Aid,  and  a  special  protocol  for 
economic  collaboration  were  signed  by  Premiers 
Dimitrov  and  Groza.  On  January  24,  Rumania  and 
Hungary   signed   a  twenty-year   Friendship   and 
Military  Treaty;  on  February  5,  a  Friendship  and 
Mutual  Aid  Treaty  was  signed  with  the  U.S.S.R.; 
a  similar  treaty  was  signed  with  Czechoslovakia  on 
July  21.  On  July  17,  the  government  denounced 
the  Concordat  with  the  Vatican   (concluded  on 
June  12,  1929).  On  March  6,  the  Rumanian  Na- 
tional Committee  for  Aid  to  the  Greek  People  de- 
cided to  bring  3,000  Greek  children  to  Rumania 
from  areas  "liberated  by  the  Democratic  forces." 
After  Tito's  break  with  the  Cominform,  Bucharest 
became  the  headquarters  of  that  organization,  and 
Groza's  government,  like  the  other  satellite  states, 
carrieo^  on  political  and  economic  warfare  against 
the  Marshal.  On  May  30,  Radio  Romania  said  that 
the  rehabilitation  of  Rumania  had  only  been  pos- 
sible thanks  to  Soviet  generosity  since  95  percent 
of  the  cotton  and  wool  used  in  the  textile  industry 
had  come  from  the  U.S.S.R.  In  June,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Groza's  government,  Stalin  reduced  Ru- 
mania's reparations  by  50  percent  (as  of  July  1). 
On  August  25,  the  Ministry  of  National  Education 


made  the  study  of  the  Russian  language  compul- 
sory in  all  schools.  On  September  10,  a  new  Ru- 
manian-Polish convention  for  economic  coopera- 
tion and  a  trade  agreement  were  signed.  On  De- 
cember 11,  the  State  Department  disclosed  that 
Col.  John  R.  Lovell,  Military  Attache,  and  Henry 
P.  Leverich,  Counselor  of  the  American  Legation 
in  Rumania,  had  been  ousted  from  that  country 
for  alleged  plotting  against  the  Rumanian  govern- 
ment. Simultaneously,  the  State  Department  re- 
vealed that  it  had  asked  the  Rumanian  government 
to  recall  "as  soon  as  possible"  Grigore  Preoteasa, 
Minister  Counselor,  and  Alexandra  Lazareanu, 
Counselor,  of  the  Rumanian  Legation  in  the  United 
States.  At  the  same  time,  Bucharest  carried  on  an 
anti-Catholic  campaign.  On  September  18,  a  gov- 
ernmental decree  fixed  the  number  of  bishoprics: 
Rumanian  Orthodox  Church  17,  Greek  Catholic 
Church  2,  Rumanian  Catholic  2,  Protestant  Church 
1,  and  the  Old  Christian  Church  1.  At  the  end  of 
September,  a  meeting  of  38  delegates  representing 
450  Transylvanian  Greek  Catholic  priests  decided 
to  return  to  Orthodox  Church;  on  Oct.  21  "the  re- 
integration"  ceremony  of  the  Greek  Catholics  in 
the  Rumanian  Orthodox  Church  took  place  in 
spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Vatican. 

— JOSEPH  S.  ROUCEK 

RURAL  ELECTRIFICATION  ADMINISTRATION  (REA).  Ad- 
ministrator: Claude  R.  Wickard.  Address:  Wash- 
ington 25,  D.C.  REA,  an  agency  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  since  July  1,  1939,  was  created  by 
executive  order  of  the  President  (May  11,  1935) 
under  the  Emergency  Relief  Appropriation  Act  of 
1935.  The  Rural  Electrification  Act  of  1936  pro- 
vided a  legislative  basis. 

REA  lends  funds  for  providing  central  station 
electric  service  to  unserved  farmsteads  and  other 
rural  establishments.  It  gives  preference  to  appli- 
cations from  cooperatives  and  other  non-profit 
groups.  Loans  are  authorized  for  construction  and 
operation  of  distribution  systems,  generating  plants, 
transmission  lines,  and  for  the  financing  and  in- 
stallation by  consumers  of  plumbing,  wiring,  and 
electrical  equipment  and  appliances.  All  REA  loans 
bear  two  percent  interest,  and  are  amortized  over 
a  maximum  period  of  35  years. 

More  than  95  percent  of  REA  loans  have  been 
made  to  cooperatives  owned  and  operated  by  the 
people  they  serve.  Their  elected  officials  are  chosen 
by  and  from  the  membership.  They  are  non-profit 
organizations.  Since  its  inception,  REA  has  re- 
ceived authorization  to  lend  a  total  of  $1,875,428,- 
288,  including  $400  million  for  the  fiscal  year  1949. 

As  of  Oct.  1,  1948,  REA  had  approved  loans  of 
$1,468,802,761  to  1,040  borrowers.  These  included 
954  cooperatives,  42  public  power  districts,  22 
other  public  bodies,  and  22  commercial  power 
companies.  Of  the  total  loans  approved,  $1,024,- 
233,450  had  been  advanced  to  borrowers,  as  they 
needed  funds  to  meet  costs  of  finished  construc- 
tion. Some  938  borrowers  had  facilities  in  opera- 
tion. These  included  692,195  miles  of  line  serving 
2,354,381  farms  and  other  rural  consumers  in  more 
than  2,500  of  the  Nation's  2,900  counties,  in  46 
States,  Alaska,  and  the  Virgin  Islands.  In  the 
summer  and  autumn  of  1948,  consumer-connec- 
tions on  REA-financed  lines  were  progressing  at 
the  average  rate  of  40,000  a  month,  the  largest  in 
REA  history. 

REA  approved  loans  totaling  $313,023,099  dur- 
ing the  fiscal  year  1948,  the  greatest  volume  in  any 
fiscal  year  since  REA  was  established.  These  funds 
will  enable  borrowers  to  build  more  than  120,000 
miles  of  new  lines  and  other  facilities  to  serve 


RUSSIAN  tlTSRAWW 


483 


RUSSIAN 


about  864,000  new  consumers.  REA  had  on  Iiand 
a  backlog  of  more  than  $363  million  in  loan  appli- 
cations when  the  fiscal  year  1948  ended,  the  larg- 
est in  REA  history. 

Since  establishment  of  REA,  farm  electrification 
in  the  Nation  increased  from  743,954,  or  10.9  per- 
cent, to  4,019,476,  or  68.6  percent,  by  the  end  of 
the  fiscal  year  1943.  Of  the  3,275,522  farms  re- 
ceiving electric  service  since  1935,  more  than  53 
percent  are  served  by  REA-financed  systems.  REA 
estimated  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1948  that 
about  1,840,000  farms,  plus  many  non-farm  units, 
remain  to  be  electrified. 

RUSSIAN  LITERATURE  Stalin  Prizes.  In  1948,  as  in  the 
preceding  two  years,  the  announcement  of  Stalin 
Prizes  for  the  best  works  in  prose,  poetry,  and 
drama  represented  the  major  event  of  Soviet  lit- 
erary Me.  The  first  prize  of  100,000  rubles  was 
awarded  to  three  novels:  White  Birch,  a  large  war 
epic  by  the  young  Michael  Bubennov  who  tried  to 
show  how  the  reverses  of  1941  had  tempered  and 
strengthened  men  and  officers  of  a  Red  infantry 
regiment;  Happiness,  a  talented,  in  parts  brilliant 
picture  of  the  postwar  reconstruction  in  the  Crimea 
with  some  interesting  details  on  the  Yalta  Confer- 
ence by  Petr  Pavlenko,  a  prominent  Soviet  writer 
whose  novel  about  the  imminent  war  with  Japan 
(Red  Planes  Fly  East)  was  translated  into  English 
in  1938;  and  The  Storm  by  the  well  known  Dya 
Ehrenburg,  a  full  length  novel  built  on  two  planes: 
its  descriptions  of  the  fall  of  France  and  of  the 
German  occupation  of  Paris  alternate  with  pano- 
ramic scenes  of  the  "Russian  struggle  against  the 
Nazi  invaders.  Written  in  a  snappy,  biting  style 
The  Storm  compares  the  corruption  and  weakness 
of  the  "declining  Wesf  to  the  self-sacrificing  and 
vigorous  attitude  of  Soviet  citizens.  Happiness  and 
The  Storm  were  both  widely  read  and  discussed, 
they  were  the  best-sellers  of  last  year. 

The  six  second  prizes  (of  50,000  rubles  each) 
went  to  the  Ukrainian*  Alexander  Gontchar  for  his 
Standard-Bearers  (Red  troops  in  Europe);  to  Em- 
manuel Kazakevich  for  his  pathetic  novelette  The 
Star  ( tragic  adventures  of  an  intelligence  platoon ) ; 
to  Valentin  Kostylev  for  his  impressive  historical 
trilogy  Ivan  the  Terrible;  to  Berdy  Kerbabaev,  na- 
tive of  Turkmenistan  whose  large  novel  The  De- 
cisive Step  describes  the  civil  war  at  the  beginning 
of  the  revolution  in  Central  Asia;  to  Fedor  Pan- 
ferov,  author  of  a  novel  on  war  and  reconstruction 
entitled  The  Fight  For  Peace;  to  Vera  Panova,  for 
her  novel  Kruzhilikha — &  description  of  a  steel 
factory  during  the  war.  V.  Panova,  a  young  and 
promising  writer,  won  a  wide  popularity  after  the 
publication  of  her  first  novel,  The  Companions  in 
1946;  Kruzhilikha,  despite  its  flaws,  is  written  with 
deep  psychological  insight  and  a  sensitive,  hu- 
manitarian approach  to  life. 

Other  Fiction.  The  Soviet  prose  of  1948  could  be 
roughly  divided  into  two  main  sections:  war  novels 
and  novels  of  reconstruction.  Descriptions  of  the 
"struggle  for  the  fatherland"  are  published  in  large 
numbers.  Most  of  them,  composed  and  written  ac- 
cording to  an  already  established  pattern,  hardly 
present  any  literary  interest  though  sometimes 
they  have  some  value  as  historical  documents. 

Only  a  few  rise  above  the  average:  Victor  Av- 
deiev's  Herds  on  the  Road  ( evacuation  of  the  cat- 
tle on  the  steppes  of  southern  Russia  ),  Pavel  She- 
bunin's  Mamaev  Hill  (a  dramatic  panorama  of  the 
battle  for  Stalingrad),  Alexander  Peryentsev's 
Stick  to  your  Honor  when  Young  ( a  description  of 
the  warfare  in  the  Cossack  regions  of  the  Caucasus 
and  in  the  Crimea). 


Two  novels  by  women  writers  deal  with  the  suf- 
ferings and  the  heroic  resistance  of  Leningrad's 
population:  The  Siege  by  Vera  Ketlinskaya  (Third 
Stalin  prize)  and  The  Stojarov  Family  by  Elena 
Katerli.  A  new  novel  by  Fedor  Panferov  The  Land 
of  the  Vanquished  is  a  badly  written  thriller  about 
beautiful  Russian  spies  and  shrewd  intelligence 
men  working  for  the  Soviets  in  the  German  rear. 

Novels  on  postwar  reconstruction  are  mostly  de- 
voted to  the  farmers.  Life  in  kolkhozes  (collective 
farms)  and  various  agricultural  or  political  prob- 
lems facing  the  returning  veterans  are  dealt  with 
in  the  widely  discussed  novel  by  Semen  Babaevski 
The  Knight  of  the  Golden  Star  ( the  farmers  of  Ku- 
ban). This  theme  recurs  in  novels  of  lesser  stature 
such  as  Stone  Wood  by  Gennadi  Fish  and  Our 
Land  by  Sergei  Voronin  (both  books  describe  the 
farmers  of  Karelia )  or  in  the  long  story  of  northern 
peasants  From  All  Our  Heart  by  Elizar  Malzev. 

The  industrial  reconstruction  and  the  new  Five- 
year  plan  also  find  their  reflection  in  literature: 
Vassifi  Ajaev  in  his  highly  praised  novel  Far  Away 
From  Moscow  describes  with  many  details  the 
building  of  a  pipe  line  in  the  extreme  north  of  Si- 
beria. Michael  Chakovski  draws  portraits  of  vet- 
erans who  attempt  to  readjust  themselves  to  factory 
work  (Days  of  Peace). 

A  special  place  is  occupied  by  a  group  of  books 
devoted  to  the  Russian  North — a  beloved  subject- 
matter  of  Soviet  fiction.  Representative  of  this  trend 
in  1948  are  the  Tchuktchi  novel  by  Tikhon  Se- 
mushkin  Alitet  Retires  to  the  Mountains  and  Ivan 
Kratt's  Tales  of  the  Arctic.  Other  novels  worth 
mentioning  are:  The  University  (student  Me  in  a 
provincial  university  town)  by  Grigori  Konovalov; 
Three  in  Greatcoats  (veterans  in  college)  by  Victor 
Dobrovolski;  and  Prospectors  by  Vassili  Gannebes- 
sov  (an  exotic  picture  of  Siberian  gold  mines). 

Historical  Novels.  Historical  novels  continued  to 
form  a  large  segment  of  Soviet  fiction.  Konstantin 
Fedin,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  writers  of  the 
U.S.S.R.,  completed  (in  1948)  his  highly  literary 
and  whimsical  novel  The  Unusual  Summer  (life 
in  a  Volga  town  before,  and  in  the  first  years  of 
the  revolution).  Novels  on  tzarist  military  leaders 
had  considerable  success:  General  Suvorov  by 
Leonti  Rakovski,  Prince  Potemkin  by  Marianna 
Yakhontova,  The  Storming  of  Izmail  by  Boris  Pa- 
parigopolo  (blamed  by  Soviet  critics  for  his  "super- 
ficiality"). 

Special  mention  should  be  given  to  the  History 
of  a  Stolen  Idea  by  Yuri  Veber  who  tells  the  life  of 
A.  S.  Popov  and  his  discovery  of  wireless  teleg- 
raphy, kter  exploited  by  Marconi.  In  general,  the 
desire  to  prove  the  independence  of  Russian  science 
and  literature  originated  a  series  of  novels  and  tales 
portraying  obscure  inventors  and  forgotten  scien- 
tists. 

Poetry.  Although  the  number  of  poems  published 
in  book  form  or  in  various  monthlies  was  as  large 
in  1948  as  in  previous  years,  no  outstanding  work 
of  poetry  can  be  mentioned.  Only  two  Stalin  prizes 
for  poetry  were  awarded  to  Russian  language 
poets:  Alexei  Nedogonov,  who  wrote  a  long-winded 
narrative  epic  The  Flag  Over  the  Village  Soviet  and 
died  soon  after  its  completion;  and  Nikolai  Griba- 
chev,  author  of  war  poems  and  patriotic  stanzas. 

The  other  four  prize  winners  were  the  Ukrainian 
Vladimir  Sossura,  lie  Byelorussian  Maxim  Tank, 
the  Latvian  Jan  Sudrabkalk,  and  the  native  of  Tad- 
jikstan  (Central  Asia)  Mirzo  Tursun  Zade,  whose 
poems  on  India  are  widely  read  by  Moslems.  One 
of  the  most  popular  poets  of  the  U.S.S.R.,  Konstan- 
tin Simonov,  published  a  book  of  political  poems 
Friends  and  Foes  inspired  by  his  travels  in  Can- 


484 


SALVATION  ARMY 


ada,  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Japan. 
The  sharp  satirical  tendency  of  these  poems  dis- 
closes the  desire  of  their  author  to  revive  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  great  Soviet  poet  Mayakovski. 

Drama.  Next  to  numerous  revivals  of  plays  by 
19th  century  writers  such  as  Ostrovski,  Turgenev, 
and  Chekhov,  a  large  number  of  comedies  and 
dramas  by  contemporary  playwrights  have  been 
produced  in  1948,  in  Moscow  as  well  as  in  the 
capitals  of  the  18  Soviet  Republics.  Leading  place 
in  new  productions  was  occupied  by  adaptations 
of  novels,  mostly  of  the  latest  best-sellers  such  as 
The  Young  Guard  by  Alexander  Fadeyev  (also 
made  into  a  film),  Companions  by  Vera  Panova, 
Men  with  Clean  Conscience  (the  guerilla  warfare) 
by  Petr  Vershigora,  and  others. 

Among  original  plays  the  most  successful  were: 
The  Great  Strength  by  Boris  Romashov,  an  ex- 
posure of  Soviet  scientists  guilty  of  *1cow-towing  to 
the  decadent  West";  Our  Daily  Bread  by  Nicolas 
Wirta,  a  description  of  a  collective  farm  admin- 
istered by  women;  A  Certain  Town  by  Anatoli 
Sofronov  who  ridicules  the  excesses  of  Soviet  bu- 
reaucracy; The  Last  Borders  by  Yuri  Chepurin,  de- 
scribing £he  Red  Army  in  Europe  and  sharply 
criticizing  the  Americans;  On  Our  Soil  by  Qlga 
Bergholz  and  Grigori  Makogonenko,  giving  a  pic- 
ture of  Me  in  a  steel  plant;  Makar  Dubrava  by  the 
popular  playwright  Alexander  Korneichuk  who 
glorifies  an  old  miner,  a  faithful  militant  of  his 
class.  A  score  of  dramas  were  devoted  to  war 
topics. 

Memoirs  ond  Essays.  Most  memoirs  dealt  with  the 
events  of  World  War  II.  Both  Ivan  Kozlov's  In 
The^  Crimean  Underground — describing  the  fight 
against  the  Germans  in  occupied  Crimea — and  the 
much-discussed  Transport  Ship  'Kachetia*  by  Olga 
Djigurda — an  Army  surgeon  who  made  a  colorful 
report  on  her  war  adventures — were  well  received 
by  critics  and  readers.  So  were  Yuri  Jukov's  The 
West  After  The  War  and  The  Second  Front  by 
Dimitri  Kraminov  who  had  been  attached  to  Allied 
Headquarters  in  1943-45. 

The  centenary  of  the  death  of  Vissarion  Belin- 
ski,  the  great  Russian  critic,  was  marked  by  a  series 
of  books,  essays,  and  articles;  much  attention  was 
also  devoted  by  the  Soviet  press  to  the  500th  an- 
niversary of  the  Uzbek  poet  Alisher  Navoi,  whose 
works  are  among  the  classics  of  the  Near  East.  In 
general,  the  development  of  national  cultures  in 
the  Republics  of  the  Union  is  highly  promoted  by 
the  government  and  various  literary  organizations. 
As  in  previous  years  great  activity  prevailed  in  the 
major  Russian  publishing  houses.  Among  the  nu- 
merous works  of  Soviet  scholars  the  remarkable 
critical  editions  of  collected  works  of  Chekhov  and 
Lennontov  should  be  mentioned. 

— MARC  SLONIM 

RYE.  The  1948  rye  crop  of  the  United  States  was 
estimated  at  26,388,000  bushels  compared  with  the 
1947  crop  of  25,975,000  bu.  and  the  10-year  av- 
erage (1937-46)  of  37,398,000  bu.  Yields  of  the 
principal  producing  States  were  (in  bushels); 
South  Dakota  4,704,000,  North  Dakota  4,656,000, 
Minnesota  3,466,000,  Nebraska  2,250,000,  Michi- 
gan 1,280,000,  Wisconsin  1,104,000,  Illinois  946,- 
000,  Indiana  928,000, 

World  production  of  rye  for  1948  was  estimated 
at  1,625  million  by.,  compared  with  the  1947  out- 
put of  1,490  million  bu.  and  the  5-year  average 
(1935-39)  of  1,730  million  bu.  Yields  of  the  chief 
producing  countries  for  1948  were  (in  bushels): 
U.S.S.R.  (Europe  and  Asia)  920,000,000  (in  1947), 
United  States  26,388,000,  Canada  25,348,000, 


France  24,200,000,  Spain  20,000,000,  Argentina 
16,000,000,  Denmark  15,500,000,  Turkey  15,500,- 
000,  Netherlands  14,860,000,  Austria  14,000,000, 
Sweden  12,500,000,  Belgium  9,500,000. 

RYOKYU  (Loochoo)  ISLANDS.  A  chain  of  islands  reach- 
ing from  the  Japanese  main  island  of  Kyushu  to 
near  northern  Formosa.  The  islands  were  complete- 
ly occupied  by  the  armed  forces  of  the  United 
States  following  the  surrender  of  Japan  in  Sep- 
tember, 1945.  Area:  921  square  miles.  Population: 
600,000  (estimated).  Capital:  Naha,  on  Okinawa 
— the  largest  island  in  the  group. 

ST.  HELENA.  A  colony  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  in 
the  South  Atlantic  about  1,200  miles  west  of  the 
African  coast.  It  comprises  the  island  of  St.  Helena 
(47  sq.  mi.)  and  its  dependencies — the  islands  of 
Ascension  (34  sq.  mi.),  700  miles  northwest  of  St. 
Helena,  and  the  smaller  Tristan  da  Cunha  group, 
about  half-way  between  the  tip  of  Africa  and  South 
America.  Population  of  St.  Helena  ( 1946  census ) : 
4,748.  Capital:  Jamestown.  The  area  under  culti- 
vation on  St  Helena  amounts  to  some  8,000  acres. 
Agricultural  products  include  flax  and  potatoes. 
Foreign  trade  (1946):  imports  £94,375;  exports 
£31,790.  Finance  (1946):  revenue  £98,591;  ex- 
penditure £88,822.  The  colony  is  administered  by 
an  executive  council  comprising  the  governor  and  5 
official  members.  An  advisory  council  of  6  unof- 
ficial members  assists  the  governor.  Tristan  da 
Cunha  has  an  important  meteorological  and  radio 
station.  Governor:  G.  A,  Joy, 

ST.  LUCIA.  An  island  colony  in  the  British  Wind- 
ward Islands  group  of  the  West  Indies.  Area:  233 
square  miles.  Population  ( 1946  est ) :  69,091.  Chief 
town:  Castries  (capital),  12,000  inhabitants.  Pri- 
mary education  is  free  and  compulsory.  The  prin- 
cipal products  comprise  sugar,  cocoa,  lime  juice 
and  oil,  bay  rum  and  oil,  honey,  rum,  hides,  coco- 
nuts, copra,  and  fruits.  Foreign  trade  ( 1946 ) :  im- 
ports were  valued  at  £503,765;  exports  £172,452. 
Finance  (1946):  revenue  £394,884;  expenditure 
£311,831;  public  debt  £51,510.  An  administrator 
governs  the  colony.  He  is  assisted  by  a  nominated 
executive  council  and  by  a  legislative  council  made 
up  of  elected  and  nominated  members.  Admin- 
istrator: John  M,  Stow, 

ST.  PIERRE  AND  M1QUELON.  An  overseas  territory  of 
France,  comprising  two  small  groups  of  islands 
near  the  south  shore  of  Newfoundland,  as  follows; 
St.  Pierre  group  (area:  10  sq.  mi.;  pop.  3,804  in 
1946),  and  Miquelon  group  (area:  83  sq.  mi.;  pop. 
550),  Total  area:  93  square  miles.  Total  popula- 
tion: 4,186.  Capital:  St  Pierre.  The  chief  industry 
is  fishing.  Foreign  trade  (1946):  imports  89,100,- 
000  francs;  exports  59,600,000  francs.  In  the  gen- 
eral government  of  the  territory  the  administrator 
is  assisted  by  an  elected  general  council  and  an  ex- 
ecutive council.  The  islands  are  represented  in  the 
French  National  Assembly,  the  Council  of  the  Re- 
public, and  the  French  Union  by  one  deputy  in 
each. 

SAKHALIN.  An  island  northeast  of  Japan,  in  the  Sea 
of  Okhotsk.  Area,  28,597  square  miles.  The  south- 
ern part  (south  of  50°  N.j  was  under  Japanese 
control  from  1905  when  it  was  ceded  by  Russia 
in  the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth  until  the  surrender  of 
Japan  in  1945  when  it  was  returned  to  the  U.S.S.R. 

SALVATION  ARMY,  The.  A  religious  and  welfare  or- 
ganization with  a  military  government  established 


SAMOA 


485 


SAMOA 


in  England  In  1865  by  William  Booth,  a  Methodist 
evangelist.  Introduced  into  America  in  1880,  it 
now  operates  in  97  countries  throughout  the  world. 
Primarily  an  evangelical  movement,  its  objects  are: 
the  spiritual,  moral,  and  physical  reformation  of 
all  those  who  need  it;  the  reclamation  of  the  vi- 
cious, criminal,  dissolute,  and  degraded;  visitation 
of  the  poor  and  sick;  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel 
and  dissemination  of  Christian  truth. 

Its  social  service  program  in  the  United  States 
includes  children's  homes  and  hospitals,  men's  in- 
dustrial homes,  maternity  homes  and  hospitals, 
family  welfare,  a  vast  prison  program,  youth  cen- 
ters, summer  camps,  etc.  Relief  teams  are  working 
in  European  reconstruction,  emphasis  being  put  on 
work  among  women  and  children. 

Total  affiliated  world  membership  is  over  4  mil- 
lion; that  of  the  United  States,  205,881.  Five 
thousand  officers  and  96,483  bandsmen  and  lay 
members  carry  on  its  work  in  2,544  centers  of  op- 
eration in  all  parts  of  the  country.  International 
Commander,  General  Albert  Orsborn,  London.  Na- 
tional Commander  in  the  United  States,  Commis- 
sioner Ernest  I.  Pugmire,  National  Headquarters: 
120-130  West  14th  St.,  New  York  11,  N.Y. 

SAMOA,  American.  American  Samoa  includes  the 
island  of  Tutuila  on  which  the  U.S.  Naval  Station 
is  located;  the  Manua  group,  consisting  of  the  is- 
lands of  Tau,  Olosega,  Aunuu,  and  Ofu;  Rose  Is- 
land; and  Swains  Island.  These  islands,  with  the 
exception  of  Swains  Island,  were  acquired  by  the 
United  States  on  Dec.  2,  1899,  through  a  tripartite 
agreement  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany.  By 
joint  resolution  of  Congress,  approved  Mar.  4, 1925, 
Swains  Island  was  annexed  to  American  Samoa. 
All  but  Rose  Island,  which  is  an  uninhabited  coral 
atoll,  are  of  volcanic  formation.  The  total  area  is 
76  square  miles  and  the  population,  as  of  July  1, 
1948,  was  18,080,  mainly  Polynesian.  The  seat  of 
government  is  at  the  village  of  Pago  Pago,  Tutuila, 
which  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  South 
Seas. 

Education.  During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1946, 
instruction  was  offered  by  45  public  and  8  private 
schools  having  a  total  enrollment  of  4,548  and  em- 
ploying 123  Sarnoan  teachers,  24  non-Samoan 
teachers,  and  2  Samoan  principals.  Attendance  is 
compulsory  for  children  between  the  ages  of  7  and 
15.  English  is  used  in  public  schools.  Illiteracy  in 
1940  was  lower  than  any  other  U.S.  possession — 
6.3  percent. 

Production.  Copra,  the  most  important  crop  for 
commercial  sale,  produced  a  gross  income  of  $280,- 
600  for  the  fiscal  year  1948.  The  Department  of 
Samoan  Industry,  established  in  April,  1946,  to  en- 
courage the  production  of  Samoan  handicraft,  re- 
ported sales  amounting  to  $58,196.37  for  the  1947 
fiscal  year.  An  experimental  and  dairy  farm  is  main- 
tained for  the  improvement  of  Samoan  agriculture 
and  animal  husbandry.  For  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1948,  the  Bank  of  Samoa  reported  resources  of 
$1,786,964. 

Government.  American  Samoa,  classified  as  a 
United  States  possession,  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Navy  Department  and  is  administered  by  a  Naval 
Governor.  Samoans  are  not  citizens  of  the  United 
States  but  owe  allegiance  to  the  American  flag  as 
nationals  of  the  United  States.  While  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States  does  not  extend  to  Amer- 
ican Samoa,  the  Regulations  and  Orders  for  the 
Government  of  American  Samoa,  printed  in  both 
English  and  Samoan  languages,  contain  most  of  the 
guarantees  of  the  Bill  of  Rights  of  the  United  States 
Constitution.  Local  administrative  matters  are  con- 


ducted by  village,  county  and  district  councils  com- 
posed of  hereditary  chiefs  and  their  advisors.  The 
Chief  Samoan  legislative  council,  or  Fono,  meets 
annually  and  serves  in  an  advisory  capacity  to  the 
Governor  in  matters  relating  to  the  welfare  of 
American  Samoa  (See  Events  below).  For  purposes 
of  local  administration  American  Samoa  is  divided 
into  three  districts  each  having  a  Samoan  governor. 
The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  Village  Courts  each 
presided  over  by  a  village  magistrate;  six  District 
Courts  each  presided  over  by  a  Samoan  District 
Judge  and  a  United  States  civilian  judge;  and  a 
'High  Court  presided  over  by  a  United  States  civil- 
ian Chief  Justice  and  two  Samoan  Associate  Jus- 
tices selected  from  the  District  Judges.  Captain 
Vernon  Huber,  U.S.N.,  the  present  Governor  of 
American  Samoa  and  Commandant  of  the  Naval 
Station,  Tutuila,  assumed  office  Apr.  21,  1947. 

Events  in  1948.  In  1948  the  Annual  Fono  of  Amer- 
ican Samoa,  heretofore  a  unicameral,  advisory  leg- 
islative council,  was  succeeded  by  a  bicameral  body 
with  ^limited  legislative  powers  designated  "the 
Fono"  ( council ) .  The  new  Fono  which  was  organ- 
ized in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  Samoan 
people  consists  of  the  House  of  Alii  with  a  member- 
ship of  12  chiefs  holding  hereditary  titles  and  the 
House  of  Representatives  with  a  membership  of  54 
representing  all  elements  of  the  Samoan  people. 

The  first  regular  meeting  of  the  reorganized 
Fono  was  convened  on  Jan.  11,  1949.  In  1948  the 
consolidated  High  School  of  American  Samoa  and 
the  Vocational  School  of  American  Samoa  were  ap- 
proved by  the  Veterans  Administration  for  attend- 
ance by  veterans  receiving  Federal  educational 
benefits.  A  schedule  of  weekly  round-trip  plane 
flights  between  American  Samoa  and  Honolulu  was 
instituted  in  1948  for  the  transportation  of  pas- 
sengers and  freight. 

During  1948  five  bills  to  provide  an  organic  act 
for  American  Samoa  and  United  States  citizenship 
for  the  inhabitants  thereof  were  pending  before  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States  but  no  action  was 
taken  thereon.  Plans  were  realized  in  1948  to 
establish  in  American  Samoa  a  plant  to  process  fish 
and  other  products  of  the  waters  surrounding  the 
islands. 

SAMOA,  Western.  A  United  Nations  Trust  Territory, 
comprising  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  (West 
of  171°  W.),  administered  by  New  Zealand.  The 
two  largest  islands  are  Savaii  (700  sq.  mi.)  and 
Upolu  (430  sq.  mi.).  Total  area;  1,133  square 
miles.  Population  (June  30,  1947):  71,905,  of 
whom  393  were  Europeans,  5,043  part  Europeans, 
and  66,101  native  Polynesians.  Capital:  Apia  (on 
Upolu).  The  chief  export  products  are  copra  (18,- 
181  tons  in  1947),  cacao  (2,378  tons),  and  bananas 
(101,754  cases). 

Trade  and  Finance.  Imports  were  valued  at  £923,- 
773  in  1947;  exports  at  £1,351,770.  The  copra  ex- 
port amounted  to  £722,272;  cacao,  £448,794; 
bananas,  £70,317.  The  1947-48  estimated  budget 
placed  revenue  at  £548,682  and  expenditure  at 
£359,285.  A  total  of  127  vessels  (89,051  tons)  en- 
tered the  port  of  Apia  in  1946. 

Government.  An  administrator  heads  the  govern- 
ment and  is  assisted  by  an  elected  native  council 
to  advise  him  on  native  affairs.  There  is  also  a  leg- 
islative council  consisting  of  6  official  members,  2 
elected  European  unofficial  members,  and  4  nomi- 
nated native  members.  Administrator:  Lt.  Col. 
F.  W.  Voelcker  (appointed  Feb.  27,  1946). 

Events,  1948.  In  December,  1948,  the  United  Na- 
tions Trusteeship  Council  gave  unanimous  support 
to  proposals  introduced  by  New  Zealand  for  in- 


SANITATION 


486 


SANITATION 


creased  self-government  in  Western  Samoa.  The 
program  called  for  a  high  commissioner  to  replace 
the  present  office  of  administrator;  the  establish- 
ment of  a  council  of  state;  and  establishment  of 
a  legislative  assembly  to  replace  the  legislative 
Council,  New  Zealand  proposed  to  continue  con- 
trol over  defense,  foreign  affairs,  and  crown  lands. 

SANITATION.  An  important  step  in  the  progress  of 
sanitation  in  the  United  States  was  taken  this  year 
when  the  new  Water  Pollution  Control  Act  (Public 
Law  845)  was  passed.  It  empowers  the  Federal 
Government  **to  enforce  abatement  of  any  pollu- 
tion that  creates  a  health  or  welfare  hazard  beyond 
the  borders  of  the  State  where  it  originates."  Thus 
both  municipalities  or  sanitary  districts  and  in- 
dustries are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  enforcing 
agents  of  the  Federal  Government  if  they  dis- 
charge wastes  into  waters,  that  cross  State  bound- 
aries, to  such  an  extent  as  to  endanger  the  health 
or  welfare  of  the  neighboring  State. 

The  Surgeon  General  of  U.S.  Public  Health 
Service,  the  Federal  Security  Administrator  ( Head 
of  the  executive  branch  which  includes  the  Public 
Health  Service),  and  finally  the  Attorney  General 
are  assigned  specific  tasks  of  enforcement  under 
the  law — the  latter  to  bring  suit  if  necessary. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  law  is  to  offer 
to  the  States  technical  and  financial  assistance  to 
encourage  pollution  abatement  and  the  Congress 
was  expected  to  appropriate  $25  million  for  the 
first  year  of  an  authorized  5-year  program. 

It  was  stated  that  in  the  administration  of  the 
law  **All  water  uses  of  each  stream  will  be  con- 
sidered and  the  treatment  recommended  will  be 
based  upon  these  uses.  Due  regard  will  be  taken 
of  the  health,  welfare,  and  economic  considerations 
of  the  particular  situation  upon  national  welfare." 

Another  significant  step  in  the  progress  of  stream 
pollution  control  was  taken  when  the  Ohio  River 
Sanitation  Pact  was  signed.  This  is  a  venture  in 
interstate  cooperation  rather  than  in  Federal  con- 
trol. Executives  from  the  States  of  Indiana,  West 
Virginia,  Ohio,  New  York,  Kentucky,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Virginia  participated  in  a  ceremony  of 
signing  the  compact  A  commission  is  set  up  con- 
sisting of  three  representatives  for  each  State  and 
three  Federal  representatives.  This  commission  is 
authorized  to  aid  State  or  local  bodies  on  specific 
problems  of  waste  disposal  and  are  to  order  mu- 
nicipalities, corporations,  or  individuals  to  cease 
or  correct  such  pollution  of  streams  as  they  may 
be  causing.  Despite  the  undoubted  progress  that 
is  being  made  in  the  general  area  of  sanitation,  it 
is  well  to  note  that  the  need  for  this  improvement 
is  very  great 

Professor  Abel  Wolman  of  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, a  prominent  sanitary  engineer,  has  just 
warned  that  sanitary  conditions  in  this  country 
are  in  many  respects  worse  than  they  were  100 
years  ago;  6,000  communities  still  have  no  water 
systems,  70  million  persons  in  8,300  communities 
require  modem  refuse  disposal,  and  he  doubts  that 
there  is  a  single  stream  in  the  United  States  which 
has  not  deteriorated  since  1849  and  air  pollution  is 
immeasurably  worse  than  it  was  in  years  gone  by. 
Of  course  population  density  has  greatly  increased 
iri  100  years  but  Dr.  Wolman  contends  that  sanita- 
tion has  not  kept  pace  with  that  expansion. 

The  value  of  sewerage  and  sewage  treatment 
construction  in  1948  is  estimated  by  the  Engineer- 
ing-News-Record  to  be  $226  million,  an  increase 
in  dollar  value  over  that  of  1947  of  29  percent,  but 
because  of  the  decrease  in  the  value  of  the  dollar, 
this  results  in  an  increase  in  actual  volume  or 


construction  of  only  about  half  of  this  percentage. 

Among  the  new  methods  of  sewage  treatment 
which  have  continued  to  be  tested  this  year  is  step 
aeration,  a  modification  of  the  activated  sludge 
process  in  which  the  effluent  from  the  primary  tank 
is  introduced  in  regulated  amounts  at  various 
points  along  the  course  of  flow  of  the  activated 
sludge.  Improvements  over  the  conventional  design 
are  claimed  on  the  basis  of  tests  performed  at  the 
Bowery  Bay  plant  in  New  York  City.  The  new  pro- 
cedure will  be  incorporated  in  the  design  of  the 
new  Tallman's  Island  plant  at  New  York  City. 

Synthetic  detergents  now  coming  into  use  in  in- 
creasing amounts  have  been  found  to  affect  sewage- 
treatment  processes  but  are  not  toxic  to  biological 
activities.  Replacing  soap,  they  reduce  B.O.D. 
( bio-chemical  oxygen  demand )  of  raw  sewage,  de- 
crease removals  in  settling  tanks  and  improve  set- 
tling qualities  of  certain  sludges,  and  increase 
foaming -of  activated  sludge  tanks.  (A  5-ft  blanket 
of  foam  on  the  activated  sludge  tanks  of  Mt.  Penn, 
Pa.,  formed  as  a  result  of  the  distribution  of  trial 
samples  of  a  liquid  synthetic  detergent.) 

Of  first-rate  importance  in  the  days  just  ahead,  is 
the  disposal  of  radio-active  waste  products,  both 
gaseous  and  solid.  Sanitary  engineers  have  been 
employed  by  the  Atomic  Energy  Commission  to 
study  the  many  problems  and  a  small  group  of  san- 
itary engineers  in  various  Federal  agencies  are  be- 
ing trained  in  nuclear  physics  at  Oak  Ridge  and 
Los  Alamos  to  be  able  to  advise  on  this  new  dis- 
posal problem. 

Among  the  new  sewage  plans  appearing  in  the 
news  of  1948  are  an  $11  million  project  for  en- 
largement of  the  sewage  system,  construction  of 
intercepting  sewers,  and  treatment  plant  for  Tam- 
pa, Fla.  Bids  will  be  opened  in  January,  1949. 

In  New  York  City,  construction  was  resumed  on 
the  60  million  gals,  per  day  Jwenty-Skth  Ward 
Plant  in  Brooklyn.  Plans  were  completed  early  in 
the  year  for  $80  million  worth  of  work  on  the  160 
million  gals,  per  day  OwFs  Head  plant,  also  in 
Brooklyn.  While  there  is  much  still  to  be  done  in 
New  York  City  to  alleviate  pollution  conditions,  it 
is  believed  by  those  in  charge  of  the  sewage  treat- 
ment program  that  the  city  is  progressively  becom- 
ing conscious  of  the  need  for  so  doing. 

In  Philadelphia,  primary  treatment  is  given  to 
about  60  million  gals,  per  day  which  is  only  19 

gercent  of  the  dry  weather  sewage  flow.  Contracts 
)r  additions  to  tie  plant  had  been  let  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  to  the  amount  of  $67  million. 
Sites  for  the  two  additional  plants  had  been  ac- 
quired. Construction  on  these  plants  is  planned  to 
start  in  1949. 

Plans  have  been  made  to  reduce  pollution  of  the 
Merrimac  River  in  Massachusetts  by  the  construc- 
tion of  intercepting  sewers  and  several  regional 
sewage  treatment  plants;  an  activated  sludge  plant 
for  the  Lowell  metropolitan  region  and  one  for  the 
Lawrence  metropolitan  region;  and  sewage  treat- 
ment plants  for  the  Haverhill  metropolitan  region, 
one  at  Amesbury,  at  Newburyport,  and  one  at  Salis- 
bury. The  total  estimated  costs  of  plants  is  $27.6 
million. 

In  the  field  of  garbage  disposal,  it  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  City  of  Winnipeg  has  completed 
a  new  refuse  incinerator  to  handle  300  tons  per 
day  of  garbage  and  refuse  mixture.  It  cost  $652,000 
and  has  been  tested  and  found  to  meet  its  guaran- 
tee of  performance.  There  are  three  furnaces  of 
100-tons  per  day  capacity  and  a  chimney  capable 
of  accommodating  a  fourth  furnace  as  well. 

The  Chicago  Sanitary  District  approved  in  1947 
a  $22  million  interceptor  now  under  construction. 


SAN  MARINO 


487 


SASKATCHEWAN 


Los  Angeles  is  building  the  Hyperion  225-million 
gals,  per  day  activated  sludge  project  with  a  5,000- 
ft.  long,  72-inch  reinforced  concrete  ocean  outfall. 
San  Francisco  is  building  a  very  large  sludge  sedi- 
mentation and  sewage  disposal  plant  and  has  ap- 
proved a  $15  million  bond  issue  for  the  purpose. 
Indianapolis  has  approved  a  $3.8  million  bond 
issue  for  sewer  relief.  Houston,  Tex.,  has  approved 
a  $2.8  million  bond  issue  for  storm  sewers. 

Studies  for  the  disposal  of  activated  sludge  at 
Houston  indicate  the  superior  economy  of  de- 
watering,  drying,  and  manufacture  into  fertilizer. 
In  Allegheny  County,  Pa.,  a  most  unusual  proposal 
has  been  made  for  the  construction  of  4  huge  inter- 
ceptors in  the  river  beds  to  lessen  the  cost  of  sewer 
construction  by  avoiding  expensive  excavation 
through  city  streets.  Orlando,  Fla.,  has  begun  con- 
struction on  a  $3.5  million  sewage  treatment  plant. 
East  St.  Louis  is  planning  to  spend  $6  million  on 
improvements  of  her  sewer  system. 

A  de-silting  project  for  the  SchuyMll  River  in 
Pennsylvania  is  under  consideration  and  will  cost 
$35  million.  The  Indiana  Stream  Pollution  Control 
Board  has  estimated  that  $47  million  for  new  sew- 
age plants  in  Indiana  are  now  in  the  planning  stage. 
The  States  of  Washington  and  Idaho  have  36  sew- 
age disposal  projects  "ready  to  go." 

Air  pollution  has  received  public  attention  by 
the  smog  catastrophe  at  Donora,  Pa.,  in  which  20 
lives  were  lost.  Smoke  control  studies  at  Los  An- 
geles have  been  under  way  for  more  than  a  year. 
Smoke  control  regulations  are  being  discussed  in 
the  press  for  Indianapolis.  A  model  smoke-abate- 
ment ordinance  has  been  passed  in  Kansas  City, 
Mo.  Similar  developments  are  under  way  at  many 
other  places. 

Industrial  wastes  and  their  treatment  are  re- 
ceiving increasing  attention  as  evidenced  by  the 
many  papers  published  on  this  subject.  The  Fourth 
Annual  Industrial  Waste  Conference  held  at  Pur- 
due University  this  year  attracted  320  registrants 
from  the  entire  United  States.  Of  especial  interest 
were  the  reports  on  new  developments  in  ana- 
erobic  digestion  as  a  means  of  disposal  of  milk 
wastes,  distillery  wastes,  and  canning  wastes;  a 
new  process  for  coagulation  of  oil  wastes  was  also 
announced. 

Significant  progress  was  made  in  the  control  of 
the  insect-bome  diseases  of  malaria  and  typhus. 
Death  rates  from  malaria  are  now  one-fifteenth  of 
what  they  were  in  1920.  The  engineers  of  TVA 
(Tennessee  Valley  Authority)  have  announced 
methods,  which  have  proved  entirely  successful, 
for  control  of  mosquitoes  by  management  of  fluc- 
tuating water  levels  in  their  reservoirs.  This  new 
procedure  has  helped  to  reduce  malaria  in  that 
region  almost  to  the  vanishing  point. 

The  use  of  DDT  in  rat  burrows  and  other  places 
frequented  by  these  rodents — to  control  their  fleas 
in  addition  to  the  conventional  methods  for  control 
of  the  rodents  themselves — has  helped  to  control 
typhus,  particularly  in  the  State  of  Georgia  where 
the  incidence  of  this  disease  has  been  reduced  by 
61  percenUn  1947^  over  that  of  1945.  An  effective 
rat  poison  "Castrix"  has  been  announced.  DDT  has 
also  proved  effective  in  the  control  of  the  mosquito 
and  consequently  of  malaria  in  many  places. 

— W.  E.  ROWLAND 

SAN  MARINO.  An  independent  republic  in  Italy, 
near  the  town  of  Rimini.  Area:  38  square  miles. 
Population  (1947  census):  12,100.  Capital:  San 
Marino.  Chief  exports:  cattle,  wine,  building  stone. 
Financial  estimates  (1947)  were  balanced  at  ap- 
proximately 330  million  lire.  The  legislative  power 


is  in  the  hands  of  the  grand  council  of  60  members 
elected  by  popular  vote.  Two  are  appointed  from 
this  council  every  six  months  to  act  as  regents. 
Executive  power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  regents,  as- 
sisted by  various  nominated  congresses. 

SAO  THOME  and  PRINCIPE.  A  Portuguese  province 
comprising  two  volcanic  islands  in  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  125  miles  from  the  coast  of  Africa.  They 
have  an  area  of  372  square  miles  and  a  population 
( 1940 )  of  60,490  ( of  which  56,666  were  Negroes ) . 
Sao  Thome  is  by  far  the  larger  and  more  important 
of  the  two,  and  also  accounts  for  about  nine-tenths 
of  the  total  population.  Despite  their  small  size  the 
islands  produce  large  amounts  of  cacao,  as  well  as 
some  coffee,  copra,  and  palm  oil.  Trade  (1946): 
imports  52,998,737  escudos;  exports  122,139,883 
escudos.  Finance  ( 1946 ) :  revenue  25,682,000  es- 
cudos; expenditure  24,561,000  escudos.  Public  debt 
(1946):  2,102,000  escudos.  The  administration  is 
headed  by  a  governor. 

SARAWAK.  A  British  crown  colony  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  the  island  of  Borneo.  Area:  about  50,000 
square  miles.  Population  (1947  est):  500,000,  in- 
cluding Malays,  Dyaks,  Milanaus,  Kayans,  Ken- 
yahs,  Muruts,  and  other  indigenous  peoples,  to- 
gether with  Chinese  and  other  settlers.  Schools  are 
conducted  by  the  Church  of  England,  Roman  Cath- 
olic, American  Methodist  and  various  other  mis- 
sions in  the  country.  Capital:  Kuching  (pop.  38,- 
247).  The  principal  agricultural  products  are  sago, 
rice,  pepper,  and  rubber.  Mineral  products  include 
coal,  petroleum,  rubber,  diamonds,  and  gold.  For- 
eign trade  (1947):  imports  $$72,254,705;  exports 
S$103,138,575.  Most  of  the  trade  is  with  Singapore. 
The  estimated  revenue  for  April  to  December, 
1947,  was  £757,268;  estimated  expenditure  £1,- 
294,692. 

Sarawak  became  a  British  crown  colony  on  July 
15,  1946,  through  an  agreement  between  the  then 
ruling  Rajah,  Sir  Charles  Vyner  Brooke,  and  the 
British  government.  The  Council  Negri  had  pre- 
viously authorized  the  Act  of  Cession  by  19  to  16 
votes.  Governor:  Sir  Charles  N.  A.  Clarke. 

SASKATCHEWAN.  A  prairie  province  of  western  Can- 
ada, lying  between  Manitoba  on  the  east  and  Al- 
berta on  the  west  Area:  251,700  square  miles,  in- 
cluding 13,725  square  miles  of  fresh  water  areas. 
Population:  895,992  (1941  census),  compared  with 
854,000  (1948  estimate).  Leading  religious  de- 
nominations (1941  census)  were:  Roman  Catholic 
243,734,  United  Church  230,495,  Anglican  117,- 
674,  Lutheran  104,717,  and  Presbyterian  54,856.  • 
In  1946  there  were  21,433  live  births,  6,422 
deaths,  and  8,279  marriages.  Education  (1945- 
46):  207,696  students  enrolled  in  schools  and  col- 
leges. Chief  cities:  Regina  (capital):  60,246  (1946 
census),  Saskatoon  46,028,  Moose  Jaw  23,069, 
Prince  Albert  14,532. 

Production.  The  gross  value  of  agricultural  pro- 
duction for  1947  was  $440,610,000.  The  value  of 
field  crops  (1947)  was  $342,753,000  from  22,892,- 
000  acres.  Chief  field  crops  (1947):  wheat  173 
million  bu.  ($229,500,000),  oats  80  million  bu. 
($58,400,000),  barley  45  million  bu.  ($46,800,- 
000),  rye  6,780,000  bu.  ($21,967,000),  flaxseed 
4,200,000  bu.  ($21,924,000).  Livestock  (June  1, 
1947):  1,511,300  cattle  ($113,658,000),  504,900 
horses  ($22,860,000),  558,300  swine  ($11,941,- 
000),  285,300  sheep  ($2,810,000),  13,534,100 
poultry  ($12,547,000).  Fur  production  (1946-47): 
$2,303,554.  There  was  a  total  of  467  fur  farms  in 
1946,  with  animals  in  captivity  valued  at  $1,357,- 


SAUDI  ARABIA 


488 


SAUDI  ARABIA 


211.  The  marketed  value  of  fisheries  (1946)  was 
$1,148,886.  Dairy  products  (1947)  included  about 
36,330,000  Ib.  of  creamery  butter  valued  at  $18,- 
892,000;  poultry  meat  and  eggs,  $21,961,000; 
honey  (6,232,000  Ib.),  $1,558,000. 

There  were  955  industrial  plants  hi  1946  report- 
ing a  combined  output  of  $168,356,619;  11,957 
employees  who  received  salaries  and  wages  total- 
ing $17,956,317;  cost  of  materials  used  amounted 
to  $126,595,761.  Slaughtering  and  meatpacking 
was  the  leading  industry,  followed  by  flour  and 
feed  mills,  butter  and  cheese,  and  petroleum  prod- 
ucts. 

Government.  Finance  (year  ended  Apr.  30,  1947) : 
net  combined  revenue  $39,406,666;  net  combined 
expenditure  $39,527,696;  total  direct  and  indirect 
liabilities  (less  sinking  funds)  $187,672,970  on 
Jan.  31,  1947.  The  executive  authority  is  vested  in 
a  lieutenant  governor  who  is  advised  by  a  ministry 
of  the  legislature.  In  the  Legislative  Assembly 
there  are  52  members  elected  for  a  5-year  term 
by  adult  voters.  Six  senators  (appointed  for  life) 
and  21  elected  members  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons represent  Saskatchewan  in  the  Dominion 
Parliament  at  Ottawa.  Lieutenant  Governor,  J.  M. 
Uhrich  (appointed  Mar.  24,  1948);  Premier,  T.  C. 
Dougks  (C.C.F.;  reelected  June  24,  1948).  See 
CANADA. 

SAUDI  ARABIA.  Saudi  Arabia  occupies  the  central 
portion  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula  bounded  by  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  On  the  north  Saudi 
Arabia  is  bounded  by  Transjordan,  Iraq,  and  Ku- 
wait, and  on  the  south  by  Yemen,  and  a  series  of 
Arab  sultanates  and  sheikhdoms  having  special 
political  ties  with  the  United  Kingdom.  The  coun- 
try has  an  area  estimated  to  be  about  927,000 
square  miles  although  much  of  it  is  still  to  be  ex- 
plored and  surveyed,  and  a  population  estimated 
at  about  5,500,000. 

The  Saudi  Arabian  state  is  an  absolute  monarchy 
whose  king,  Abdul  Aziz  ibn  Saud,  carved  out  by 
the  sword  during  his  own  lifetime  the  country 
which  bears  his  name.  He  is  both  the  temporal  and 
religious  leader  of  his  people,  functions  which  are 
by  no  means  clearly  defined  in  a  land  in  which 
Sliariah  or  Koranic  law  is  supreme.  Ibn  Saud  and 
his  people  are  followers  of  the  puritanical  Wahabi 
sect,  which  is  characterized  by  a  strict  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Koran. 

Although  Riyadh  (pop.  est.  80,000)  in  the  cen- 
tral province  of  Nejd  is  the  political  capital  and 
residence  of  the  king,  Mecca  (pop.  est.  90,000), 
the  center  of  the  annual  pilgrimage,  is  the  religious 
capital,  while  Jidda  (pop.  60,000)  is  the  diplo- 
matic capital  and  locus  of  the  principal  offices  of 
several  important  Saudi  Arabian  governmental  de- 
partments. The  remaining  provinces  are  the  Hejaz 
on  the  west  bordering  the  Red  Sea,  where  the  holy 
cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina  are  located;  Asir,  which 
lies  south  of  Hejaz  along  the  Red  Sea  coast;  and 
Hasa  on  the  Persian  Gulf  side. 

Economically,  Saudi  Arabia  is  quite  primitive. 
The  vast  bulk  of  the  country  is  a  desert  incapable 
of  cultivation  and,  except  for  oil  and  small  deposits 
of  gold,  almost  devoid  of  natural  resources.  Except 
in  Asir  province,  cultivation  is  limited  to  the  oases 
and  other  areas  where  irrigation  is  possible.  A  large 
part  of  the  population  is  nomadic,  and  the  chief 
occupation  is  tending  herds  of  camels,  sheep,  and 
goats.  Industry  in  the  cities  is  limited  to  handicraft 
production  of  textiles  and  leathergoods  and  crude 
metalworking.  The  country  is  not  self-sufficient 
either  in  agricultural  or  in  industrial  products,  de- 
pending upon  its  revenues  from  the  annual  pil- 


grimage and  more  recently  upon  oil  royalties  to 
bridge  the  large  gap  between  merchandise  imports 
and  exports. 

World  interest  was  centered  on  Saudi  Arabia 
with  the  great  oil  discoveries  on  the  Persian  Gulf 
Coast  in  1938  by  the  Arabian  American  Oil  Com- 
pany, a  subsidiary  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
of  California  and  the  Texas  Oil  Company.  The  con- 
cession which  was  obtained  in  1933  runs  to  1999 
and  covers  approximately  440,000  square  miles. 
There  are  four  large  fields,  all  on  the  east  coast, 
with  estimated  proved  reserves  of  7,000  million 
barrels,  and  with  a  production  at  the  end  of  1948 
of  about  500,000  barrels  per  day.  During  World 
War  II  a  refinery  was  built  at  Ras  Tanura,  near  the 
oil  fields,  which  now  has  a  capacity  of  over  100,- 
000  barrels  per  day. 

Events,  1948.  As  a  member  of  the  Arab  League, 
Saudi  Arabia  played  a  minor  role  in  the  armed 
conflict  with  the  new  Israeli  Government,  a  con- 
tingent of  the  Saudi  Arabian  army  having  fought 
with  the  Egyptian  army  in  the  Negeb  during  1948. 
However,  despite  the  resentment  against  the  United 
States  Government  for  its  role  in  the  Palestine 
controversy,  relations  between  Americans  and 
Saudi  Arabs  in  Saudi  Arabia  have  been  generally 
cordial.  An  agreement  on  royalty  payments  was 
reached  between  the  Arabian-American  Oil  Com- 
pany (Aramco)  and  the  Saudi  Arabian  Govern- 
ment, thus  clearing  up  a  controversy  which  had 
been  outstanding  for  several  years. 

The  original  concession  agreement  provided  that 
Aramco  should  pay  a  royalty  of  4  gold  shillings 
per  ton  of  oil,  the  payments  to  be  made  either  in 
gold  £  (British  gold  sovereigns)  or  its  equivalent 
in  £  sterling  or  dollars.  However,  a  difference  of 
opinion  arose  between  the  Saudi  Arabian  govern- 
ment and  Aramco  over  how  the  equivalent  value 
of  the  British  sovereign  should  be  determined. 
Under  the  terms  of  the  new  accord  Aramco  agrees 
that  if  it  chooses  not  to  pay  its  royalty  in  gold 
sovereigns,  and  instead  elects  to  pay  in  dollars,  it 
would  do  so  by  computing  its  royalty  rate  at  $12 
per  gold  sovereign  rather  than  at  the  official  value 
of  $8.25  per  sovereign. 

The  war  over  Palestine  indirectly  affected  Saudi 
Arabian  oil  by  slowing  down  operations  on  the 
Trans-Arabian  Pipe  line  (TAPline)  scheduled  to 
be  laid  from  the  Arabian  oil  fields  on  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  Sidon,  Lebanon,  on  the  Mediterranean. 
During  1948  the  Syrian  Parliament  steadfastly  re- 
fused to  ratify  an  agreement  giving  the  TAPline 
transit  rights  across  Syria.  As  a  result  the  work  on 
the  western  end  of  the  1,100-mile  line  was  sus- 
pended entirely,  while  work  on  the  Persian  Gulf 
end  had  to  be  slowed  down  because  the  U.S.  De- 
partment of  Commerce  restricted  the  licensing  of 
steel  shipments  for  the  TAPline  in  response  to  the 
growing  political  uncertainties  in  the  area.  Sched- 
uled to  be  completed  by  mid-1950  the  30-31  inch 
line  will  have  a  capacity  of  300,000-500,000  bar- 
rels per  day,  depending  upon  the  number  of  pump- 
ing stations  employed. 

The  last  remaining  barrier  to  the  completion  of 
the  deal  whereby  the  Standard  Oil  Co.  (NJ.)  and 
Socony- Vacuum  acquired  30  percent  and  10  per- 
cent respectively  of  the  shares  of  Aramco  was  re- 
moved in  1948  when  settlement  was  reached  with 
the  Gulbenkian  interests,  a  similar  settlement  hav- 
ing been  made  last  year  with  French  oil  interests. 
The  difficulty  arose  over  the  fact  that  both  Jersey 
and  Socony,  as  part  owners  of  the  Iraq  Petroleum 
Company,  were  parties  to  the  famous  Red-Line 
Agreement  whereby  members  were  pledged  not 
to  acquire  interests  in  oil  concerns  in  other  Middle 


SAVINGS  BONDS  DIVISION 


489 


SCHOOtS 


Eastern  territories  without  the  consent  of  the  other 
members. 

On  July  15  the  Saudi  Arabian  Government  al- 
lowed a  $15  million  Export-Import  Bank  credit  to 
expire.  In  addition  to  enjoying  large  oil  royalties 
in  1948  the  Government  received  substantial  Pil- 
grimage revenues,  thanks  to  the  arrival  of  an  esti- 
mated 100,000  Pilgrims  from  outside  the  country. 
— RAYMOND  F.  MDCESELL 

SAVINGS  BONDS  DIVISION,  U.S.  A  Division  of  the 
U.S.  Treasury  Department,  organized  Jan.  1,  1946, 
from  its  predecessor  organization,  the  War  Finance 
Division.  Its  chief  purpose  is  to  promote  the  con- 
tinued peacetime  purchase  of  U.S.  Savings  Bonds 
and  Stamps  through  the  payroll  savings  plan  and 
through  schools,  as  well  as  the  protracted  holding 
of  bonds  by  the  American  people. 

The  Division  and  the  Field  offices  operate 
through  four  main  branches:  Banking  and  Invest- 
ment, Labor  and  Industry,  Community,  and  Pro- 
motion and  Publicity,  all  under  the  direction  of  the 
National  Director,  who  is  an  Assistant  to  the  Sec- 
retary. The  sales  organization  (field)  consists  of 
offices  in  all  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia, 
actively  operating  in  the  recruiting  of  volunteer 
committees,  sales,  and  promotional  personnel.  The 
Washington  organization  plans  campaigns  and  ad- 
vises and  services  the  field  workers.  The  Division 
enjoys  the  cooperation  of  all  advertising  media,  in- 
cluding newspapers,  radio,  magazines  and  business 


publications,  motion  pictures,  labor,  business, 
schools,  etc.  National  Director:  Vernon  L.  Clark. 

SCHOOLS,  U.S.  In  the  year  1945-46  the  enrollment 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States  totaled 
23,299,941,  and  the  average  daily  attendance  was 
19,848,907.  This  compares  with  the  year  1944-45, 
as  follows:  enrollment  23,225,784,  average  daily 
attendance  19,671,398  (U.S.  Office  of  Education). 
In  1945-46  the  number  of  high-school  graduates 
increased  29,871,  or  3.2  percent,  and  there  were 
34,052  more  boys  and  4,181  fewer  girls  graduated 
than  in  the  year  1944-45.  The  number  of  graduates 
in  1945-46  was  186,792,  or  16  percent,  fewer  than 
for  1941-42,  the  first  year  of  the  war. 

Enrollments  and  the  number  of  teachers  in  pri- 
vate and  parochial  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  were  increasing  more  rapidly  than  in  public 
schools.  Between  1939-40  and  1945-46  private 
school  enrollments  increased  8.2  percent,  while 
during  the  same  period  public  school  enrollments 
decreased  8.4  percent.  In  Table  1  are  shown  the 
public  enrollments  by  States  for  1945-46,  with 
totals  for  the  continental  United  States  for  1945- 
46,  and  1944-45,  and  the  total  high-school  gradu- 
ates for  1945-46. 

In  Table  2  are  shown  the  totals  in  the  instruc- 
tional staff  and  the  enrollments  in  the  private  and 
parochial  schools  for  1945-46,  with  totals  for  the 
continental  United  States  for  the  years  1945-46 
and  1944-45. 


TABLE  1— U.S.  SCHOOL  ENROLLMENT  BY  STATES,  1945-46 


Enrollment 

Total 

Elementary  schools 

Seconder1}/  schools 

High-school 

United  States 

enrollment 

Boys 

Girl* 

Boys 

Girls 

graduates 

1945-1946  

23,299,941 

9,098,013 

8,579,731 

2,633,117 

2,989,080 

974,407 

1944-1945  

23,225,784 

9,053,952 

8,611,642 

2,565,699 

2,994,491 

944,536 

State 

Alabama  

638,375 

270,938 

260,734 

44,135 

62,568 

14,764= 

Arizona  

108,123 

43,960 

41,607 

10,881 

11,675 

3,394 

Arkansas  

393,070 

165,153 

160,696 

30,270 

36,951 

11,237 

California  

1,434,185 

551,108 

520,255 

174,794 

188,028 

63,237 

Colorado  

205,907 

82,129 

75,113 

22,029 

26,636 

9,242 

Connecticut  

250,730 

93,770 

87,689 

32,767 

36,504 

13,044 

Delaware  

41,683 

16,271 

15,009 

4,772 

5,631 

1,728 

Florida  

373,177 

151,525 

143,713 

34,865 

43,074 

12,868 

Georgia  

694,382 

290,977 

276,306 

55,323 

71,776 

17,340 

Idaho  

108,423 

41,152 

38,654 

13,654 

14,963 

5,595 

Illinois  ,  

1,115,707 

413,049 

388,384 

157,145 

157,129 

60,030 

Indiana 

646,626 

244,364 

229,772 

83,584 

88,906 

31,058 

Iowa  

460,538 

179,157 

167,395 

54,389 

59,597 

23,042 

Kansas  

337,627 

128,701 

120,104 

43,095 

45,727 

15,798 

Kentucky  

526,461 

227,661 

214,709 

36,533 

47,558 

14,229 

Louisiana  

436,273 

188,701 

182,043 

27,937 

37,592 

13,749 

Maine  

145,900 

59,306 

55,370 

13,965 

17,259 

5,371 

Maryland  

288,391 

117,240 

110,379 

27,765 

33,007 

9,863 

Massachusetts  

586,936 

219,600 

200,294 

76,858 

90,184 

32,283 

Michigan  

946,627 

358,922 

334,964 

119,911 

132,830 

41,736 

Minnesota  ,  

462,539 

175,735 

163,195 

57,552 

66,057 

24,073 

Mississippi  

517,024 

226,978 

221,181 

28,481 

40,384 

10,189 

Missouri  

625,235 

246,634 

232,275 

71,006 

75,320 

30,153 

Montana  

95,669 

36,087 

34,033 

12,785 

12,764 

5,490 

Nebraska  

230,147 

85,599 

80,307 

30,817 

33,424 

13,266 

Nevada  ,  , 

24,684 

9,679 

9,179 

2,842 

2,984 

870 

New  Hampshire  .,...,  

.  .  ,  66,972 

25,491 

23,432 

8,652 

9,397 

3,353 

New  Jersey  

615,461 

229,405 

207,135 

83,858 

95,063 

31,884 

New  Mexico  

128,532 

54,654 

51,729 

10,685 

11,404 

2,969 

New  York  ,  ,  

1,881,444 

665,207 

626,819 

288,638 

300,780 

94,664 

North  Carolina  

813,499 

345,663 

334,973 

55,960 

76,903 

8,726 

North  Dakota  

114,591 

45,330 

41,843 

12,097 

15,321 

5,273 

Ohio  

1,118,506 

424,881 

395,863 

140,894 

156,868 

58,136 

Oklahoma  

461,265 

182,323 

170,182 

50,924 

57,836 

17,065 

Oregon  

223,764 

85,334 

79,335 

29,043 

30,052 

11,487 

Pennsylvania  

1,513,178 

553,514 

520,630 

209,146 

229,888 

79,020 

Rhode  Island  

.  ,  94,346 

36,719 

33,004= 

11,565 

13,058 

4,282 

South  Carolina  

448,244 

183,266 

178,440 

37,118 

49,420 

12,449 

South  Dakota  

113,831 

43,551 

41,275 

13,143 

15,862 

5,953 

Tennessee  

595,019 

251,843 

240,933 

43,404 

58,839 

16,149 

Texas  ,  

1,246,453 

499,225 

468,873 

130,418 

147,937 

45,156 

Utah  

141,184 

52,504 

50,058 

19,054 

19,568 

8,010 

Vermont  

52,997 

19,600 

21,660 

5,346 

6,391 

2,154 

Virginia  

547,981 

220,475 

210,239 

60,915 

66,352 

17,886 

Washington  

384,431 

151,031 

140,449 

44,977 

47,974 

16,922 

West  Virginia  

410,673 

167,889 

158,343 

37,600 

46,841 

14,558 

Wisconsin  

,  484,356 

178,734 

166,647 

64,019 

74,956 

28,368 

Wyoming  

53,998 

21,004 

19,624 

6,348 

7,022 

2,428 

District  of  Columbia  ,  

94,777 

35,974 

34,885 

11,158 

12,760 

3,866 

SECRET  SERVICE  490 


SEISMOLOGY 


TABLE  2— PRIVATE  AND  PAROCHIAL  SCHOOLS, 
1945-46 

Instructional  Pupils 

United  States  staff          Elementary     Secondary 

1945-1946 100,865       2,259,392          565,108 

"'-. 98,802       2,205,796          518,776 


Alabama  ..............  687 

Arizona  ...............  287 

£&;;:::::::::::  8.™ 

Colorado...  ...........  803 

Connecticut  ............  2,302 

Florida??  i:::"::::::::  lot 

Georgia...!.*......."./.  448 


11,152 
5,061 


3,241 
640 


Iowa 


:  .'I':.'.'  :::    floil 
2,243 

J»il9 

.  .....  ........     i,  (  o*± 

Louisiana  .      2,265 

Mame  .................    1,057 

MLTachusettsV.;:::::::    e'll 
Michigan  ..............    4,504 

Mnnesota  .............    2,787 


15,164 
47,524 

7,120 
5',756 

' 


38,239 
21'?SS 

oo,  io/ 

63,115 
21,467 


4,568 
11,473 

3,324 
3^987 

eo??o 

Ijll 

11,311 

,?4S5 

j.i,2uo 

12,069 
7,800 


117,885 
60,891 


34,993 
11,695 


Montana 
Nebraska 


422 


.:::*/.:    1,005 
New  Jersey  ............    4,649 

New  Mexico  ...........      579 

North  Carolina.  '.  '.  ~.  '.  \  '.  '.  '.      419 
North  Dakota  ..........      504 

5,465 


6,379 
20'3gg 

18,573 
108,685 

35||gf 

3^88 

8,482 

134,708 


............  . 

Oregon  ................      597 

Pennsylvania  ...........   10,242 

::::  'fi 

557 

721 

2'3|| 

*  '.  '.  1      507 
864 


1,647 

5>1g5 

4,905 

25,334 

7«  774 
2J032 
1,578 

33,644 


South  Dakota 
Tennessee 


10,312 

248,076 

1:S5 

6,578 
8,652 


, 

3,285 

63,305 


1,514 
5,695 


Vermont. 
Virginia 


Wisconsin  ...  1  !!".".'.".  ".  1  ".    4,177 

bia:-::      73i 
^....       ^oj. 


ss69 
-9J2/J. 

6,233 
109',260 

ii'lol 
*i,i  v* 


3,219 
f  »;$f 

111? 
16J098 


«Less  junior  colleges. 

SECRET  SERVICE,  U.S.  A  division  of  the  U.S.  Treasury 
Department,  charged  with  the  protection  of  the 
President,  tie  suppression  of  counterfeiting,  the 
suppression  of  the  forgery  of  Government  checks 
and  bonds,  safeguarding  the  money  and  securities 
of  the  United  States,  and  investigations  relating 
to  the  Treasury  Department  as  directed  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Chief:  U.  E.  Baughman. 

Domestic  counterfeiting  increased,  but  not  to 
any  alarming  extent.  Of  a  total  of  $747,434  in 
counterfeit  bills  and  coins  captured  in  the  United 
States  during  the  fiscal  year  1948,  $644?785  was 
seized  before  it  could  be  passed.  Bills  and  coins 
passed  on  storekeepers  and  others  totaled  $145,- 
214,  including  $42,566  of  foreign  origin.  Of  51 
new  counterfeit  note  issues  which  appeared  during 
the  fiscal  year,  35  were  of  foreign  origin.  There 
were  158  arrests  and  90  convictions. 

There  were  32,283  forged  checks  and  11,019 
forged  bonds  received  for  investigation  during  the 
fiscal  year.  Agents  completed  investigations  of  28,- 
004  checks,  totaling  $1,953,186,  and  12,174  bonds 
with  a  value  of  $579,909.  Of  the  1,732  persons  ar- 
rested  for  check  forgery,  1,590  were  convicted. 
There  were  232^  arrests  for  bond  forgery  and  245 
convictions  (which  included  dispositions  on  cases 
pending  from  prior  years  )  .  Fines  in  criminal  cases 
totaled  $70,331  and  jail  sentences  totaled  about 
2,091  years,  with  additional  sentences  of  2,585 
years  suspended  or  probated. 


The  Secret  Service  closed  43,540  criminal  cases 
and  2,081  noncriminal  cases,  for  a  total  of  45,621 
investigations  completed  during  the  fiscal  year. 

SECURITIES   AND   EXCHANGE   COMMISSION    (SEC).   An 

^dependent  agency  of  the  U.S.  Government  which 
has  the  following  functions:  Registration  of  secu- 
rity  issues  to  provide  factual  disclosures,  and  sup- 
pression  of  fraudulent  practices  in  &e  sale  of  se- 
curities  under  the  Securities  Act  or  1933;  supervi- 
sion  an(j  regulation  of  transactions  and  trading  in 
outstanding  securities,  both  on  the  stock  exchanges 
and  in  the  over-the-counter  markets,  and  registra- 
tion  of  brokers  and  dealers,  as  provided  in  the 
Securities  Exchange  Act  of  1934;  regulation  of 
financial  and  related  practices  of  electric  and  gas 
public  utility  holding  companies  and  their  sub- 

.  •*  .     .  <         -i        -j=r  t  -i  .      TT  »i  »i_      TT   i  i  •          f*\ 

sidianes  under  the  Public  Utility  Holding  Com- 
pany  Act  of  1935,  as  well  as  readjustment  of  their 
system  and  corporate  structures  and  reduction  of 
their  utility  holdings  to  integrated  systems  ;  qual- 
ification  of  trust  indentures  pursuant  to  which  new 


Q 

Trust  Indenture  Act  of  1939;  registration  and  reg- 
ulation  of  investment  companies  and  investment 
advisers  under  the  Investment  Company  Act  and 
the  Investment  Advisers  Act  of  1940;  and  the  prep- 
aration  of  advisory  reports  on  plans,  and  participa- 
ti°n  as  a  Partv»  in  corporate  reorganizations  under 
Chapter  X  of  the  National  Bankruptcy  Act.  Chair- 
man:  Edmond  M.  Hanrahan.  See  FINANCIAL  RE- 

i         —,/        ,T     ..        >      n        • 

VIEW  under  The  Nation  s  Savings. 


SEISMOLOGY,  scope  *  M*™  s*m.t.w.  while 

seismology  primarily  refers  to  the  scientific  study 
of  earthquakes,  seismological  techniques  have  been 
projected  into  so  many  other  fields  in  recent  years 
that  it  can  no  longer  be  considered  solely  a  branch 
of  geology.  The  old  practice  of  associating  it  mainly 
with  volcanoes  is  inappropriate  because  volcanic 
earthquakes  due  to  intense  explosions  are  in  a 
^^  catfgo[y  comP«ed  with  the  thousands  of 
stronger  shocks  due  to  ruptures  m  the  deep  rock 
structure  of  the  Earth's  crust  Today  greater  re- 
sources are  expended  on  seismological  activities 
in  the  search  for  oil  than  is  represented  in  all  other 
types  of  seismological  activity  combined. 

The  exploration  geophysicist  simulates  earth- 
quake  effects  by  firing  small  charges  of  explosives 
in  the  ground  and  by  study  of  the  resulting  ground 
vibrations  detects  what  is  likely  to  be  an  oil-bear- 
ing  structure.  In  areas  where  destructive  earth- 
quakes  are  frequent  the  structural  engineer  is 
interested  in  the  nature  and  magnitude  of  the  de- 
structive  ground  vibrations  and  has  thereby  created 
a  new  and  important  field  of  investigation;  namely, 
engineering-seismology.  The  last  decade  also  has 
given  marked  emphasis  to  the  value  of  seismo- 
graphic  data  in  meteorological  studies. 

For  several  years  the  United  States  Navy  has 
been  tracking  hurricanes  and  typhoons  by  measur- 
ing  the  directions  of  the  minute  ground  waves 
known  as  microseisms,  which  are  generated  by 
low-pressure  areas  over  the  oceans.  The  variations 
in  character  and  amplitude  of  microseisms  of  all 
types  are  still  the  subject  of  much  speculation  as 
to  their  cause  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  are 
all  primarily  of  meteorological  origin.  These  activ- 
ities  obviously  give  the  word  seismology  a  new  and 
broader  significance  than  heretofore. 

Seismographs.  The  tool  of  modern  seismological 
investigation  is  the  seismograph.  This  in  broad 
principle  is  a  special  type  of  damped  pendulum 
which,  when  set  into  motion  by  a  ground  wave, 
records  in  highly  magnified  form  the  differential 


SEISMOLOGY 


491 


SEISMOLOGY 


motion  between  the  oscillating  pendulum  and  the 
moving  ground.  By  a  proper  choice  of  pendulum 
period  a  seismograph  can  be  made  to  record  either 
the  acceleration,  velocity,  or  displacement  of  the 
oscillatory  ground  motion  but  there  are  practical 
limitations  in  certain  categories. 

The  average  seismograph  is  generally  a  com- 
promise type  designed  to  register  clearly  all  of  the 
important  wave  groups  emanating  from  a  distant 
earthquake  regardless  of  the  type  of  motion  regis- 
tered. Amplification  of  the  pendulum  motion  gen- 
erally varies  from  500  to  50,000  but  instruments 
for  special  purposes  extend  this  range  from  1  to 
1,000,000.  The  amplitude  of  ground  motion  meas- 
ured by  this  broad  array  varies  from  a  few  tenths 
of  a  micron  found  in  the  normal  background  activ- 
ity of  very  stable  geological  formations  to  many 
feet  or  yards  found  in  the  central  area  of  a  great 
earthquake. 

Usefulness  of  Seismographic  Data.  La  earthquake 
investigations  seismographic  data  serve  a  two-fold 
purpose:  (1)  to  locate  earthquakes,  and  (2)  to 
delineate  the  structure  traversed  by  the  seismic 
waves  which  radiate  in  all  directions  from  an  earth- 
quake focus.  When  an  earthquake  occurs,  which  is 
usually  near  the  surface  of  the  Earth,  it  radiates 
three  principal  wave  groups.  The  first  two,  so- 
called  primary  and  secondary  waves,  expand  into 
the  Earth's  interior  at  different  speeds  so  that  a 
seismograph  will  register  the  surface  trace  of  the 
higher-speed  wave  first  and  some  seconds  or  min- 
utes later  register  the  slower-speed  waves. 

By  measuring  the  time  interval  between  the 
arrival  of  the  two  groups  the  seismologist  is  able 
to  determine  the  distance  to  the  earthquake  by 
referring  to  an  empirical  seismological  table  which 
tells  him  the  exact  distance  to  which  a  particular 
time  interval  corresponds.  Close  to  an  earthquake 
the  interval  is  only  a  matter  of  seconds  but  it  in- 
creases to  nearly  ten  minutes  at  distances  about 
one-quarter  the  circumference  of  the  Earth.  When 
such  epicentral  distances  are  known  from  a  large 
number  of  stations  they  are  used  as  radii  to  swing 
arcs  on  the  globe,  to  intersect  at  the  location  of  the 
earthquake. 

The  greater  part  of  the  energy  radiated  by  an 
earthquake  is  represented  in  waves  which  traverse 
only  the  crustal  layers  of  the  Earth.  There  are  two 
types,  the  slower  of  which  makes  a  completed  cir- 
cuit of  the  globe  in  about  three  hours.  The  other  is 
only  slightly  faster.  Seismographic  data  have  made 
it  possible  to  plot  accurately  the  seismic  belts  of 
the  Earth  whether  on  land  or  beneath  the  seas.  Al- 
though the  rim  of  the  Pacific  and  the  southern 
portion  of  the  Eurasian  continent  constitute  the 
two  major  belts  there  are  many  minor  belts. 

No  portion  of  the  Earth's  surface  can  be  said  to 
be  entirely  free  of  some  form  of  seismic  activity, 
which,  for  the  Earth  as  a  whole,  sums  up  to  about 
a  million  shocks  per  year  including  all  types  from 
those  perceptible  only  to  instruments  to  the  de- 
structive ones.  Such  activity  can  often  be  related  to 
such  geological  features  as  mountain  building.  To 
the  engineer  such  epicenter  maps  indicate  where 
buildings,  bridges,  and  dams  must  be  reinforced 
to  withstand  earthquake  forces. 

To  the  student  of  Earth  physics  seismology 
yields  more  data  on  tihe  structure  of  the  Earth's 
ulterior  than  any  other  science.  It  furnishes  a  sort 
of  X-ray  of  the  interior  in  that  it  is  possible  to 
determine  the  velocities  of  all  wave  types  at  all 
depths  and  from  these  velocities  to  speculate  on 
the  character  of  the  material  traversed  and  the 
levels  at  which  abrupt  changes  occur.  From  it  we 
know  that  over  continental  areas  there  is  generally 


a  granitic  layer  varying  from  10  to  20  km.  in  thick- 
ness overlying  a  layer  of  basaltic  rock  of  about 
equal  thickness.  Over  portions  of  the  large  oceanic 
basins  these  layers  decrease  markedly  in  thickness 
and  may  even  disappear.  More  significant  than  this 
is  the  evidence  from  seismological  data  that  the 
core  of  the  Earth,  having  a  radius  greater  than 
half  that  of  the  Earth  itself,  transmits  seismic  waves 
at  greatly  reduced  speeds. 

In  the  last  two  decades  it  has  been  definitely 
shown  that  while  most  strong  earthquakes  origi- 
nate at  depths  averaging  around  12  miles  others 
occur  as  far  as  450  miles  down.  Some  question  is 
therefore  raised  as  to  the  adequacy  of  any  theory 
which  calls  for  stress  equilibrium  at  depths  much 
shallower  than  this.  Within  the  same  epoch  studies 
of  earthquake  energy  have  indicated  that  while 
tens  of  thousands  of  earthquakes  may  occur  an- 
nually one  great  shock  may  represent  as  much  as 
90  percent  of  the  earthquake  energy  expended 
during  the  year. 

Seismological  Organizations.  Seismological  obser- 
vations and  research  are  carried  on  at  approxi- 
mately 250  stations  throughout  the  world  about 
75  of  which  are  located  in  the  United  States.  The 
principal  organizations  carrying  on  research  in  the 
United  States  are  the  Pasadena  Seismological  Lab- 
oratory at  the  California  Institute  of  Technology, 
the  University  of  California  at  Berkeley,  the  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  at  Saint  Louis  University,  and 
the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 
which,  though  centered  in  Washington,  maintains 
a  field  office  in  San  Francisco  and  a  network  of 
teleseismic  and  strong-motion  stations  in  United 
States,  Alaska,  and  Island  possessions. 

The  Pasadena  Seismological  Laboratory  under 
Drs.  Gutenberg  and  Richter  has  been  largely 
responsible  for  development  of  an  instrumental 
magnitude  scale  and  its  application  to  earthquake 
statistics,  for  studies  of  the  geography  of  earth- 
quakes and  their  distribution  in  depth,  and  for 
studies  of  seismic  wave  transmission.  One  of  the 
most  important  results  of  the  research  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California  under  Dr.  Byerly  has  been  the 
establishment  of  the  existence  of  a  root  or  projec- 
tion of  lighter  crustal  material  into  the  deeper  lay- 
ers under  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

At  Saint  Louis  University,  work  done  by  Rev. 
J.  E.  Ramirez,  S.J.,  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev. 
James  B.  Macelwane,  S.J,9  revealed  the  possibility 
of.  determining  for  every  large  microseismic  storm 
the  direction  from  which  the  microseisms  came, 
thus  leading  to  the  United  States  Navy's  successful 
program  of  tracking  hurricanes  in  the  West  Indies 
and  typhoons  in  the  western  Pacific. 

The  U.S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  has  carried 
on  the  seismological  service  of  the  Government 
since  1925.  It  is  currently  interpreting  and  publish- 
ing the  instrumental  results  of  27  Survey,  coop- 
erating, and  independent  stations.  It  promptly  re- 
ports the  location  of  large  earthquakes.  This  is 
accomplished  by  the  cooperation  of  seismological 
stations  all  over  the  world  which  telegraph  their 
seismographic  data  to  Washington.  The  Survey 
also  maintains  a  network  of  approximately  50  ac- 
celerograph  stations  in  western  United  States  and 
Central  and  South  America  to  obtain  destructive 
ground-motion  data  needed  by  the  structural  engi- 
neer in  designing  structures  in  earthquake  areas. 

Following  the  destructive  seismic  sea  wave  of 
Apr.  1,  1946,  in  the  Pacific  the  Survey  made  ar- 
rangements to  provide  for  prompt  warning  of  the 
possibility  of  such  waves  in  the  future.  Visible- 
recording  seismographs  installed  at  Tuscon,  Ariz.; 
College,  Alaska;  and  Honolulu,  T.H.,  and  a  24- 


SELECTIVE  SERVICE 


492 


SELECTIVE  SERVICE 


hour  alarm  service  will  be  maintained  to  permit  the 
rapid  determination  of  the  location  of  submarine 
earthquakes  potentially  capable  of  causing  seismic 
sea  waves. 

The  American  Geophysical  Union,  with  its  Sec- 
tion of  Seismology,  and  the  Seismological  Society 
of  America  are  societies  composed  of  those  inter-  - 
ested  in  or  engaged  in  seismology  as  a  profession. 
Both  organizations  publish  technical  journals.  The 
Society  of  Exploration  Geophysicists  is  composed 
largely  of  those  engaged  in  geophysical,  including 
seismic,  prospecting.  The  journal  of  the  Society, 
Geophysics,  publishes  highly  technical  papers  on 
various  phases  of  geophysics.  The  International 
"Union  of  Geodesy  and  Geophysics  includes  the 
International  Seismological  Association.  Among  its 
functions  is  the  sponsorship  of  the  International 
Seismological  Summary,  a  compilation  of  world- 
wide instrumental  data. 

Earthquake  Activity  in  1948.  During  1948  there 
were  many  strong  and  destructive  earthquakes. 
The  greatest  snocks  of  the  year  in  absolute  magni- 
tude were  those  of  January  24  in  the  southern 
Philippines  and  September  8  in  the  Tonga  Islands. 
A  great  disaster  resulted  .from  the  earthquake  of 
June  28  in  Japan  which  caused  the  deaths  of  about 
4,000  persons,  injured  10,000  others,  and  destroyed 
or  damaged  approximately  55,000  buildings  in  and 
near  Fukui  Another  destructive  shock  occurred  on 
October  5  near  the  border  between  Iran  and  the 
Turkmen  Republic  causing  many  deaths  and  in- 
juries and  considerable  property  damage  in  both 
countries.  The  village  of  Lihau  in  Sikang  Province, 
China,  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  on  May 
25.  Other  destructive  shocks  occurred  in  Greece, 
Italy,  Algeria,  South  Africa,  the  Dominican  Repub- 
lic, Peru,  Chile,  Argentina,  Bolivia,  and  Hawaii. 

Most  of  the  activity  in  the  United  States  oc- 
curred during  December.  A  strong  shock  on  De- 
cember 4  caused  some  damage  around  Palm 
Springs,  Calif.,  and  a  series  of  quakes  shook  Reno, 
Nev.,  and  adjacent  sections  of  California  during 
the  last  few  days  of  the  month.  An  earthquake  on 
November  2  momentarily  interrupted  power  at 
Hoover  Dam  and  caused  rock  slides  in  nearby 
mountains.  Numerous  smaller  shocks  were  reported 
from  all  sections  of  the  United  States. 

— FRANK  NEUMANN 

SELECTIVE  SERVICE.  In  approving  the  Selective  Serv- 
ice Act  of  1948,  the  United  States  Congress  de- 
clared that  "in  a  free  society  the  obligations  and 
privileges  of  serving  in  the  armed  forces  and  the 
reserve  components  thereof  should  be  shared  gen- 
erally, in  accordance  with  a  system  of  selection 
which  is  fair  and  just,  and  which  is  consistent  with 
the  maintenance  of  an  effective  national  economy/' 

The  task  of  applying  this  deeply-rooted  Ameri- 
can principle  in  conformance  with  the  spirit  and 
the  letter  of  the  law  was  assigned  to  the  Selective 
Service  System,  created  under  authority  of  the 
Act. 

The  law  recognizes  that  to  be  "fair  and  just*'  re- 
sponsibility for  selection  of  individuals  for  the 
armed  forces  must  rest  on  the  shoulders  of  men 
who  know  the  individuals,  their  personal  problems, 
and  their  relation  to  the  welfare  of  their  commu- 
nities, as  well  as  the  Nation  at  large. 

That  is  why  the  Act  places  so  much  emphasis 
on  the  Local  Board  and — in  the  final  analysis — 
makes  the  Local  Board  the  very  foundation  upon 
which  Selective  Service  is  built 

There  are  approximately  3,700  Local  Boards 
in  the  System.  Each  is  composed  of  three  or  more 
male  citizens,  80  years  of  age  or  older,  appointed 


by  the  President  upon  recommendation  of  the  re- 
spective governors.  They  receive  no  pay. 

There  is  one  Local  Board  for  each  county,  gen- 
erally speaking,  and  in  densely  populated  areas 
one  for  each  100,000  population  approximately. 
In  areas  of  sparse  population  one  board  may  serve 
as  many  as  five  counties  when  authorized  by  the 
Director. 

The  principal  function  of  the  Local  Boards  is  to 
classify  registrants  under  their  jurisdiction — that  is, 
to  determine — on  the  basis  of  information  obtained 
from  its  registrants*  questionnaire  and  other  perti- 
nent sources — whether  the  registrant  should  be 
placed  in  a  deferred  classification,  or  in  I- A — avail- 
able for  service.  Obviously,  the  Local  Board  must 
follow  the  law  and  the  regulations,  and  the  regis- 
trant and  certain  other  interested  persons  have  the 
right  of  appeal,  but  that  does  not  detract  from  the 
importance  of  the  Local  Board  in  the  Selective 
Service  scheme  of  things.  Each  State  has  one  or 
more  appeal  boards.  Under  certain  conditions  ap- 
peals may  be  taken  to  the  President. 

Attached  to  each  Local  Board  is  a  medical  ex- 
aminer, a  registrant's  advisor,  and  a  Government 
appeal  agent,  who  may  appeal  a  case  in  behalf  of 
the  registrant  or  the  Government  if  he  thinks  a 
classification  unfair.  (All  of  the  foregoing  members 
of  the  Selective  Service  System  are  uncompen- 
sated.)  Appeals  likewise  may  be  taken  by  the  Di- 
rector or  the  State  Director. 

Under  the  organizational  setup  the  Local  Boards 
are  directly  responsible  to  the  State  Headquarters, 
State  Headquarters  to  National  Headquarters. 

Major  General  Lewis  B,  Hershey  was  appointed 
Director  of  the  Selective  Service  System  by  Presi- 
dent Truman  after  enactment  of  the  new  law.  Gen- 
eral Hershey  had  been  associated  with  Selective 
Service  since  1936,  when  he  was  appointed  Sec- 
retary and  Executive  Officer  of  the  Joint  Army  and 
Navy  Committee,  which,  through  its  studying  and 
planning,  laid  the  groundwork  for  the  structure 
and  the  administration  of  the  Selective  Service  Act 
of  1940.  Under  authority  of  this  Act,  10,123,599 
men  were  inducted  into  the  armed  forces — repre- 
senting more  than  66  percent  of  the  armed  forces 
total  strength. 

The  World  War  II  organization  which  General 
Hershey  headed  was,  at  its  peak  strength,  com- 
posed of  unpaid  personnel  totaling  185,000;  paid 
personnel  25,000,  compared  to  a  contemplated  50,- 
000  unpaid  personnel  and  5,500  paid  personnel 
( approximately )  under  the  present  ( 1948 )  Act. 

The  Selective  Service  Act  of  1940  expired  Mar. 
31,  1947.  Congressional  legislation  enacted  shortly 
before  that  date  provided  for  the  establishment  of 
the  Office  of  Selective  Service  Records,  charged 
with  the  responsibility  of  liquidating  the  Selective 
Service  System,  preservation  and  maintenance  of 
the  Selective  Service  records  containing  data  con- 
cerning approximately  44  million  men,  also  preser- 
vation of  the  methods  and  knowledge  of  Selective 
Service.  President  Harry  S.  Truman  appointed 
General  Hershey  as  Director  of  this  agency  on  Apr. 
1,  1947,  and  it,  in  turn,  was  absorbed  by  the  new 
Selective  Service  System  upon  enactment  of  the 
Selective  Service  law  of  1948,  which  was  June  24, 
1948. 

It  was  the  planning  and  training  accomplished 
by  the  Office  of  Selective  Service  Records  during 
the  interim  between  the  expiration  of  1940  Act  and 
enactment  of  the  1948  Law  which  was  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the  speed  and  efficiency  with  which 
the  new  organization  was  set  up. 

Approximately  8%  million  men  were  registered 
by  the  Local  Boards  during  the  initial  registration 


SELECTIVE  SERVICE 


493 


SELECTIVE  SERVICE 


period,  set  by  Presidential  Proclamation  August  30 
to  September  18.  Men  18  through  26  were  regis- 
tered. Those  becoming  18  after  September  18  are 
required  to  register  within  5  days  of  the  date  of 
their  birthday  anniversary.  The  18-year-old  men 
are  not  liable  for  service  until  they  reach  the  age 
of  19. 

Actual  inductions  began  in  November  to  meet 
a  call  from  the  Army  for  10,000  men.  The  Decem- 
ber call  was  for  15,000;  January,  10,000  (revised); 
February,  5,000  (canceled).  Neither  Navy  nor 
Air  Force  requested  any  inductees  during  these 
months,  nor  were  there  indications  that  they  would 
in  the  immediate  future. 

It  had  been  expected  that  the  Army  calls  would 
be  higher,  and  in  announcing  the  curtailed  calls 
the  National  Military  Establishment  stated  on  Nov. 
30,  1948:  "The  reductions  were  necessitated  by  the 
limitation  of  the  military  budget  for  Fiscal  1950 
to  $15,000  million,  of  which  $600  millions  are  for 
stockpiling  of  strategic  raw  materials.*7 

Previously  (on  June  28,  1948)  Secretary  of  the 
Army  Royall  had  placed  the  strength  of  the  Army 
at  542,000  and  pointed  out  that  under  authority  of 
the  Congress  it  might  be  increased  to  837,000  with 
enlistees  and  inductees.  He  added,  however,  that 
the  1949  appropriations  would  limit  the  total  num- 
ber to  790,000  between  then  and  July  1,  1949.  The 
November  30  statement  did  not  include  figures  on 
the  revised  scheduled  army  strength  made  nec- 
essary by  the  reduced  budget 

As  a  generality,  the  number  of  men  inducted  de- 
pends upon  the  number  needed  to  make  up  the 
difference  between  those  who  enlist  and  the  sched- 
uled strength.  The  more  recruits  obtained,  the 
fewer  who  have  to  be  drafted,  and  conversely,  the 
fewer  the  recruits,  the  greater  the  number  of  draft* 
ees.  That  the  very  existence  of  a  Selective  Service 
law  would  greatly  spur  the  enlistment  rate  had 
never  been  disputed,  but  to  just  what  extent  over 
a  period  of  time  can  only  be  estimated  as  this  is 
written. 

It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  Selective  Service 
is  a  procurement  agency  designed  to  produce  the 
number  of  men — and  die  type  of  men — required 
by  the  armed  forces  when  called  upon  to  do  so 
by  the  armed  forces.  A  frequently  overlooked  fact, 
and  a  very  important  one,  is  that  the  armed  forces 
prescribe  the  number  of  men  to  be  inducted  and 
also  the  physical  requirements  each  inductee  must 
meet. 

Approval  of  the  Selective  Service  Act  of  1948 
was  the  culmination  of  a  series  of  events  put  into 
motion  by  President  Truman  in  a  special  message 
to  Congress  on  Mar.  17,  1948.  Pointing  out  that 
"our  badly  depleted  military  strength  is  one  of  the 
Nation's  greatest  dangers/*  the  President  requested 
reenacrment  of  a  Selective  Service  law  and  also 
a  law  providing  for  universal  military  training. 

The  President  declared:  "I  believe  that  we  have 
learned  the  importance  of  maintaining  military 
strength  as  a  means  of  preventing  war.  We  have 
found  that  a  sound  military  system  is  necessary  in 
time  of  peace  if  we  are  to  remain  at  peace.  Ag- 
gressors in  the  past,  relying  on  our  apparent  lack 
of  military  force,  have  unwisely  precipitated  war. 
Although  they  have  been  led  to  destruction  by 
their  misconception  of  our  strength,  we  have  paid 
a  terrific  price  for  our  unpreparedness." 

Measures  embodying  President  Truman's  rec- 
ommendations were  introduced  in  the  Senate  by 
Chan  Gurney,  Chairman  of  the  Senate  Armed  Serv- 
ices Committee,  on  May  12,  and  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  by  Walter  G.  Andrews,  Chairman 
of  the  House  Armed  Services  Committee,  on 


April  30?  after  prolonged  hearings  during  which 
Major  General  Lewis  B.  Hershey,  the  Director  of 
the  Office  of  Selective  Service  Records,  and  Colo- 
nel Louis  H.  Renfrow,  the  Chief  Legislative  and 
Liaison  Officer,  were  frequently  called  to  testify 
and  to  submit  pertinent  facts  and  figures. 

The  Selective  Service  Act  of  1948  was  passed 
by  the  Senate  and  House  in  final  form,  without 
universal  military  training  provisions,  on  June  12, 
1948.  On  June  24,  1948,  the  measure  was  ap- 
proved by  President  Truman  and  thus  enacted  into 
law  (Public  Law  759,  80th  Congress).  Follows  a 
brief  summary  of  the  Act  as  it  was  approved  June 
24,  1948:  The  period  of  service  is  fixed  by  the  Act 
at  21  months,  with  a  maximum  5-year  Reserve  ob- 
ligation subsequent  to  discharge.  Men  18  years 
old  are  permitted  to  enlist  for  one  year,  within  a 
161,000  limit  set  by  the  Act.  They  also  have  Re- 
serve obligations. 

The  Act  authorizes  the  President  to  issue  regula- 
tions under  which  persons  whose  employment  in 
industry,  agriculture,  or  other  occupations  or  em- 
ployment are  found  necessary  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  national  health,  safety,  or  interest  may  be 
deferred  by  their  local  boards.  The  President  is 
given  authority  to  issue  regulations  providing  for 
deferment  by  local  boards  of  persons  whose  con- 
tinued activity  in  study,  research,  or  medical,  sci- 
entific, or  other  endeavors  is  found  to  be  necessary 
to  national  health,  safety,  or  interest.  (Pertinent 
regulations  were  issued  August  23, ) 

The  individual's  status  with  respect  to  his  ac- 
tivity or  employment,  as  determined  by  his  local 
board,  is  the  governing  consideration.  Provisions 
authorize  the  President  to  issue  regulations  author- 
izing deferment  by  local  boards  of  men  who  are 
married  or  with  other  dependents.  (Such  regula- 
tions were  issued  August  23.) 

All  males  between  18  and  26  residing  in  the 
United  States  are  required  to  register  on  dates  pro- 
claimed by  the  President,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions. The  few  exceptions  include  men  on  active 
duty  in  the  armed  forces  and  foreign  diplomats, 
and  a  few  aliens  under  conditions  rigidly  specified. 

Exemptions  and  deferments  continue  only  so 
long  as  the  cause  for  them  continues.  Exemptions 
are  provided  for  most  veterans  under  minutely 
specified  conditions.  Exempt  also  are  ministers, 
ministerial  students,  and  conscientious  objectors, 
but  the  Act  is  specific  in  defining  those  who  can 
qualify  for  exemption  under  those  provisions.  The 
Act  provides  that  a  sole  surviving  son  of  a  family 
who  lost  one  or  more  sons  or  daughters  in  the  war 
— either  in  action  or  of  wounds,  injury  or  service- 
connected  disease— cannot  be  inducted. 

Deferments  are  provided  for  men  who  were 
members  of  organized  units  of  Reserve  components 
at  the  time  of  the  law's  enactment,  and  also  for 
certain  ROTC  members  and  other  ROTC  members 
designated  by  the  Secretary  of  Defense.  Certain 

Eublic  officials  are  also  deferred  by  the  law  while 
olding  office. 

High  school  students,  under  the  law,  may  be 
permitted  by  their  local  boards  to  continue  their 
courses,  if  their  scholastic  work  is  satisfactory,  un- 
til graduation,  or  until  they  reach  the  age  of  20, 
whichever  is  first.  College  and  university  students 
satisfactorily  pursuing  a  full-time  course  at  a  col- 
lege, university,  or  similar  institution  of  learning 
may  have  their  induction  postponed  by  their  Local 
Boards  until  the  end  of  the  academic  year.  Dura- 
tion of  the  Act  is  two  years. 

No  one  may  be  inducted  after  reaching  his  26th 
birthday  anniversary.  Reemployment  rights  are  es- 
tablished substantially  the  same  as  under  the  old 


SELECTIVE  SERVICE 


494 


SHIPBUILDING 


Selective  Service  Act,  with  administration  under 
the  Department  of  Labor.  The  Act  (as  passed 
June  24,  1948)  made  no  provision  for  the  exemp- 
tion of  former  members  of  the  merchant  marine. 
Nor  does  it  provide  for  their  deferment  by  regula- 
tion. 

In  July  it  was  announced  that  men  would  be  in- 
ducted in  sequence  of  birth  dates,  beginning  with 
men  in  the  25-year-old  bracket  and  working  down 
into  the  lower  age  brackets.  It  was  pointed  out, 
however,  that  there  were  relatively  few  men  ages 
25  through  22  who  would  be  inducted  because  of 
exemption  and  deferment  provisions  in  the  law 
affecting  veterans  and  men  with  wives  or  other 
dependents,  and  because  of  physical  standards. 

Regulations  issued  under  authority  of  the  Act  es- 
tablished 5  classes  and  sub-classes,  as  follows: 

CLASS   I 

Class  I- A:      Available  for  Military  Service. 
Class  I-A-O:  Conscientious  Objector  Available  for 

Noncombatant  Service  Only. 
Class  I-C:      Member  of  the  Armed  Forces  of  the 

United  States,  the  Coast  Guard,  the 

Coast  and  Ceodetic  Survey,  or  the 

Public  Health  Service. 
Class  I-D:      Member  of  Reserve  Component  or 

Student  Taking  Military  Training. 

CLASS  n 

Class  II-A:  Deferred  Because  of  Civilian  Em- 
ployment (Except  Agriculture). 

Class  II-C:  Deferred  Because  of  Employment  in 
Agriculture. 

CLASS  m 
Ckss  LU-A:   Deferred  Because  of  Dependents. 

CLASS  IV 

Ckss  TV-A:  Registrant  Who  Has  Completed  Serv- 
ice; Sole  Surviving  Son. 

Ckss  W-B:    Official  Deferred  by  Law. 

Class  TV-D:  Minister  of  Religion  or  Divinity  Stu- 
dent. 

CkssIV-E:  Conscientious  Objector  Opposed  to 
Both  Combatant  and  Noncombatant 
Military  Service. 

Class  IV-F:  Physically,  Mentally,  or  Morally  Un- 
fit 

CLASS   V 

Glass  V-A:  Registrant  Over  the  Age  of  Liability 
for  Military  Service. 

Follows  a  summary  of  registration  reports,  after 
the  initial  registration,  which  was  from  Aug.  30  to 
Sept  18,  1948: 


United 
States 
Number  Registered            .  8  398  713 

Territories 
186  250 

Grand 
Total 
8  584  963 

Single,    Non-Veteran,    Non- 
Father  Born  1922-1  929  2,048,626 
Breakdown  of  Single,  Non- 
Veteran,  Non-Fathers  * 
Born  1922                                30  455 

99,187 
2546 

2,147,813 
33001 

1923     .     ...             103,727 

8007 

111  734 

1924     .      .        .            124,653 

9  522 

134  175 

1925    147  087 

10,277 

157  364 

1926  171,346 

13,355  - 

184  701 

1927  261,162 

14,811 

275,973 

1928                              553  726 

21  057 

574  783 

1929    .                           656  470 

19  612 

676  082 

*  Non- veterans  are  those  who  do  not  qualify  for  deferment 
as  veterans  as  defined  by  the  Act.  Husbands  and  fathers  are  de- 
ferred by  regulations  authorized  by  the  Act.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  however,  that  the  total  does  not  represent  the  available 
manpower  pool,  as  a  very  large  proportion  will  be  found  de- 
ferrable because  of  physical  condition,  occupational  status,  and 
other  reasons.  Those  born  in  1929  cannot  be  inducted  until  after 
they  reach  19.  Approximately  1,200,000  pass  from  one  age 
group  to  another  each  year. 

— LEWIS  B.  HERSHEY 


SENATE,  U.S.  See  CONGRESS,  U.S. 

SEYCHELLES.  A  British  colony  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
600  miles  northeast  of  Madagascar.  Including  its 
dependencies,  the  colony  comprises  92  islands. 
Mahe  (55  sq.  mi. ),  Praslin  ( 15  sq.  mi. ),  Silhouette, 
La  Digue,  Curieuse,  and  Felicite  are  the  chief  is- 
lands of  the  colony.  The  dependent  islands  include 
Amirantes,  Alphonse,  Bijoutier,  St.  Francois,  St. 
Pierre,  the  Cosmoledo  Group,  Astove  Island,  As- 
sumption, the  Aldabra  Islands,  Providence,  Coetivy, 
Flat,  and  Farquhar  Islands.  Total  area;  156  square 
miles.  Total  population  (Jan.  1,  1944):  33,621. 
Capital:  Victoria  (pop.  4,947). 

The  principal  products  include  coconuts,  cinna- 
mon, patchouli  oil,  maize,  sugar  cane,  mangrove 
bark,  phosphate,  and  vanilla.  In  1947  imports  were 
worth  Rs5,087,106;  exports  Rs4,163,626.  Govern- 
ment revenue  in  1946  totaled  Rs3,376,382;  expend- 
iture Rsl,863,549.  The  colony  is  administered  by 
a  governor,  assisted  by  an  executive  council  and  a 
legislative  council.  Governor:  Dr.  P.  S.  Selwyn- 
Clarke. 

SHIPBUILDING,  Merchant.  Shipbuilding  in  the  United 

States  in  1948  saw  the  last  merchant  vessel  initially 
conceived  and  contracted  for  under  the  wartime 
shipbuilding  program  completed  and  delivered  in 
April,  thus  bringing  to  a  close  the  greatest  ship- 
building program  in  world  history. 

The  United  States  had  produced,  insofar  as 
number  of  vessels  and  total  tonnage  is  concerned, 
the  largest  merchant  marine  ever  known.  Despite 
this  fact,  however,  it  did  not  have  the  balanced 
type  of  merchant  marine  required  either  for  foreign 
trade  or  national  security.  The  present  merchant 
marine  is  neither  adequate  nor  well  rounded, 
because  of  a  critical  lack  of  passenger  vessels, 
combination  passenger-cargo  ships  and  vessels  for 
special  trades  and  purposes. 

The  loss  of  such  types  of  vessels  was  heavy  dur- 
ing the  war  and,  whereas  at  the  time  of  the  attack 
on  Pearl  Harbor,  25  United  States  lines  were  oper- 
ating 133  vessels  accommodating  over  38,000  pas- 
sengers, in  October  1948,  17  American  steamship 
companies  were  operating  52  passenger  and  com- 
bination passenger-cargo  ships  with  a  capacity  of 
barely  13,000  persons.  The  age  pattern  of  the 
United  States  merchant  fleet  is  abnormal,  in  that 
the  majority  of  those  vessels  suitable  for  a  perma- 
nent merchant  marine  are  of  substantially  the  same 
age  and  will  become  obsolete  or  worn  out,  as  a 
group,  at  the  same  time. 


Country 


No.  of  Vessels  Gross  Tonnage 


United  States 3,644  26,689,500" 

British  Empire 3,103  18,373,800 

Norway 766  3,856,500 

Sweden 512  1,719,200 

Netherlands 448  2,513,600 

Panama 436  2,721,700 

France 426  2,356,300 

U.S.S.R 418  1,299,300 

Italy 317  1,995,200 

Greece 218  1,244,000 

Other  Countries 2,182  7,815,400 

Totals 12,470  70,584,500 

As  of  June  30,  1948,  the  world  tonnage  of  mer- 
chant ships,  of  1,000  gross  tons  or  over,  amounting 
to  70,584,500  gross  tons,  included  12,470  vessels. 
The  United  States  had  approximately  29  percent 
of  the  vessels  and  better  man  37  percent  of  the 
tonnage.  The  world  tonnage  of  merchant  ships  of 
1,000  gross  tons  or  over,  as  of  June  30,  1948,  was 
distributed  among  the  maritime  nations  according 
to  the  accompanying  table. 


SHIPBUILDING 


495 


SHIPBUILDING 


The  total  of  70,584,500  gross  tons  of  vessels  in 
the  world  fleet  is  an  increase  of  only  164,000  gross 
tons  since  June  30,  1947. 

Postwar  Construction.  The  first  Step  in  the  U.S. 
Maritime  Commission's  contemplated  postwar  pas- 
senger liner  program,  which  had  been  suspended 
in  the  summer  of  1946  by  Administration  action, 
was  taken  in  August  1948,  when  the  Commission 
awarded  contracts  for  2  fast  passenger  liners  and 
3  combination  passenger-cargo  vessels.  These  were 
the  first  such  contracts  awarded  on  behalf  of  pri- 
vate shipping  operators  since  1940,  exclusive  of  a 
few  vessels  completed  shortly  after  the  war  as  a 
part  of  the  wartime  shipbuilding  program. 

In  December,  bids  were  opened  by  the  Maritime 
Commission  for  a  superliner  which  will,  if  con- 
structed, not  only  be  the  largest  vessel  under  the 
United  States  flag  but  also  will  be  suitable  for 
conversion  to  a  fast  troop  transport  in  a  national 
emergency.  Legislation  intended  to  amend  the 
Merchant  Marine  Act  of  1936  by  making  it  pos- 
sible for  shipping  operators  to  procure  new  ships 
on  more  liberal  terms  than  heretofore,  and  thus 
help  initiate  the  long-range  ship  construction  pro- 
gram essential  to  the  continuance  of  the  shipbuild- 
ing industry  as  a  vital  factor  in  the  national  secu- 
rity, was  introduced  in  both  the  House  and  Senate 
in  the  second  session  of  the  80th  Congress,  but 
failed  of  enactment  in  the  closing  days  of  the 
session. 

On  Jan.  1,  1948,  the  private  shipyards  of  the 
United  States  had  under  construction  or  on  order 
30  seagoing  merchant  vessels,  of  1,000  gross  tons 
or  more,  totaling  185,818  gross  tons  and  two 
dredges  aggregating  22,672  displacement  tons.  The 
seagoing  vessels  included  12  cargo  ships,  4  fruit 
ships,  3  ore  ships,  3  trawlers,  6  oil  tankers,  1  ferry, 
and  1  passenger  ship.  During  1948,  the  private 
shipyards  of  the  nation  delivered  28  merchant  ves- 
sels, each  of  1,000  gross  tons  or  over,  aggregating 
165,300  gross  tons  as  compared  with  50  seagoing 
vessels  totaling  286,473  gross  tons  in  1947. 

On  Jan.  1,  1949,  the  private  shipyards  had  on 
order-  or  under  construction  76  vessels  amounting 
to  1,190,430  gross  tons  and  2  dredges  totaling  24,- 
672  displacement  tons.  Of  the  76  vessels  65  were 
oil  tankers  aggregating  1,089,000  gross  tons.  Sched- 
uled for  delivery  in  1949  are  39  vessels  (568,490 
gross  tons )  and  2  dredges  while  36  ships  ( 603,940 
gross  tons)  are  to  be  delivered  in  1950  leaving  1 
oil  tanker  of  18,000  gross  tons  for  1951  delivery. 

On  Nov.  1,  1948,  1,161  vessels,  of  1,000  gross 
tons  or  over,  totaling  8,199,570  gross  tons,  were  on 
order  or  under  construction  throughout  the  world. 
The  United  States  shipyards  had  14.9  percent  of 
this  construction  and  ranked  third  both  in  the  num- 
ber of  vessels  and  in  tonnage.  World  construction 
was  distributed  according  to  the  accompanying 
table. 


,  Number  of         Gross 

Country  Vessels  Tonnage 

Great  Britain 532  3,838,572 

Sweden 198  1,352,555 

United  States 79  1,221,054 

Holland 72  417,817 

France 69  378,818 

Norway 59  213,766 

Denmark 56  274,918 

Italy 31  158,554 

Canada 29  129,881 

Belgium 18  132,065 

Spain 18  81,569 


Total 1,161 


8,199,570 


A  majority  of  the  tankers  on  order  in  United 
States  shipyards  are  the  so-called  supertankers  ap- 


proximating 26,000  to  32,000  deadweight  tons  as 
compared  with  the  typical  war-built  T-2  tankers 
of  16,613  deadweight  tons,  and  will  carry  228,000 
to  240,000  barrels  of  oil  as  compared  with  141,000 
carried  by  the  T-2  type.  Supertankers  are  in  excess 
of  590  feet  in  length,  which  is  about  100  feet 
longer  than  the  T-2.  High-pressure-geared  steam 
turbines  were  designed  to  give  these  supertankers 
speeds  of  16  knots  and  upwards  as  compared  with 
the  14^  knots  of  the  typical  T-2. 

The  construction  of  still  faster  tankers  is  con- 
templated by  at  least  one  oil  company  which  has 
opened  bids  for  5  high-speed  supertankers,  incor- 
porating national  defense  features,  having  a  length 
of  623  feet,  beam  of  83  feet,  and  draft  of  32  feet. 
Each  would  be  of  approximately  24,000  dead- 
weight tons  and  20,000  shaft  h.p.  with  a  speed 
of  20  knots. 

The  2  passenger  liners,  scheduled  for  delivery 
in  the  fall  of  1950,  are  for  use  in  the  Mediterranean 
service.  Each  liner  is  20,500  gross  tons,  638  feet 
long  and  80  foot  beam  with  a  designed  speed  of 
23  knots  and  a  passenger  carrying  capacity  of  972 
persons  in  three  classes  of  accommodations.  The 
3  pasenger-cargo  vessels  being  built  for  around- 
the-world  service  are  scheduled  for  delivery  in 
mid-1950.  They  are  of  approximately  11,453  gross 
tons  each,  536  feet  long,  73  foot  beam  with  accom- 
modations for  228  passengers  in  one  class.  They 
are  designed  for  a  speed  of  19  knots. 

The  superliner  for  which  bids  were  opened  in 
December,  1948,  is  of  48,000  gross  tons,  980  feet 
in  length,  with  accommodations  for  approximately 
2,000  passengers  and  1,000  crew  members.  The 
speed  was  not  announced  but  the  ship  is  expected 
to  equal  if  not  exceed  the  speeds  of  the  Queen 
Elizabeth  and  Queen  Mary.  A  vessel  of  this  type 
would  require  approximately  1,200  days  to  build. 

As  of  Jan.  1,  1949,  the  United  States  Navy  had 
on  order  20  vessels  in  5  private  shipyards  which  in- 
cluded a  65,000-ton  superaircraft  carrier,  10  de- 
stroyers, 4  cruisers,  4  submarines,  and  1  command 
ship. 

Conversion.  The  ship-repairing  branch  of  the 
industry  continued  fairly  active  in  1948.  As  high 
as  70  percent  of  the  employees  in  the  industry 
had  been  engaged  at  times  in  repair  and  conver- 
sion work,  which  is  a  condition  inverse  to  prewar 
operation.  Repair  and  conversion  of  vessels  from 
wartime  adaptations  to  types  suitable  for  normal 
peacetime  operation  continued,  but  in  smaller  vol- 
ume. Ship  repair  activity  normally  is  devoted  prin- 
cipally to  drydocking,  painting,  survey  require- 
ments, routine  voyage  repairs,  and  emergency  or 
damage  repairs,  the  volume  of  which  depends 
upon  the  extent  of  ship  operations.  While  yards 
were  fairly  active  during  the  first  three  quarters  of 
the  year,  repair  work  materially  tapered  off  in  the 
fourth  quarter. 

The  initiation  of  the  tanker  and  passenger  ship 
programs  provided  a  fairly  substantial  volume  of 
business  for  marine  specialty  companies  and  other 
allied  industries  with  marine  divisions  engaged  in 
the  design  and  manufacture  of  marine  machinery 
and  equipment. 

Employment.  In  the  89  private  shipyards  of  the 
shipbuilding  and  ship  repairing  industry  of  the 
United  States  reporting  to  the  Council,  employment 
dropped  from  103,445  at  the  beginning  of  1948  to 
82,000  at  the  end  of  the  third  quarter  ending  Sep- 
tember 30.  Of  the  total  employed  at  that  date  only 
25,000  were  engaged  in  new  ship  construction  as 
compared  with  28,932  at  the  first  of  the  year.  In 
repair  work,  57,000  were  engaged  as  compared 
with  74,513  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 


SHIPPING 


496 


SHIPPING 


The  President's  Advisory  Committee  on  the  Mer- 
chant Marine  in  its  report  of  November,  1947,  rec- 
ommended as  essential  for  national  security,  an 
absolute  minimum  employment  in  new  ship  con- 
struction in  the  shipbuilding  industry  of  60,000 
persons  for  both  private  shipbuilding  yards  and 
naval  shipyards.  Based  on  the  average  (distribution 
of  employment  between  private  shipyards  and 
naval  shipyards  over  a  period  of  years,  this  mini- 
mum would  be  equivalent  to  an  employment  of 
42,000  in  the  private  shipbuilding  yards.  Hence 
shipyard  employment  still  remains  substantially 
less  than  the  minimum  recommended  as  essential 
for  national  security.  — H.  GEBRISH  SMITH 

SHIPPING,  Merchant.  At  the  close  of  1948  world 
shipping  began  to  assume  stability  after  having 
gone  through  the  immediate  postwar  readjustment. 
The  majority  of  foreign  nations  were  well  on  then- 
way  towards  achieving  the  goal  not  only  of  re- 
placement of  lost  tonnage,  but  also  that  of  consid- 
erable postwar  expansion. 

Whereas  most  American-flag  steamship  compa- 
nies increased  the  size  of  their  privately-owned 
fleets  through  the  acquisition  of  the  most  modern 
types  available,  at  the  same  time  these  companies 
gradually  divested  themselves  of  those  ships  under 
charter  from  the  U.S.  Maritime  Commission.  The 
result  is  that  the  active,  privately-owned  fleet  now 
includes  vessels  that  are  greater,  both  in  number 
and  in  tonnage,  than  the  1939  counterpart.  From 
the  standpoint  of  speed,  age,  and  efficiency,  the 
present  vessels  are  far  superior  to  the  prewar  ships 
which  were  rapidly  approaching  obsolescence  and 
lacked  the  power  and  handiness  required. 

The  accompanying  table  illustrates  the  trend 
which  became  apparent  by  year's  end  of  the  dwin- 
dling fleet  of  vessels  under  bareboat  charter  to  the 
Maritime  Commission,  as  trade  for  bulk  and  other 
cargoes  declined  and  competition  with  foreign 
shipping  grew  keener. 


Number  of  vessels 
Trade  Sept.  15, 1948  Feb.  28, 1949 

Bulk  cargo  (For.)  Est 344  280 

Berth  Service  (Frt.  For.) 121  80 

Berth  Service  (Pass.  For.) 8  8 

Coastwise  &  Intercoastal , 51  41 

Alaska 18  3 

Philippine  Rehabilitation 10  9 


Total 552 


421 


The  greatest  shipbuilding  program  in  American 
maritime  history  was  brought  to  a  close  early  in 
April  of  1948  when  the  final  merchant  vessel  ini- 
tiated under  the  war-construction  program,  the 
liner  President  Wilson,  was  completed  and  deliv- 
ered. See  SHIPBUILDING,  MERCHANT. 

Foreign  shipyards  during  the  year  1948  reported 
even  greater  gains  in  the  postwar  race  for  new 
tonnage,  with  the  United  Kingdom  still  the  world's 
greatest  postwar  builder.  As  a  result  of  the  oil- 
tanker  construction  program,  the  United  States 
ranked  third  in  the  gross  tonnage  of  ships  on  order 
or  under  construction  in  the  private  shipyards  of 
the  world,  according  to  returns  compiled  by  the 
Shipbuilders  Council  of  America.  Great  Britain  is 
building  46.8  percent  of  the  tonnage  consisting  of 
532  vessels  aggregating  3,838,572  gross  tons.  Swe- 
den is  second  with  16.5  percent  or  198  ships  total- 
ing 1,352,555  gross  tons.4  The  United  States  follows 
with  14.9  percent  and  is  building  79  vessels  of 
1,221,054  gross  tons. 

The  returns  compiled  by  Lloyd's  Register  of 
shipping,  which  take  into  account  only  vessels  of 


100  tons  gross  and  upwards  the  construction  of 
which  has  been  commenced,  show  that  there  was 
a  total  of  1,135  vessels  aggregating  4,203,873  gross 
tons  under  construction  in  the  world  in  1948.  Of 
this 'total  there  were  439  merchant  vessels  of  2,~ 
208,349  gross  tons  under  construction  in  Great 
Britain  and  Northern  Ireland.  Of  the  remainder  of 
new  tonnage  under  construction  throughout  the 
world's  shipyards,  the  Netherlands  had  111  large 
vessels  under  construction  and  France  was  build- 
ing 106.  The  various  British  dominions  were  con- 
structing 68  ships.  In  Spain  there  were  76  under 
way  and  69  were  reported  from  Italian  shipyards. 
Scandinavian  yards  reported  a  good  share  of  new 
tonnage  with  65  ships  in  Sweden  and  60  in  Nor- 
way. In  tonnage,  following  Great  Britain  with  her 
substantial  lead,  comes  France  with  399,612;  the 
United  States,  289,612;  Sweden,  263,625;  Italy, 
220,352;  and  the  Netherlands  with  211,327  tons. 

Oil-tanker  construction  throughout  the  world  as- 
sumed even  greater  proportions  as  the  demand  for 
larger  vessels  became  evident.  Giant-sized  super 
tankers  were  ordered  to  serve  the  longer  hauls 
from  new  sources  of  supply  far  removed  from  re- 
finery and  market  areas.  Now  under  construction 
or  contract  in  the  United  States  are  58  new  super 
tankers,  ranging  from  26,000  to  32,000  deadweight 
tons.  Over  one-half  of  all  tonnage  under  construc- 
tion at  the  year's  end  was  tanker  tonnage. 

Of  the  406  tankers  under  construction  at  the 
close  of  1948,  192  were  building  in  Great  Britain 
and  Northern  Ireland;  92  in  Sweden;  68  in  the 
United  States;  18  in  Holland;  9  each  in  Belgium, 
Denmark,  and  France;  4  in  Norway;  2  each  in 
Italy  and  Spain;  and  1  in  Canada. 

At  the  close  of  1948  there  were  1,584  merchant 
vessels  representing  the  total  active  American  Mer- 
chant Marine  fleet,  of  which  there  were  1,216 
privately-owned  ships,  and  some  354  American 
war-built  ships  under  charter  by  private  operators 
from  the  Maritime  Commission.  These  ships  were 
primarily  engaged  in  transporting  Marshall  Plan 
relief  and  bulk  cargoes.  Many  also  served  in  the 
military  trade  supplying  our  armies  of  occupation 
in  Germany  and  Japan.  The  European  Recovery 
Act,  passed  in  1948,  provided  that  at  least  50  per- 
cent of  ERP  cargoes  be  transported  in  American 
bottoms.  Average  participation  by  U.S.  flag  ship- 
ping fell  below  this  mark  somewhat  towards  the 
close  of  the  year. 

While  the  American  Merchant  Marine  may  have 
dropped  in  active  tonnage  from  26  million  to  18 
million  deadweight  tons  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
considerable  progress  was  made  toward  achieving 
stability,  This  was  effected  by  an  increase  of  more 
than  2  million  deadweight  tons  in  the  privately- 
owned  fleet,  with  the  total  strength  of  the  perma- 
nent fleet  given  as  1,216  vessels  at  the  year's  end. 
The  National  Defense  Reserve  fleet,  including  its 
several  temporary  anchorages,  consisted  of  ap- 
proximately 1,866  vessels.  On  Mar.  1,  1948,  trans- 
fer of  ships  under  the  ship  sales  program  was  lim- 
ited to  U.S.  citizens,  with  those  not  sold  added  to 
the  reserve  fleet. 


Able  Seaman    Dec,  SI,  1948 

United  States $226.01 « 

Canada 170.00 

United  Kingdom..     96.60 


Able  Seaman      Dec.  31,  1948 

Greece 74.00 

Denmark 71.19 

Italy 35.90 


a  Since  Jan.  1, 1941,  there  has  been  an  increase  of  174  percent 
in  an  Able  Seaman's  basic  monthly  wages  in  the  United  States. 

During  1948  American  labor  played  a  big  role 
in  the  operation  of  American  ships,  tying  up  ves- 
sels for  95  days  on  the  West  coast  and  18  days 
in  Atlantic  coast  ports,  while  operating  costs 


SHOOTING 


497 


SIAM 


reached  even  higher  peaks.  The  real  and  relative 
increase  in  seamen's  basic  monthly  wages  is  illus- 
trated in  the  accompanying  table. 

New  passenger  liners  (of  13,000  tons  or  more) 
launched  or  completed  in  the  world  during  1948 
include  the  following  vessels:  Caronia  (U.K.),  34,- 
000  gross  tons;  President  Wilson  (U.S.A.),  22,000 
gross  tons;  Parthia  (U.K.),  13,350  gross  tons. 

Several  new  moderate-sized  foreign  passenger 
vessels  were  completed  over  this  period,  as  were 
4  new  American  passenger  liners.  The  cruise  pic- 
ture, now  recovering  from  the  difficult  postwar  ad- 
justment period,  has  brightened  considerably. 
Many  new  special  cruises  were  scheduled  by  both 
American  and  foreign  lines  at  the  year's  end  and 
prospects  for  1949  showed  even  greater  cruise  of- 
ferings in  the  making.  Famous  liners,  still  under- 
going repairs  or  reconversion  throughout  the 
world's  shipyards,  include  the  following:  Liberte 
(formerly  the  Europa,  French),  49,746  gross  tons; 
lie  de  France  (French),  43,000  gross  tons. 

America's  inland  waterways  continued  to  ex- 
pand in  activity  and  during  1948  reported  a  gain 
of  approximately  30  percent  in  traffic,  as  more  and 
more  industries  turned  to  the  barge  carriers  for 
every  possible  saving  in  transport  costs.  A  record- 
breaking  season  of  shipping  was  reported  for  Great 
Lakes  movements  in  1948  with  heavy  shipments 
of  iron  ore  and  coal.  — FRANK  J.  TAYLOR 

SHOOTING.  John  W.  Schenk  of  Sharpsburg,  Pa., 
won  the  Grand  American  Handicap — top  prize  of 
trapshooting — at  the  49th  championships  at  Van- 
dafia,  Ohio,  in  August.  Mrs.  Julius  Petty  of  Stutt- 
gart, Ark.,  took  the  equivalent  award  for  women. 

Among  the  other  major  victors  were  E.  W.  Cas- 
tenado  of  Shreveport,  La.,  champion  of  champions; 
Mrs.  Moselle  Cameron  of  Denver,  Col.,  women's 
champion  of  champions;  Silas  M.  Simmons  of 
Natchez,  Miss.,  open;  Mercer  Tennille  of  Shreve- 
port, doubles;  Mrs.  Lela  Hall  Frank  of  Sierre 
Madre,  Calif.,  women's  doubles;  John  A.  Brough- 
ton  of  Ferguson,  Mo.,  North  American  clay  target; 
Mrs.  Frank,  women's  North  American  clay  target; 
Robert  E.  Reese  of  Geneseo,  111.,  junior;  Forrest 
McNeir  of  Houston,  Texas,  veterans;  Paul  Kohler, 
Tekamah,  Neb.,  national  Class  AA. 

The  big  prize  in  national  skeet-shooting  com- 
petition at  Las  Vegas,  Nev.,  in  September  was  an- 
nexed by  Sgt.  Glen  Van  Buren  of  Fort  Worth,  the 
Texan  also  winning  the  national  service  title.  Mrs. 
R.  H.  Martin  of  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  led  the  women. 
Pete  Read  of  San  Angelo,  Tex.,  was  crowned 
champion  of  champions  and  George  Glass,  Jr.,  of 
Midland,  Tex.,  was  tops  among  the  juniors.  Alex 
Kerr  of  Beverly  Hills,  Calif.,  was  high  over-all 
king,  with  Tom  San  Filipo  of  San  Francisco,  Calif., 
taking  the  20-gage  laurels. 

Harry  Reeves  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  won  the  na- 
tional pistol  championship,  while  the  King  of  the 
national  riflemen  was  Arthur  Cook  of  Washington, 
D.C.,  who  also  triumphed  in  his  specialty  at  the 
Olympic  Games.  See  OLYMPIC  GAMES. 

— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

SIAM.  A  limited  monarchy  in  southeastern  Asia, 
west  and  southwest  of  French  Indochina  and  sep- 
arated therefrom  by  a  border  line  which  in  1948 
was  an  issue  of  dispute  between  the  two  countries. 
Officially  called  Thailand  from  1939  to  1945,  it 
was  renamed  Siam  after  liberation  from  the  Jap- 
anese in  September,  1945.  Ruler:  King  Phumiphon 
Adundet  (born  Dec.  5,  1927),  proclaimed  King  on 
June  9,  1946,  following  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Anarida. 


Area  and  Population.  Comprising  200,148  square 
miles,  the  land  supported  a  population  of  17,256,- 
325  (by  census  of  May,  1947),  of  whom  2,500,000 
were  Chinese  and  650,000  were  Malayans.  Popu- 
lation of  chief  cities  in  1947  was:  Bangkok  (capi- 
tal), 884,197;  Khonkaen,  590,664;  Chiengmai, 
534,628;  Chieng  Rai,  481,621. 

Education  and  Religion.  Sixty  percent  of  the  adult 
population  is  illiterate.  Primary  education  is  free 
and  compulsory.  According  to  the  1947  census, 
Buddhism  claimed  88.5  percent  of  the  population; 
the  Moslem  faith,  4.3  percent;  Christianity  and 
others,  7  percent. 

Production.  Siam  is  essentially  a  producer  of  raw 
materials.  The  chief  products  are:  rice,  4,500,000 
metric  tons  in  1947-48;  rubber,  53,430  metric  tons 
in  1947  (24,600  in  1946  and  42,480  in  1939); 
teak,  62,000  tons  (1947);  tin,  1,410  metric  tons  in 
1947  (24,600  in  1946  and  42,480  in  1939).  Other 
leading  products  are  tobacco,  cocoanuts,  pepper, 
cotton,  and  cement  (59,300  metric  tons  in  1947 
as  against  116,000  in  1939).  Tungsten,  gold,  silver, 
coal,  iron,  lead,  antimony,  copper,  rubies,  and  sap- 
phires are  indigenous.  Manufacturing  is  largely 
restricted  to  lumber  and  rice  milling. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  the  calendar  year  1947,  im- 
ports were  valued  at  1,390,387,840  baht  (as 
against  548,400,000  in  1946  and  129,600,000  in 
1939);  exports  were  valued  at  946,100,009,  ex- 
cluding tin  (as  against  456,000,000  baht  in  1946 
and  204,800,000  in  1939).  Imports  for  1947  in- 
cluded about  $34  million  in  gold  leaf  and  bullion 
and  $15  million  in  war  surplus  charged  against 
United  States  and  Indian  credit  accounts. 

Finance.  Budget  revenue  for  1948  was  estimated 
at  1,390  million  baht;  expenditure,  1,280  million 
baht.  For  1947,  estimated  revenue  was  685  million 
baht;  expenditure,  962  million  baht.  In  1948  the 
baht  was  officially  tied  at  10.05  to  the  U.S.  dollar, 
but  fluctuated  around  20  baht  to  the  dollar  in  the 
open  market. 

Transportation.  Railway  trackage  in  1948  totaled 
2,040  miles;  length  of  motor  highways,  2,675 
miles.  With  14  international  airlines  using  its  fa- 
cilities, Bangkok  (in  1948)  was  a  regular  stop  on 
weekly  round-the-world  flights  touching,  among 
other  places,  San  Francisco,  Tokyo,  Shanghai, 
Hong  Kong,  Calcutta,  and  New  York. 

Communications.  Bangkok  is  the  only  area  served 
by  a  telephone  exchange,  which  (in  1947)  han- 
dled about  5,000  telephones.  There  were  278  tele- 
graph offices,  with  9,622  lines,  in  1939. 

Government.  The  constitution  of  Dec.  10,  1932, 
transformed  Siam  from  an  absolute  to  a  limited 
monarchy.  Nominally  the  King  exercises  executive 
power  through  a  State  Council  (Cabinet)  and  leg- 
islative power  through  an  Assembly  of  182  mem- 
bers, to  which  the  State  Council  is  responsible. 
Half  the  members  of  the  Assembly  were  elected  by 
popular  vote  and  half  nominated  by  the  Crown. 
In  1946,  a  constitutional  revision  created  an  Upper 
House,  in  addition  to  the  Assembly.  At  the  same 
time,  the  members  of  the  Lower  House  became 
entirely  elective  as  the  system  of  nominating  one- 
half  the  Assembly  was  abolished. 

Events,  1948.  Undismayed  and  largely  unaffected 
by  the  reign  of  revolutionary  terror  that  culminated 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  government  late  in  1947, 
the  people  of  Siam  continued  to  display  unusual 
capacity  throughout  all  of  1948  to  recover  from 
the  economic  stagnation  that  settled  over  the  coun- 
try during  and  alter  the  Japanese  occupation.  Rice 
production  and  exports  sprocketed  to  all-time 
highs;  Siamese  rubber  and  tin,  formerly  siphoned 
through  British  Malaya  for  world  consumption, 


S/AM 


498 


SIERRA  JLEONf 


were  exported  in  huge  proportions  directly  from 
Siamese  ports  and  principally  to  the  United  States 
for  stockpiling  incident  to  world  uneasiness. 
Against  this  co-prosperity  established  with  the 
western  hemisphere,  and  despite  the  revolutionary, 
unstable  character  of  the  government,  the  waves 
of  communism  awash  in  southeast  Asia  were  inef- 
fective. And  against  this  background,  threats  and 
acts  of  military  aggression  from  Indochina  were 
equally  ineffective. 

Political  Upturns,  Attempting  to  legalize  the  pow- 
ers it  gained  by  revolution  in  1947,  the  rebel  gov- 
ernment of  Premier  Khuang  Abhaiwong  began  the 
year  1948  by  ordering  general  elections  within  the 
framework  of  the  democratic  constitution  it  had 
flaunted  only  two  months  previously  (see  YEAH 
BOOK,  Events  of  1947).  These  elections  were  held 
early  in  January  and  presented  the  rebel  (called 
Democratic)  party  with  54  out  of  a  possible  100 
seats  in  the  new  Parliament,  thus  defeating  the 
Tharmatipat  party  of  Field  Marshal  Luang  Pibul 
Songgram,  wartime  puppet  dictator  under  the  Jap- 
anese and  co-leader  of  the  coup  that  placed  Abhai- 
wong originally  in  power.  Discontented  with  the 
outcome,  Marshal  Songgram  organized  a  bloodless 
counter  coup  d'etat,  with  military  support,  that 
forced  Abhaiwong  to  resign  (April  7),  and  installed 
Songgram  as  leader  in  his  place  (April  8). 

Although  as  Premier  before  and  during  the  Jap- 
anese occupation,  Marshal  Songgram  had  instituted 
a  strong-arm  dictatorial  rule,  almost  on  the  Japa- 
nese pattern  and  designed  for  Japanese  approval, 
his  latest  accession  to  power  was  accompanied  by 
loud  vociferations  of  democratic  faith  and  prin- 
ciple. He  quickly  oriented  his  government  toward 
cordial  friendship  and  cooperation  with  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  and  against  the  Soviet- 
Communist  bloc  reaching  out  over  Asia. 

Preoccupied  with  the  benefits  of  unusual  pros- 
perity, the  people  of  Siam  paid  sparse  attention 
to  the  political  upturns  and  somersaults  that  kept 
the  capital,  Bangkok,  agog.  Among  the  military 
officers,  aristocrats  and  upper  strata  of  intelligent- 
sia, however,  a  feeble  ferment  of  dissatisfaction 
was  visible  throughout  the  year.  On  more  than  one 
occasion  the  government  was  alerted  to  forestall 
a  revolution.  During  the  early  evening  of  Octo- 
ber 1  a  group  of  insurrectionaries  stormed  and  oc- 
cupied the  offices  of  the  Ministry  of  Defense  and 
established  a  rival  government  until  ejected  and 
captured  by  Loyalist  troops  a  few  hours  later  on 
October  2.  Forty  alleged  ringleaders  of  the  plot 
arrested  by  the  Songgram  government  included  a 
brother  of  Nai  Pride  Phanomyong,  erstwhile  Pre- 
mier who  fled  the  country  in  November,  1947,  and 
who  wa's  being  tried  in  absentia  in  1948  for  the 
alleged  murder  of  the  late  King  Ananda  Mahidol 
on  June  9,  1946. 

Economic  Gains.  Phenomenal  gains  in  agricultural 
and  business  production  were  established  in  Siam 
in  1948.  The  rice  crop,  basic  staple  of  the  land, 
aggregated  an  export  total  of  1,500,000  metric  tons, 
exceeding  by  800,000  tons  an  earlier  official  esti- 
mate for  the  year.  The  hunger  that  stalked  the 
country  during  1947  was  virtually  eliminated.  Ac- 
quiring big  dollar  balances  by  virtue  of  American 
purchases  of  rice  for  China,  Japan,  and  Korea  and 
of  tin  and  rubber  for  stockpiling  purposes,  the 
country  became  an  important  center  of  postwar 
United  States  economic  and  political  interest. 

American  business  flourished  and  expanded 
without  parallel  in  that  part  of  the  world.  Moving 
in  a  sphere  that  for  50  years  before  the  Japanese 
conflict  was  virtually  a  monopolistic  preserve  of 
British  interests,  the  dominant  American  position 


was  reflected  in  the  number  of  American  business 
enterprises  established  in  Bangkok,  a  number  that 
increased  from  one  in  1945  to  SO  in  1948.  A  prime 
resource  in  American  accumulation  of  tin  and  rub- 
ber, the  country  became  the  chief  supplier  of  tin 
ore  for  the  war-built  tin  smelter  works  at  Texas 
City  in  1948. 

The  tempo  of  business  activity  brought  renewed 
pressure  on  the  Siamese  government  to  expand 
and  modernize  the  transportation  facilities  of  the 
country,  and  on  October  13  it  was  announced  that 
orders  for  £5  million  of  railway  stock  were  being 
placed  with  the  British  government  by  emissaries 
of  Siam. 

Communisf  Pressure.  Encouraged  by  the  series  of 
revolutionary  plots  that  overthrew  elective  govern- 
ment and  mocked  the  democratic  processes  guaran- 
teed by  the  Constitution,  a  small  but  volatile  group 
of  Communists  sought  throughout  1948  to  increase 
the  scope  of  Soviet  influence  in  the  land.  Bangkok 
and  other  strategic  centers  were  heavily  garrisoned 
to  thwart  what  was  officially  described  on  July  25 
as  "threatened  Communist  violence  and  sabotage," 
Almost  simultaneously  the  government  announced 
the  presentation  to  the  Parliament  of  a  bill  to  out- 
law the  Communist  party,  and  stated  that  J31  Chi- 
nese Communists  had  been  arrested  for  ''partici- 
pation in  illegal  secret  societies."  The  total  number 
of  Communists  in  the  country  was  estimated  at  50,- 
000,  almost  exclusively  composed  of  Chinese  na- 
tionals or  expatriates.  On  July  27,  the  Kuornintang, 
governing  party  of  China,  was  officially  banned  by 
Prasit  Chumphinit,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior Ministry,  on  the  ground  that  it  violated  a 
Siamese  law  prohibiting  alien  societies  from  en- 
gaging in  political  activity. 

Strife  with  frenc/i  Indochina.  The  smoldering  bor- 
der dispute  with  French  Indochina,  which  was 
only  partially  settled  with  the  cession  of  the 
Loation  territory  to  Indochina  in  1947,  continued 
to  flare  throughout  the  past  year.  Armed  troops 
faced  each  other  across  the  disputed  line  and  mi- 
nor incidents,  both  real  and  fanciful,  provided 
fuel  to  keep  the  tension  alive. 

Siamese  provincial  officials  reported  on  October 
21  that  100  French  soldiers  had  crossed  the  Sia- 
mese border  on  October  18  and  had  killed  a  police 
constable  and  two  Siamese  civilians.  Siamese  po- 
lice were  dispatched  to  the  scene  and  after  an 
hour-long  skirmish  the  French  troops  withdrew 
across  the  Mekong  River.  The  incident  occurred 
just  south  of  the  Loatian  territory.  The  possibility 
of  further  bloodshed  was  reflected  in  a  report  from 
Bangkok  (October  23)  that  Great  Britain  had 
agreed  to  re-equip  eight  Siamese  divisions,  and  in 
a  further  report  (December  7)  that  Siamese  au- 
thorities had  ^  called  up  thousands  of  reservists  for 
three  months'  special  training  in  the  use  of  modern 
weapons  and  commando  tactics. 

Opium  Curbs.  Plans  to  outlaw  the  cultivation  of 
opium  poppies  and  to  require  the  registration  of 
all  opium  addicts  were  announced  by  the  govern- 
ment on  August  29.  A  bill  to  this  effect  was  sub- 
sequently introduced  in  the  Parliament  It  was 
estimated  that  the  country's  opium  trade  aggre- 
gated $6  million  annually  and  that  there  were  800 
licensed  and  twice  that  many  unlicensed  opium 
dens  throughout  the  land,  with  20,000  addicts  in 
Bangkok  alone.  — HAROLD  J.  COOPER 

SIERRA  LEONE.  A  British  West  African  colony  (271 
square  miles)  and  protectorate  (27,669  square 
miles,  including  those  areas  of  the  colony  treated 
as  protectorate).  Total  area,  27,925  square  miles. 
Population  (1940):  2  million  (estimated).  Gap- 


SILVER 


499 


SKIING 


ital:  Freetown  (86,000),  an  important  naval  base. 

Production  and  Trade.  The  chief  agricultural  prod- 
ucts are  palm  kernels  and  oil,  kola  nuts,  piassava, 
ginger,  rice,  millet,  cassava,  and  groundnuts.  Min- 
eral products  include  diamonds,  gold,  iron  ore, 
and  chromite.  Foreign  trade  (1946):  imports  £3,- 
961,384;  exports  £2,139,624.  The  chief  exports 
were  diamonds,  iron  ore,  palm  kernels,  and  chro- 
mite. 

Government.  In  1946  revenue  totaled  £2,195, 
474;  expenditure  £1,833,483.  Net  public  debt 
(Jan.  1,  1945):  £1,369,684.  The  colony  and  pro- 
tectorate are  administered  by  a  governor,  assisted 
by  an  executive  council  (nominated)  and  a  legis- 
lative council  of  23  members,  3  of  whom  are  para- 
mount chiefs  of  the  protectorate.  In  addition,  there 
is  a  protectorate  assembly,  which  was  convened  for 
the  first  time  on  July  23,  1946.  This  assembly  is 
under  the  chairmanship  of  a  chief  commissioner 
and  is  the  recognized  body  empowered  to  advise 
the  government  on  matters  pertaining  to  the  social, 
political,  and  economic  development  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  protectorate.  It  includes  elected 
and  nominated  members.  Governor:  G.  Beresford 
Stooke. 

SILVER.  Production  of  silver  in  the  Western  Hem- 
isphere is  estimated  at  121  million  fine  oz.  ( 1947: 
121.8  million  oz.).  Mexico  was  the  principal  pro- 
ducer with  46  million  oz.  (1947:  49.2  million  oz.); 
followed  by  the  United  States,  37.7  million  oz. 
(1947:  36.1  million  oz.);  Canada,  16  million  oz. 
(1947:  13.5  million  oz.);  and  Peru,  8.5  million  oz. 
(1947:  10.2  million  oz.).  Industrial  demand  was 
at  a  very  high  level.  Consumption  by  the  arts  and 
industries  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  110 
million  oz.,  an  increase  of  10  percent.  Two-thirds 
of  the  total  was  consumed  for  flatware  and  hollow- 
ware.  Use  of  sterling  silver  for  jewelry  increased, 
as  well  as  silver  used  for  industrial  purposes,  prin- 
cipally electrical  contacts  and  brazing  alloys.  Allo- 
cations for  authorized  uses  by  the  United  Kingdom 
were  14  million  oz.  Canadian  industrial  uses  re- 
quired 4.5  million  oz.,  while  Mexico  used  only 
800,000  oz.  for  industrial  purposes.  Purchases  of 
silver  in  New  York  by  foreign  buyers  were. severely 
limited  by  exchange  restrictions.  Foreign  sellers 
willing  to  accept  sterling  were  attracted  to  the 
London  market  by  somewhat  higher  silver  prices. 
The  Bombay  market  continued  to  operate  on  a 
completely  internal  basis.  Prices  on  the  New  York 
market  ranged  from  the  high  of  77.75  cents  per 
troy  oz.  to  the  low  of  70.00  cents  at  year-end.  Do- 
mestic production  was  purchased  by  the  Treasury 
at  90.50  cents  per  fine  oz.  under  the  Act  of  July 
31,  1946.  Treasury  holdings  of  silver  at  the  year- 
end  are  estimated  at  2,782,700,000  oz.,  an  increase 
of  37.2  million  oz.  — JOHN  ANTHONY 

SINGAPORE.  A  British  island  colony  at  the  southern 
tip  of  the  Malay  Peninsula.  Area  (including  its  de- 
pendencies— Cocos,  or  Keeling,  Islands  ana  Christ- 
mas Island):  220  square  miles.  Population  (1947 
census):  942,756,  including  728,523  Chinese,  73,- 
802  Malays,  71,300  East  Indians,  8,790  Europeans, 
and  9,012  Eurasians.  The  capital  city,  Singapore, 
situated  at  the  southern  end  of  the  island,  is  the 
most  important  commercial  emporium  of  southeast- 
ern Asia.  Principal  products  of  the  island  are  coco- 
nuts, tapioca,  cacao,  aloes,  nutmegs,  gambier,  and 
a  great  variety  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  Phosphate 
of  lime  is  exported  from  Christmas  Island.  Singa- 
pore is  the  center  of  a  tremendous  transhipment 
trade — its  imports  and  exports  include  cotton  piece 
goods,  copra,  rice,  tin,  silks,  tobacco,  spices,  pe- 


troleum, sugar,  coffee,  pepper,  opium,  gambler, 
coal,  fish,  rattans,  skins,  and  rubber.  The  manufac-r 
tures  include  white  pepper,  tapioca,  sago,  gambier, 
vehicles,  tools,  furniture,  ships,  canned  pineapple, 
and  biscuits.  Foreign  trade  (1946,  April-Decem- 
ber): imports  S$571,847,802;  exports  S$440,970,~ 
592. 

Government.  Finance  (1946):  revenue  S$31,524,- 
000;  expenditure  S$48,511,000.  Formerly  one  of 
the  Straits  Settlements,  Singapore  was  constituted 
a  separate  colony  on  Apr.  1,  1946.  During  the  pe- 
riod of  transition  the  government  is  administered 
by  a  governor,  assisted  by  an  advisory  council  of  7 
official  and  10  nominated  unofficial  members.  A 
legislative  council  was  set  up  following  elections  on 
Mar.  20,  1948.  The  legislature  will  have  23  mem- 
bers^  10  official  and  13  unofficial  (9  elected  and  4 
nominated).  Governor  and  Commander  in  Chief: 
Sir  F.  C.  Gimson  (appointed  Jan.  29,  1946). 

SKATING,  Ice.  Barbara  Ann  Scott  of  Ottawa  dom- 
inated all  rivals  in  figure  skating,  and  then  turned 
professional  after  the  campaign.  Canada's  pretty 
ice  ballerina  started  her  string  of  sparkling  con- 
quests in  the  European  championships  at  Prague, 
then  went  on  to  capture  the  Olympic  title,  retain 
her  world  crown  at  Davos,  Switzerland,  and  wind 
up  the  season  with  a  victory  in  the  Canadian  tests. 
See  OLYMPIC  GAMES. 

Dick  Button  of  Englewood,  N.J.,  shone  in  the 
senior  men's  competition,  sweeping  European, 
Olympic,  world,  and  national  honors.  Micheline 
Lannoy  and  Pierre  Baughniet  of  Belgium  won  the 
world  pairs  title  at  Davos,  while  Andrea  Kekessy 
and  Ede  Kiraly  of  Hungary  triumphed  in  the  pairs 
event  at  Prague. 

Women's  honors  in  our  national  meet  were  kept 
by  little  Gretchen  Merrill  of  Boston,  Mass.,  the 
pairs  title  going  to  the  sister-brother  team  of  Karol 
and  Peter  Kennedy  of  Seattle,  Wash.  The  gold 
dance  championship  was  won  by  Lois  Waring  and 
Walter  Bainbridge  of  Washington,  D.C.,  while  the 
fours  crown  went  to  the  St.  Paul  Figure  Skating 
Club. 

Speed  skating  was  featured  by  close  competi- 
tion. Champions  in  the  world  meet  were  O.  Lund- 
berg,  Norway,  all-around;  Konstantin  Kurdjavtset, 
Russia,  500  meters;  John  Werket,  United  States, 
1,500;  Kees  Broeckman,  the  Netherlands,  5,000 
and  10,000.  North  American  tide  winners  were 
George  Fischer,  Chicago,  outdoors;  Al  Broadhurst, 
Roslindale,  Mass.,  indoors;  Betty  Mitchell,  Winni- 
peg, women's  outdoors;  Loraine  Sabbe,  Detroit, 
Mich.,  women's  indoors.  Fischer  and  Miss  Sabbe 
also  took  top  awards  in  the  national  champion- 
ships. Victors  in  the  European  title  tests  were  Rei- 
dar  Liaklev,  Norway,  all-around;  Bob  Fitzgerald 
and  Del  Lamb,  United  States,  tied  at  500  meters; 
Broeckman,  5,000;  and  Liaklev,  10,000. 

— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

SKIING.  Rugged  weather  and  improvements  for 
Winter  sports  in  many  municipal  and  national 
parks  throughout  the  United  States  added  greatly 
to  the  popularity  of  skiing  for  recreation,  while 
interest  in  Olympic  competition  gave  this  ever- 
growing sport  tremendous  impetus.  See  OLYMPIC 
GAMES. 

Swedish  stars  just  about  dominated  the  men's 
events  in  most  of  the  major  European  meets,  as 
well  as  the  Winter  Olympic  Games,  although  fol- 
lowers of  the  sport  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic 
showed  a  definite  improvement  in  competition. 

Jack  Reddish  of  the  Alta  Ski  Club  of  Utah,  star 
of  the  U.S.  Olympic  squad,  made  a  practical  sweep 


SLOAN  FOUNDATION 


500 


SOCIALISM 


of  the  major  honors  in  North  American  events. 
One  of  the  features  of  a  crowded  competitive 
schedule  was  the  North  American  championship 
meet  held  at  Aspen,  Colorado,  in  March.  Reddish 
won  the  downhill,  slalom  and  combined  slalom, 
open  and  amateur  honors  in  that  meet,  the  Class 
A  jump  being  won  by  Hans  Karstein  of  Oslo,  Nor- 
way. Jack  Wahlburg  of  Berlin,  N.H.,  was  the  cross- 
country victor  and  Reidar  Andersen  of  Oslo  took 
the  combined  jump  and  cross-country  crown.  Maud 
Banks  of  Aspen,  Colorado,  swept  the  women's 
North  American  titles,  taking  the  downhill,  slalom 
and  combined,  open  and  amateur  events. 

Reddish  added  three  titles  to  his  long  list  of 
achievements  for  the  campaign  in  the  national 
championships,  taking  the  downhill,  slalom  and 
combined,  open  and  and  amateur  laurels.  Other 
winners  were  Arne  Ulland  of  Oslo,  Class  A  jump- 
ing; Trygve  L,  Nielson  of  Madison,  Wis.,  Class  A 
cross-country,  and  Robert  Wright,  St.  Lawrence 
University,  combined  jumping  and  cross-country, 

Feminine  winners  in  the  national  meet  were 
Janerte  Burr  of  Seattle,  Wash.,  downhill,  open  and 
amateur;  Ann  Winn  of  the  University  of  Utah, 
slalom,  open  and  amateur,  and  Suzanne  Harris  of 
Sun  Valley,  Idaho,  combined  slalom,  open  and 
amateur. 

Following  the  Olympic  Games,  stars  from  eight 
nations  took  part  in  the  first  international  meet  for 
the  Hannes  Schneider  Trophy  at  St.  Anton  Am 
Arlberg  in  Austria,  and  Reddish  won  added  glory 
there  when  he  set  a  new  record  of  2  minutes,  38 
seconds  for  the  2,600-foot  Osthang  Galzig  slope  in 
capturing  the  downhill  race. 

Other  outstanding  events  during  the  busy  cam- 
paign included  major  meets  at  Oslo,  where  Olle 
DaEnan  and  Ake  Nilsson  of  Sweden  were  the  shin- 
ing stars;  the  Lauberhorn  races  at  Wengen,  Switz- 
erland, and  the  Swiss  women's  world  meet  at 
Grindelwald.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

SLOAN  FOUNDATION,  INC.,  Alfred  P.  Incorporated  in 
1936,  the  Foundation  aids  accredited  schools  and 
colleges  in  developing  new  "patterns"  in  economic 
education.  On  Dec.  31,  1947,  its  capital  assets 
were  valued  at  $9,981,846.  Up  to  the  same  date, 
the  Foundation  had  made  grants  and  donations 
amounting  to  $8,321,117.  At  present  the  Founda- 
tion is  enabling  colleges  and  universities  to  pro- 
mote popular  economic  education  through  radio, 
recordings,  motion  pictures,  books  and  pamphlets, 
fellowships,  and  class  instruction.  Among  such 
projects  aided  by  the  Foundation  are:  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  Round  Table  of  the  Air,  a  weekly 
radio  discussion  of  economic  phases  of  national  and 
international  questions;  and  the  New  Tools  for 
Learning  Bureau  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Teachers 
College  at  Montclair,  New  Jersey,  which  produces 
dramatic  radio  programs  illustrating  economic  in- 
stitutions and  principles  for  broadcasting  by  tran- 
scription. 

In  addition,  the  Foundation  is  presently  provid- 
ing support  for  seminars  on  current  economic  prob- 
lems and  related  subjects  at  American  University 
and  at  the  Universities  of  Denver,  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, and  California.  Members  'of  these  seminars 
include  graduate  students  and  community  leaders. 

In  the  field  of  applied  economics,  the  Founda- 
tion has  aided  the  Universities  of  Kentucky,  Flor- 
ida, and  Vermont  in  carrying  on  experiments  de- 
signed to  help  low-income  groups.  The  experiments 
aim  to  discover  whether  solely  through  instructing 
school  children  in  simple,  inexpensive  ways  of  im- 
proving diet,  housing,  and  clothing,  the  community 
level  of  living  can  be  raised.  To  enable  teacher- 


training  institutions  throughout  the  country  to  ap- 
ply the  results  of  this  experimentation,  special 
grants  have  been  made  to  the  American  Associa- 
tion of  Colleges  for  Teacher  Education, 

In  recent  years  the  Foundation  has  made  grants 
totaling  $4,562,500  to  Memorial  Hospital  for  the 
erection  and  maintenance  of  the  Sloan-Kettering 
Institute  for  Cancer  Research.  Construction  of  this 
Institute  has  been  completed  and  it  is  now  in  op- 
eration. President:  Alfred  P.  Sloan,  Jr.  Executive 
Director:  Arnold  J.  Zurcher.  Offices:  30  Rockefeller 
Plaza,  New  York  20,  N.Y, 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION.  The  affairs  of  the  In- 
stitution are  administered  by  a  Board  of  Regents 
consisting  of  the  Vice  President,  the  Chief  Justice 
of  the  United  States,  three  members  of  the  Senate, 
three  members  of  tihe  House  of  Representatives, 
and  six  citizens  other  than  members  of  Congress, 
The  executive  officer  of  the  Institution  is  the  Secre- 
tary, at  present  Dr.  Alexander  Wetmore.  The  Insti- 
tution now  has  10  branches,  as  follows:  United 
States  National  Museum,  National  Gallery  of  Art, 
National  Collection  of  Fine  Arts,  Freer  Gallery  of 
Art,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  International 
Exchange  Service,  National  Zoological  Park,  Astro- 
physical  Observatory,  National  Air  Museum,  and 
Canal  Zone  Biological  Area. 

The  Institution  was  founded  in  1846  through  the 
bequest  of  James  Smiths  on,  of  England,  for  the 
"increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men," 
This  purpose  is  carried  out  chiefly  by  means  of 
scientific  researches,  explorations,  and  publications. 

In  1948  many  fundamental  investigations  were 
in  progress  in  the  fields  of  anthropology,  zoology, 
botany,  geology,  and  astrophysics.  Scientific  field 
work  in  connection  with  these  researches  was  car- 
ried on  in  Arnhem  Land  in  Australia,  the  Antarc- 
tic, Bikini,  the  Persian  Gulf,  Colombia,  and  Pana- 
ma, besides  many  localities  in  the  United  States. 

Among  the  500,000  new  specimens  accessioned 
in  1948  by  the  U.S.  National  Museum,  the  most 
outstanding  was  the  original  Wright  Brothers  aero- 
plane of  1903,  presented  to  the  United  States  of 
America  by  the  heirs  of  Orville  Wright  on  Dec.  17, 
1948.  Visitors  to  the  Smithsonian  buildings  totaled 
2,293,499  for  the  fiscal  year  1948. 

The  River  Basin  Surveys,  a  unit  of  the  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology,  investigated  1,576  archeo- 
logical  sites  that  will  be  inundated  through  dam 
construction  in  river  basins  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  Of  these,  250  were  recommended  for 
prompt  excavation  in  order  to  save  valuable  arche- 
ological  data  from  oblivion. 

SOCIALISM.  The  Socialist  movement  throughout  the 
world  divided  increasingly  in  the  year  1948  into 
two  camps.  The  Socialist  parties  in  democratic 
countries  oecame,  for  the  most  part,  ever  more  uni- 
fied in  their  opposition  to  totalitarian  communism 
and  their  refusal  to  join  with  Comnjunist  parties  in 
united-front  activities.  The  Socialists  in  the  Rus- 
sian-satellite countries,  who  had  entered  into  elec- 
toral pacts  with  Communists,  were,  on  the  other 
hand,  either  merged  into  a  single  party  dominated 
by  Communists  or  were  permitted  to  retain  their 
own  organizations  only  at  the  price  of  the  loss  of 
practically  all  independence  of  action. 

As  in  former  years,  the  Socialist  movement  had 
its  most  solid  base  in  the  countries  of  Western  and 
Northern  Europe  and  in  Australasia.  The  British 
Labour  Party  remained  the  most  important  of  the 
democratic  Socialist  parties  of  the  world,  and  con- 
tinued throughout  the  year  to  carry  out  its  five- 
year  program  of  socialization.  In  Asia  several 


SOCIALISM 


501 


SOCIALISM 


Socialist  and  semi-Socialist  governments  were  func- 
tioning or  fighting  for  survival  in  the  Indies. 

In  Great  Britain,  the  Labour  Government  on 
Jan.  1,  1948,  took  charge  of  the  operation  of  in- 
land transportation  following  the  passage  of  "the 
largest  and  most  extensive  socialization  measure," 
according  to  Minister  Barnes,  "ever  presented  to  a 
free,  democratic  Parliament."  On  July  5,  the  Gov- 
ernment put  into  effect  its  National  Insurance  Act 
of  1946  which  provided  an  all-embracing  system 
of  insurance  for  every  person  in  the  country  over 
school-leaving  age.  It  likewise  began  the  operation 
of  the  National  Health  Act,  which  made  available 
to  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  Great  Britain 
free  medical  attention,  hospital  and  specialist  serv- 
ices, surgical  appliances,  and  drugs. 

In  November,  the  Government  introduced  a 
measure  for  the  nationalization  of  the  iron  and 
steel  industry*  This  act  brought  into  public  owner- 
ship all  firms  producing  50,000  or  more  tons  of 
iron  ore  a  year,  or  20,000  or  more  tons  of  iron  and 
steel.  All  the  firms  taken  over  retained  their  names 
and  legal  entity.  Labor  during  the  year  likewise 
passed  a  statute  which,  in  the  future,  would  pre- 
vent the  House  of  Lords  from  blocking  legislation 
passed  by  the  House  of  Commons  for  more  than 
a  12-month  period.  In  the  death  of  Sidney  Webb, 
it  lost  one  of  the  most  outstanding  intellectual 
leaders. 

On  the  European  continent,  Socialists  continued 
in  control  of  the  three  Scandinavian  governments. 
In  Sweden,  an  election  for  members  of  Parliament 
was  held  on  September  19,  resulting  in  the  election 
of  112  Social  Democrats.  While  its  popular  vote 
was  increased  by  265,000  over  that  or  19447  its 
parliamentary  representation  was  reduced  by  3. 
The  Liberals,  the  next  largest  party,  secured  57 
seats,  a  gain  of  30;  the  Communist  Party,  9,  a  loss 
of  6.  Following  the  election,  the  Social  Democratic 
Party  continued  as  the  Government  under  the  lead- 
ership of  Premier  Tage  Erlander. 

The  most  extensive  experimentation  in  new  pub- 
lic undertakings  in  Scandinavia  during  1948  was 
in  Norway,  where  the  Government  since  the  end 
of  the  German  occupation  has  greatly  increased 
its  control  over  electrical,  aluminum,  and  chemi- 
cal production;  has  initiated  state  monopolies  in 
the  importation  of  grains,  solid  fuels,  and  medical 
supplies,  and  has  undertaken  the  operation  of  a 
nation-wide  chain  of  agricultural  machinery  sta- 
tions. 

In  Finland,  despite  its  proximity  to  Russia,  the 
Social  Democrats  in  the  parliamentary  elections 
secured  54  out  of  200  seats,  a  gain  of  6.  Although 
the  Agrarians  won  the  largest  number  of  seats 
(56),  the  Socialists  obtained  the  largest  popular 
vote,  and,  following  the  elections,  formed  a  cabi- 
net consisting  of  15  Socialists  and  1  Independent. 

In  France,  during  the  year,  the  Socialists  con- 
tinued with  the  third  largest  representation  in  the 
House  of  Deputies,  103  out  of  618.  The  party  re- 
fused support  to  the  Schuman  Cabinet  in  July  over 
a  dispute  regarding  the  wage-price  relationship* 
Five  Socialists  joined  the  country's  cabinet  in  early 
September  headed  by  Premier  Henri  QueuiHe, 
Radical  Socialist,  and  composed  of  3  Radical  So- 
cialists, 5  Socialists,  5  Popular  Republicans,  1  Lib- 
eral Republican,  and  1  Union  of  Resistance  mem- 
ber* In  the  elections  for  the  Council  of  the 
Republic  in  early  November,  Socialists  secured 
62  seats  out  of  309  (with  11  not  reported);  the 
DeGaullists  taking  first  place — and  the  Commu- 
nists dropping  down  from  a  representation  of  84 
to  21.  The  Socialist  Party  throughout  the  year 
gave  its  support  to  the  Marshall  Plan,  while  the 


Communists,  through  the  party  and  the  Commu- 
nist-controlled French  Confederation  of  Labor,  vig- 
orously opposed  it. 

In  Belgium,  Paul-Henri  Spaak,  head  of  the  Bel- 
gian Labor  Party,  headed  a  coalition  cabinet  ex- 
cept for  a  few  weeks  during  the  year.  On  No- 
vember 19  he  resigned  from  the  premiership 
during  a  dispute  with  Justice  Minister  Struye  over 
the  latter's  alleged  leniency  toward  convicted  Nazi 
collaborators,  but  on  November  26  formed  a  new 
cabinet  of  Socialists  and  Social  Christians.  One  of 
his  first  acts  was  the  appointment  of  a  commission 
with  a  view  toward  the  settlement  of  the  monar- 
chial  question.  He  declared  that  the  question  of 
the  punishment  of  traitors  would  be  dealt  with  in 
agreement  with  Parliament. 

In  Italy,  the  split  between  the  Socialist  Party, 
which  had  closely  cooperated  with  the  Commu- 
nists, and  the  Socialist  Workers  Party  under  the 
leadership  of  Giuseppe  Saragat  became  permanent. 
The  Socialist  Party  under  Pietro  Nenni  formed  a 
Popular  Front  with  the  Communist  Party  in  the 
April  elections  and  together  this  Popular  Front 
won  30  percent  of  the  seats  in  the  Lower  Chamber, 
although  of  178  seats  captured  by  the  two  parties, 
the  Socialists  secured  but  36.  The  Saragat  Social- 
ists received  7  percent  of  the  votes  cast  and  won 
33  seats.  The  Christian  Democrats  under  DeGas- 
peri  formed  the  Cabinet,  in  which  the  Saragat  So- 
cialists were  represented  by  several  members.  In 
July,  the  Socialist  party  in  its  convention  criticized 
Nenni  for  following  too  closely  the  leadership  of 
the  Communist  Party.  It  also  accepted  the  Marshall 
Plan  "as  a  reality  it  is  useless  to  fight/' 

In  Austria,  in  Central  Europe,  Dr.  Karl  Renner, 
Socialist,  remained  President  of  the  Republic,  and 
Socialists  and  the  People's  Party  still  divided  po- 
litical power  almost  equally.  The  Socialists  re- 
mained in  control  of  the  strong  trade  union  move- 
ment. 

In  Germany,  Socialists  in  the  Russian  sector 
became  completely  merged  with  the  Communists 
as  an  organized  force  in  the  Socialist  Unity  Party. 
In  the  western  sector,  the  Social  Democrats  in  the 
late  fall  won  a  majority  of  seats  in  the  municipal 
council  of  the  non-communist  portion  of  Berlin; 
controlled  the  government  in  lower  Schleswig- 
Holstein,  and,  in  other  parts  of  the  British,  French, 
and  American  zones,  competed  with  the  Christian 
Democrats  for  political  leadership. 

In  Switzerland,  a  Socialist,  Ernest  Nobs,  was 
elected  by  Parliament,  in  December,  President  of 
the  Swiss  Confederation,  the  first  time  a  member 
of  the  Social  Democratic  Party  ever  held  that  office. 

Throughout  Europe  the  democratic  Socialists 
held  several  international  conferences  to  consider 
their  common  problems.  In  December,  the  Com- 
mittee on  International  Socialist  Conferences  de- 
livered an  ultimatum  to  the  Italian  Socialist  Party 
to  terminate  its  association  with  the  Communist 
Party  of  Italy  by  the  middle  of  March,  1949.  The 
Committee^  maintained  that  it  had  failed  to  under- 
stand the  "fundamental  incompatibility  of  demo- 
cratic socialism  and  totalitarian  communism," 
Unless  it  gave  "clear  proof*  of  its  willingness  to 
reunite  with  the  Right  Wing  of  the  Italian  Social- 
ist movement  on  the  basis  of  a  program  acceptable 
to  international  socialism,  the  party  would  be  ex- 
pelled from  the  international  organization. 

On  the  American  continent,  the  Cooperative 
Commonwealth  Federation  of  Canada,  among  the 
Socialist  parties,  made  substantial  progress.  It  in- 
creased its  parliamentary  representation  from  28 
to  31  in  the  year's  by-elections.  The  party,  under 
the  leadership  of  Prime  Minister  T.  C.  Douglas* 


SOCIALISM 


502 


SOCIAL  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


was  again  returned  to  power  in  Saskatchewan  as  a 
result  of  a  June  election  in  which  the  C.C.F.  won 
31  out  of  50  seats  in  the  provincial  legislature 
against  the  combined  opposition  in  most  districts 
of  the  Liberal  and  Progressive-Conservative  par- 
ties. In  Ontario  the  party  increased  its  representa- 
tion in  the  provincial  legislature  from  8  to  22,  and 
again  became  the  official  opposition. 

In,  the  United  States,  Norman  Thomas  ran  for 
the  sixth  time  as  the  party's  standard  bearer  for 
President  of  the  United  States,  with  Tucker  Smith 
as  candidate  for  Vice  President.  Thomas  and 
Tucker  received  a  vote  of  140,260  as  compared 
with  a  vote  of  80,426  in  1944.  In  Milwaukee,  Wis., 
a  Socialist,  Frank  P.  Zeidler,  was  elected  mayor. 
In  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  the  party,  headed  by  Mayor 
Jasper  McLevy,  voted  to  reaffiliate  with  the  So- 
cialist Party  U.S.A.  The  Socialist  Party  U.S.A. 
throughout  the  year  urged  the  formation  of  an  in- 
dependent party  of  industrial  workers,  farmers,  and 
others  along  lines  similar  to  that  of  the  Canadian 
C.C.F. 

In  Latin  America,  Socialist  progress  was  im- 
peded by  restrictive  legislation  in  several  countries, 
especially  in  Venezuela  and  Peru,  where  military 
coups  ousted  democratic  governments,  and  in  Ar- 
gentina, where  the  Peron  dictatorship  strengthened 
its  hold  on  the  country. 

In  the  East,  the  Labour  Government  in  Aus- 
tralia continued  in  office  with  a  representation  in 
the  lower  house  of  Parliament  of  43  out  of  75. 
During  the  year  the  Government  initiated  legisla- 
tion empowering  the  Government-owned  Com- 
monwealth Bank  to  acquire  the  assets  and  liabili- 
ties of  all  privately-owned  banks,  some  of  which 
were  British-owned  In  August,  several  of  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act  were  declared  invalid,  and  an 
appeal  was  taken  to  the  Privy  Council  in  London, 
In  New  Zealand,  the  Labour  Government,  backed 
by  a  slim  majority  of  42  out  of  80  parliamentary 
members,  continued  to  carry  out  its  postwar  pro- 
gram of  social  change.  During  the  year,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  both  countries  played  conspicuous 
parts  in  the  councils  of  the  United  Nations. 

In  Japan,  Tetsu  Katayama,  leader  of  the  Social- 
ist Party,  which  held  the  largest  representation  in 
the  Japanese  Lower  House  (140  out  of  466),  con- 
tinued as  Premier  until  March,  1948,  when  he  re- 
signed during  a  controversy  over  tie  raising  of 
postal  and  railway  rates  as  a  means  of  raising  the 
budget.  In  the  coalition  government  of  Premier 
Ashida  that  succeeded,  several  Socialists  served 
until  its  dissolution  in  October.  The  party  refused 
to  join  the  succeeding  Yoshida  conservative  Cabi- 
net and  joined  the  opposition  parties.  The  contro- 
versy within  the  party  as  to  how  actively  its 
leadership  should  work  legislatively  for  a  program 
of  socialization  resulted  in  the  secession  of  several 
Socialist  Diet  members. 

In  India,  despite  the  Socialist  persuasion  of 
Prime  Minister  Pandit  Jawaharlal  Nehru,  leader  of 
the  Congress  Party,  the  Socialist  Party  of  India, 
broke  more  clearly  from  the  Congress  Party  during 
the  year,  and,  in  its  April  convention,  instructed 
all  of  its  members  to  withdraw  from  the  Congress 
Party  and  from  any  government  job  to  which  they 
had  been  elected  on  the  Congress  ticket.  The  party 
congress  declared  that  there  were  anti-democratic 
forces  in  the  Congress  Party,  and  that  the  Socialist 
Party  was  needed  as  a  bulwark  of  democracy.  Dis- 
tinguishing itself  sharply  from  the  Communist 
Party,  it  declared  that  the  Communists  were  "a 
grave  source  of  danger,  because  they  pursue  their 
ends  with  little  regard  to  the  stability  and  integrity 
of  the  state,"  During  the  year  Socialists  helped  in 


the  formation  of  an  Indian  Labor  Congress. 

The  Indian  Government  during  the  year  adopted 
a  plan  for  nationalization,  and  in  April  declared 
its  intention  to  run  the  railways,  generate  and  dis- 
tribute electricity,  manufacture  arms  and  control 
atomic  energy,  and,  except  in  special  cases,  be  ex- 
clusively responsible  for  the  establishment  of  new 
undertakings  in  the  fields  of  coal  mining,  iron, 
steel,  and  aircraft  manufacture;  shipbuilding;  and 
the  production  of  telephone,  telegraph,  and  wire- 
less apparatus.  Existing  undertakings  in  numerous 
of  these  fields  would  be  reviewed  and  a  decision 
made  as  to  their  future  control. 

In  Burma,  Thakia  Nu,  Socialist,  and  leader  of 
the  Anti-Fascist  People's  Freedom  League,  con- 
tinued as  Premier.  He  helped  in  the  ^organization 
of  a  United  Left  Party,  which  aimed  "at  the^crea- 
tion  of  a  Socialist  state  by  democratic  means."  The 
Burma  Government  during  the  year  was  called 
upon  to  suppress  a  Communist  insurrection. 

In  Indonesia,  the  Socialistic  Soekarno-Hatta  Re- 
publican Government  was  confronted  with  a  Com- 
munist rebellion  in  September,  which  it  quickly 
suppressed.  In  early  October,  and  in  December  it 
was  overwhelmed  by  the  Dutch  troops. 

In  the  Near  East,  the  Palestine  Labor  Party  and 
the  United  Labor  Party,  with  socialistic  programs, 
became  the  dominating  force  in  the  newly  estab- 
lished Israel  Government. 

Within  the  United  Nations  Socialist  and  Labor 
statesmen  of  the  type  of  Trygve  Lie  of  Norway, 
Spaak  of  Belgium,  Evatt  of  Australia,  Nash  of  New 
Zealand,  and  the  various  representatives  of  the 
British  Labour  Government,  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  formation  of  UN  policy.  Socialist  parties 
in  general  supported  the  Marshall  Plan  and  plans 
for  regional  federations  for  the  promotion  of  peace. 
During  the  year,  the  British  Labour  Government 
acted  as  host  (October  11-22)  to  the  Prime  Min- 
isters from  the  British  Commonwealth  of  Nations, 
and  tackled  problems  of  mutual  interests.  The  Con- 
ference, consisting  of  representatives  of  countries 
embracing  one-fourth  the  area  of  the  world,  and 
committed,  in  major  part,  to  a  large  degree  of  pub- 
licly owned  ^industry,  maintained,  among  other 
things,  that  "freedom  must  be  safeguarded  not 
only  by  military  defensive  measures  but  also  by 
advancing  social  and  economic  welfare/' 

Throughout  the  world,  Socialists  gave  increasing 
attention  in  1948  to  the  problem  of  how  to  avoid 
bureaucracy  and  regimentation  under  public  own- 
ership and  to  the  working  out  of  techniques  for 
democratic  control.  They  insisted  that  economic 
security  should  not  be  bought  at  the  expense  of 
freedom. 

— NORMAN  THOMAS  and  HAKRY  W.  LAIDLER 

SOCIAL  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION.  The  Social  Se- 
curity Administration,  one  of  the  four  operating 
units  of  the  Federal  Security  Agency,  has  Federal 
responsibility  for  all  programs  now  operating  under 
the  Social  Security  Act.  The  responsibility  is  car- 
ried out  through  four  program  bureaus.  The  Bu- 
reau of  Old- Age  and  Survivors  Insurance  adminis- 
ters the  old-age  and  survivors  insurance  system. 
This  is  the  only  completely  Federal  program  under 
the  act.  In  the  other  three  programs,  the  Federal 
Government  cooperates  with  States  in  financing 
various  State  and  community  programs  operating 
under  State  law  and  State  administration. 

Federal  responsibilities  for  these  three  Federal- 
State  programs  are  carried  by  the  Bureau  of  Em- 
ployment Security  (for  unemployment  insurance 
and  employment  services),  the  Bureau  of  Public 
Assistance  (for  old-age  assistance,  aid  to  the  blind, 


SOCIAL  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


503 


SOC1AI  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


and  aid  to  dependent  children ) ,  and  the  Children's 
Bureau  (for  maternal  and  child  health  services, 
services  for  crippled  children,  and  child  welfare 
services).  A  fifth  program  bureau — the  Bureau  of 
Federal  Credit  Unions — was  established  in  the  So- 
cial Security  Administration  on  July  29,  1948, 
when  administration  of  the  Federal  Credit  Union 
Act  was  transferred  from  the  Federal  Deposit  In- 
surance Corporation  to  the  Federal  Security  Agen- 
cy. On  July  1  the  United  States  Employment  Serv- 
ice was  transferred  to  the  Agency  from  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  and  placed  in  the  Bureau  of  Em- 
ployment Security. 

In  addition  to  the  programs  under  the  Social 
Security  Act  there  are  various  other  provisions,  op- 
erating under  Federal  or  State  laws,  that  ensure 
basic  protection  against  the  major  risks  to  economic 
security  or  that  furnish  health  and  welfare  services 
to  different  groups  of  the  population.  Among  these 
social  insurance  and  related  programs  are  work- 
men's compensation  for  industrial  accidents  and 
diseases;  various  provisions  for  veterans,  including 
disability  and  old-age  pensions  and  compensation, 
comprehensive  medical  care,  and  benefits  for  their 
survivors;  retirement,  disability,  and  survivor  pro- 
tection for  railroad  workers  and  civilian  employees 
of  the  Federal  Government;  and  retirement  and, 
in  certain  instances,  disability  protection  for  em- 
ployees of  State  and  local  governments,  certain 
nonprofit  organizations,  and  other  occupational 
groups.  In  terms  of  the  number  of  persons  in  the 
population  immediately  or  potentially  affected, 
however,  the  largest  segment  of  this  broad  social 
security  program  is  that  under  the  Federal  Social 
Security  Act  and  related  State  legislation. 

PAY  ROLLS  IN  EMPLOYMENTS  COVERED  BY  FED- 
ERAL OLD-AGE  AND  SURVIVORS  INSURANCE  AND 
BY     STATE    UNEMPLOYMENT     INSURANCE    PRO- 
GRAMS,   CALENDAR   YEARS    1946-47 
[In  millions] 

Program  and  Item  1946  1947 

Old-age  and  survivors  insurance: 

Pay  rolls  covered  during  year $79,260  $92,600 

Contributions  collected  during  year $1,295  $1,557 

Trust  fund  assets  at  end  of  year $8,150  $9,360 

Workers  with  wage  credits  during  year. .  49.1  49.2 
Living  workers  with  insured  status  at 

beginning  of  year 40.3  41.6 

State  unemployment  insurance: 

Pay  rolls  covered  during  year $73,403  $86,434 

Contributions  collected  during  year $912  $1,096 

Trust  fund  assets  at  end  of  year $6,775  $8,124 

Workers  with  wage  credits  during  year. .  45.5  45.6 

All  these  programs  operated  during  1948  in  a 
setting  of  full  employment,  a  record  peacetime 
production  of  goods  and  services,  and  rising  prices. 
Fewer  workers  were  without  jobs  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding year.  Earnings  were  higher,  and  the  aggre- 
gate volume  of  savings  increased.  Prices  were  also 
at  a  record  high,  increasing  more  rapidly  than  did 
wages  or  industrial  production.  Even  in  a  vigor- 
ously functioning  economy,  however,  some  firms 
will  fail  and  plants  will  be  shut  down  for  reorgani- 
zation or  retooling  or  because  of  shortages  of  raw 
materials.  As  a  result,  several  million  wage  earn- 
ers are  thrown  out  of  jobs  during  the  course  of  a 
year.  In  1948,  about  2,100,000  were  unemployed 
on  the  average,  or  about  the  same  number  as  in 
1947, 

No  comprehensive  changes  were  made  in  the 
Social  Security  Act  during  1948  although  numer- 
ous bills  were  introduced  in  the  second  regular 
session  of  the  Eightieth  Congress  and  some  amend- 
ments were  passed.  In  one  of  the  amendments, 
Congress  recognized  the  threat  of  rising  prices  to 
family  security  by  increasing  the  amount  the  Fed- 
eral Government  will  contribute  toward  public  as- 


sistance payments.  This  increase  in  Federal  partici- 
pation, the  second  in  two  years,  enabled  States  and 
local  communities  to  raise  the  amount  of  the  indi- 
vidual monthly  payments  (which  come  from  local, 
State,  and  Federal  funds )  and  in  some  instances  to 
assist  needy  persons  and  families  that  otherwise 
could  not  have  been  aided  because  of  limited  State 
and  community  funds.  The  monthly  benefit 
amounts  payable  under  Federal  old-age  and  sur- 
vivors insurance,  on  the  other  hand,  remained 
geared  to  the  levels  fixed  in  1939,  despite  the  rise 
of  some  70  to  75  percent  in  living  costs  since  that 
year. 

The  Advisory  Council  on  Social  Security,  cre- 
ated in  1947  by  the  Senate  Committee  on  Finance 
to  assist  and  advise  the  Committee  in  studying  the 
present  programs  under  the  act,  issued  four  re- 
ports. In  the  first,  the  Council  recommended  ex- 
tension of  coverage  under  old-age  and  survivors 
insurance  to  all  employments  and  liberalization  of 
benefit  amounts,  as  well  as  other  changes  to 
strengthen  the  present  program. 

The  second  report  recommended  the  adoption 
of  an  insurance  program,  coordinated  with  old- 
age  and  survivors  insurance  and  covering  the  risks 
of  wage  loss  from  permanent  and  total  disability. 
The  third  report  recommended  certain  changes 
that  should  be  made  in  the  public  assistance  pro- 
grams if  the  preceding  recommendations  are  ac- 
cepted and  embodied  in  legislation.  In  the  fourth 
report,  issued  at  the  end  of  1948,  the  Council  dealt 
with  unemployment  insurance,  recommending, 
among  other  changes,  extension  of  coverage  to 
small  firms  and  to  certain  of  the  occupational 
groups  now  excluded  and  changes  in  methods  of 
financing  the  system. 

Old-Age  and  Survivors  Insurance.  Federal  old-age 
and  survivors  insurance  provides  retirement  bene- 
fits at  age  65  to  workers  in  industry  and  commerce 
and  supplementary  benefits  to  their  aged  wives 
and  dependent  children;  it  also  provides  survivor 
benefits  to  the  widows  and  children,  or  dependent 
parents,  of  deceased  insured  workers.  The  benefits, 
financed  by  the  contributions  of  the  workers  and 
their  employers,  are  based  on  the  insured  status  of 
the  worker,  which  is  determined  by  the  wages  he 
has  earned  in  jobs  covered  by  the  program  and  the 
amount  of  time  he  has  spent  in  such  jobs.  An  esti- 
mated 49.2  million  persons  worked  at  some  time 
during  the  calendar  year  1947  in  covered  employ- 
ment. They  earned  wage  credits  totaling  $76,700 
million  or  an  annual  average  of  $1,559  per  worker. 
Both  in  number  and  amount  these  totals  were  larg- 
er than  in  any  previous  year. 

At  the  beginning  of  1948,  about  42.5  million 
persons  had  sufficient  wage  credits  to  be  either 
fully  or  currently  insured,  which  meant  that,  if 
they  died,  their  dependent  survivors  would  be  pro- 
tected under  the  program.  About  11.6  million  of 
the  42.5  million  were  permanently  insured  through- 
out their  lifetime,  without  further  covered  em- 
ployment. Of  those  permanently  insured  wage 
earners,  approximately  1,800,000  were  aged  65  or 
over  and  eligible  for  retirement  benefits,  and  875,- 
000  of  them  had  withdrawn  from  covered  employ- 
ment and  were  receiving  monthly  benefits.  The 
majority  of  the  persons  who  had  some  wage  credits 
but  were  not  insured  had  worked  in  covered  em- 
ployment in  too  few  calendar  quarters  to  gain  in- 
surance protection.  The  cumulative  amount  of  tax- 
able wages  these  uninsured  workers  had  received 
was  comparatively  small. 

In  June,  1948,  monthly  benefits  were  being  paid 
at  a  monthly  rate  of  $42,400,000  to  nearly  2,200,- 
000  persons,  representing  1,500,000  different  farni- 


SOQAl  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


504 


SOCIAL  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


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SOCMI  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


505 


SOCIAL  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


lies.  More  than  half  the  beneficiaries  were  retired 
workers  (969,000)  and  their  aged  wives  (297,- 
000);  about  one-fourth  (557,000)  were  children, 
mainly  the  children  of  deceased  workers;  and  the 

MONTHLY  BENEFITS  FOR  FAMILIES  IN  RECEIPT  OF 
BENEFITS  TINDER  FEDERAL  OLD-AGE  -AND  SUR- 
VIVORS INSURANCE  PROGRAM,  END  OF  JUNE,  1948 
[In  thousands,  except  for  average  benefit;  data  corrected  to 
Sept.  8,  1948] 


1 

Family  classification  of 
"beneficiaries  c                   j 
Total  
Retired-worker  families  
Worker  only      .          

dumber     Number  of 
of               bene- 
"amilies       ficiaries 
1,476.2         2,162.7 
968.7         1,289.3 
654.5            654.5 
519.4            519.4 
135.1            135.1 
296.5            593.0 
11.6              23.2 

5.9              18.0 

.2                  .6 

507.5            873.3 
188.6            188.6 
4.4                4.4 
72.0            144.0 

40.9            122.6 

23.5              95.6 
89.4              89.4 
40.6              81.1 
16.7              50.0 
21.2              86.6 
9.3               9.3 
.9                1.7 

Average 
family 
benefit 

$24.40 
25.60 
20.00 
39.90 
38.90 

47.90 
54.80 

20.50 
20.30 
35.90 

49.20 

52.60 
13.30 
25.80 
36.60 
48.10 
13.70 
25.70 

Male     

Female  

Worker  and  wife 

Worker  and  1  child   . 

Worker  and  2  or  more  chil- 
dren 

Worker,  wife,  and  1  or  more 
children  

Survivor  families  

Aged  widow  only  

Widowed  mother  only  6  .   ... 
Widowed  mother  and  1  child. 
Widowed  mother  and  2  chil- 
dren 

Widowed  mother  and  3  or 
more  children                 .    . 

1  child  only  

2  children 

3  children 

4  or  more  children     ... 

1  aged  parent             

2  aged  parents  

a  As   denned   by   beneficiaries  in   current-payment   status. 
6  Benefits  of  child  or  children  were  being  withheld. 

rest  were  aged  widows  ( 189,000 ),  young  widows 
with  children  (141,000),  and  aged  dependent  par- 
ents (11,000)  of  deceased  workers.  June  expendi- 
tures represented  an  average  monthly  benefit  of 
$25.60  for  a  retired  man  with  no  dependents  re- 
ceiving benefits,  and  $39.90  for  a  man  and  his  wife. 
For  survivor  families,  the  average  benefit  was 
$20.50  for  aged  widows  and  $35.90  for  a  family 
consisting  of  a  widowed  mother  and  one  child, 
both  receiving  benefits. 

Some  $499,300,000  was  paid  out  under  the  pro- 
gram during  the  fiscal  year  1947—48  for  monthly 
benefits  and  $31,300,000  for  lump  sums,  payable 
when  the  deceased  insured  wage  earner  leaves  no 
dependents  immediately  eligible  for  monthly  bene- 
fits. Employers  and  employees  contributed  $1,616,- 
000,000  under  the  Federal  Insurance  Contribu- 
tions Act,  and  at  the  end  of  June,  1948,  the  assets 
of  the  old-age  and  survivors  insurance  trust  fund 
amounted  to  $10,047,000,000.  Under  legislation 
enacted  in  1947  the  contribution  rates,  now  1  per- 
cent each  for  employers  and  employees,  are  sched- 
uled to  rise  to  1.5  percent  each  in  1950  and  to  2 
percent  each  in  1952  and  thereafter. 

Benefits  to  survivors  of  veterans  of  World  War 
II  who  die  within  3  years  of  their  discharge  from 
the  armed  forces  first  became  payable  in  Septem- 
ber, 1946.  These  benefits  are  payable  only  to  sur- 
vivors not  receiving  or  not  eligible  for  payments 
under  other  veterans*  legislation.  For  the  fiscal  year 
1947-48,  $2,300,000  was  certified  for  monthly 
benefits  to  such  survivors,  and  $1,200,000  in  lump 
sums. 

Under  an  amendment  to  the  Railroad  Retire- 
ment Act,  survivor  benefits  based  on  combined 
earnings  from  both  railroad  employment  and  em- 
ployment covered  under  the  Social  Security  Act 
became  payable  Jan.  1,  1947.  During  the  1948 
fiscal  year,  the  survivors  of  more  than  11,500  de- 
ceased workers  who  had  such  combined  earnings 
were  awarded  benefits  under  old-age  and  survivors 
insurance.  In  addition,  survivors  of  approximately 


1,700  workers  had  their  benefits  recomputed  to 
include  railroad  earnings  of  the  deceased  wage 
earner. 

Unemployment  Insurance.  State  unemployment  in- 
surance laws — in  operation  in  the  48  States,  the 
District  of  Columbia,  Alaska,  and  Hawaii — cover 
workers  in  industry  and  commerce.  The  benefits 
are  financed  through  contributions  made  to  the 
State  by  employers — and,  in  two  States,  by  em- 
ployees also.  The  Federal  Government  does  not 
share  the  cost  of  the  benefits  to  unemployed  work- 
ers but  does  bear  the  entire  cost  incurred  by  the 
State  in  administering  the  program.  The  benefits 
are  payable  to  an  unemployed  worker  who  quali- 
fies on  the  basis  of  his  previous  employment  and 
for  whom  suitable  job  openings  cannot  be  found. 
The  amount  of  the  weekly  payment  and  the  length 
of  time  the  worker  can  draw  benefits  are  deter- 
mined by  the  provisions  of  the  State  law. 

Although  State  unemployment  insurance  sys- 
tems cover  approximately  the  same  types  of  em- 
ployment as  does  old-age  and  survivors  insurance, 
not  all  States  cover  small  firms — those  with  less 
than  eight  employees.  For  this  reason  an  estimated 
45,600,000  workers  earned  some  wage  credits  un- 
der the  unemployment  insurance  system  in  the  cal- 
endar year  1947  as  against  the  49,200,000  who 
earned  credits  under  old-age  and  survivors  insur- 
ance. About  four-fifths  of  the  former  group,  or  37 
million,  earned  sufficient  wage  credits  to  qualify 
for  unemployment  benefits. 

In  relation  to  the  number  of  wage  earners  cov- 
ered by  the  State  systems  the  number  of  unem- 
ployed persons  who  filed  claims  for  unemployment 
benefits  was  low  throughout  1948.  Not  all  persons 
who  filed  claims  receive  benefits.  Of  the  4,700,000 
workers  who  filed  claims  and  had  sufficient  wage 
credits  to  qualify  for  benefits  during  the  1948  fiscal 
year,  about  3,800,000  or  79  percent  drew  some 
benefits.  Some  of  the  others  who  did  not  receive 
benefits  were  declared  unavailable  for  work  or 
were  disqualified  for  various  reasons,  but  by  far 
the  greater  proportion  of  them  were  reemployed 
during  the  waiting  period  before  benefit  payments 
began. 

The  States  paid  out  a  total  of  $752,500,000  in 
benefits  during  the  fiscal  year.  This  figure  was 
about  90  percent  of  the  amount  disbursed  in  the 
1947  fiscal  year.  The  average  weekly  benefit  for 
the  country  as  a  whole  was  $18.19,  but  the  State 
averages  varied  widely,  ranging  from  $11.10  in 
North  Carolina  to  $23.26  in  Alaska. 

Five  States — Connecticut,  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, Massachusetts,  Michigan,  and  Nevada — sup- 
plemented the  unemployment  benefit  by  small  ad- 
ditional allowances  for  the  dependents  of  claim- 
ants. Claimants  whose  unemployment  was  caused 
by  temporary  disability  received  benefits  in  Rhode 
Island  and  California,  In  June,  1948,  New  Jersey 
also  enacted  a  temporary  disability 'insurance  law 
for  workers  covered  by  its  unemployment  insur- 
ance law,  and  payments  began  Jan.  1,  1949. 

Contributions  collected  under  the  State  laws  to- 
taled $1,007  million  in  the  fiscal  year,  and  the  un- 
employment trust  fund  earned  interest  of  $147  mil- 
lion, bringing  the  State  balances  in  the  fund  to 
$7,400  million  at  the  end  of  June,  1948.  Amounts 
collected  and  deposited  in  the  unemployment  trust 
fund  can  be  used  only  for  benefit  payments,  and 
administration  of  the  State  programs  is  financed  by 
the  Federal  Government.  During  the  year  the 
States  received  $67,200,000  in  Federal  grants  for 
administration. 

Protection  against  wage  loss  from  unemployment 
was  also  available  to  railroad  employees  under  the 


SOCIAL  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


506 


SOCIAL  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


PAYMENTS  TO  INDIVIDUALS  UNDER  FEDERAL  OLD-AGE  AND  SURVIVORS  INSURANCE,  STATE  UNEMPLOY- 
MENT INSURANCE  LAWS,  AND  STATE  PUBLIC  ASSISTANCE  PROGRAMS  UNDER  THE  SOCIAL  SECURITY 
ACT,  FISCAL  YEARS  1937-48,  AND  BY  STATE,  FISCAL  YEAR  1948  * 
[In  thousands] 


Fiscal  year  and  State 

Old-age  and  survivors 
insurance  payments  & 
Monthly        Lump-sum 
benefits         payments  c 

Unemployment 
insurance 
benefits* 

Public  assistance  payments 
Old-age       Aid  to  depend-      Aid  to 
assistance       ent  children      the  blind 

Fiscal  year: 

1937  

S       60 

$          964 

$   243,229 

$  40,774 

$  8,981 

1938  

5,856 

179,847 

360,626 

81,062 

11,355 

1939  

14,315 

444,235 

411,496 

103,178 

11,906 

1940  

$    6,421  « 

11,188 

482,507 

449,969 

118,875 

12,820 

1941  

57,462 

12,715 

432,416 

505,063 

141,626 

13,725 

1942  

102,248 

14,242 

369,745 

568,631 

154,879 

14,878 

1943  

139,139 

16,595 

176,095 

616,569 

148,747 

16,300 

1944  

173,281 

19,156 

60,994 

679,329 

135,156 

18,468 

1945  

224,752 

25,887 

71,209 

701,951 

138,084 

19,802 

1946  

311,017 

26,044 

1,091,062 

761,587 

172,800 

21,409 

1947  

406,252 

28,501 

833,718 

910,330 

254,415 

25,810 

1948  

499,315 

31,280 

752,537  / 

1,037,554 

325,691 

30,531 

Alabama  

5,799 

327 

7,683 

13,474 

3,604 

265 

Alaska  

187 

20 

1,095 

680 

87 

00 

Arizona  

1,555 

72 

1,420 

6,114 

1,407 

437 

Arkansas  

2,684 

147 

3,552 

9,672 

3,454 

393 

California  

39,541 

2,239 

128,395 

122,765 

17,249 

5,797 

Colorado  

3,589 

200 

1,118 

35,440 

3,939 

231 

Connecticut  

11,115 

657 

11,472 

8,166 

3,035 

68 

Delaware  

1,380 

71 

872 

377 

283 

44 

District  of  Columbia  

1,934 

159 

2,986 

1,097 

1,133 

112 

Florida  

8,379 

405 

6,351 

25,153 

7,530 

1,289 

Georgia.  

5,452 

373 

5,675 

16,784 

3,083 

570 

Hawaii  

1,111 

31 

768 

774 

1,290 

34 

Idaho  

1,201 

75 

1,398 

5,217 

1,718 

114 

Illinois  

32,698 

2,704 

47,641 

60,932 

21,698 

2,377 

Indiana  

13,826 

869 

8,830 

19,215 

4,697 

773 

Iowa  

5,818 

327 

2,415 

24,017 

3,544 

656 

Kansas  

4,450 

217 

3,020 

16,566 

4,239 

463 

Kentucky  

6,484 

368 

4,365 

10,478 

4,996 

405 

Louisiana  

4,607 

323 

5,965 

14,033 

6,373 

512 

Maine  

4,346 

226 

4,630 

5,507 

1,933 

278 

Maryland  

7,090 

482 

9,842 

4,537 

4,665 

194 

Massachusetts  

26,472 

1,471 

50,624 

56,698 

11,948 

772 

Michigan  

23,219 

1,538 

35,928 

41,539 

19,428 

728 

Minnesota  

7,574 

426 

5,189 

27,967 

5,239 

600 

Mississippi  

2,011 

141 

2,151 

7,867 

1,760 

608 

Missouri  

11,684 

709 

14,426 

48,202 

9,726 

(*) 

Montana  

1,555 

90 

1,275 

5,070 

1,502 

208 

Nebraska  

2,466 

160 

959 

11,511 

2,824 

257 

Nevada  

419 

44 

1,133 

1,228 

(A) 

(A) 

New  Hampshire  

2,607 

131 

3,035 

3,143 

1,115 

146 

New  Jersey  

23,439 

1,582 

52,142 

11,475 

4,276 

324 

New  Mexico  

765 

40 

580 

3,612 

2,571 

184 

New  York  

63,300 

4,495 

169,884 

64,763 

52,587 

2,258 

North  Carolina  

6,220 

445 

5,832 

9,082 

3,575 

1,007 

North  Dakota  

564 

32 

342 

4,145 

1,545 

59 

Ohio  

34,199 

2,155 

19,753 

59,518 

7,850 

1,527 

Oklahoma  

4,132 

210 

4,600 

48,672 

12,732 

1,314 

Oregon  

6,680 

299 

7,618 

11,082 

2,755 

222 

Pennsylvania  

51,202 

2,871 

49,519 

37,209 

35,661 

i*) 

Rhode  Island  

4,543 

246 

12,348 

4,366 

2,492 

75 

South  Carolina  

3,086 

234 

3,186 

7,608 

1,934 

338 

South  Dakota  

777 

52 

259 

4,700 

965 

76 

Tennessee  

5,440 

381 

10,614 

12,627 

7,959 

682 

Texas  

12,100 

887 

5,477 

72,689 

7,438 

2,224 

Utah  

1,683 

78 

2,436  *~ 

6,116 

3,118 

88 

Vermont  

1,405 

70 

1,233 

2,332 

421 

82 

Virginia  

6,963 

435 

4,250 

3,533 

2,398 

331 

Washington  

West  Virginia  

10,767 
6,967 

509 
312 

18,472 
5,302 

41,313 
5,294 

9,120 
5,137 

509 
246 

Wisconsin  

11,291 

751 

4,127 

20,941 

7,255 

588 

Wyoming  

584 

35 

352 

2,254 

407 

63 

Foreign  

1,955 

159 

*  Fiscal  years  ended  June  20.  *  Represents  payments  certified.  State  distribution  estimated;  data  for  beneficiaries  residing  in 
foreign  countries  included  in  fiscal-year  totals,  not  distributed  by  State.  c  Fiscal-year  totals  represent  payments  under  the  1935 
act  and  under  the  1939  and  1946  amendments.  State  distribution  excludes  payments  under  1935  act.  rf  Adjusted  for  refunds  of 
contributions  and  for  voided  benefit  checks.  « January-June  1940,  since  monthly  benefits  were  not  payable  before  1940.  /  Ex- 
cludes $3, 276,904* reconversion  unemployment  benefits  paid  to  seamen.  "  No  plan  in  operation.  *  No  plan,  in  operation  under 
the  Social  Security  Act. 


Railroad  Unemployment  Insurance  Act,  and  to 
unemployed  veterans  under  the  Servicemen's  Re- 
adjustment Act. 

Public  Assistance.  The  public  assistance  programs 
under  the  Social  Security  Act  provide  monthly 
payments  to  three  specific  groups  of  needy  indi- 
viduals— the  aged,  the  blind,  and  children  de- 
prived of  necessary  support  or  care  because  of 
a  parent's  death  or  absence  from  home.  These 
programs  are  financed  and  administered  by  States 
or  States  and  localities,  and  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment participates  in  the  amount  of  assistance,  with- 
in certain  maximums,  and  in  the  administrative 


costs  of  the  programs.  During  1948,  old-age  assist- 
ance programs  operated  with  Federal  financial 
participation  in  all  48  States,  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, Alaska,  and  Hawaii;  all  States  but  one  re- 
ceived Federal  funds  for  aid  to  dependent  chil- 
dren, and  all  but  four  States  had  approved  pro- 
grams for  aid  to  the  blind. 

The  continued  upswing  in  consumer  prices  has 
worked  hardship  for  all  groups  in  the  population 
but  the  effects  have  been  most  acute  among  per- 
sons with  very  small  incomes.  The  increase  in  the 
Federal  share  of  assistance  payments  made  it  pos- 
sible for  a  State  to  raise  payments  $5  per  recipient 


SOCIAL  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


507 


SOCIAl  SECURITY  ADMINISTRATION 


of  old-age  assistance  and  aid  to  the  blind  and  $3 
per  child  receiving  aid  to  dependent  children  pro- 
vided the  State  continued  to  spend  as  much~per 
recipient  from  its  own  funds  as  before. 

In  June,  1948,  nearly  2,400,000  persons  aged 
65  or  over  were  receiving  old-age  assistance,  at  an 
average  payment  of  $38  during  the  month.  Nearly 
1,150,000  children  in  450,000  families  were  receiv- 
ing aid  to  dependent  children,  at  an  average  pay- 


and  to  insurance  beneficiaries  than  do  the  indus- 
trial States. 

Other  needy  persons  who  cannot  qualify  under 
one  of  these  special  assistance  programs  are  cared 
for  by  general  assistance,  financed  by  States  and 
localities  without  Federal  participation.  In  June, 
1948,  about  366,000  cases  were  receiving  general 
assistance,  at  an  average  payment  of  $43  per  case. 
Since  a  case  may  represent  a  single  individual  or 


BENEFICIARIES,  RECIPIENTS,  AND  PAYMENTS  UNDER  SELECTED  SOCIAL  SECURITY  AND  RELATED  PRO- 
GRAMS, FISCAL  YEARS  1940,  1943,  1945,  1947,  AND  1948° 
[In  thousands;  corrected  to  Dec.  27,  1948] 

Program, 


Retirement,  disability,  and  survivor  programs:  6 

Old-age  and  survivors  insurance  

95.5 

676.3 

1,106.0 

1,832.3 

2,162.7 

Railroad  retirement  

144.3 

160.0 

171.5 

231.2 

320.2 

Federal  employee  systems: 

Civil  service  

62.7 

74.8 

88.0 

112.6 

129.1 

Other  contributory  c  

.6 

.8 

1.0 

1.2 

(c) 

Noncontributory  d  

32.2 

30.6 

37.6 

65.6 

74.7  * 

State  and  local  employee  systems  c  

152.3 

182.6 

208.0 

240.0 

Cc) 

Veterans'  pensions  and  compensation  
State  sickness  compensation  «/  

928.7 

937.8 
6.0 

1,681.5 
7.1 

3,251.1 
25.8 

3,249.2 
28.3 

Workmen's  compensation  

(0 

(0 

(«) 

CO 

(0 

Unemployment  insurance  programs: 
State  unemployment  insurance  e  

.  ..       1,268.6 

100.3 

129.4 

973.9 

893.1 

Railroad  unemployment  insurance  h  

31.4 

.7 

.8 

39.5 

30.9 

Veterans'  unemployment  allowances  '  

31.8 

712.9 

371.8 

Self  -employment  allowances  to  veterans  *  

10.6 

241.7 

104.6 

Recipients  of  public  ass 

istance,  June 

Public  assistance  programs:  3 
Old-age  assistance  

.  .  .       1,969.7 

2,170.1 

2,038.4 

2,271.0 

2,367,6 

Aid  to  dependent  children: 

Children  

835.0 

746.2 

646.8 

1,009.5 

1,145.8 

Families  

347.4 

304.1 

•255.7 

396.1 

449.2 

Aid  to  the  blind  

71.6 

77.6 

71.1 

79.0 

83.3 

General  assistance  

1,354.0 

354.3 

233.7 

335.4 

366.0 

Subsistence  payments  to  farmers  

60.0 

Payments  under  social  security  and  related  programs,  fiscal  year  ended  June 


Retirement,  disability,  and  survivor  programs  b  .  . 

.      985,816 

1,275,159 

1,785,940 

835,912 

Old-age  and  survivors  insurance  

16,852 

155,735 

250,638 

409,251 

497,575 

Railroad  retirement  

.      114,025 

130,864 

142,528 

173,101 

224,871 

Federal  employee  systems  

.      119,551 

127,196 

158,486 

253,560 

Civil  service  

65,370  * 

77,636 

91,563 

117,129 

129,698 

Other  contributory  e  

872 

1,176 

1,495 

1,791 

00 

Noncontributory  d  

53,309 

48,384 

65,428 

134,640 

160,600  <* 

State  and  local  employee  systems  c  

.      141,500 

168,900 

193,000 

215,000 

(0 

Veterans'  pensions  and  compensation  d  

.      432,888  * 

446,628 

744,338 

1,934,226 

2,105,682  d 

State  sickness  compensation  /  

836 

4,950 

13,511 

23,730 

Workmen's  compensation  °  
Unemployment  insurance  programs  

246,660 
.      497,317 

344,420 

177,848 

401,320 
92,656 

433,000 
2,046,885 

(0 
1,493,675 

State  unemployment  insurance  

.      482,507 

176,095 

71,209 

833,718 

757,728 

Railroad  unemployment  insurance  h  

14,810 

1,753 

728 

46,617 

59,030 

Veterans'  unemployment  allowances  *  

20,719 

1,166,550 

552,344 

Self  -employment  allowances%  to  veterans  »  
Public  assistance  programs  *  

.   1,058,886 

928,851 

3,436 
951,368 

268,768 
1,342,202 

124,473 
1,584,700 

Old-age  assistance  

.      449,969 

616,569 

701,951 

910,330 

1,037,554 

Aid  to  dependent  children  

.      123,366 

149,962 

138,533 

254,547 

325,710 

Aid  to  the  blind  

21,206 

24,879 

25,339 

33,477 

38,540 

General  assistance  

.      444,450 

137,441 

85,545 

143,848 

182,895 

Subsistence  payments  to  farmers  

19,895 

«  Excludes  Federal  work  programs.  &  Beneficiaries  represent  persons  receiving  monthly  benefits;  exclude < persons  receiving 
lump-sum  payments  only.  Payments  include  lump-sum  death  payments.  c  Data  estimated;  for  1948,  not  available.  d  Data  for 
1948  partly  estimated.  « Average  weekly  number,  f  Compensation  for  temporary  disability  payable  in  Rhode  Island  beginning 
in  April  1943,  and  in  California  beginning  December  1946.  "  Number  not  available.  Payments  primarily  for  calendar  year; 
partly  estimated;  for  1948.  not  available.  A  Average  number  of  persons  receiving  benefits  for  unemployment  in  a  14-day  regis- 
tration period.  l"  Under  Servicemen's  Readjustment  Act  of  1944,  effective  September  1944.  Average  weekly  number  for  un- 
employment and  number  during  month  for  self-employment,  i  Data  through  1942  for  continental  United  States  only.  *  Partly 
estimated. 


ment  of  $26  per  child  and  $66  per  family.  Nearly 
66,000  blind  persons  received  assistance  at  an  av- 
erage payment  of  $41.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  these  figures  on  average  payments  relate  to 
the  country  as  a  whole. 

Averages  by  State  show  wide  differences  that 
reflect  both  the  ability  of  States  and  localities  to 
finance  assistance  and  the  standards  prevailing  in 
the  State.  Another  factor  in  the  variations  from 
State  to  State  is  the  coverage  limitation  on  old-age 
and  survivors  insurance.  Since  coverage  under  tne 
insurance  program  excludes  agricultural  labor,  the 
predominantly  agricultural  States  have  more  assist- 
ance recipients  in  relation  to  total  State  population 


several  persons  in  a  family,  the  total  number  of 
individuals  receiving  general  assistance  was  larger 
than  the  number  of  cases. 

Expenditures  during  the  fiscal  year  1948  for  all 
four  programs,  representing  both  assistance  pay- 
ments and  costs  of  administration,  amounted  to 
$1,700  million.  Of  this  total,  $1,500  million  repre- 
sented expenditures  from  all  sources — Federal, 
State,  and  local — for  the  three  programs  under 
the  Social  Security  Act,  and  $200  million  repre- 
sented expenditures  by  States  and  localities  for 
general  assistance. 

Maternal  and  Child  Health  and  Child  Welfare  Serv- 
ices. Federal  grants  under  the  Social  Security  Act 


SOCIAL  S£ CUR/TY  ADMINISTRATION 


508 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


are  made  to  States  to  help  them  extend  and  im- 
prove State  and  community  services  for  mothers 
and  children,  especially  in  rural  areas  and  areas 
suffering  from  severe  economic  distress.  All  48 
States  and  the  District  of  Columbia,  Alaska,  Ha- 
waii, Puerto  Rico,  and  the  Virgin  Islands  received 
Federal  grants  for  these  programs  during  1948.  To 
receive  the  grants,  the  State  plan  must  meet  cer- 
tain requirements  set  forth  in  the  Social  Security 
Act  and  must  match  certain  portions  of  the  Fed- 
eral funds. 

Federal  grants  of  $11  million  a  year  are  author- 
ized for  maternal  and  child  health  services.  The 
grants  are  made  to  State  pubHc  health  agencies 
whose  responsibility  it  is  to  assist  local  health  de- 
partments in  developing  and  providing  health 
services  to  children  from  birth  through  school  age, 
and  to  mothers  before  and  after  childbirth.  In 
general,  the  services  are  primarily  preventive,  de- 
signed to  help  well  mothers  and  children  keep  well 
and  to  direct  the  sick  ones  to  the  care  they  need. 
Most  frequently  the  services  include  prenatal  clin- 
ics, child  health  conferences,  home  nursing^  visits, 
medical  examinations  in  schools,  and  nutritional, 
dental,  and  mental  health  programs.  Both  in  qual- 
ity and  quantity,  the  services  vary  considerably 
from  State  to  State  and  from  community  to  com- 
munity. 

During  the  calendar  year  1947,  medical  services, 
financed  in  part  with  Federal  funds,  were  given  to 
about  152,000  women  at  prenatal  clinics.  About 
234,000  mothers  received  nursing  service  during 
pregnancy,  and  after  the  baby's  birth  more  than 
40,000  received  medical  examinations  and  215,000 
received  nursing  service.  Some  561,000  infants  and 
preschool  children  attended  well-child  clinics  in 
1947,  and  public  health  nursing  services  reached 
more  than  1,010,000.  Physicians'  examinations  of 
school  children  totaled  1,862,000  and  public  health 
nursing  visits,  2,200,000.  Reports  of  immunization 
show  an  increase  of  diphtheria  and  a  decrease  of 
smallpox.  About  55,000  preschool  children  and 
1,600,000  school  children  received  inspections  by 
dentists  or  dental  hygienists. 

For  services  for  crippled  children,  $7,500,000  a 
year  is  authorized  in  Federal  grants.  This  money 
goes  to  help  States  extend  and  improve  their  serv- 
ices for  locating  crippled  children  and  for  provid- 
ing medical,  surgical,  corrective,  and  other  services 

EXPENDITURES    FOR    PUBLIC    ASSISTANCE    PAY- 
MENTS AND  ADMINISTRATION  UNDER  THE  SOCIAL 
SECURITY  ACT,  FISCAL  YEARS  1945-48  « 


Amount 
Program  and  fiscal  year  (In  1,000's) 
Old-age  assistance: 
1945  74.3.984 

Percentage  distribution 
Federal    State      Local 
funds     funds     funds 

47.3        44.9          7,8 
46.2        46.3          7.5 
51.6        41.9          6.5 
51.8        42.0          6.2 

36.4        46.3        17.3 
33.3        51.4        15.3 
38-6        49.1        12.3 
39.4        48.3        12.3 

47.4        39.3        13,3 
45.5        40.8        13.7 
49.9        38.6        11.4 
49.4        41.2          9.4 

1946  ... 

,      806,472 

1947  

.  .  .      960,363 

1948 

.     1,093,947 

Aid  to  dependent 
dren: 
1945       .    .    . 

chil- 
151.398 

1946   .... 

188  707 

1947 

275  704 

1948 

352  279 

Aid  to  the  blind: 
1945  

21,729 

1946  

23,534 

1947 

28206 

194S  

33,288 

a  Excludes  Federal  administrative  expanses.   Fiscal  years 
ended  June  30. 

and  care,  and  facilities  for  diagnosis,  hospitaliza- 
tion,  and  after  care,  for  children  who  are  crippled 
or  suffering  from  conditions  that  may  lead  to  crip- 
pli  ^ 

States   maintained   a   register   of   crippled 


children  in  the  State.  A  child  is  eligible  for  registra- 
tion if  he  has  a  type  of  crippling  for  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  State  plan,  children  may  be  accept- 
ed for  care  by  the  official  State  agency,  and  has 
had  his  crippling  condition  diagnosed  by  a  li- 
censed physician.  The  niomber  of  children  on  the 
different  State  registers  varies  widely.  Some  States 
do  a  much  more  thorough  job  of  registration  than 
others,  and  some  are  more  careful  in  clearing  their 
registers  of  children  no  longer  eligible  for  care 
under  the  program. 

At  the  close  of  1947,  some  474,000  children  or 
an  average  of  9.6  per  100,000  population  under 
age  21  were  registered  under  the  program.  Ap- 
proximately 168,000  children  received  one  or  more 
types  of  service  during  the  year  from  official  State 
agencies.  Additional  numbers  of  crippled  children 
were,  of  course,  under  care  of  private  physicians 
and  other  agencies  though  to  what  extent  is  not 
known. 

Nearly  120,000  children  received  diagnostic  or 
treatment  service  at  crippled  children's  clinics  in 
1947,  29,000  children  were  hospitalized,  4,800  re- 
ceived convalescent-home  care,  and  more  than  850 
received  foster-home  care.  More  than  71,000  chil- 
dren received  public  health  nursing  services,  about 
19,000  received  physical  therapy,  and  27,000  had 
care  from  medical  social  workers.  Various  States 
operated  special  programs  for  the  care  of  children 
with  rheumatic  fever  and  rheumatic  heart  disease, 
poliomyelitis,  and  cerebral  palsy,  and  some  provi- 
sion was  being  made  for  surgical  correction  of  vis- 
ual impairments  and  for  the  care  of  children  with 
hearing  defects. 

In  the  child '  welfare  program,  Federal  grants 
totaling  $3,500,000  a  year  are  authorized  for  State 
public  welfare  agencies  to  help  in  establishing,  ex- 
tending, and  strengthening  services  for  the  protec- 
tion and  care  of  homeless  and  neglected  children 
and  children  in  danger  of  becoming  delinquent. 
These  community  services  include  arranging  for 
foster-home  or  institutional  care  for  children  who 
need  care  away  from  their  own  homes;  protecting 
neglected  and  mistreated  children;  obtaining  ^  the 
necessary  attention  for  children  who  have  physical, 
mental,  and  emotional  handicaps  and  are  not  re- 
ceiving the  care  they  need;  safeguarding  children 
of  illegitimate  birth;  cooperating  with  courts  and 
schools'  in  handling  children's  cases  and  with  State 
institutions  that  care  for  children;  and  working 
with  mental  hygiene  clinics.  Child  welfare  work- 
ers also  aid  in  the  organization  of  community  serv- 
ices for  children,  including  services  to  prevent  jti- 
venile  delinquency. 

At  the  end  of  1947,  about  230,000  children  were 
receiving  child  welfare  services  from  State  and 
local  public  welfare  agencies.  About  41  percent 
of  the  children  served  were  living  with  parents  or 
other  relatives,  40  percent  were  in  foster-family 
homes,  and  19  percent  were  in  children's  institu- 
tions or  elsewhere.  Federal  aid  represented  a  small 
part  of  State  and  local  resources  devoted  to  the 
care  of  these  children.  ( See  PRISONS,  PAROLE,  AND 
CRIME  CONTROL.)  — ARTHUR  J.  ALTMEYER 

SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS.  The  following  is  an 
alphabetical  list  of  some  of  the  leading  national 
and  international  organizations.  Certain  classifica- 
tions have  been  omitted  because  they  are  repre- 
sented elsewhere  in  this  volume.  The  reader  is, 
therefore,  referred  to  the  following  articles:  for 
accrediting  associations,  to  the  article  on  UNIVER- 
SITIES AND  COLLEGES;  for  labor  organizations,  to 
LABOR  CONDITIONS;  for  religious  bodies,  to  the 
interdenominational  groups  below,  and  to  the  sepa- 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


509 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


rate  articles  on  churches;  for  sports  organizations, 
to  articles  on  various  sports.  For  foundations  and 
trusts,  government  agencies,  learned  academies, 
and  institutes,  see  separate  articles.  For  official  in- 
ternational organizations,  see  PAN  AMERICAN  AC- 
TIVITIES and  UNITED  NATIONS,  as  well  as  various 
separate  articles. 

Academy  of  Medicine,  Canadian,  founded  in  1907  to 
advance  the  art  and  science  of  medicine;  promote  and 
maintain  an  efficient  library  and  museum;  cultivate  har- 
mony and  good  feeling  among  its  fellows;  promote  the  cor- 
porate influence  of  the  profession  in  relation  to  the  com- 
munity. Membership:  1,570.  President,  Dr.  W.  A.  Burr; 
Treasurer,  Dr.  E.  G.  Fielden;  Secretary,  Dr.  J.  W.  Ross. 
Headquarters:  288  Bloor  St.,  W,  Toronto  5,  Canada, 

Academy  of  Motion  Picture  Arts  and  Sciences,  founded  in 
1927  to  advance  the  arts  and  sciences  of  motion  pictures 
and  to  foster  cooperation  among  the  creative  leadership  of 
the  motion  picture  industry  for  cultural,  educational,  and 
technological  progress.  Membership:  1,911.  President,  Jean 
Hersholt;  Secretary,  Robert  Montgomery;  Treasurer,  N. 
Peter  Rathvon;  Executive  Secretary,  Margaret  Herrick. 
Headquarters:  9038  Melrose  Ave.,  Los  Angeles  46,  Calif. 
Academy  awards  for  the  calendar  year  1947  presented 
Mar.  20,  1948.  See  MOTION  PICTURES^. 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  The,  a  re- 
search institution  founded  in  1812  and  supported  by  vol- 
untary gifts  and  bequests.  Besides  research  laboratories,  the 
Academy  houses  a  free  museum  of  natural  history  and  a 
library  in  the  natural  sciences.  The  study  collections  of 
specimens  in  natural  history  exceed  8  millions.  President, 
Charles  M.  B.  Cadwalader;  Managing  Director,  Dr.  H.  Rad- 
clyffe  Roberts.  Address:  Nineteenth  and  the  Parkway,  Phil- 
adelphia 3,  Pa. 

Academy  of  Political  Science,  founded  in  1880  to  uphold 
the  ideals  of  scholarship,  scientific  procedure,  and  impar- 
tial investigation  in  the  fields  of  economics,  politics,  and 
public  law.  Membership:  approximately  10,300.  President, 
Lewis  W.  Douglas;  Director  (as  of  1/1/49),  Grayson  L, 
Kirk;  Treasurer,  Sam  A.  Lewisohn.  Headquarters:  Fayer- 
weather  Hall,  Columbia  University,  New  York  27,  N.Y. 
Semi-Annual  Meetings  in  1948  held  April  1  and  Novem- 
ber 10. 

Actors'  Fund  of  America,  The,  founded  in  1882  to  aid 
the  aged,  sick,  and  destitute  of  the  theatrical  profession. 
Membership:  3,025.  President,  Walter  Vincent;  Secretary, 
Robert  Campbell;  Treasurer,  Vinton  Freedley.  Headquar- 
ters: 1619  Broadway,  New  York  19,  N.Y,  Annual  meeting 
held  at  Coronet  Theatre,  New  York,  N.Y.,  on  May  21,  1948. 

Aero  Medical  Association,  founded  in  1929  as  a  non- 
profit organization  (1)  to  advance  the  science  and  art  of 
aviation  medicine  by  stimulating  investigation  and  study; 
by  disseminating  knowledge;  (2)  to  establish  and  main- 
tain cooperation  between  the  medical  and  other  sciences 
concerned  with  aeronautical  development  and  progress. 
Membership:  1,600.  President,  1948,  Marion  M.  Kalez, 
M.D.,  President,  1949,  Wilbur  E.  Kellum;  Secretary-Treas- 
urer and  Business  Manager,  Thomas  A.  Sutherland,  M.D. 
Headquarters,  Office  of  the  Secretary:  214  South  State  St., 
Marion,  Ohio.  The  1949  Annual  Meeting  will  be  held  in 
New  York,  August  23-26.  Theodore  C.  Lyster  Award  to 
Professor  W.  R.  Franks;  Raymond  F.  Longacre  Award  to 
Detlev  W.  Bronk. 

Alcoholic  Foundation,  Inc.,  The,  headquarters  for  Alcohol-* 
ics  Anonymous,  founded  in  1934  for  the  one  purpose  of 
helping  the  sick  alcoholic  recover  if  he  wishes.  Membership: 
70,000;  no  officers.  Headquarters;  P.O.  Box  459,  Grand 
Central  Annex,  New  York  17,  N.Y. 

Altrusa  International,  Inc.,  founded  in  1917,  is  the  oldest 
national  organization  of  executive  and  professional  women. 
In  1935  it  became  international.  Membership  is  by  invi- 
tation and  is  limited  to  one  outstanding  representative  of 
each  particular  business  or  profession  within  the  territory 
of  an  Altrusa  Club.  Membership:  Approximately  8,000. 
President,  Corinne  V.  Loomis;  Executive  Secretary,  Hazel 
P.  Williams.  Headquarters:  332  South  Michigan  Ave., 
Chicago  4,  111,  Each  of  the  10  districts  into  which  Altrusa 
is  divided  holds  an  annual  conference.  Next  International 
Convention  at  Banff,  Alberta,  June,  1949. 

Amateur  Astronomers  Association,  Inc.,  founded  1927, 
to  promote  interest  and  foster  education  in  the  science  of 
astronomy  by  a  program  of  lectures,  classes,  outdoor  observ- 
ing, home-study  course,  telescope  construction,  inspection 
trips,  and  publication  (Astronomical  News  Service)*  Mem- 
bership: 650.  President,  Dr.  C.  S.  Brainin;  Treasurer,  H.  T. 
Kirkebye;  Staff  Editor,  Jane  S.  Davis;  Secretary,  G.  V. 
Plachy.  Headquarters:  Hayden  Planetarium,  New  York  24, 
N.Y.  Eight  monthly  lecture  meetings,  open  to  the  public, 
are  held  at  The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New 
York,  N.Y. 

Amateur  Athletic  Union  of  U.S.,  founded  in  1888  for  the 
improvement  and  promotion  of  athletic  sports  among  all 
amateurs.  The  Union  consists  of  77  allied  and  active  asso- 
ciations covering  the  U.S.  and  the  Territory  of  Hawaii. 
Membership:  80,000  individuals;  2,300  clubs,  colleges, 
schools,  and  industrial  athletic  associations.  President, 
James  A.  Rhodes;  Secretary«Treasurer,  Daniel  J.  Ferris. 


Headquarters:  233  Broadway,  New  York  7,  N.Y.  District 
associations  hold  meetings  in  September  and  October.  The 
annual  convention  is  held  in  December. 

American  Academy  in  Rome,  founded  in  1894,  incorpo- 
rated by  the  U.S.  Congress  1905,  consolidated  with  the 
American  School  of  Classical  Studies  in  Rome  1913.  Pur- 
pose: To  promote  the  study  and  practice  of  the  fine  arts 
and  the  investigation  of  archaeology  through  the  annual 
granting  of  Fellowships  in  architecture,  the  arts,  history  of 
art,  and  classical  studies.  President,  James  Kellum  Smith; 
Director,  Laurance  P.  Roberts;  Executive  Secretary,  Mary 
T.  Williams.  Headquarters:  101  Park  Ave.,  New  York  17, 
N.Y.,  and  Via  Angelo  Masina  5,  Rome,  Italy. 

American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  founded  in  1780 
"to  cultivate  every  art  and  science  which  may  tend  to  ad- 
vance the  interest,  honor,  dignity  and  happiness  of  a  free, 
independent  and  virtuous  people."  Membership:  968.  Presi- 
dent, Howard  M.  Jones;  Secretary,  John  W.  M.  Bunker; 
Treasurer,  Horace  S.  Ford;  Librarian,  Ernest  H.  Huntress; 
Editor,  Taylor  Starck.  Headquarters:  28  Newbury  St.,  Bos- 
ton 16,  Mass.  Eight  monthly  meetings  held  at  headquarters. 

American  Academy  of  Dental  Medicine,  Inc.,  founded  in 
1945  to  promote  the  study  and  dissemination  of  knowledge 
of  the  cause,  prevention,  and  control  of  diseases  of  the  teeth 
and  related  subjects;  to  promote  a  closer  medico-dental  re- 
lation to  these  studies;  and  to  foster  better  understanding 
between  the  fields  of  dentistry  and  medicine.  Membership; 
350.  President:  J.  Lewis  Blass;  Secretary,  William  M. 
Greenhut;  Treasurer,  Louis  R.  Burman;  Editor,  Journal  of 
Dental  Medicine,  Allan  N.  Arvins.  Headquarters;  Office  of 
Secretary,  124  East  84th  St.,  New  York  28,  N.Y.  The  3d 
Annual  Meeting  will  be  held  in  New  York,  June  4-5,  1949, 

American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  The, 
founded  in  1889  to  advance  the  progress  of  political  and 
social  science  especially  through  publications  and  the  hold- 
ing of  meetings.  Membership:  Approximately  13,500,  Pres- 
ident, Ernest  M.  Patterson;  Secretary,  J.  P,  Lichtenberger; 
Treasurer,  Charles  J.  Rhoads.  Headquarters:  3817  Spruce 
St.,  Philadelphia  4,  Pa.  The  52nd  Annual  Meeting  was 
held  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Apr.  2-3,  1948. 

American  Anthropological  Association,  founded  in  1902 
to  advance  the  science  of  anthropology  in  all  its  branches 
and  to  further  the  professional  interests  of  American  an- 
thropologists. Membership:  450  Fellows;  1,200  Members. 
President,  H.  L.  Shapiro;  Secretary,  D.  B.  Stout;  Treasurer, 
E.  G.  Aginsky.  Headquarters:  Office  of  Secretary,  Maxwell 
Hall,  Syracuse  University,  Syracuse  10,  N.Y.  Through  a 
special  committee  the  Association  selects  the  annual  recip- 
ient of  the  Viking  Fund  Medal  and  Prize  in  Cultural  An- 
thropology. Publications:  American  Anthropologist  (quar- 
terly) and  Memoirs. 

American  Antiquarian  Society,  founded  in  1812  for  fur- 
thering the  knowledge  of  American  history  by  research, 
publication,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  research  library. 
Membership:  200.  President,  Samuel  Eliot  Morison;  Direc- 
tor, Clarence  S.  Brigham;  Librarian,  Clifford  K.  Shipton. 
Headquarters:  Worcester  5,  Mass.  Meetings  to  be  held  in 
Boston  on  Apr.  20,  1949,  and  in  Worcester  on  Oct  19, 
1949. 

American  Association  for  Adult  Education,  founded  in 
1926  to  further  the  idea  of  education  as  a  continuing  proc- 
ess throughout  life.  Membership:  2,600.  President,  Hans 
Kohn;  Secretary,  Mildred  V.  D.  Mathews;  Treasurer,  James 
Creese;  Director,  Morse  A.  Cartwright.  Headquarters:  525 
W.  120th  St.,  New  York  27,  N.Y. 

American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 
founded  in  1848  to  further  the  work  of  scientists,  to  fa- 
cilitate cooperation  among  them,  to  improve  the  effective- 
ness of  science  in  the  promotion  of  human  welfare,  and 
to  increase  public  understanding  and  appreciation  of  the 
importance  and  promise  of  the  methods  of  science  in  hu- 
man progress.  It  is  a  non-profit  scientific  and  educational 
organization.  It  holds  meetings  and  conferences,  produces 
and  distributes  publications,  administers  gifts  and  bequests, 
provides  support  for  research,  arranges  awards  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  scientific  work,  and  cooperates  with  other 
organizations  in  the  advancement  of  science.  Membership: 
42,000.  President,  E.  C.  Stakman;  Administrative  Secre- 
tary, Howard  A.  Meyerhoff,  Headquarters:  1515  Massa- 
chusetts Ave.,  NW,  Washington  5,  D.C.  The  Annual  Meet- 
ing will  be  held  Dec.  26-31,  1949,  in  New  York. 

American  Association  for  the  United  Nations  (formerly 
League  of  Nations  Association),  founded  in  1923  to  de- 
velop an  informed  public  opinion  in  support  of  the  United 
Nations.  It  is  the  U.S.  member  of  the  World  Federation 
of  United  Nations  Associations;  its  research  affiliate  is  the 
Commission  to  Study  the  Organization  of  Peace.  Member- 
ship: 25,000.  President,  William  Emerson;  Director,  Clark 
M.  Eichelberger;  Treasurer,  Frederick  C.  McKee.  Head- 
quarters: 45  East  65th  St.,  New  York  21,  N.Y. 

American  Association  of  Economic  Entomologists,  founded 
in  1889,  to  promote  the  study  of  and  to  advance  the  science 
of  entomology,  and  to  publish  The  Journal  of  Economic 
Entomology.  Membership:  About  2,300.  President,  S.  A. 
Rohwer,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  Secre- 
tary-Treasurer, Ernest  N.  Cory.  Headquarters:  College 
Park,  Md.  Annual  meeting  to  be  held  Dec.  13-16,  New 
York,  N.Y. 

American  Association  of  Junior  Colleges,  founded  in 
1920  to  stimulate  the  professional  development  of  its  mem- 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


510 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


bers  and  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  junior  college.  Mem- 
bership: 480  institutions,  100  individual  and  sustaining  or- 
ganizations. President,  Leland  Medsker;  Executive  Secre- 
tary, Jesse  P.  Bogue;  Director  of  Research  and  Editor  of 
Junior  College  Journal,  L.  V.  Koos.  Headquarters:  1201 
Nineteenth  St.,  Washington  6,  D.G. 

American  Association  of  Museums,  founded  in  1906  to 
help  museums  solve  their  problems  and  increase  their  use- 
fulness. Membership:  400  museums,  700  individuals.  Presi- 
dent, David  E.  Finley;  Secretary  and  Treasurer,  Luke  Vin- 
cent Lockwood;  Director,  Laurence  Vail  Coleman;  Asso- 
ciate Director,  Lauder  Greenway.  Headquarters:  Smithso- 
nian Institution,  Washington  25,  D.C.  The  43rd  Annual 
Meeting  was  held  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Mayr 27-29,  1948.  Dis- 
tinguished Service  Award  to  Henry  W.  Kent. 

American  Association  ol  Physical  Anthropologists,  found- 
ed in  1928  to  promote  research  in  physical  anthropology 
and  cooperation  with  cognate  sciences.  Membership:  Ap- 
proximately 200.  President,  W.  M.  Krogman;  Editor  of  the 
American  Journal  of  'Physical  Anthropology:  W.  W.  How- 
ells;  Secretary-Treasurer,  G.  W.  Lasker  (Wayne  Univer- 
sity College  of  Medicine,  Detroit  26,  Mich.).  Viking  Fund 
Medal  and  Prize  in  Physical  Anthropology  to  E.  A.  Hopton. 
Next  Annual  Meeting  will  be  held  at  the  Wistar  Institute, 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Apr.  11-13,  1949. 

American  Association  of  Social  Workers,  founded  in  1921 
to  improve  the  quality  of  social  services  and  advance  pub- 
lic understanding  of  the  profession  of  social  work.  It  pro- 
vides a  channel  through  which  social  service  practitioners 
formulate  policies.  Membership:  11,500.  President,  Donald 
S.  Howard;  Secretary,  Esther  Hilton;  Treasurer,  Malcolm  S. 
Nichols.  Headquarters:  130  E.  22nd  St.,  New  York  10, 
N.Y,  Delegate  Conference  to  be  held  June  10-12,  1949, 
at  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

American  Association  of  University  Professors,  founded  in 
1915  to  maintain  and  advance  the  ideals  and  standards  of 
the  profession  of  teaching  in  colleges  and  universities.  Mem- 
bership: 30,857.  President,  Ralph  H.  Lutz;  General  Secre- 
tary, Ralph  E.  Himstead.  Headquarters,  1101  Connecticut 
Ave,,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C.  Annual  meeting  to  be  held 
at  Washington,  D.C.,  Feb.  26^-27,  1949. 

Americ0n  Association  of  University  Women,  founded  in 
1881  to  unite  the  alumnae  of  different  institutions  for  prac- 
tical educational  work.  It  comprises  1,065  branches  in  48 
state  divisions  organized  in  9  regions.  It  is  a  member  of 
the  International  Federation  of  University  Women.  Mem- 
bership: 101,056.  President,  Althea  Kratz  Hottel;  Treas- 
urer, Mrs.  Dorothy  B.  A.  Rood;  General  Director,  Kathryn 
McHale.  Headquarters:  1634  Eye  St.,  NW,  Washington  6, 
D.C. 

American  Astronomical  Society,  founded  in  1897  for  the 
advancement  of  astronomy  and  closely  related  branches  of 
science.  Membership:  675.  President,  Otto  Struve;  Secre- 
tary, C.  M.  Huffer.  Headquarters:  Dearborn  Observatory, 
Evanston,  HI.  Meeting  to  be  held  in  Ottawa,  Ont.,  June, 
1949. 

American  Automobile  Association,  founded  in  1902,  is  a 
national  civic  body  operating  without  personal  profit  and 
providing  representation  for  motorists  of  the  U.S.  as  well 
as  automobile  club  services  to  members.  Membership:  Over 
2,500,000.  President,  R.  J.  Schmunk;  Executive  Vice-Pres- 
ident, Russell  E.  Singer;  Secretary,  Ralph  Thomas;  Treas- 
urer, Corcoran  Thorn.  Headquarters:  Penna.  Ave.  at  17th 
St.,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

American  Bar  Association,  founded  in  1878  "to  advance 
the  science  of  jurisprudence,  promote  the  administration  of 
justice  and  uniformity  of  legislation  and  of  judicial  decision 
throughout  the  nation,  uphold  the  honor  of  the  profession 
of  the  law,  encourage  cordial  intercourse  among  members 
of  the  American  bar,  and  to  correlate  the  activities  of  the 
bar  organizations  of  the  respective  states  on  a  representative 
basis  in  the  interest  of  the  legal  profession  and  or  the  public 
throughout  the  United  States."  Membership:  Approximately 
42,000.  President,  Frank  E.  Holman;  Secretary,  Joseph  D. 
Stecher;  Treasurer,  Walter  M.  Bastian;  Chairman  of  the 
House  of  Delegates,  James  R,  Morford.  Headquarters:  1140 
North  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago  10,  HI.  Annual  meeting  to  be 
held  Sept,  5,  1949.  Medal  to  Arthur  T.  Vanderbilt,  New 
Jersey. 

American  Bible  Society,  founded  in  1816  to  encourage  the 
wider  use  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  without  note  or  comment 
and  without  purpose  of  profit.  Membership:  Approximately 
150,000.  President,  Daniel  Burke;  Recording  Secretary, 
Francis  C.  Stiflerj  Treasurer,  Gilbert  Darlington.  Headquar- 
ters: 450  Park  Ave.,  New  York  22,  N.Y.  The  133d  Annual 
Meeting  will  be  held  May  12,  1949. 

American  Booksellers  Association,  Inc.,  founded  in  1900, 
protects  and  promotes  the  interests  of  retail  booksellers  in 
the  United  States.  Membership:  Approximately  1,450.  Pres- 
ident, Robert  B.  Campbell;  Secretary,  Benedict  Freud; 
Treasurer,  Frederick  Wood;  Executive  Secretary,  Gilbert  E. 
Goodkind,  Headquarters:  31  Madison  Ave.,  New  York  10, 
N.Y.  National  Convention  of  Booksellers  and  Publishers 
and  a  Book  Trade  Show  to  be  held  at  the  Shoreham,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  May  15-18,  1949.  ABA  Basic  Book  List, 
Spring,  1949;  ABA  Book  Buyer's  Handbook,  3rd  Ed.,  Fall, 
1949. 

American  Cancer  Society,  Inc.,  founded  in  1913  to  control 
and  cure  cancer  through  a  program  of  education,  service 
and  research.  Divisions  in  48  states.  President,  C.  C.  Nessel- 


rode,  M.D.;  Executive  Vice  President,  Douglass  Poteat; 
Secretary,  Charles  D.  Hilles,  Jr.;  Treasurer,  J.  Ernest  Allen; 
Medical  and  Scientific  Director,  Charles  S,  Cameron,  M.D.; 
National  Commander  Field  Army,  Mrs.  H.  V.  MiUigan; 
Comptroller,  E.  Tyson  Matlack.  Headquarters:  47  Beaver 
St.,  New  York  4,  N.Y.  Membership  obtainable  only  in  State 
and  geographic  divisions. 

American  Chemical  Society,  founded  in  1876  to  encour- 
age in  the  broadest  and  most  liberal  manner  the  advance- 
ment of  chemistry  in  all  its  branches.  Membership:  58,776. 
President,  Charles  A.  Thomas;  Executive  Secretary,  Alden 
H.  Emery;  Treasurer,  Robert  W.  Mellefont.  Headquarters: 
1155  16th  St.,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C.  Publications:  In- 
dustrial and  Engineering  Chemistry,  Analytical  Chemistry. 
ACS  Award  in  Pure  Chemistry  to  Saul  Winstein;  Borden 
Award  to  B.  L.  Herrington;  Eli  Lilly  &  Co.,  Award  to  D. 
W.  Woolley;  Fisher  Award  to  N.  H.  Furman;  Garvan  Med- 
al to  Gerty  T.  Cori;  Paul-Lewis  Laboratories  Award  to 
A.  L.  Lehninger;  Priestley  Medal  to  E.  R.  Weidlein.  In 
1948  two  national  meetings  were  held, 

American  College  of  Physicians,  The,  founded  in  1915 
**.  .  .  to  establish  an  organization  composed  of  qualified 
physicians  of  high  standing  who  shall  meet  from  time  to 
time  for  the  purpose  of  considering  and  discussing  medical 
and  scientific  topics,  and  who  through  their  organization 
shall  attempt  to  accomplish  the  further  purposes  of:  (a) 
maintaining  and  advancing  the  highest  possible  standards 
in  medical  education,  medical  practice  and  clinical  re- 
search; (b)  perpetuating  the  history  and  best  traditions  of 
medicine  and  medical  ethics/*  Membership:  6,200.  Presi- 
dent, Walter  W.  Palmer,  M.D.;  Secretary-General,  George 
Morris  Piersol,  M.D.;  Executive  Secretary,  Edward  R.  Love- 
land.  Headquarters:  4200  Pine  St.,  Philadelphia  4,  Pa. 
National  annual  session  to  be  held  in  New  York,  N.Y., 
Mar.  28-Apr.  1,  1949.  Phillips  Memorial  Medal  to  Ernest 
W.  Goodpasture,  M.D.;  Bruce  Memorial  Medal  to  James 
Stevens  Simmons,  M.D.;  Stengel  Memorial  Award  to  Charles 
F.  Martin,  M.D. 

American  College  of  Surgeons,  founded  in  1913  to  estab- 
lish and  maintain  an  association  of  surgeons  to  benefit  hu- 
manity by  advancing  the  science  of  surgery  and  the  ethical 
and  competent  practice  of  its  art.  Membership:  16,000. 
President,  Dr.  Dallas  B.  Phemister.  Headquarters:  40  East 
Erie  St.,  Chicago  11,  HI.  The  1949  Annual  Clinical  Con- 
gress will  be  held  in  Chicago,  HI.,  October  17-21. 

American  Council  of  Learned  Societies,  founded  in  1919 
for  the  advancement  of  the  humanistic  studies,  and  the 
maintenance  and  strengthening  of  relations  among  the 
national  societies  devoted  to  such  studies.  Membership:  23 
societies  and  associations.  Executive  Director,  Charles  E. 
Odegaard;  Chairman,  William  C.  DeVane;  Secretary,  Lewis 
Hanke;  Treasurer,  S.  Whittemore  Boggs.  Headquarters, 
1219  Sixteenth  St.,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C.  Next  annual 
meeting,  Jan.  27-28,  1949,  Claridge  Hotel,  Atlantic  City, 
N.J. 

American  Council  on  Education,  founded  1918,  to  advance 
American  education  in  any  or  all  o£  its  phases  through  vol- 
untary cooperative  action  by  educational  associations,  or- 
ganizations, and  institutions.  Membership:  123  educational 
organizations,  890  institutional  members  (colleges  and  uni- 
versities, city  school  systems,  private  school  systems,  state 
departments  of  education,  etc.).  President  and  Executive 
Officer,  George  F.  Zook;  Chairman,  Herold  C.  Hunt.  Head- 
quarters: 744  Jackson  Place,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C.  An- 
nual Meeting  May  6-7,  1949,  at  Hotel  Mayflower,  Wash- 
ington, D.C. 

American  Dental  Association,  founded  in  1859,  is  a  na- 
tional non-profit  association  to  encourage  the  improvement 
of  the  health  of  the  public  and  to  promote  the  art  and 
science  of  dentistry.  Membership:  71,826.  President,  Dr. 
Clyde  E.  Minges;  Secretary,  Dr.  Harold  Hillenbrand;  Treas- 
urer, Dr.  H.  B.  Washburn.  Headquarters:  222  East  Supe- 
rior St.,  Chicago  11,  111.  National  and  regional  meeting  to 
be  held  Oct.  17-21,  1949,  in  San  Francisco,  Calif. 

American  Dietetic  Association,  The,  founded  in  1917  to 
improve  the  nutritional  status  of  mankind,  bring  about 
closer  cooperation  among  dietitians  and  nutritionists  and 
workers  in  allied  fields,  and  raise  the  standard  of  dietary 
work.  Membership:  Approximately,  8,000.  President,  Helen 
E.  Walsh;  Secretary,  Margaret  A.  Ohlson;  Treasurer,  Fern 
Gleiser.  Headquarters:  620  North  Michigan  Ave.,  Chicago 
11,  HI.  Meeting  to  be  held  in  Denver,  Colo.,  Oct.  10-14, 
1949.  Gopher  Memorial  Award  to  Grace  Bulman. 

American  Documentation  Institute,  founded  in  1937,  is  a 
non-profit  organization  for  the  promotion  and  development 
of  documentation  in  scholarly  and  scientific  fields.  Mem- 
bership: 62,  nominated  by  scholarly  and  scientific  agen- 
cies. The  Institute  is  the  U.S.  organization  in  the  Inter- 
national Federation  of  Documentation.  President,  Vernon 
Tate;  Secretary,  Watson  Davis.  Headquarters:  1719  N 
St.,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

American  Economic  Association,  founded  in  1885  for  the 
encouragement  of  economic  research,  the  issue  of  publi- 
cations on  economic  subjects,  and  the  encouragement  of 
perfect  freedom  of  economic  discussion.  Membership:  5,- 
766;  2,402  subscribers  (university  libraries,  etc.).  Presi- 
dent, Joseph  A.  Schumpeter,  Harvard  University;  Secretary- 
Treasurer,  James  Washington  Bell,  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity, Evanston,  111,  Annual  meeting  at  Hotel  Cleveland, 
Cleveland,  O.,  Dec.  27-30,  1948. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


511 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


American  Ethnological  Society,  Inc.,  The,  founded  in  1842 
to  stimulate  an  interest  in  and  knowledge  of  anthropology 
through  its  publications  and  open  meetings.  Membership: 
240.  President,  Esther  S.  Goldfrank;  Secretary-Treasurer, 
Dorothy  L.  Zeur.  Headquarters:  Hunter  College,  New  York 
21,  N.Y. 

American  Eugenics  Society,  incorporated  in  1926  as  an 
educational  society  to  promote  a  wider  and  better  under- 
standing of  eugenics  based  on  human  heredity  and  correla- 
tive environment  and  aiming  at  human  betterment,  indi- 
vidual, family,  and  racial.  Membership:  400.  Publication: 
Eugenics  News.  President,  Frederick  Osborn;  Vice  Presi- 
dent, Joseph  K.  Folsom;  Secretary-Treasurer,  Chauncey 
Belknap.  Headquarters:  1790  Broadway,  New  York  19, 
N.Y. 

American  Farm  Bureau  Federation,  founded  1919  to  pro- 
mote, protect,  and  represent  the  business,  economic,  social, 
and  educational  interests  of  farmers.  Membership:  Approxi- 
mately 1,300,000  farm  families.  President,  Allan  B.  Kline; 
Director  of  Information,  J.  J.  Lacey.  Headquarters:  109  N. 
Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago  2,  111. 

American  Federation  of  Arts,  The,  founded  in  1909  "to 
unite  in  closer  fellowship  all  who  are  striving  for  the  de- 
velopment of  art  in  America."  Membership:  416  institu- 
tional and  chapter  members.  President,  L.  M.  C.  Smith; 
Treasurer,  Roy  R.  Neuberger;  Secretary  and  Director, 
Thomas  C.  Parker.  Headquarters:  1262  New  Hampshire 
Ave.,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

American  Federation  of  Musicians,  founded  in  1896  to 
protect  and  advance  the  interests  of  musicians  and  enforce 
the  consistency  of  union  principles  through  unification  of 
local  unions,  and  to  promote  the  art  of  music.  Membership: 
320,000.  President,  James  C.  Petrillo;  Secretary,  Leo  Clues- 
mann;  Treasurer,  Thomas  F.  Gamble.  Headquarters:  Sec- 
retary's office,  39  Division  St.,  Newark  2,  N.J.  A  convention 
will  be  held  at  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  June  6,  1949. 

American  Folklore  Society,  founded  in  1888  to  collect, 
study  and  publish  the  folklore  of  the  peoples  of  the  world. 
Membership:  1,015.  President,  Ennmie  W.  Volgelin;  Sec- 
retary-Treasurer, MacEdward  Leach;  Editor,  Wayland  D. 
Hand.  Headquarters:  Bennett  Hall,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Philadelphia  4,  Pa. 

American  Forestry  Association,  The,  founded  in  1875,  is  a 
citizens'  organization  for  the  advancement  of  intelligent 
management  and  use  of  the  country's  forests  and  related 
resources  of  soil,  water,  wildlife,  and  outdoor  recreation. 
Membership:  21,000.  President,  A.  C.  Spurr;  Executive  Di- 
rector, S.  L.  Frost:  Secretary,  Fred  E.  Hornaday.  Headquar- 
ters: 919  17th  St.,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

American  Foundation  for  the  Blind,  Inc.,  founded  in  1923 
to  promote  the  interests  of  the  blind  in  cooperation  with 
all  local  organizations.  President,  William  Ziegler,  Jr.;  Sec- 
retary, Gabriel  Farrell;  Executive  Director,  Robert  B.  Ir- 
win.  Headquarters:  15  West  16th  St.,  New  York  11,  N.Y. 

American  Friends  Service  Committee,  founded  in  1917  to 
give  expression  to  the  Quaker  faith  through  social  action, 
especially  through  physical  relief  to  war  sufferers  and  recon- 
ciliation services  to  persons  and  groups  grown  antagonistic 
toward  each  other  along  national,  racial,  religious,  or  po- 
litical lines.  Chairman,  Henry  J.  Cadbury;  Executive  Sec- 
retary, Clarence  E.  Pickett;  Treasurer,  William  A.  Long- 
shore. Headquarters:  20  South  12th  St.,  Philadelphia  7,  Pa. 

American  Genetic  Association,  founded  in  1903  to  pro- 
mote a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  heredity  and  their  appli- 
cation to  the  improvement  of  plants,  animals,  and  human 
racial  stocks.  Membership:  3,000.  President,  David  Fair- 
child;  Secretary,  C.  E.  Leighty;  Treasurer,  Samuel  L.  Ems- 
weller;  Managing  Editor,  Robert  C.  Cook.  Headquarters: 
1507  M  St.,  NW,  Washington  5,  D.C. 

American  Geographical  Society,  founded  in  1852,  is  de- 
voted to  the  advancement  of  geography  in  its  scientific,  edu- 
cational, and  cultural  aspects,  its  practical  applications,  and 
its  bearing  on  fundamental  problems  of  human  existence 
and  human  relationships  in  the  different  regions  of  the 
earth.  Membership:  4,648.  President,  Richard  U.  Light; 
Treasurer,  R.  McAllister  Lloyd;  Director,  John  K.  Wright. 
Headquarters:  Broadway  at  156th  St.,  New  York  32,  N.Y. 
Eight  monthly  lecture  meetings  will  be  held  in  1949  for 
Fellows  of  the  Society. 

American  Historical  Association,  founded  in  1884  as  a 
body  corporate  and  politic  for  the  promotion  of  historical 
studies,  the  collection  and  preservation  of  historical  manu- 
scripts, and  for  kindred  purposes  in  the  interests  of  Ameri- 
can history  and  of  history  in  America.  Membership:  5,000. 
President,  Kenneth  S.  Latourette;  Treasurer,  Solon  J.  Buck; 
Executive  Secretary,  Guy  Stanton  Ford.  Headquarters: 
Room  274,  Library  of  Congress  Annex,  Washington  25, 
D.C. 

American  Home  Economics  Association,  founded  in  1909 
for  the  development  and  promotion  of  standards  of  home 
and  family  life  that  will  best  further  individual  and  social 
welfare.  The  AHEA  works  through  six  divisions,  10  de- 
partments, and  numerous  committees.  Membership:  18,000 
annual  members,  20,000  students,  386  affiliated  college 
clubs,  and  947  homemakers  in  36  groups.  President,  Dr. 
Marie  Dye;  Recording  Secretary,  Helen  P.  Hostetter;  Treas- 
urer, Dorothy  E.  Shank.  Headquarters:  700  Victor  Build- 
ing, Washington  1,  D.C.  A  meeting  will  be  held  at  San 
Francisco,  Calif.,  June  28-July  1,  1949. 

American  Horticultural  Society,  Inc.,  The,  founded  in  1922 


to  promote  horticulture  in  all  its  branches.  Membership: 
2,458.  President,  H.  E.  Allanson;  Secretary,  Conrad  Link; 
Treasurer,  C.  O.  Erlanson;  Editor,  B.  Y.  Morrison.  Head- 
quarters: 821  Washington  Loan  and  Trust  Building,  Wash- 
ington 4,  D.C.  The  annual  business  meeting,  for  members 
only,  held  in  Washington,  D.C.,  in  April  of  each  year. 

American  Hospital  Association,  founded  in  1898  to  pro- 
vide "Better  Hospital  Care  for  All  People**  through  stand- 
ardization of  hospital  service;  education;  and  representa- 
tion of  hospitals  to  government,  groups,  and  the  public. 
Membership:  4,068  institutional;  3,305  individual.  Presi- 
dent, Joseph  G.  Norby;  1st  Vice  President,  Edwin  L.  Cros- 
by; 2nd  Vice  President,  Mary  C.  Schabinger.  Headquarters: 
18  East  Division  St.,  Chicago  10,  111.  The  51st  Annual 
Convention  will  be  held  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Sept.  26-29, 
1949. 

American  Institute  of  Architects,  The,  founded  in  1857,  to 
organize  and  unite  in  fellowship  the  architects  of  the  United 
States;  to  advance  the  standards  of  their  profession;  to  co- 
ordinate the  building  industry  and  the  profession  of  archi- 
tecture; and  to  increase  the  service  of  the  profession.  Mem- 
bership: 7,750.  President,  Douglas  William  Orr;  Secretary, 
Glair  W.  Ditchy;  Treasurer,  Charles  F.  Cellarius.  Head-  • 
quarters:  The  Octagon,  1741  New  York  Ave.,  NW,  Wash- 
ington 6,  D.C.  A  convention  and  annual  Board  of  Di- 
rectors meeting  will  be  held  in  Houston,  Tex.,  in  March, 
1949. 

American  Institute  of  Banking,  Section  of  the  American 
Bankers  Association,  founded  in  1900.  Devoted  to  the  edu- 
cation of  bank  personnel  in  the  theory  and  practice  of 
banking  and  in  those  principles  of  law,  economics,  and  ac- 
counting that  pertain  to  the  banking  business;  and  to  the 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  a  recognized  standard 
of  banking  education.  Membership:  90,000.  President, 
Pierre  N.  Hauser;  Vice  President,  Hartwell  F.  Taylor;  Edu- 
cational Director,  Leroy  Lewis;  Secretary,  Floyd  W.  Lar- 
son. Headquarters:  12  East  36th  St.,  New  York  16,  N.Y. 
The  annual  convention  will  be  held  in  Portland,  Oreg., 
May  30rjune  3,  1949. 

American  Institute  of  Chemists,  Inc.,  The,  founded  in  1923 
to  advance  the  professional  and  economic  status  of  chem- 
ists. Membership:  2,500.  President,  Lawrence  H.  Flett; 
Secretary,  Dr.  Lloyd  Van  Doren;  Treasurer,  Frederick 
A.  Hessel.  Headquarters:  60  East  42nd  St.,  New  York  17, 
N.Y.  Gold  Medal  to  Warren  K.  Lewis. 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  founded  in 
1884  for  the  advancement  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
electrical  engineering  and  of  the  allied  arts  and  sciences. 
Membership:  30,468.  President,  Everett  S.  Lee;  Secretary, 
H.  H.  Henline.  Headquarters:  33  West  39th  St.,  New  York 
18,  N.Y.  The  1947  Edison  Medal  to  Dr.  Joseph  Slefian; 
Lamme  Medal  to  A.  M.  MacCutcheon.  A  Winter  Meeting 
will  be  held  in  New  York,  Jan.  31-Feb.  4,  1949;  a  Sum- 
mer Meeting  at  Swampscott,  Mass.,  June  20-24,  1949. 

American  Institute  of  Mining  and  Metallurgical  Engineers, 
Inc.,  founded  in  1871  to  promote  the  arts  and  sciences 
connected  with  the  economic  and  scientific  search  for, 
and  the  production  and  use  of,  minerals,  including  met- 
als, coal,  petroleum,  and  other  nonrnetallic  minerals. 
Membership:  19,000.  President  and  Director,  William  E. 
Wrather;  Secretary,  A.  B.  Parsons.  Headquarters:  29  West 
39th  St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y.  The  annual  meeting  will  be 
held  Feb.  14-17,  1949,  at  the  Hotel  Fairmont,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Calif.  Rand  Medal  to  Harry  C.  Wiess  (posthumous- 
ly); Douglas  Medal  to  William  Wraith;  Saunders  Medal 
to  Stanly  A.  Easton. 

American  Institute  of  Pacific  Relations,  Inc.,  founded  in 
1925,  combines  research,  discussion,  and  publication  in  a 
program  designed  to  provide  people  with  the  facts  about 
economic,  social,  and  political  developments  in  the  Far 
East.  It  publishes  books  and  the  fortnightly  journal,  Far 
Eastern  Survey.  Membership:  2,000.  Chairman,  Ray  Lyman 
Wilbur;  Treasurer,  Donald  B.  Straus:  Executive  Secretary, 
Clayton  Lane.  Headquarters:  1  East  54th  St.,  New  York  22, 
N.Y.  National  Conference,  preceded  by  regional  conferences 
planned  for  winter  and  spring  of  1949. 

American  Institute  of  Physics,  founded  in  1931  for  the 
advancement  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  of  the  science 
of  physics  and  its  applications  to  human  welfare;  the 
publication  of  scientific  journals  devoted  wholly  or  mainly 
to  physics;  and  the  fostering  of  relations  between  the 
science  of  physics,  other  sciences  and  the  arts  and  indus- 
tries. Membership:  approximately  10,000.  Chairman, 
George  R.  Harrison;  Secretary,  Wallace  Waterfall;  Treas- 
urer, George  B.  Pegram;  Director,  Henry  A.  Barton.  Head- 
quarters: 57  East  55th  St.,  New  York  22,  N.Y. 

American  Jewish  Congress,  founded  in  1918  to  safe- 
guard the  civil,  political,  economic  and  religious  rights  of 
Jews  everywhere;  to  stimulate  a  positive  appreciation  of 
Jewish  culture  and  the  promotion  of  a  creative  Jewish  com- 
munal life  within  the  framework  of  American  democracy; 
to  support  Israel.  Publications:  Congress  Weekly;  Jewish 
Affairs  pamphlet  series.  President,  Dr.  Stephen  S.  Wise;  Ex- 
ecutive Director,  Dr.  David  JPetegorsky.  Headquarters: 
1834  Broadway,  New  York  23,  N.Y. 

American  Jewish  Joint  Distribution  Committee,  Inc.,  found- 
ed in  1914,  is  the  major  American  agency  for  the  relief  and 
rehabilitation  of  Jews  overseas.  Membership:  Approx- 
imately 9,000  members  of  the  National  Council.  Chair- 
man, Edward  M.  M.  Warburg;  Executive  Vice-Chairman 


SOC/fT/JES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


512 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


and  Secretary,  Moses  A.  Leavitt;  Treasurers,  I.  Edwin 
Goldwasser  and  Ben  Abrams.  Headquarters:  270  Madison 
Ave.,  New  York  16,  N.Y.  Annual  Meeting  Oct.  30-31, 
1949. 

American  Law  Institute,  The,  founded  in  1923  to  clarify 
and  simplify  the  law  and  better  adapt  it  to  social  needs,  to 
improve  the  administration  of  justice,  and  to  encourage  and 
carry  on  scholarly  and  scientific  legal  work.  Membership: 
1,033  elected  members  and  249  ex-officio  members.  Presi- 
dent. Harrison  Tweed:  Treasurer,  William  Dean  Embree; 
Director,  Herbert  F.  Goodrich.  Headquarters:  C/o  Director, 
133  South  36th  St.,  Philadelphia  4,  Pa.  A  national  meeting 
will  be  held  at  the  Mayflower  Hotel,  Washington,  D.C., 
May  18-21,  1949. 

American  Library  Association,  founded  in  1876  to  develop 
a  complete  and  adequate  library  service  for  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  to  increase  the  economic  security  and 
aid  the  professional  advancement  of  librarians,  and  to  plan 
the  future  of  library  service.  Membership;  17,800.  Presi- 
dent, E.  W.  McDiarmid;  Treasurer,  Harold  F.  Brigham; 
Executive  Secretary,  John  Mackenzie  Cory.  Headquarters: 
50  East  Huron,  Chicago  11,  HI.  Awards:  citations  to 
Emma  V.  Baldwin  and  Thomas  J,  Porro;  Newbery  Medal 
to  William  Pene  du  Bois;  Caldecott  Medal  to  Roger  Du- 
voisin;  Letter  Award  to  Mrs.  Allison  P.  Allesios;  Lippincott 
Award  to  Carl  H.  Milam. 

American  Management  Association,  founded  in  1923,  is 
an  organization  of  more  than  12,200  companies  and  in- 
dividual executives  in  all  industries  interested  in  the  prac- 
tical solution  of  current  management  problems  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  science  of  management  in  personnel  and 
industrial  relations,  marketing,  insurance,  finance,  office 
administration,  packaging,  and  production  by  a  broad  ex- 
change of  information  and  experience  through  conferences, 
publications,  and  research.  Membership:  12,200.  President, 
Lawrence  A.  Appley;  Treasurer,  James  L.  Madden;  Secre- 
tary, James  O.  Rice.  Headquarters:  330  West  42nd  St., 
New  York  18,  N.Y.  Eleven  conferences,  representing  the 
different  interests  of  the  association,  have  been  scheduled 
for  1949. 

American  Mathematical  Society,  founded  in  18SS,  to  en- 
courage and  maintain  an  active  interest  in  mathematical 
science.  Membership:  3,800.  President,  Einar  Hille  (Presi- 
dent in  1949:  J.  L.  Walsh);  Secretary,  J.  R.  Kline.  Head- 
quarters: 531  West  116th  St.,  New  York  27,  N.Y. 

American  Medical  Association,  founded  in  1847  to  pro- 
mote the  science  and  art  of  medicine  and  improve  public 
health.  Membership:  138,902.  President,  R.  L.  Sensenich; 
Secretary  and  General  Manager,  George  F.  Lull;  Treasurer, 
J.  J.  Moore;  Editor,  Morris  Fishbein;  Business  Manager, 
Thomas  R.  Gardiner.  Headquarters:  535  North  Dearborn 
St.,  Chicago  10,  111.  The  annual  session  will  be  held  in  At- 
lantic City,  NJ.,  June  6-10,  1949. 

American  Medical  Women's  Association,  founded  in  1924, 
to  bring  medical  women  into  association  with  each  other; 
to  encourage  social  and  cooperative  relations  within  and 
without  the  profession;  and  to  further  constructive  projects. 
Membership:  1,200  active;  800  associate.  President,  Elise  S. 
L'Esperance,  M.D.;  Recording  Secretary,  Augusta  Webster, 
M.D.;  Corresponding  Secretary,  Isabel  M.  Scharnagel, 
M.D.;  Treasurer,  Mary  R.  Noble.  Headquarters:  50  West 
50th  St.,  New  York  20,  N.Y.  The  Annual  Meeting  wiU  be 
held  in  t  Atlantic  City,  N.J.,  in  June,  1949. 

American  Meteorological  Society,  founded  in  1919  for 
the  development  and  dissemination  of  knowledge  of  me- 
teorology in  all  its  phases  and  applications  and  the  advance- 
ment of  its  professional  ideals.  Membership:  3,500.  Presi- 
dent, Captain  H.  T,  Orville,  USN;  Executive  Secretary, 
Kenneth  C.  Spengler,  Headquarters:  5  Joy  St.,  Boston  8, 
Mass. 

American  Mission  to  Lepers,  founded  in  1906,  gives 
money  to  medical  missionaries  and  others  all  over  the 
world  to  care  for  those  with  leprosy.  The  Mission  devotes 
part  of  its  resources  to  enlisting  the  aid  of  governments, 
and  envisages  the  time  when  the  care  of  those  with  leprosy 
will  be  a  public  obligation  in  each  country.  Membership: 
AH  contributors.  President,  Emory  Ross,  D.D.;  Executive 
Secretary,  Raymond  P.  Currier.  Headquarters:  156  Fifth 
Ave.,  New  York  10,  N.Y.  The  annual  meeting  will  be  held 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  20-21,  1949. 

American  Municipal  Association,  The,  organized  in  1924 
to  serve  as  a  clearing  house  on  questions  of  municipal 
policy,  to  furnish  information  and  services  to  the  State 
leagues  of  municipalities,  and  to  represent  municipal  inter- 
ests on  a  national  scale.  Membership:  41  State  leagues 
with  some  9,500  members;  certain  large  cities.  Publications: 
American  Municipal  News,  Washington  News  Letter,  State 
League  Notes.  President,  Fletcher  Bowron;  Executive  Di- 
rector, Carl  H.  Chatters.  Headquarters:  1313  East  60th  St., 
Chicago  37,  HI.,  and  524  Transportation  Building,  Wash- 
ington, D.C. 

American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  The,  founded  in 
1869  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  and  developing  the 
Study  of  natural  science  and  kindred  subjects.  Member- 
ship: 33,962.  President,  F.  Trubee  Davison;  Director, 
Albert  E,  Parr.  Headquarters:  79th  St.  and  Central  Park 
West,  New  York  24,  N.Y. 

American  Nature  Association,  founded  in  1922  to  stimu- 
late interest  in  Nature  and  the  out-of-doors,  foster  nature 
study  in  public  schools,  and  work  for  the  conservation 


il 

fa; 


of  natural  resources  and  the  protection  of  wildlife.  Mem- 
bership: 65,000.  President,  Richard  W.  Westwood;  Treas- 
urer, James  A.  O'Hearn.  Headquarters:  1214  16th  St., 
NW,  Washington  6,  D.C.  The  annual  meeting  of  di- 
rectors will  be  held  in  Washington,  D.C.,  in  May,  1949. 

American  Numismatic  Society,  The,  founded  in  1858  for: 

1)  the  collection,  safe  storage,  and  exhibition  of  coins; 
V2)  the  assembly  of  a  numismatic  library;  (3)  the  dif- 
fusion of  numismatic  knowledge  and  the  development  of 
interest  in  the  subject  through  scientific  publications  and 
through  occasional  lectures  and  exhibitions.  Membership: 
584.  President,  Arthur  S.  Dewing;  Secretary,  Sawyer  McA. 
Mosser.  Headquarters:  Broadway  at  156th  St.,  New  York 
32,  N.Y.  The  annual  meeting  is  held  in  January  of  each 
year. 

American  Nurses*  Association,  Thef  incorporated  in  1896 
to  promote  the  professional  advancement  of  nurses,  to 
elevate  the  standards  of  nursing  education,  establish  and 
maintain  a  code  of  ethics  among  nurses,  disseminate  in- 
formation on  nursing  through  official  publications  and  other 
sources,  to  bring  nurses,  associations,  and  federations  into 
communication  with  each  other.  Membership:  51  constitu- 
ent associations  with  161,500  members.  President,  Pearl 
Mclver,  R.N.;  Executive  Secretary,  Ella  Best,  R.N.  Head- 
quarters: 1790  Broadway,  New  York  19,  N.Y.  Publications: 
American  Journal  of  Nursing;  Facts  About  Nursing,  etc. 
The  next  biennial  meeting  will  be  held  in  1950. 

American  Oriental  Society,  founded  in  1842  to  promote 
study  and  research  in  Oriental  languages,  literatures,  and 
cultures  and  to  publish  books  and  papers  dealing  with 
these  subjects.  Membership:  910.  President,  Albrecht 
Goetze;  Secretary-Treasurer,  Ferris  J.  Stephens;  Editor, 
Murray  B.  Emeneau.  Headquarters:  329  Sterling  Memorial 
Library,  New  Haven,  Conn.  The  National  Annual  Meeting 
will  be  held  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Apr.  5-7,  1949. 

American  ORT  Federation,  founded  in  1922,  is  the  Amer- 
ican branch  of  the  World  ORT  Union,  an  organization  de- 
voted to  the  vocational  training  and  economic  reconstruc- 
tion of  Jews  throughout  the  world,  with  branches  in  33 
countries.  American  headquarters:  212  Fifth  Ave.,  New 
York  10,  N.Y. 

American  Peace  Society,  The,  founded  in  1828  "to  pro- 
mote the  principles  of  international  law  through  justice;  to 
advance  .  .  .  the  general  use  of  conciliation,  arbitration, 
judicial  methods,  and  other  peaceful  means  of  adjusting 
and  avoiding  differences  among  nation§,  to  the  end  that 
right  shall  rule  might  in  a  law-governed  world."  Presi- 
dent, Amos  J.  Peaslee;  Treasurer,  F.  E.  Hildebrand;  Ex- 
ecutive Secretary,  Franklin  Dunham,  Editor  in  chief  of 
World  Affairs,  A.  Curtis  Wilgus.  The  120th  Annual  Meet- 
ing was  held  in  Washington,  D.C.,  May  5,  1948. 

American  Philatelic  Society,  founded  in  1886  to  assist 
members  to  obtain  knowledge  about  philately;  to  cultivate 
friendship  among  philatelists;  and  to  assist  members  to 
acquire  and  dispose  of  stamps.  Membership:  10,735.  Presi- 
dent, Donald  F.  Lybarger;  Executive  Secretary,  H.  Clay 
Musser;  International  Secretary,  Adolph  Steeg.  Headquar- 
ters: Central  Office,  Box  800,  State  College,  Pa.  The  na- 
tional convention  will  be  held  Aug.  15-19,  1949,  in  Boston, 
Mass. 

American  Philosophical  Association,  founded  in  1901  to 
promote  the  study  and  teaching  of  philosophy  in  all  its 
branches,  and  to  cooperate  closely  with  philosophers  and 
philosophical  societies  throughout  the  world.  Membership: 
1,110.  Chairman,  Board  of  Directors,  A.  C.  Benjamin; 
Secretary-Treasurer,  George  R.  Geiger.  Headquarters:  Of- 
fice of  the  Secretary,  Antioch  College,  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio. 

American  Physical  Society,  founded  in  1899  for  the  ad- 
vancement and  diffusion  of  the  knowledge  of  physics. 
Membership:  7,600.  President,  J.  R.  Oppenheirner;  Secre- 
tary, K.  K.  Darrow;  Treasurer,  G.  B.  Pegram;  Editor,  J.  T. 
Tate.  Headquarters:  Columbia  University,  New  York  27, 
N.Y. 

American  Planning  and  Civic  Association,  formed  in 
1935  by  a  merger  of  the  American  Civic  Association 
(1904)  and  the  National  Conference  on  City  Planning 
(1909).  It  is  dedicated  to  the  education  of  the  American 
people  in  an  understanding  and  appreciation  of  local,  state, 
regional,  and  national  planning  for  the  best  use  of  urban 
and  rural  land;  the  safeguarding  of  parks  and  natural 
scenery;  and  the  improvement  of  living  conditions.  Mem- 
bership: 2,000.  President,  U.  S.  Grant,  3rd.;  Treasurer, 
C.  F.  Jacobsen;  Executive  Secretary,  Harlean  James; 
Counsel,  Flavel  Shurtleff:  Librarian,  Dora  A.  Padgett. 
Headquarters:  901  Union  Trust  Bldg.,  Washington  5,  D.C. 

American  Political  Science  Association,  The,  founded,  in 
1906,  is  a  non-partisan  organization  which  works  to  en- 
courage the  study  of  Political  Science,  including  political 
theory,  government  and  politics,  public  law,  public  ad- 
ministration, and  international  relations.  Membership: 
4,500.  President,  Henry  R.  Spencer;  Managing  Editor, 
American  Political  Science  Review,  Frederic  A,  Ogg;  Secre- 
tary-Treasurer, Harvey  Walker.  Headquarters:  Office  of  the 
Secretary-Treasurer,  100  University  Hall,  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity, Columbus  10,  Ohio. 

American  Prison  Association,  The,  founded  in  1870  (in- 
corporated 1872)  to  study  the  causes  and  treatment  of 
crime;  to  improve  laws;  to  improve  penal,  correctional, 
and  reformatory  institutions;  and  to  develop  and  improve 
methods  relating  to  probation,  parole,  and  the  after-care 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  PRINT  Processing  Machine.  The  apparatus  (shown  above)  for  the  photofmishing  of  prints  uses  long  rolls 
(1,000  feet)  of  paper,  has  automatic  solution  feed  and  replenishment,  and  has  a  stated  capacity  of  2,400  prints  per  hour. 


MICROWAVE  SEAM- 


MICROWAVE  RADIO  RELAY  SYSTEM 


MATERIAL  BEING  SENT 
BY  ULTRAFAX. 


PROJECTION 

KWESCOPE 

AT 


FLYING  SPOT 

SCANNER 

AT 


FILM  RECORDING 

OF  INCOMING 

MATERIAL 


RECEIVING 
TERMINAL 


Radio  Corporation  of  America 


DIAGRAM  OF  UlTRAFAX  SYSTEM  for  the  rapid  transmission  of  messages.  Widely  diversified  types  of  information  can  be 
transmitted  by  this  system  at  rates  up  to  a  million  words  a  minute.  The  system  is  thus  endowed  with  potentialities  for 
greater  speed  and  volume  than  any  other  existing  method  for  the  speedy  transmission  of  information  and  intelligence, 


Official  U.S.  Navy-Johns  Hopkins  (APL)  Photograph 


ROCKET-BORNE  SEQUENCE  CAMERAS.  (Upper)  Composite  made  from  V-2  Rocket  at  60-miles  height  shows  an  arc  of  2,- 
700  miles  of  the  earth.  (Lower)  Composite  made  from  Aerobee  Rocket  at  70  miles  shows  terrain  about  1,400  miles  long. 


ELECTRON    TRACK    shown    in    a    photographic    emulsion 
(Kodak  NTB  Plate). 


Dr.  G.  A.  Boyd,  School  of  Medicine  and 
Dentistry,    University    of    Rochester,    N.Y. 

AUTORADIOGRAPH  of  a  rat  thyroid  tissue  showing  pres- 
ence  of   radioactive   iodine    (the   dark   spots   in   center). 


P-80  JET  AIRPLANE  photographed  at  simulated  super- 
sonic  speed  of  1,000  miles  per  hour.  The  dimensional  ac- 
curacy was  within  two  percent  in  the  direction  of  the  flight. 

Photographic  Laboratory, 

Engineering  Division,  ATC, 

V.S,  Air  Force 


SHAKESPEARE'S  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew  comes  in   for   some   modernizing   in  the   Cole   Porter-Bella   Spewack   col- 
laboration Kiss  M&,  Kate.  Shown  above  (left  to  right)  are  Patricia  Morison,  Alfred  Drake,  Lisa  Kirk,  and  Harold  Lang. 

>  TALLULAH  BANKHEAD 
revives  Broadway  with  her 
lusty  and  rollicking  per- 
formance in  a  return  of 
Noel  Coward's  Private 
Lives  and  makes  a  personal 
hit  in  that  light  comedy. 


«  CLARENCE    DAY'S    LIFE 

carries  on,  this  time  with 
Mother.  The  new  play  is 
by  Howard  Lindsay  and 
Russel  Crouse/  and  stars 
Mr.  Lindsay  and  Dorothy 
Stickney  in  the  usual  roles. 


LIGHT  UP  THE  SKY   is  the  title  of  a   new  Moss  Hart  comedy,  dealing  with  actors  and  allied  folk  at  the  time  of  a 
play's  tryout.  Above  (from  left)  are  Bartlett  Robinson,  Audrey  Christie,  Glenn  Anders,  Phyllis  Povah,  and  Sam  Levene. 


ANNE  OF  THE  THOUSAND  DAYS  was  Maxwell  Anderson's  hap- 
pily received  drama  of  Henry  the  Eighth  and  Anne  Boleyn.  Joyce 
Redman  and  Rex  Harrison  appeared  In  the  play's  leading  roles. 


TENNESSEE  WILLIAMS  presents  an  early  play,  Sum- 
mer ana*  Smoke,  with  less  success  than  either  The 
Glass  Menagerie  or  his  A  Streetcar  Named  Desire. 


JEAN-PAUL  SARTRE,  French  existentialist,  made  an  impressive  mark  on  the  theater  season  in  1948,  at  one  time 
able  to  count  four  of  his  plays  on  Broadway  stages.  The  above  picture  is  from  the  Jean  Dalrymple  presentation 
of  Sartre's  Red  Gloves,  featuring  Charles  Boyer  as  a  Communist  leader,  and  with  Francis  Compton  and  Royal  Beal. 
Also  seen  on  the  stage  during  the  year  were  Jean-Paul  Sartre's  The  Respectful  Prostitute,  The  Victors,  and  No  Exit. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


513 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


of  released  prisoners.  Membership:  Approximately  1,000. 
President,  John  C.  Burke;  General  Secretary,  E.  R.  Cass; 
Treasurer,  John  L.  Schoenfeld.  Headquarters:  135  East 
15th  St.,  New  York  3,  N.Y.  The  79th  annual  Congress  of 
Correction  will  be  held  in  Milwaukee,  Wise.,  Sept.  25-30, 
1949. 

American  Psychiatric  Association,  founded  in  1844  to 
foster  the  study  of  all  subjects  pertaining  to  mental  dis- 
ease and  defects.  Membership:  4,765.  President,  William 
C.  Menninger;  Secretary,  Leo  H.  Bartemeier;  Treasurer, 
Howard  W.  Potter.  Headquarters:  Room  412,  1270  Avenue 
of  the  Americas,  New  York  20,  N.Y.  A  meeting  will  be 
held  at  the  Hotel  Windsor,  Montreal,  Canada,  May  23-27, 
1949. 

American  Psychological  Association,  founded  in  1892  to 
advance  psychology  as  a  science,  as  a  profession,  and  as  a 
means  of  promoting  human  welfare.  Membership:  5,700. 
President,  Ernest  R.  Hilgard;  Recording  Secretary,  Helen 
Peak;  Treasurer,  Carroll  L.  Shartle;  Executive  Secretary, 
Dael  Wolfle.  Headquarters:  1515  Massachusetts  Ave., 
NW,  Washington  5,  D.C.  The  1949  annual  meeting  will  be 
held  Sept.  6-10,  in  Denver,  Colo. 

American  Public  Health  Association,  founded  in  1872  to 
protect  and  promote  public  health.  Membership:  11,500 
including  31  regional  affiliated  agencies.  President, 
Charles  F.  Wilinsky,  M.D.;  Treasurer,  Louis  I.  Dublin; 
Chairman  of  the  Executive  Board,  Hugh  R.  Leavell,  M.D.; 
Executive  Secretary,  Reginald  M.  Atwater.  Headquarters: 
1790  Broadway,  New  York  19,  N.Y.  The  77th  Annual 
Meeting  will  be  held  in  New  York  the  week  of  October  23, 
1949.  Lasker  Awards  (1948)  to  Drs.  Rene  J.  Dubos, 
R.  E.  Dyer,  Martha  M.  Eliot,  Vincent  du  Vigneaud,  Sel- 
man  A.  Waksman,  and  the  Department  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery,  U.S.  Veterans  Administration;  Sedgwick  Medal  to 
Abel  Wolman.  Publication:  Journal  of  Public  Health. 

American  Public  Welfare  Association,  founded  in  1930 
to  develop  and  maintain  sound  principles  and  effective  ad- 
ministration of  public  welfare  services.  It  acts  as  a  clearing 
house  for  the  exchange  of  thought  and  experience  in  the 
public  welfare  field,  coordinates  welfare  activities,  and 
works  to  improve  the  professional  standing  of  personnel  in 
the  public  field.  In  all  its  activities  the  association  coop- 
erates with  federal  agencies  and  national  organizations. 
Membership:  4,200.  Joseph  E.  Baldwin,  President;  Leland 
Hiatt,  Vice  President;  Howard  L.  Russell,  Secretary;  Joseph 
L.  Moss,  Treasurer.  Headquarters:  1313  East  60th  St., 
Chicago  37,  111. 

American  Radio  Relay  League,  Inc.,  founded  in  1915,  is  a 
membership  (non-profit)  association  of  government  licensed 
amateur  radio  operators.  Membership:  65,000.  President, 
George  W.  Bailey.  Headquarters:  38  Lasalle  Rd.,  West 
Hartford  7,  Conn.  A  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Directors  will 
be  held  at  West  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  May,  1949. 

American  Russian  Institute  (ARl),  The,  is  a  non-political, 
non-profit  organization  founded  in  1926  and  incorporated 
in  1936.  Its  purposes  are  to  promote  cultural  intercourse 
between  the  peoples  of  the  U.S.A.  and  the  U.S.S.R.  and  to 
foster  understanding  by  making  available  accurate  informa- 
tion concerning  cultural,  scientific,  and  educational  activi- 
ties in  both  countries.  Library:  12,000  books  and  pamphlets, 
512  periodical  titles,  350,000  English  language  clippings, 
and  6,000  biographical  cards  on  Soviet  personalities.  The 
ARI  also  engages  in  paid  research;  provides  translations 
and  photostat  services;  conducts  a  Russian  language  school; 
and  publishes  the  American  Review  on  the  Soviet  Union, 
Russian  Technical  Research  News  and  miscellaneous  pamph- 
lets. Chairman  of  the  Board,  Ernest  C.  Ropes;  Executive 
Director,  Henry  H.  Collins,  Jr.  Headquarters :  58  Park  Ave., 
New  York  16,  N.Y. 

American  Seamen's  Friend  Society,  The,  founded  in  1828, 
is  a  national  organization  which  cooperates  with  all  who 
aid  seamen,  particularly  merchantmen.  It  maintains  a 
library  and  an  information  service  ashore  for  seamen  and 
supplies  books  for  vessels  sailing  from  the  port  of  New 
York.  Recently  opened  a  convalescent  home  for  seamen  in 
Tottenville,  Staten  Island,  N.Y.  Membership:  250.  Presi- 
dent, Winchester  Noyes;  Treasurer,  Orrin  R,  Judd;  Secre- 
tary and  Executive  Director,  R.  H.  Lee-Martin,  Headquar- 
ters: 175  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  10,  N.Y, 

American  Society  for  Metals,  founded  in  1918,  is  a  tech- 
nical and  educational  society  (non-profit)  to  promote  the 
arts  and  sciences  connected  with  either  the  manufacture  or 
the  treatment  of  metals,  or  both.  It  has  76  chapters  through- 
out the  United  States  and  Canada.  Membership:  20,000. 
President,  Harold  K.  Work;  Secretary,  William  H.  Eisen- 
man.  Headquarters:  National  Office,  7301  Euclid  Ave., 
Cleveland  3,  O.  The  National  Metal  Congress  and  Exposi- 
tion will  be  held  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Oct.  17-21,  1949. 
A.S.M.  Gold  Medal  to  Francis  C.  Frary;  A.S.M.  Medal  for 
Advancement  of  Research  to  Willard  H.  Dow;  Howe  Medal 
to  J.  W.  Spretnak. 

American  Society  for  Psychical  Research,  Inc.,  The,  found- 
ed in  1905  for  the  scientific  investigation  of  all  types  of 
psychic  phenomena.  Membership:  750.  President,  George  H. 
Hyslop,  M.D.;  Secretary-Assistant  Treasurer,  Mrs.  Edward 
W.  Allison;  Treasurer,  Gerald  L.  Kaufmann.  Headquarters: 
880  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  21,  N.Y. 

American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  founded  in  1852  for 
"the  advancement  of  the  sciences  of  engineering  and  archi- 
tecture in  their  several  branches,  the  professional  improve- 


ment of  its  membership,  the  encouragement  of  intercourse 
between  men  of  practical  science,  and  the  establishment  of 
a  central  point  of  reference  and  union  for  its  members." 
Membership:  24,000.  President,  1948,  R.  E.  Dougherty; 
President,  1949,  Professor  Franklin  Thomas;  Executive  Sec- 
retary, CoL  William  N., Carey.  Headquarters:  33  West  39th 
St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y.  The  1949  annual  meeting  is 
scheduled  for  January  19-21,  in  N.Y.,  the  spring  meeting 
for  April  20-23  in  Oklahoma  City,  Okla.,  the  summer 
convention  for  July  13-15  in  Mexico  City,  Mex.,  and  the 
fall  meeting  for  October  30-November  4,  in  Washington, 
D.C.  Norrnan  Medal  to  Boris  A.  Bakhmeteff;  Croes  Medal 
to  Thomas  R.  Camp;  Rowland  Prize  to  R.  F.  Blanks  and 
H.  S.  Meissner;  James  Laurie  Prize  to  Ross  M.  Riegel;  Col- 
lingwood  Prize  to  F.  L.  Ehasz;  Hering  Medal  to  A.  L. 
Center;  Stevens  Award  to  Maurice  L.  Alberts  on;  Hilgard 
Prize  to  A.  A.  Kalinske. 

American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  The,  founded 
in  1880  to  promote  the  art  and  science  of  mechanical  en- 
gineering; to  encourage  research;  to  foster  engineering  edu- 
cation; to  advance  the  standards  of  engineering;  and  to 
broaden  the  usefulness  of  the  engineering  profession.  Mem- 
bership: 26,000  in  20  professional  divisions.  There  are 
student  branches  in  122  engineering  schools.  President, 
Jarnes  M.  Todd;  Secretary,  Clarence  E.  Davies.  Headquar- 
ters: 29  West  39th  St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y.  Publications: 
Mechanical  Engineering;  Journal  of  Applied  Mechanics; 
Transactions;  Applied  Mechanics  Review;  ASME  Mechan- 
ical Catalog  and  Directory. 

American  Society  of  Zoologists,  founded  in  1902,  is  an 
association  of  workers  in  the  field  of  zoology  for  the  pres- 
entation and  discussion  of  new  or  important  zoological 
facts  and  problems,  and  for  the  adoption  of  measiares  to 
advance  zoological  science.  Membership:  1,150.  President, 
Carl  G.  Hartman;  Secretary,  L.  V.  Domm.  Headquarters: 
Office  of  the  Secretary,  Whitman  Laboratory,  5700  Ingle- 
side,  Chicago  37,  111. 

American  Sociological  Society,  founded  in  1905  to  stimu- 
late and  improve  research,  instruction  and  discussion,  and 
to  encourage  cooperative  relations  among  persons  engaged 
in  the  scientific  study  of  society.  Membership:  2,400.  Presi- 
dent, Talcott  Parsons;  Secretary,  Treasurer  and  Managing 
Editor  of  Review,  Ernest  R.  Mowrer;  Editor,  Maurice  R. 
Davie.  Headquarters:  Northwestern  Univ.,  Evanston,  111. 

American  Standards  Association,  founded  in  1918,  is  a 
federation  of  national  associations  and  government  de- 
partments dealing  with  standardization.  Through  it,  gov- 
ernment, technical  societies,  industry,  labor,  and  the  con- 
sumer, work  together  to  develop  a  mutually  satisfactory  set 
of  national  standards.  Membership:  108  trade  associations, 
technical  societies,  consumer  groups,  and  government  de- 
partments; over  2,100  company  members.  President,  Thom- 
as D.  Jolly;  Secretary,  G.  F.  Hussey,  Jr.;  Technical  Director 
&  Assistant  Secretary,  Cyril  Ainsworth;  Chairman,  Execu- 
tive Committee,  Howard  Coonley.  Headquarters:  70  East 
45th  St.,  New  York  17,  N.Y. 

American  Statistical  Association,  founded  in  1839  to  pro- 
mote unity  and  effectiveness  of  effort  among  all  concerned 
with  statistical  problems,  and  to  increase  the  contribution 
of  statistics  to  human  welfare.  Membership:  Over  5,000. 
President,  Simon  Kuznets;  Secretary-Treasurer,  Merrill  M. 
Flood,  Headquarters:  1603  K  St.,  NW  Washington  6,  D.C. 

American  Veterans  Committee,  Inc.,  founded  in  1944  to 
assist  veterans  in  their  problems  of  reintegration  into  com- 
munity life;  to  support  legislation  which  will  benefit  vet- 
erans, first,  as  citizens,  second,  as  veterans;  to  achieve  a 
more  democratic  and  prosperous  America  and  a  more  stable 
world.  Membership:  110,000.  National  Chairman,  Chat 
Paterson;  National  Vice  Chairman,  Joseph  A.  Clorety,  Jr.; 
National  Secretary,  Joseph  A.  Clorety,  Jr.;  National  Treas- 
urer, Ely  Wagner.  Headquarters:  1200  Eye  Street  North- 
west, Washington  5,  D.C.  3rd  Annual  Convention — No- 
vember 25-28,  1948. 

American  Veterinary  Medical  Association,  founded  in 
1863  to  advance  the  science  and  art  of  veterinary  medicine, 
including  its  relationship  to  public  health.  Membership: 
9,600.  President,  Dr.  L.  M.  Hurt;  Executive  Secretary,  Dr. 
J.  G.  Hardenbergh.  Headquarters:  600  S.  Michigan  Ave., 
Chicago  5,  111.  Annual  meeting  will  be  held  at  Detroit, 
Mich.,  July  11-14,  1949.  Twelfth  International  Veterinary 
Congress  Prize  to  Dr.  A.  E.  Cameron:  1948  Borden  Award 
and  Medal  to  Dr.  A.  F.  Schalk;  1948  Humane  Act  Award 
to  Richard  Swank. 

American  Vocational  Association,  Inc.,  founded  in.  1925, 
is  a  national  professional  organization  of  teachers,  super- 
visors, administrators,  and  other  persons  interested  in  edu- 
cation for  occupational  efficiency.  The  AVA  extends  its 
services  to  individuals  and  organizations  interested  in  this 
field  of  education.  Membership:  27,534.  President,  Julian  A. 
McPhee;  Treasurer,  Charles  W.  Sylvester;  Executive  Secre- 
tary, L.  H.  Dennis.  Headquarters:  1010  Vermont  Ave., 
Washington  5,  D.C. , 

American  Wildlife  Foundation,  founded  in  1935  to  pro- 
mote the  coordination  of  the  wildlife  conservation,  restora- 
tion, and  management  work  of  organizations  throughout 
North  America.  Membership:  25  trustees.  President,  F.  C. 
Walcott;  Treasurer,  T.  E,  Doremus;  Secretary,  C.  R.  Guter- 
muth.  Headquarters:  822  Investment  Building,  Washing- 
ton 5,  D.C.  The  foundation  issues  grants-in-aid  to  cooperat- 
ing agencies  and  organizations. 


SOC/£T/£S  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


514 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


American  Woman's  Association,  The,  founded  in  1922  to 
advance  the  economic,  cultural  and  social  interests  of 
business  and  professional  women.  President,  Mrs.  Natalie  W. 
Linderholm;  Secretary,  Dorothy  L.  Wood;  Treasurer, 
Maude  K.  Wetmore.  Headquarters:  The  Barclay,  111  East 
48th  St.,  New  York  17,  N.Y. 

American  Youth  Hostels,  Inc.,  founded  in  1934  to  help 
build  a  more  peaceful  world  through  the  wide  and  happy 
comradeship  of  youth.  The  society  provides  youth  hostels 
(inexpensive  overnight  accommodations)  in  America,  and 
sponsors  trips  in  America  and  abroad.  Membership:  Over 
15,000.  President,  John  D.  Rockefeller,  3rd;  Executive 
Vice  President,  Ben  W.  Miller;  Treasurer,  Edwin  A.  Locke, 
Jr.;  National  Director,  Monroe  W.  Smith.  Headquarters: 
Northfield,  Mass. 

AMVETS  (American  Veterans  of  World  War  II),  organ- 
ized in  1945  under  a  charter  by  the  U.S.  Congress  to  pre- 
serve world  peace,  to  strengthen  the  American  way  of  life, 
and  to  help  the  veteran  to  help  himself.  Membership: 
100,000.  National  Commander,  Harold  A.  Keats;  National 
Executive  Director,  Elliot  Newcombe.  Headquarters :  724 
Ninth  St.,  NW,  Washington  1,  D.C.  The  Annual  National 
Convention  wifl  be  held  at  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  Aug.  Si- 
Sept.  4,  1949. 

Archaeological  Institute  of  America,  founded  in  1879  to 
promote  interest  in  archaeology.  Membership:  about  1,800. 
President,  Sterling  Dow;  Secretary,  Van  L.  Johnson;  Treas- 
urer, Seth  T,  Ganp;  Headquarters:  Andover  Hall,  Harvard 
University,  Cambridge  38,  Mass. 

Arctic  Institute  of  North  America,  founded  in  1944  to  en- 
courage scientific  research  in  the  Arctic  and  Subarctic  re- 
gions of  North  America  and,  in  general,  to  act  as  coordinat- 
ing center  for  Arctic  work  in  North  America.  Membership: 
18  members  of  Board  of  Governors,  1,500  Associate  mem- 
bers. Chairman,  Dr.  Henry  B.  Collins,  Jr.,  Executive  Di- 
rector, A.  L.  Washburn;  Director  Montreal  Office,  P.  D. 
Baird;  Director  New  York  Office,  W.  A.  Wood.  Headquar- 
ters: 3485  University  St.,  Montreal,  Canada.  New  York 
Office:  Broadway  at  156th  St.,  New  York  32,  N.Y.  In  1948 
the  Institute  supported  13  field  projects;  instituted  a  pro- 
gram of  Associate  membership;  began  publication  of  Arctic, 
a  biannual  journal,  and  a  newsletter. 

Army  Relief  Society,  founded  in  1900,  provides  assistance 
to  dependent  widows  and  orphans  of  officers  and  enlisted 
men  of  the  Regular  Army  and  of  temporary  personnel.  Pres- 
ident, Mrs.  David  Wagstaff;  Recording  Secretary,  Mrs. 
Clarence  P.  Townsley;  Treasurer,  Walter  G.  Kimball. 
Monthly  meetings  are  held  at  Headquarters,  350  Fifth  Ave., 
New  York  1,  N.Y.  The  annual  meeting  will  be  held  in 
April,  1949. 

Association  of  the  Junior  Leagues  of  America,  Inc., 
founded  in  1921  to  unite  in  one  body  all  the  Junior 
Leagues  of  America  and  to  foster  their  interest  in  the  so- 
cial, economic,  educational,  cultural,  and  civic  conditions 
of  their  respective  communities.  The  association  also  works 
to  improve  the  efficiency  of  the  volunteer  service  of  mem- 
bers. Membership:  50,000.  President,  Dorothy  Rackemann; 
Secretary,  Mrs,  J.  Archibald  Hodgson;  Treasurer,  Mrs. 
Robert  E.  Harwell.  Headquarters:  Waldorf  Astoria,  New 
York  22,  N.Y.  The  annual  conference  will  be  held  at  Boca 
Raton,  Fla.,  Apr.  19-23,  1949. 

Automobile  Manufacturers  Association,  Inc.,  organized  in 
1913  as  the  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce  and 
changed  to  its  present  name  in  1934.  The  purpose  of  the 
association  is  to  assist  in  the  solution  of  problems  affecting 
the  industry;  to  promote  free  competition  of  the  industry's 
products;  to  collect  and  disseminate  technical  information 
relating  to  the  automotive  industry;  to  facilitate  the  ex- 
change of  information  among  its  members  regarding  in- 
ventions, patents,  trade  marks,  etc.;  to  acquire  and  dispose 
of  property.  Membership:  35  corporations.  President,  G.  W. 
Mason;  Managing  Director,  William  J.  Cronin.  Headquar- 
ters: 320  New  Center  Building,  Detroit  2,  Mich. 

Automotive  Safety  Foundation,  founded  in  1937  to  en- 
courage safe  and  efficient  use  of  streets  and  highways 
through  grants  of  funds  and/or  staff  services  to  national, 
state,  and  local  organizations  active  in  the  field.  Member- 
ship: 500  supporting  member  companies.  Chairman  of 
Board,  Alexander  Fraser;  President,  Pyke  Johnson;  Treas- 
urer, A.  O.  Dietz;  Secretary,  D.  C.  Fenner.  Headquarters: 
700  Hill  Building,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

Benevolent  and  Protective  Order  of  Elks,  a  fraternal  or- 
ganization founded  in  1868  "to  inculcate  the  principles  of 
Charity,  Justice,  Brotherly  Love  and  Fidelity."  Member- 
ship: 950,000.  Grand  Exalted  Ruler  (Executive  Head), 
George  I.  Hall:  Grand  Secretary  (Executive  Secretary), 
J.  E.  Masters.  Headquarters:  Elks  National  Memorial  Head- 
quarters Building,  2750  Lake  View  Ave.,  Chicago  14,  111. 
During  1948  the  Order  contributed  aid  and  entertainment 
in  152  veterans'  hospitals,  and  awarded  national,  state,  and 
local  scholarship  prizes.  Over  $5,700,000  was  spent  on 
charitable,  welfare,  and  patriotic  work.  The  1949  national 
meeting  will  be  held  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  during  the  week 
of  July  10. 

Bibliographical  Society  of  America,  The,  founded  in  1904 
(incorporated  1927)  for  those  interested  in  bibliographical 
problems  and  projects  of  all  kinds.  Membership:  1,300. 
President,  LeRoy  E.  Kimball;  Editor,  Earle  F.  Walbridge; 
Permanent  Secretary,  Jean  N.  Weston.  Headquarters:  c/o 
Permanent  Secretary,  P.O.  Box  397,  Grand  Central  Sta- 


tion, New  York  17,  N.Y.  Publications:  (in  preparation) 
American  Imprints  Inventory,  A  Definitive  Short  Title  Bibli- 
ography of  American  Literature  of  the  Last  One  Hundred 
and  Fifty.  Years,  and  The  Cost  Books  of  Ticknor  and  Fields. 
The  Semi-Annual  Meeting  will  be  held  in  New  York,  N.Y., 
Jan.  28,  1949;  the  Annual  Meeting  in  June,  1949. 

Big  Brothers  of  America,  Inc.,  United  States  and  Canada, 
founded  in  1946,  is  the  national  advisory  organization 
through  which  Canadian  and  American  groups  engaged 
in  "Big  Brother"  work  may  benefit  by  mutual  exchange  of 
ideas.  It  also  works  to  crystallize  and  make  effective  the 
philosophy  and  psychology  of  the  "Big  Brother'*  approach 
to  the  social  and  economic  problems<  confronting  boys 
through  expansion  of  existing  organizations  and  the  form- 
ing of  new  groups.  Membership:  14  member  associations. 
President,  Charles  G.  Berwind;  Executive  Director,  Donald 
Jenks.  Headquarters:  1347  Broad  Street  Station  Bldg., 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

B'nai  B'rith,  founded  in  1843  to  unite  the  Jewish  people 
and  further  their  cultural  development.  Its  program  em- 
braces education,  social  service,  community  service,  defense 
of  Jewish  rights,  and  promotion  of  democratic  ideals.  It  op- 
erates Hillel  Foundations  in  187  colleges.  President,  Frank 
Goldman;  Treasurer,  Sidney  G.  Kusworm;  Secretary,  Mau- 
rice Bisgyer.  Headquarters:  1003  K  Street,  NW,  Washing- 
ton 1,  D.C. 

Botanical  Society  of  America,  Inc.,  founded  in  1906,  is  a 
clearing  house  for  the  botanists  of  America  in-  all  matters 
of  general  botanical  interest.  It  supports  botanical  projects, 
sponsors  the  presentation  of  research  studies  before  a  crit- 
ical and  competent  audience  and  the  publication  of  such 
studies,  and  accepts  and  administers  funds  for  certain  pur- 
poses. Membership:  1,800.  President,  Ivey  F.  Lewis;  Secre- 
tary, John  S.  Karling.  Headquarters:  Office  of  the  Secretary, 
Department  of  Biological  Sciences,  Purdue  University,  La- 
fayette, Ind. 

Boyce  Thompson  Institute  for  P!ant  Research,  Inc.,  founded 
in  1924,  is  a  non-profit  organization  for  the  purpose  of  do- 
ing basic  research  on  plants.  The  results  of  its  researches 
appear  in  the  Contributions  From  Boyce  Thompson  Insti- 
tute, now  in  the  fifteenth  volume;  in  Professional  Paper s^  as 
well  as  in  books  and  various  other  periodicals.  Dr.  William 
Crocker  is  Managing  Director  and  Dr.  John  M.  Arthur, 
Secretary.  Headquarters:  1086  North  Broadway,  Yonkers  3, 

Boys'  CJubs  of  America,  founded  in  1906,  is  concerned 
with  the  recreational,  social,  physical,  educational,  voca- 
tional, and  character  development  of  boys.  Membership: 
300  Boys'  Clubs  with  over  275,000  individual  members. 
Chairman  of  the  Board,  Herbert  Hoover;  President,  William 
Edwin  Hall;  Secretary,  William  Ziegler,  Jr.;  Treasurer, 
Jeremiah  Milbank;  Executive  Director,  David  W.  Arm- 
strong. Headquarters:  381  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York  16, 
N.Y.  The  43d  annual  convention  will  be  held  in  Chicago, 
111.,  May  1-5,  1949. 

Boy  Scouts  of  America,  founded  in  1910  "to  promote 
through  organization,  and  cooperation  with  other  agencies, 
the  ability  of  boys  to  do  things  for  themselves  and  others, 
to  train  them  in  Scoutcraft,  to  teach  them  patriotism,  cour- 
age, self-reliance,  and  kindred  virtues,  by  methods  which 
are  now  in  common  use  by  Boy  Scouts."  Membership: 
2,100,571.  President,  Amory  Houghton;  Treasurer,  Harry  M. 
Addinsell;  Chief  Scout  Executive,  Arthur  A.  Schuck;  Chief 
Scout,  Elbert  K,  FretwelL  Headquarters:  2  Park  Ave.,  New 
York  16,  N.Y.  The  1949  National  Council  Meeting  will  be 
held  a^  Swampscott,  Mass. 

British  Academy  for  the  Promotion  of  Historical,  Philo- 
sophical, and  Philological  Studies,  founded  in  1901  to  pro- 
mote humanistic  studies.  Membership:1  Maximum  175. 
President,  Sir  Harold  I.  Bell,  C.B.;  Secretary,  Sir  Fred- 
eric G.  Kenyon,  G.B.E.,  K.C.B.  Headquarters:  Burlington 
Gardens,  London,  W.I,  England.  The  annual  general  meet- 
ing will  be  held  July  13,  1949,  when  Professor  M.  D. 
Knowles  will  deliver  the  Annual  Raleigh  Lecture. 

British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  found- 
ed in  York,  England,  in  1831.  President:  Sir  John  Russell 
(1949);  Secretary;  David  N.  Lowe.  Headquarters:  Bur- 
lington House,  London,  W.I.  England.  The  Association, 
holds  Annual  Meetings  in  cities  other  than  London,  and 
meetings  of  its  Division  for  the  Social  and  International 
Relations  of  Science  in  London,  and  elsewhere  at  other 
times.  The  Association  annually  sets  aside  money  for  sci- 
entific researches.  Papers,  discussion,  and  results  of  research 
are  printed  quarterly  in  "The  Advancement  of  Science." 

British  Council,  The,  founded  1935  and  incorporated  1940 
to  promote  understanding  between  Great  Britain  and  other 
countries  by  interpreting  to  them  the  land  of  Britain  and 
its  people,  its  ideas,  its  traditions,  institutions  and  achieve- 
ments. Officers:  Chairman  and  Director  General,  Sir  Ronald 
Adam;  Secretary,  R.  Seymour.  Headquarters:  3  Hanover 
St.,  London,  W.I.  Outstanding  events  in  1948  included 
award  of  359  scholarships  in  the  United  Kingdom  to  gradu- 
ates from  64  countries;  the  visit  of  the  Old  Vic  Theatre 
Company  to  Australia  and  New  Zealand  under  British 
Council  auspices;  exhibition  of  sculpture  by  Henry  Moore 
(prize-winner)  and  paintings  by  Turner  at  Biennale  exhibi- 
tion, Venice.  The  1949  Annual  Meeting  will  be  held  in 
London,  in  June. 

British  Medical  Association,  The,  founded  in  1832  to  pro- 
mote the  medical  and  allied  sciences  and  to  maintain  the 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


515 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


honour  and  interests  of  the  medical  profession.  Member- 
ship: 60,000.  Its  constitution  includes  a  Representative 
Body,  an  elected  Council,  standing  and  special  committees, 
and  local  Divisions  and  Branches  in  Great  Britain  and  over- 
seas. It  represents  the  medical  profession  in  negotiations 
with  the  Government  and  other  bodies,  advises  the  profes- 
sion collectively  and  individually  in  all  professional  matters, 
conducts  special  investigations  into  non-clinical  subjects, 
awards  scholarships  and  prizes  to  registered  practitioners 
and  prizes  to  medical  students  and  nurses.  President,  Sir 
Lionel  Whitby;  Secretary,  Dr.  Charles  Hill.  Headquarters: 
B.M.A,  House,  Tavistock  Square,  London,  W.C.I.  England. 
Publications:  British  Medical  Journal  (weekly);  a  number 
of  quarterly  scientific  journals;  monthly  abstracts  of  world 
medicine,  surgery  and  obstetrics,  and  gynecology.  Affiliated 
with  the  Canadian  Medical  Association  and  the  Medical 
Association  of  South  Africa;  member  of  the  World  Medical 
Association.  Annual  Meeting  in  1949  will  be  held  in  Har- 
rogate  in  June. 

Camp  Fire  Girls,  Inc.,  founded  in  1910  to  "perpetuate  the 
spiritual  ideals  of  the  home**  and  "to  stimulate  and  aid  in 
the  formation  of  habits  making  for  health  and  character." 
Membership:  More  than  360,000.  President,  Mrs.  James  C. 
Parker;  Chairman  of  the  Board  and  acting  Treasurer, 
Earle  W.  Brailey;  Secretary,  Mrs.  Frank  C.  Love;  National 
Director,  Martha  F.  Allen.  Headquarters:  16  East  48th  St., 
New  York  17,  N.Y.  The  1949  National  Conference  will  be 
held  October  23-29,  in  Portland,  Ore. 

Canadian-French  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  founded  in  1924,  as  a  federation  of  52  societies  for 
the  advancement  of  science,  particularly  in  French  Canada. 
The  Association  awards  scholarships  to  young  scientists; 
awards  prizes  and  a  medal  annually,  for  outstanding  merit 
in  the  fields  of  natural,  physical,  and  social  sciences;  advises 
the  provincial  and  federal  governments  on  legislation  af- 
fecting science.  President,  Leon  Lortie;  Secretary,  Lionel 
Lemay.  Headquarters:  2900  Blvd.  de  Mont  Royal,  Mont- 
real 26,  Canada.  Publication:  Annales  de  Z'ACFAS.  The 
1949  convention  will  be  held  at  the  University  of  Montreal, 
in  October. 

Canadian  Geographical  Society,  founded  in  1929  to  ad- 
vance geographical  knowledge  and  to  disseminate  informa- 
tion on  the  geography,  resources,  and  people  of  Canada. 
Membership:  10,000.  President,  Charles  G.  Cowan;  Execu- 
tive Secretary,  Gordon  M.  Dallyn.  Headquarters:  36  Elgin 
St.,  Ottawa,  Canada.  Publication:  Canadian  Geographical 
Journal  (monthly).  The  Annual  General  Meeting  will  be 
held  in  February,  1949,  at  Ottawa. 

Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
founded  in  1912  to  encourage  commercial  intercourse, 
promote  cooperation  among  chambers  of  commerce  and 
trade  associations,  and  secure  concentration  of  opinion 
and  effective  action  upon  questions  relating  to  economic, 
civic  and  public  welfare.  Membership:  2,962  Chambers 
of  commerce  and  trade  associations;  18,936  firms,  corpo- 
rations and  individuals.  President,  Earl  O.  Shreve;  Treas- 
urer, Ellsworth  C.  Alvord;  Executive  Vice  President,  Ralph 
Bradford;  Manager,  Arch  N.  Booth.  Headquarters:  1615  H 
St.,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C.  The  annual  meeting  will  be 
held  May  2-5,  1949,  in  Washington,  D.C. 

Chicago  Natural  History  Museum,  founded  in  1893,  to 
gather,  preserve,  organize,  and  spread  knowledge  of  the 
natural  world  in  which  we  live.  It  contains  departments 
of  anthropology,  botany,  geology,  and  zoology.  Member- 
ship: 4,760.  President,  Stanley  Field;  Treasurer,  Solomon 
A.  Smith;  Director  and  Secretary,  Clifford  C.  Gregg.  The 
monthly  Bulletin  is  its  official  organ. 

Cloisters,  The,  a  branch  of  The  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art  and  located  at  Fort  Tryon  Park,  New  York  City,  The 
Cloisters,  in  large  part  the  gift  of  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr., 
is  a  museum  of  medieval  art;  among  the  original  medieval 
elements  incorporated  into  its  building  are  four  cloisters 
reconstructed  with  parts  from  old  monasteries;  a  Roman- 
esque chapel;  and  a  complete  chapter  house  from  a  12th 
century  monastery.  Notable  in  the  collections  are  a  mag- 
nificent series  of  Gothic  tapestries  The  Hunt  of  the  Unicorn, 
as  well  as  medieval  sculptures,  frescoes,  stained  glass, 
metalwork,  and  furniture. 

Committee  for  Economic  Development,  founded  in  1942, 
is  a  non-profit,  non-partisan  educational  body  governed  by 
117  leaders  in  business  and  education  who  are  endeavoring 
to  strengthen  American  capitalism  through  economic  re- 
search. Chairman  of  the  Board,  W.  Walter  Williams; 
Chairman  of  Research  and  Policy  Committee,  Philip  W. 
Reed;  Chairman,  Information  Committee,  William  Cheney; 
Chairman,  Finance  Committee,  Clarence  Frarcie;  Secretary, 
Elizabeth  H.  Walker;  Research  Director,  Theodore  O. 
Yntema;  Information  Director,  Nate  White.  Headquarters: 
444  Madison  Ave.,  New  York  22,  N.Y. 

Consumers'  Research,  Inc.,  founded  as  the  Consumers' 
Club  in  1927  and  incorporated  in  1929,  works  to  provide 
unbiased  information  and  counsel  on  consumer  goods. 
Membership:  About  100,000  subscribers.  President  and 
Technical  Director,  F.  J.  Schlink;  Secretary,  Clark  C.  Will- 
ever.  Offices  and  Laboratory:  Washington,  N.J.  Publication: 
Consumers'  Research  Bulletin  (and  an  annual  cumulative 
issue  of  about  200  pages)  present  the  findings  of  CR's  re- 
search and  testing. 

Consumers  Union  of  U.S.,  Inc.,  founded  in  1936,  is  a 
nonprofit  membership  organization  which  tests  and  reports 


on  consumer  goods  by  brand  name  through  a  monthly  pub- 
lication, Consumer  Reports.  Consumer  Reports  also  con- 
tains articles  on  health  and  medicine,  consumer  economics, 
general  buying  guidance,  care  and  repair,  etc.  Subscribers: 
200,000.  President,  Dr.  Colston  E.  Warne;  Secretary,  Dr. 
Harold  Aaron;  Treasurer,  Bernard  J.  Reis.  Headquarters: 
17  Union  Sq.  W.,  New  York  3,  N.Y. 

Council  of  State  Governments,  The,  founded  in  1925,  is  a 
joint  governmental  agency  established  and  supported  by 
the  states  for  service  to  the  states.  It  is  a  clearing  house 
for  information  and  research,  a  medium  for  improving 
legislative  and  administrative  practices,  an  instrument  for 
encouraging  cooperation  on  interstate  problems,  and  a 
means  of  facilitating  and  improving  federal-state  relations. 
Membership:  The  48  States.  Executive  Director,  Frank 
Bane.  Headquarters:  1313  East  60th  St.,  Chicago  37,  111. 

Council  on  Foreign  Relations,  founded  in  1921,  is  a  non- 
partisan  and  non-commercial  organization  studying  the  in- 
ternational aspects  of  America's  political,  economic,  stra- 
tegic, and  financial  problems.  The  results  of  its  studies  are 
often  published.  Membership:  800.  Chairman  of  the  Board, 
R.  C.  Leffingwell;  President,  Allen  W.  Dulles;  Secretary, 
Frank  Altschul.  Treasurer,  Clarence  E.  Hunter;  Executive 
Director,  Walter  H.  Mallory.  Headquarters:  58  East  68th 
St.,  New  York  23,  N.Y. 

Credit  Union  National  Association,  Inc.,  founded  in  1934 
to  promote  the  organization  of  credit  unions  and  to  estab- 
lish and  maintain  central  agencies.  Membership:  57  State 
and  provincial  Leagues  composed  of  12,000  credit  unions 
with  a  membership  of  5,000,000.  President,  Gurden  P. 
Farr;  Secretary,  W.  A.  Dunkin;  Treasurer,  William  P.  Mal- 
lard. Headquarters:  1342  East  Washington  Ave.,  Madi- 
son 1,  Wis.  The  international  annual  meeting  will  be  held 
in  Houston,  Tex.,  May  14-15,  1949. 

Ciyitan  International,  founded  in  1920,  is  an  association 
of  civic  service  clubs  throughout  the  United  States  and 
Canada  dedicated  to  the  task  of  building  better  citizenship. 
Membership:  13,000.  President,  James  C.  Richardson;  Sec- 
retary, Rudolph  T.  Hubbard.  Headquarters:  1523-28 
Comer  Building,  Birmingham  3,  Ala.  Next  convention  will 
be  held  in  Washington,  D.C.,  June  22-25,  1949. 

Cooperative  for  American  Remittances  to  Europe,  Inc. 
(CARE),  founded  in  1945,  is  a  nonprofit  cooperative,  which 
makes  available  standard  food  and  textile  packages  for 
purchase  by  Americans  for  guaranteed  delivery  by  CABE 
in  Europe.  CARE  operates  in  15  countries,  under  agreement 
with  their  governments.  Membership:  27  leading  American 
welfare  and  relief  agencies.  Executive  Director,  Paul  Comly 
French;  President,  Murray  D.  Lincoln;  Secretary,  Thomas 
Keogh;  Treasurer,  Harold  S.  Miner.  Headquarters:  50 
Broad  St.,  New  York  4,  N.Y. 

Daughters  of  Union  Veterans  of  the  Civil  War  1861-1865, 
founded  in  1885  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  Union 
soldiers  of  the  Civil  War,  celebrate  patriotic  anniversaries, 
establish  scholarship  funds  for  descendants  of  Civil  War 
soldiers,  and  perform  rehabilitation  work  for  World  War 
II  veterans.  Membership:  32,000.  National  President,  Mrs. 
Bernice  B.  Hecht;  Treasurer,  Grace  Hurd;  Secretary,  Bertha 
Robbins.  Headquarters:  1326  18th  St.,  NW,  Washington  6, 
D.C.  The  next  national  convention  will  be  held  in  Indian- 
apolis, Ind.,  in  September,  1949. 

East  and  West  Association,  The,  founded  in  1941,  is  a 
nonprofit  organization  without  political  or  religious  bias 
devoted  to  the  promotion  of  better  understanding  between 
peoples  through  public  forums,  program  bureau,  and  educa- 
tion. President,  Pearl  S.  Buck;  Treasurer,  Cleland  Austin; 
Secretary,  Albert  H.  Walsh.  Headquarters:  62  West  45th 
St.,  New  York  19,  N.Y. 

Economic  History  Association,  Inc.,  founded  in  1940  to 
encourage  research  and  education  in  the  history  of  eco- 
nomic activity  and  thought.  The  association  publishes  The 
Journal  of  Economic  History  twice  a  year,  and  The  Tasks  of 
Economic  History  once  a  year.  Membership:  Approximately 
1,100.  President,  Herbert  Heaton;  Secretary,  Ralph  H. 
Bowen;  Treasurer,  Herman  E.  Krooss.  Headquarters:  New 
York  University  Press,  Washington  Square,  New  York  3, 
N.Y. 

Electrochemical  Society,  Inc.,  The,  founded  in  1902  to 
promote  the  theory  and  practice  of  electrochemistry.  Mem- 
bership: 2,500.  President,  James  A.  Lee;  Treasurer,  Wil- 
liam W.  Winship;  Secretary,  R.  M.  Burns.  Headquarters: 
235  West  102nd  St.,  New  York  25,  N.Y.  A  meeting  will  be 
held  May  3-7,  1949,  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  Oct.  12-15, 
1949,  in  Chicago,  111. 

English-Speaking  Union,  The,  founded  in  1920  to  draw 
together  in  comradeship  the  English-speaking  peoples  of 
the  world.  Membership:  15,000.  Chairman,  Edward  R.  Stet- 
tinius,  Jr.;  President,  William  V.  Griffin;  Treasurer,  Hen- 
ry C.  Brume;  General  Secretary,  Mrs.  John  Elting.  Head- 
quarters: 19  East  54th  St.,  New  York  22,  N.Y.  Annual 
Meeting  to  be  held  Dec.  1,  1949. 

Esperanto  Association  of  North  America,  Inc.,  founded  in 
1906  as  the  American  Esperanto  Association,  reorganized 
under  the  present  name  in  1908.  It  promotes  the  study  and 
use  of  Esperanto,  the  world  interlanguage.  The  American 
Esperantist  is  published  bi-monthly.  Membership:  1,075. 
Acting  President,  Dr.  William  Solzbacher;  General  Secre- 
tary, George  Alan  Connor.  Headquarters:  114  West  16th 
St.,  New  York  11,  N.Y.  The  39th  Congress  will  be  held 
July  1-4,  1949,  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  the  34th  Universal 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


516 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


Esperanto  Congress  (with  Summer  University)  Aug.  6-13, 
1949,  at  Bournemouth,  England. 

Explorers  Club,  The,  founded  in  1904  (incorporated 
1905)  to  further  general  exploration  and  to  spread  knowl- 
edge thereof;  to  acquire  and  maintain  a  library  of  explora- 
tion and  travel;  to  publish  The  Explorers  Journal  (quarter- 
ly); to  encourage  explorers  in  their  work  and  to  bring 
them  into  personal  contact  and  unite  them  in  the  bonds  of 
sympathetic  interest.  Membership:  750.  President,  Clyde 
Fisher;  Secretary,  Dr.  Erich  M.  Schlaikjer;  Treasurer, 
Marvin  W.  Williams.  Headquarters:  10  West  72nd  St., 
New  York  23,  N.Y.  The  Annual  Dinner  and  report  on  the 
progress  of  exploration  to  be  held  Jan.  15,  1949.  Illustrated 
lectures  for  members  and  guests  held  twice  monthly,  Oc- 
tober—May; also  8  public  lectures. 

Family  Service  Association  of  America,  founded  in  1911, 
provides  private  and  public  family  service  agency  members 
with  the  means  (1)  to  improve  the  methods  they  use  in 
their  communities  to  counsel  and  aid  families  with  per- 
sonal, social,  or  emotional  problems  and  (2)  to  contribute 
on  a  combined  basis  to  the  development  and  betterment  of 
family  life.  Membership:  245  agencies;  1,000  individuals. 
President,  Brooks  Potter;  General  Director,  Frank  J.  Hertel. 
Headquarters:  122  East  22nd  St.,  New  York  10,  N.Y. 

Farmers  Educational  and  Cooperative  Union  of  America, 
founded  in  1902,  is  an  organization  of  working  farm  fam- 
ilies cooperating  in  a  program  for  themselves,  for  agricul- 
ture, and  for  the  common  welfare  of  all  working  farm  fami- 
lies. It  is  made  up  of  local  and  community  groups  which 
compose  county  and  state  organizations,  all  of  which  are 
tied  into  the  national  organization.  Membership:  450,000. 
President,  James  G.  Patton;  Secretary-Treasurer,  Tony  T. 
Dechant.  Headquarters:  3501  East  46th  Ave.,  Denver  16, 
Colo. 

Foreign  Policy  Association,  founded  an  1918,  is  an  im- 
partial, nonprofit,  research  organization  working  for  the 
constructive  development  of  American  foreign  policy.  Mem- 
bership: 30,000.  President,  Brooks  Emeny;  Secretary,  Helen 
M.  Degett;  Treasurer,  Eustace  Seligman.  Headquarters:  22 
East  38th  St.,  New  York  16,  N.Y. 

Foster  Parents'  Plan  for  War  Children,  Inc.,  founded  in 
1938  to  help  children  victimized  by  the  war.  It  provides 
food,  clothing,  and  medical  aid  through  headquarters  and 
committees  in  Europe  and  China.  Social  workers  and  child 
psychologists  aid  in  re-education  and  rehabilitation.  Inter- 
national Chairman,  Edna  Blue;  European  Director,  Freder- 
ick Mason;  Secretary  Treasurer,  Ann  Landress.  Headquar- 
ters: 55  West  42nd  St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y. 

Four-H  (4-H)  Clubs,  founded  in  1914,  4-H  (head,  heart, 
Lands,  and  health)  Clubs  are  local  groups  of  boys  and 
girls  between  the  ages  of  10  and  21,  organized  by  extension 
agents  cooperatively  employed  by  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  the  State  agricultural  colleges,  and  the  local 
county  governments.  The  purpose  of  the  4-H  Club  is  to 
provide  rural  young  people  an  opportunity  to  learn  the 
value  of  science  through  using  it  in  their  own  farming  and 
homemaking  projects;  to  develop  leadership  and  the  ability 
to  work  with  others;  to  develop  civic  interest  and  a  sense  of 
responsibility  as  citizens.  Membership:  1,800,000.  National 
4-H  events  for  1949  include:  4-H  Club  Week — March  5- 
13;  4-H  Club  Camp— Washington,  D.C.,  June  15-22;  4-H 
Achievement  Week — November  5-13;  4-H  Club  Congress 
— Chicago,  111.,  November  27— December  1.  Chief,  Division 
of  Extension  Information:  L.  A.  Schlup,  Extension  Service, 
U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture^  Washington  25,  D,C. 

Future  Farmers  of  America,  founded  in  1928  to  develop 
agricultural  leadership,  cooperation,  and  citizenship  in  farm 
boys.  Membership:  260,300.  President,  Ervin  Martin;  Stu- 
dent Secretary,  Eugene  Hansen.  Headquarters:  U.S.  Office 
of  Education,  Washington  25,  D.C. 

Garden  C!ub  of  America,  founded  in  1913  to  encourage 
amateur  gardening,  to  protect  native  plants  and  birds,  and 
to  encourage  civic  planting.  Membership:  Approximately 
8,000.  President,  Mrs.  Hermann  G.  Place;  Recording  Secre- 
tary, Mrs.  Gray  McW.  Bryan;  Corresponding  Secretary, 
Mrs.  John  D.  Beals,  Jr.;  Treasurer,  Mrs.  Fergus  Reid,  Jr. 
Headquarters:  15  East  58  St.,  New  York  22,  N.Y. 

General  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  founded  in  1890 
to  unite  women's  clubs  and  similar  organizations  through- 
out the  world  for  the  promotion  of  education,  philanthropy, 
public  welfare,  moral  values,  civics,  and  fine  arts.  Interna- 
tional membership:  11,000,000  in  16,500  clubs.  President, 
Mrs,  J.  L.  Blair  Buck;  Recording  Secretary,  Mrs.  Earl  B. 
Shoesmith;  Treasurer,  Mrs,  Charles  L.  Fuller.  Headquar- 
ters: 1734  N  St.,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C.  The  1949  con- 
vention will  be  held  in  Hollywood,  Fla.,  April  25-29. 

Geological  Society  in  America,  The,  founded  in  1888  for 
the  advancement  of  the*  science  of  geology  in  North  Amer- 
ica. Membership:  1,193  Fellows,  242  Members,  and  33 
Correspondents.  President,  Chester  R.  Longwell;  Secretary, 
H.  R.  Aldrich;  Treasurer,  J.  Edward  Hoffmeister.  Head- 
quarters: 419  West  117th  St.,  New  York  27,  N.Y.  Penrose 
Medal  to  Hans  Cloos;  Arthur  L.  Day  Medal  to  George  W. 
Morey.  A  meeting  will  be  held  at  El  Paso,  Tex.,  Nov.  10- 
12,  1949. 

Girl  Scouts  of  the  United  States  of  America,  founded  in 
1912  to  help  girls  develop  into  good  citizens  through 
guided  work  and  play  in  small  groups  with  girls  of  their 
own  ages  and  interests.  The  organization  is  non-sectarian 
and  non-political,  and  is  open  to  girls  of  all  races  and 


creeds  between  the  ages  of  7  and  17,  The  Girl  Scouts  of 
the  United  States  is  a  member  with  30  foreign  countries 
of  the  World  Association  of  Girl  Guides  and  Girl  Scouts. 
Membership:  1,384,864  (399,721  Brownies;  614,035  In- 
termediate Girl  Scouts;  58,739  Senior  Service  Scouts; 
312,369  adult  troop  leaders,  associate  Girl  Scouts,  etc.) 
President,  Mrs.  C.  Vaughan  Ferguson;  Chairman  of  the 
Executive  Committee,  Dr.  Mary  H.  S.  Hayes;  Treasurer, 
Mrs.  Nathan  Mobley;  Secretary,  Mrs.  Dudley  H.  Mills. 
Headquarters:  155  East  44th  St.,  New  York  17,  N.Y.  On 
October  29,  1948,  the  United  States  Government  issued  a 
commemorative  stamp  honoring  Juliette  Low,  founder  of 
the  organization. 

Goodwill  Industries  of  America,  Inc.,  founded  in  1902  to 
provide  employment,  training,  rehabilitation,  and  oppor- 
tunities for  personal  growth  for  the  handicapped  and 
disabled  through  the  establishment  and  development  of 
Goodwill  Industries.  Membership:  86  member  and  3  non- 
member  units  in  the  United  States;  4  Canadian  Goodwill 
Industries.  President,  James  T.  Buckley;  Recording  Secre- 
tary, Robert  E.  Watkins;  Treasurer,  W.  J.  Elliott;  Executive 
Secretary,  Oliver  A.  Friedman.  Headquarters:  744  North 
Fourth  St.,  Milwaukee  3,  Wis. 

GroSier  Club,  The,  founded  in  1884  for  literary  study 
and  promotion  of  the  arts  pertaining  to  the  production 
of  books.  Membership:  482.  President,  Frederick  B.  Adams, 
Jr.;  Treasurer,  LeRoy  E.  Kimball;  Secretary,  G.  Franklin 
Ludington.  Headquarters:  47  East  60th  St.,  New  York  22, 
N.Y.  The  Club  held  five  exhibitions  in  1948  and  published: 
The  Engraved  6-  Typographic  Work  of  Rudolph  Ruzicka 
and  List  of  Publications.,  Exhibition  Catalogues  and  other 
Items  Issued  by  The  Grolier  Club  1884-1948. 

Hadassah  (The  Women's  Zionist  Organization  of  Amer- 
ica, Inc.),  founded  in  1912  to  foster  Zionist  ideals  in 
America  and  conduct  hospitalization,  public  health,  child 
welfare,  land  reclamation,  and  youth  refugee  work  in  Pal- 
estine. It  is  the  official  American  representative  of  the 
Youth  Aliyah  movement.  Membership  250,000.  President, 
Mrs.  Samuel  W.  Halprin;  Treasurer,  Mrs.  Abraham  Tulin; 
National  Secretary,  Mrs.  Elliot  F.  Glassberg;  Executive 
Secretary,  Jeannette  N.  Liebel.  Headquarters:  1819  Broad- 
way, New  York  23,  N.Y. 

Henry  E.  Huntington  Library  and  Art  Gallery,  is  an  en- 
dowed educational  institution.  It  includes  a  research  li- 
brary, specializing  in  English  and  American  literature  and 
history,  a  free  public  museum,  an  art  gallery,  and  the 
Botanical  Gardens.  In  1919  the  institution  was  deeded  to 
a  self-perpetuating  board  of  trustees,  for  the  use  and  benefit 
of  all  qualified  persons.  In  1928  the  exhibitions  were 
opened  to  the  public.  Nearly  70  volumes  of  studies  have 
been  published  by  the  library.  Address:  San  Marino,  Calif. 
Henry  George  School  of  Social  Science,  The,  founded  in 
1932  for  the  teaching  of  fundamental  economics  and  social 
philosophy,  is  a  non-profit  institution  chartered  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  State  of  New  York.  There  are  20  Extensions 
of  the  School  in  the  U.S.A.  and  4  in  Canada,  Honorary 
President,  John  Dewey;  President,  John  C.  Lincoln;  Direc- 
tor, Robert  Clancy.  Headquarters:  50  E.  69th  St.,  New 
York  21,  N.Y.  The  1949  conference  will  be  held  in  New 
York  July  22-24.  Publications:  Teachers  Manuals;  Henry 
George  News  (monthly). 

Hispanic  Society  of  America,  The,  founded  in  1904,  is  an 
educational  institution  designed  to  advance  the  knowledge 
of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  languages,  literatures,  and 
history.  The  society  maintains  a  free  public  library  and  a 
museum  and  has  issued  about  600  volumes  relating  to 
Spanish  art,  history,  and  literature.  Membership  is  honor- 
ary and  limited  to  100  members  and  300  corresponding 
members.  President,  Archer  M.  Huntington;  Secretary, 
Benjamin  A.  Morton.  Headquarters:  Broadway,  between 
155th  and  156th  Sts.,  New  York  32,  N.Y. 

Holy  Name  Society,  founded  in  1274,  as  a  worldwide 
confraternity  of  Catholic  men  to  promote  spirituality  and 
foster  devotion  to  the  Holy  Name  of  God.  Membership: 
3,500,000.  National  Director,  Very  Rev.  H.  C.  Graham, 
O.P.  National  Headquarters:  141  East  65th  St.,  New 
York  21,  N.Y. 

Industrial  Research  Institute,  Inc.,  was  organized  in  1938 
under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Research  Council  and 
incorporated  in  1945.  It  seeks  to  promote  high  standards 
in  industrial  research,  and  to  increase  the  understanding 
thereof.  Membership:  106  companies,  President,  E.  W. 
Engstrom;  Secretary-Treasurer,  C.  G.  Worthington.  Head- 
quarters: 60  East  42nd  St.,  New  York  17,  N.Y. 

Institute  of  International  Affairs,  Canadian,  founded  in 
1928,  is  an  unofficial,  nonpartisan,  nonprofit  organization 
to  promote  and  facilitate  the  study  of  international  affairs 
and  those  domestic  issues  related  to  the  world  scene.  The 
Institute  has  a  wide  program  of  public  education  and  re- 
search, organizes  regional,  national,  and  international  con- 
ferences; maintains  a  free  library  and  information  service; 
publishes  Contemporary  Affairs  pamphlets,  International 
Journal  (quarterly),  etc.  Membership:  2,455.  President, 
R.  M.  Fowler;  National  Secretary,  Douglas  A.  MacLennan. 
Headquarters:  230  Bloor  St.,  West,  Toronto  5,  Canada. 

Institute  of  International  Education,  founded  in  1919  to 
create  better  understanding  among  the  peoples  of  the  world 
through  the  medium  of  educational  exchanges.  The  Insti- 
tute is  a  non-profit  organization.  More  than  1,000  scholar- 
ships and  fellowships  were  awarded  for  the  academic  year 


SOCIETIES  AMD  ORGANIZATIONS 


517 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


1948-49.  Administered  scholarships  and  fellowships  worth 
more  than  $2  million  for  over  800  universities  and  private 
organizations,  in  addition  to  Government  and  UNESCO 
grants.  Publications:  (monthly)  News  Bulletin,  Annual  Re- 
port, Meet  the  U.S.A.  (handbook  for  foreign  students). 
President:  Laurence  Duggan  (died  Dec.  20,  1948);  Vice 
President:  Donald  J.  Shank.  Headquarters:  2  West  45th 
St.,  New  York  19,  N.Y. 

Institute  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  Canadian,  founded  in 
1898  in  affiliation  with  the  Mining  Society  of  Nova  Scotia 
to  encourage  and  promote  the  mining  and  metallurgical 
industries  of  Canada;  to  advance  the  arts  and  sciences 
pertaining  thereto;  to  foster  ideals  of  public  service.  Mem- 
bership: 4,050.  President,  R.  W.  Diamond;  Secretary- 
Treasurer  and  Executive  Director,  E.  J.  Carlyle.  Head- 
quarters: 906  Dnimmond  Building,  1117  St.  Catherine 
St.,  West,  Montreal  2,  Canada.  The  51st  Annual  General 
Meeting  will  be  held  in  Montreal,  Canada,  Apr.  24—28, 
1949. 

Institute  of  Pacific  Relations,  Pacific  Council,  founded  in 
1925,  is  an  unofficial  and  nonpartisan  organization  to  facil- 
itate the  scientific  study  of  the  peoples  of  the  Pacific  area. 
It  publishes  books  and  the  journal  Pacific  Affairs.  Member- 
ship: 12  autonomous  national  councils.  Chairman,  Hunting- 
ton  Gilchrist;  Secretary-General,  William  L.  Holland; 
Chairman,  Research  Committee,  Sir  George  Sansom.  Head- 
quarters: 1  East  54th  St.,  New  York  22,  N.Y.  The  next 
I.P.R.  international  conference  will  be  held  in  1950, 

Institute  of  Public  Administration,  founded  in  1906  to 
improve  the  management  and  operation  of  American  gov- 
ernment first  through  scientific  study  of  administration 
and  secondly  through  dissemination  of  the  results  of  such 
study  to  public  officials  and  citizens  generally.  Membership: 
9  trustees;  8  permanent  professional  staff  members.  Chair- 
man, Richard  S.  Childs;  President,  Luther  Gulick;  Treas- 
urer, Henry  Bruere;  Secretary,  Bruce  Smith.  Headquarters: 
684  Park  Ave.,  New  York  21,  N.Y. 

International  Association  of  Lions  Clubs,  founded  in  1917. 
Lions  Clubs  are  nonpolitical  and  nonsectarian  civic  organi- 
zations composed  of  representative  business  and  profes- 
sional men  interested  in  the  development  of  their  com- 
munity. Membership  is  by  invitation.  There  are  over  7,000 
Lions  Clubs  with  400,000  members.  President:  Eugene 
S.  Briggs;  Secretary-General,  Melvin  Jones.  Headquarters: 
McCormick  Building,  332  South  Michigan  Ave.,  Chicago  4, 
111.  The  1949  Annual  International  Convention  will  be  held 
July  18-21  in  New  York,  N.Y. 

International  City  Managers'  Association,  founded  in 
1914  to  increase  the  proficiency  of  city  managers  and  to 
aid  in  the  improvement  of  municipal  government  in  gen- 
eral. Membership:  Approximately  1,200.  President,  John 
H.  Ames;  Director,  Clarence  E.  Ridley.  Headquarters:  1313 
East  60th  St.,  Chicago  37,  m.  A  meeting  will  be  held  Dec. 
4-8,  1949,  in  Palm  Beach,  Fla. 

International  College  of  Surgeons,  founded  in  1935  in 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  to  create  a  common  bond  among 
the  surgeons  of  all  nations  and  to  promote  the  highest 
standards  in  surgery  throughout  the  world  without  re- 
gard to  nationality,  creed  or  color.  Membership:  6,000. 
President,  Dr.  Francisco  Grana;  Secretary  General,  Dr. 
Max  Thorek,  850  W.  Irving  Park  Rd.,  Chicago  13,  HI. 
Headquarters:  1516  Lake  Shore  Drive,  Chicago,  111.  The 
1950  international  assembly  will  be  held  in  Buenos  Aires. 

International  Conference  of  Social  Work,  organized  in 
1925  to  provide  an  international  forum  for  discussion  of 
social  work,  to  stimulate  international  social  work,  to  facil- 
itate the  exchange  of  information,  and  to  promote  coopera- 
tion between  all  international  organizations  related  to  social 
welfare.  It  is  non-political,  non-governmental,  and  non- 
sectarian.  Membership:  3,000.  President,  George  E.  Haynes 
(England);  Treasurer-General,  William  H.  Dewar,  (Can- 
ada); Secretary-General,  Joe  R.  Hoffer  (United  States). 
Headquarters:  82  North  High  St.,  Columbus  15,  Ohio. 

International  Federation  of  Business  and  Professional 
Women,  founded  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  ia.t  1930,  to 
promote  friendly  relations  among  the  business'  and  pro- 
fessional women  of  all  countries,  to  secure  combined  action 
by  them,  and  to  work  for  high  business  and  professional 
standards  of  service.  International  President  (U.S.A.), 
Sally  Butler;  Treasurer  (U.S.A.),  Mrs.  Isabelle  Claridge 
Taylor;  Secretary  (Oslo,  Norway),  Bergliot  Lie.  Head- 
quarters: Biltmore  Hotel,  Madison  Ave.,  New  York  17,  N.Y. 

International  Order  of  The  King's  Daughters  and  Sons, 
Inc.,  founded  in  1866  for  "the  development  of  spiritual 
life  and  stimulation  of  Christian  activities."  Membership: 
Approximately  55,000.  President,  Mrs.  Frederic  Bond; 
Executive  Secretary  and  Editor  of  Silver  Cross,  Mrs.  Frank 
G.  Lopez.  Headquarters:  144  East  37th  St.,  New  York  16, 
N.Y.  An  educational  program  is  conducted  at  the  Chau- 
tauqua  Institute,  Chautauqua,  N.Y.  for  scholarship  students. 
The  General  Convention  will  be  held  in  1950  at  Buf- 
falo, N.Y. 

International  Peasant-  Union,  founded  in  1947  for  the 
liberation  of  the  southeastern  European  countries  and  or- 
ganization of  the  peasantry  of  the  world.  Membership: 
Hungary,  Poland,  Bulgaria,  Rumania,  Croatia,  Serbia. 
Central  Committee:  Ferenc  Nagy;  Stanislaw  Mikolajczyk; 
Vladko  Machek;  Georgi  M.  Dimitrov;  Grigore  N.  Buzesti; 
Milan  Gavrilovic.  Headquarters:  724  9th  St.,  NW,  Wash- 
ington, D.C. 


International  P.E.N.  Club,  The,  founded  in  1921,  is  a 
world  association  of  writers,  editors,  and  translators  in  all 
branches  and  classes  of  literature.  Its  object  is  to  promote 
friendship  between  men  of  letters  in  all  countries  in  the 
interests  of  literature,  freedom  of  expression,  and  inter- 
national good  will.  It  is  not  concerned  with  state  or  party 
politics.  Membership:  Approximately  6,000.  International 
President,  Maurice  Maeterlinck;  International  Secretary, 
Hermon  Ould.  Headquarters:  62  Glebe  Place,  Chelsea, 
London,  S.W.3,  England.  The  1949  congress  will  be  held 
in  Venice,  Italy. 

International  Rescue,  Inc.  (formerly  International  Rescue 
and  Relief  Committee,  Inc.),  founded  in  1933  to  aid  anti- 
totalitarian  refugees.  Special  emphasis  is  placed  on  rescue 
of  refugees  from  behind  the  Iron  Curtain  and  on  relief  and 
rehabilitation  of  these  people.  The  projects  include  a  chil- 
dren's home,  a  recuperation  center  for  concentration  camp 
victims,  and  a  hospitalization  program.  IR  was  a  member 
agency  of  the  National  War  Fund  and  now  administers 
programs  for  the  International  Refugee  Organization.  Chair- 
man, L.  Hollingsworth  Wood;  Treasurer,  David  F.  Seifer- 
held;  Executive  Secretary,  Sheba  Strunsky.  Headquarters: 
103  Park  Ave.,  New  York  17,  N.Y. 

International  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  founded  in 
1887  to  minister  to  Protestant  youth  in  the  churches 
through  printed  material  and  conventions,  and  activity 

?rograms.  Membership:  4,000,000.  President,  Daniel  A. 
oling;  General  Secretary,  Ernest  R.  Bryan;  Associate  Gen- 
eral Secretary,  P.  Marion  Simms,  Jr.;  Administrative  Secre- 
tary and  Treasurer,  Charles  E.  F.  Howe.  Headquarters: 
1201  East  Broad  St.,  Columbus  5,  O.  The  Society  publishes 
The  Christian  Endeavor  World.  40th  International  Con- 
vention will  be  held  in  Toronto,  Canada,  July  5-10,  1949. 

Izaak  WaSton  League  of  America,  Inc.,  founded  in  1922, 
is  a  national  conservation  organization  equipped  to  deal 
with  natural  resource  management  within  local,  state,  and 
national  boundaries.  It  cooperates  with  government  agen- 
cies when  its  attitude  is  sympathetic  and  fights  them  when 
it  feels  their  actions  are  ill-advised  or  influenced  by  politi- 
cal considerations.  Publication:  Outdoor  America.  Mem- 
bership: Approximately  500  chapters.  President,  Walter 
Frye;  Executive  Director,  Kenneth  A.  Reid.  Headquarters: 
31  North  State  St.,  Chicago  2,  111.  The  annual  convention 
will  be  held  June  24-26,  1949,  at  Denver,  Colo. 

Kiwanis  International,  founded  in  1915,  is  an  organiza- 
tion of  business  and  professional  leaders  dedicated  to  youth 
and  community  service  in  more  than  2,900  communities 
in  the  United  States,  Canada,  Alaska,  and  Hawaii.  Mem- 
bership: 190,000.  President,  J.  Belmont  Mosser;  Treasurer, 
J.  Hugh  Jackson;  Secretary,  O.  E.  Peterson.  Headquarters: 
520  North  Michigan  Ave.,  Chicago  11,  HI.  The  Interna- 
tional Convention  in  1949  will  be  held  June  19-23  in 
Atlantic  City,  N.J. 

Knights  of  Pythias,  founded  in  1864,  is  a  fraternal  or- 
ganization whose  activities  embrace  philanthropic  work 
of  various  kinds.  A  number  of  subsidiary  bodies  include  the 
Pythian  Sisters  and  the  Sunshine  Girls.  These  junior  bodies 
foster  the  moral  welfare  of  persons  between  the  ages  of  14 
and  21.  The  Dramatic  Order  Knights  of  Khorassan  is  the 
"playground"  of  the  order.  A  military  department  empha- 
sizes the  patriotic  duty  of  Pythians.  Membership:  300,000. 
Supreme  Chancellor,  Fred  RatlifF;  Supreme  Secretary,  Mel- 
vin M.  Ewen.  Headquarters:  1054  Midland  Bank  Building, 
Minneapolis  1,  Minn. 

League  of  Composers,  Inc.,  The,  founded  in  1923  to  pro- 
mote contemporary  music  and  help  living  composers  by 
giving  concerts  and  broadcasts  and  sponsoring  records  and 
publications.  Chairman,  Board  of  Directors,  Aaron  Copland; 
Chairman,  International  Committee,  Mrs.  Arthur  M.  Reis; 
Chairman,  Program  Committee,  Robert  Ward;  Executive 
Director,  Richard  F.  Goldman.  Headquarters:  113  West 
57th  St.,  New  York  19,  N.Y. 

League  of  Women  Voters  of  the  U.S.,  founded  in  1920  to 
encourage  the  responsible  participation  of  citizens  in 

fovernment.  Membership:  83,000.  President,  Anna  Lord 
trauss;  Treasurer,  Mrs.  Bradford  L.  Patton:  Secretary,  Mrs. 
James  G.  Scarborough.  Headquarters:  726  Jackson  Place, 
Washington  6,  D.C.  The  biennial  convention  will  be  held 
in  April,  1950,  at  Atlantic  City,  N.J. 

Library  Association,  The,  founded  in  1877  to  prbmote 
better  administration  of  libraries,  unite  all  persons  en- 
gaged or  interested  in  library "  work,  hold  examinations  in 
librarianship,  and  maintain  a  register  of  qualified  persons 
(fellows  and  associates).  Membership:  8,000.  President, 
Sir  Ronald  Adam;  Honorary  Secretary,  L.  R.  McCoIvin; 
Honorary  Treasurer,  Raymond  Irwin;  Secretary,  P.  S.  J. 
Welsford.  Headquarters:  Chaucer  House,  Malet  Place, 
London,  W.C.I,  England.  The  Library  Association  Record 
is  published  monthly.  The  national  meeting  will  be  held 
May  23-27,  1949,  in  Eastbourne,  England. 

Linguistic  Society  of  America,  founded  in  1925  to  ad- 
vance the  scientific  study  of  language.  Membership:  730 
individuals,  300  libraries.  President,  Murray  B.  Emeneau; 
Vice  President,  Zellig  Harris;  Secretary-Treasurer,  J.  M. 
Cowan.  Headquarters:  c/o  Secretary,  Morrill  Hall,  Cornell 
University,  Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Loyal  Order  of  Moose,  founded  in  1888,  is  a  fraternity 
which  strives  to  unite  mankind  and  elevate  society  through 
the  application  of  lofty  principles  to  daily  life.  Member- 
ship: 947,713.  Supreme  Governor,  Walter  F.  Gibson;  Exec* 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


518 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


utive  Director  and  Supreme  Secretary,  Malcolm  R.  Giles. 
Headquarters:  Mooselieart,  HI.  The  1949  convention  will 
be  held  in  San  Francisco,  Calif,,  August  14-19. 

Luther  League  of  America,  founded  in  1895,  is  the  official 
youth  organization  of  the  United  Lutheran  Church  in 
America  for  the  purpose  of  banding  young  people  together 
in  fellowship,  worship,  service  and  education;  to  train  them 
for  adult  leadership  in  the  church.  Membership:  30,248. 
President,  EL  L.  Logan;  Secretary,  Ruth  Blackburn;  Treas- 
urer, Howard  Turkheimer;  Executive  Secretary,  Rev.  Joseph 
W.  Frease.  Headquarters:  1228  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia  7, 
Pa.  A  National  Convention  will  be  held  at  Roanoke,  Va., 
Aug.  15-19,  1949. 

Marine  Biological  Laboratory,  founded  in  1888  as  a 
nonprofit  organization  for  the  promotion  of  biological 
research  including  biochemistry,  biophysics,  and  radiobi- 
ology.  Courses  of  graduate  level  are  offered  in  Embryology, 
General  Physiology,  Marine  Botany,  and  Invertebrate  Zo- 
ology. Membership:  470.  Director,  Charles  Packard;  Treas- 
urer, D.  M.  Brodie;  Clerk,  O.  'C.  Glaser.  Headquarters: 
Woods  Hole,  Mass.  Rumford  Medal  to  E.  N.  Harvey;  T.  W. 
Richards  Medal  to  E.  J.  Cohn.  The  Annual  Meeting  will 
be  held  at  Woods  Hole,  Mass.,  Aug.  9,  1949. 

Mathematical  Association  of  America,  founded  in  1916 
to  hold  meetings  for  the  presentation  and  discussion  of 
papers  dealing  with  mathematics  at  the  collegiate  level, 
and  to  publish  books  and  a  periodical  dealing  with  such 
mathematics.  Membership:  3,200.  President,  R.  E.  Langer; 
Secretary-Treasurer,  H.  M.  Gehman.  Headquarters:  Uni- 
versity of  Buffalo,  Buffalo  14,  N.Y.  A  joint  meeting  with 
the  American  Association  for  Engineering  Education  will 
be  held  in  June  1949  at  Troy,  N.Y.  The  summer  meeting 
will  be  held  at  the  University  of  Colorado,  Boulder,  Colo, 
in  September. 

Mediaeval  Academy  of  America,  founded  in  1925  to 
conduct,  encourage,  and  support  research  publication  and 
instruction  in  mediaeval  record,  languages,  literature,  arts, 
archaeology,  history,  philosophy,  science,  and  all  other 
aspects  of  mediaeval  civilization.  Membership:  1,100.  Pres- 
ident, F.  N.  Robinson;  Executive  Secretary,  Charles  R.  D. 
Miller.  Headquarters:  1430  Massachusetts  Ave.,  Cam- 
bridge 38,  Mass.  Speculum,  the  journal  of  the  Academy, 
is  published  quarterly.  The  1949  annual  meeting  will  be 
held  April  8-9,  in  Toronto,  Canada. 

Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  The,  founded  in  1870  for 
the  purpose  of  "establishing  and  maintaining  in  the  City  of 
New  York  a  Museum  and  library  of  art,  .  .  .  encouraging 
and  developing  the  study  of  the  fine  arts,  .  .  .  and  .  .  . 
furnishing  popular  instruction."  Membership:  7,529.  Pres- 
ident, Roland  L.  Redmond;  Secretary,  Dudley  T.  Easby, 
Jr.;  Treasurer,  J.  Kenneth  Loughry;  Director,  Francis 
Henry  Taylor.  Headquarters:  Fifth  Ave.  and  82nd  St.,  New 
York  28,  N.Y.  The  museum  collections  cover  a  period  of 
some  5,000  years,  representing  the  arts  of  the  Ancient 
World,  the  Near  and  Far  East,  Europe,  and  the  United 
States.  Permanent  displays  are  supplemented  by  changing 
special  exhibitions  including  loans  from  important  collec- 
tions in  this  country  and  abroad. 

Middle  Eost  Institute,  The,  founded  in  1946  for  the  pur- 
pose of  developing  among  the  American  people  an  interest 
in,  and  more  complete  understanding  of,  the  countries  of 
the  Middle  East  by  means  of  conferences,  publications, 
research,  and  teaching.  The  Institute  maintains  a  graduate 
fellowship  program  in  which  the  facilities  for  training  are 
arranged  in  collaboration  with  the  School  of  Advanced 
International  Studies  and  other  accredited  institutions  of 
higher  learning.  Membership:  approximately  250.  Chairman 
of  the  Board,  George  Camp  Keiser;  Editor  of  The  Middle 
East  Journal,  Harvey  P.  Hall;  Executive  Secretary,  John  E, 
Marsh.  Headquarters:  1906  Florida  Ave.,  NW,  Washing- 
ton 9,  D.C,  Annual  meeting  and  conference  will  be  held 
Mar.^  4-5,  1949,  in  Washington,  D.C. 

Mineralogicol  Society  of  America,  founded  in  1916  to  ad- 
vance the  study  of  mineralogy,  crystallography,  and  allied 
sciences.  Membership:  956  members,  592  subscribers.  Pres- 
ident, John  W.  Gruner;  Secretary,  C.  S.  Hurlbut,  Jr.,  Treas- 
urer, Earl  Ingerson.  Headquarters:  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge  38,  Mass.  The  1948  Roebling  Medal  to  Sir 
Lawrence  Braggon. 

Modern  Language  Association  of  America,  founded  in 
1883  for  the  advancement  of  research  in  modern  lan- 
guages and  their  literatures.  Membership:  About  6,000. 
President,  George  Sherburn;  Executive  Secretary,  Wil- 
liam R.  Parker.  Headquarters:  100  Washington  Square 
East,  New  York  3,  N.Y,  Annual  meeting  will  be  held  in 
New  York,  Sept.  7-9,  1949. 

Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  The,  founded  in  1870,  in 
order  to  acquire,  preserve,  and  display  great  works  of  art 
and  to  give  education  in  the  arts.  It  covers  the  fields  of 
Asiatic,  Near  Eastern,  Islamic,  Greek  and  Roman,  and 
Egyptian  arts  as  well  as  the  Decorative  Arts  of  Europe, 
prints  and  drawings,  and  paintings  both  European  and 
American.  It  carries  on  an  extensive  educational  program 
and  has  a  flourishing  school  for  creative  artists.  It  brings 
out  numerotis  publications  in  addition  to  its  regular  Bulletin. 
President  of  corporation,  Edward  J.  Holmes;  Director, 
G.  H.  Edgell. 

National  Aeronautic  Association,  founded  in  1905  as  the 
Aero  Club  of  America,  it  assumed  its  present  name  in  1922. 
NAA  works  through,  local  chapters  to  distribute  information 


about  aviation  and  give  effective  national  expression  to 
community  views  on  aviation  policy.  President,  Louis  E. 
Leverone;  Secretary,  Mrs.  William  E.  Brown;  Treasurer, 
Horace  P.  Brornfield;  Executive  Vice  President,  R.  M. 
Phelps,  Headquarters:  1025  Connecticut  Ave.,  Washing- 
ton 6,  D.C.  The  annual  world  conference  of  Federation 
Aeronautique  Internationale,  of  which  NAA  is  the  United 
States  representative,  will  be  held  in  Cleveland,  O.,  the* 
week  preceding  Labor  Day,  1949.  NAA's  annual  conven- 
tion will  be  held  in  Akron,  O. 

National  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Colored 
People,  founded  in  1909  to  safeguard  the  political,  civil, 
and  legal  rights  of  colored  citizens  and  secure  for  them 
equality  of  opportunity.  Membership  550,000.  President, 
Arthur  B.  Spingam;  Secretary,  Walter  White;  Chairman  of 
Board,  Louis  T.  Wright.  Headquarters:  20  West  40th  St., 
New  York  18,  N.Y.  Spingarn  Medal  to  Dr.  Channing  H. 
Tobias.  The  40th  annual  conference  will  be  held  in  Los 
Angeles,  Calif.,  in  July,  1949. 

National  Association  of  Broadcasters,  founded  in  1922  to 
foster  the  art  of  broadcasting,  protect  its  members,  and 
encourage  customs  and  practices  which  will  strengthen  the 
broadcasting  industry  to  the  end  that  it  may  best  serve  the 
public.  Membership:  2,003.  Secretary-Treasurer,  C.  E. 
Arney,  Jr.  Board  of  Directors:  17  district  representatives 
and  8  Directors -at-Large.  Headquarters:  1771  N  St.,  NW, 
Washington  6,  D.C. 

National  Association  of  Legal  Aid  Organizations,  founded 
in  1923,  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  former  National  Alliance  of 
Legal  Aid  Societies.  Its  purpose  is  to  promote  and  develop 
legal  aid  work,  to  encourage  the  formation  of  new  legal  aid 
organizations,  to  provide  a  central  body  with  defined 
duties  and  powers  for  the  guidance  of  legal  aid  work,  and 
to  cooperate  with  the  judiciary,  the  bar,  and  other  organ- 
izations interested  iri  the  administration  of  justice.  Mem- 
bership: 61  organizations  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
President,  Raynor  M.  Gardiner;  Treasurer,  Wayne  Theo- 
philus;  Secretary  Emery  A.  Brownell.  Headquarters:  25 
Exchange  St.,  Rochester  4,  N.Y.  The  midwinter  meeting  of 
the  Executive  Committee  will  be  held  in  New  York  City 
in  January,  1949. 

National  Association  of  Manufacturers,  founded  in  1895 
to  foster  the  domestic  and  foreign  commerce  of  the  United 
States  and  improve  relations  between  employers  and  em- 
ployees. Membership:  Approximately  16,500.  President  and 
Chairman  of  the  Board,  Morris  Sayre;  Managing  Director, 
Earl  Bunting;  Secretary,  Noel  Sargent,  Treasurer,  Kenneth 
R.  Miller.  Headquarters:  14  West  49th  St.,  New  York  20, 
N.Y.  The  national  Congress  of  American  Industry  is  held 
annually  in  December. 

National  Association  of  Postmasters  of  U.S.,  chartered 
under  laws  of  Illinois  in  1935  and  organized  for  the  mu- 
tual benefit  of  postmasters  and  to  cooperate  with  the  post 
office  department  in  maintaining  a  high  standard  of  service 
to  the  public.  Membership:  over  32,000  in  48  State  Chap- 
ters and  chapters  in  Puerto  Rico,  Alaska,  Hawaii,  Guam, 
Samoa.  Publication:  Postmasters  Gazette.  President,  Burris 
C.  Jackson;  National  Secretary-Treasurer,  Frank  J.  Horak; 
Editor,  Dan  L.  Gibson.  Headquarters:  1111  Seventeenth 
St.,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

National  Audubon  Society,  founded  in  1905  to  arouse 
public  appreciation  and  understanding  of  the  value  and 
need  of  conservation  of  soil,  water,  plants,  and  wildlife; 
their  interdependence  and  the  relation  of  their  treatment 
and  use  to  human  welfare;  to  assist  in  creating  an  en- 
lightened citizenry  demanding  furtherance  of  conservation 
of  natural  resources.  Membership:  about  50,000.  Some 
400,000  junior  club  members  enroll  annually.  Chairman  of 
the  Board,  Ludlpw  Griscom;  President,  John  H.  Baker; 
Secretary,  G.  Lister  Carlisle;  Treasurer,  Guy  Emerson. 
Headquarters:  1000  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  28,  N.Y.  The 
1949  annual  convention  will  be  held  in  New  York,  N.Y., 
on  the  3d  Tuesday  in  October. 

National  Board  of  Review  of  Motion  Pictures,  Inc.,  found- 
ed in  1909,  is  an  independent  nonprofit  organization  to  ex- 
press public  reaction  to  and  public  responsibility  concern- 
ing the  motion  picture.  It  provides  organizations  and  in- 
dividuals with  advance  information  about  pictures.  It  offers 
a  constructive  program  for  the  study,  support,  and  best  use 
of  the  motion  picture.  It  is  opposed  to  all  forms  of  censor- 
ship. President,  Quincy  Howe;  Secretary  and  Treasurer, 
Henry  Hart;  Executive  Director,  Richard  Griffith.  Head- 
quarters: 31  Union  Square  West,  New  York  3,  N.Y.  The 
40th  conference  of  the  National  Board  of  Review  of  Motion 
Pictures  will  be  held  in  New  York,  N-Y.,  in  March,  1949. 

National  Bureau  of  Economic  Research,  Inc.,  founded  in 
1920  to  encourage,  in  the  broadest  and  most  liberal  man- 
ner, investigation,  research  and  discovery,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  knowledge  to  the  well-being  of  mankind.  In  partic- 
ular, it  contributes  to  exact  and  impartial  investigation  in 
the  field  of  economic,  social,  and  industrial  science,  and  to 
this  end  cooperates  with  governments,  universities,  learned 
societies,  and  individuals.  Membership:  31  members  of  the 
Board  of  Directors.  Director  of  Research,  Arthur  F.  Bums; 
Executive  Director,  William  J.  Carson:  Chairman,  C.  Rein- 
old  Noyes;  President,  Harry  W.  Laidler;  Treasurer,  George 
B.  Roberts,  Headquarters:  1819  Broadway,  New  York  23, 

National  Catholic  Welfare  Conference,  founded  in  1919 
for  the  purpose  of  "unifying,  coordinating,  and  organizing 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


519 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


the  Catholic  people  of  the  United  States  in  works  of  educa- 
tion, social  welfare,  immigrant  aid,  and  other  activities/* 
Membership:  178  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the  U.S.A., 
7,500  affiliated  societies.  Chairman  of  the  Board,  Most  Rev. 
John  T.  McNicholas;  Treasurer,  Most  Rev.  John  M.  Gan- 
non; Secretary,  Most  Rev.  John  F.  Noll.  Headquarters; 
1312  Massachusetts  Ave.,  NW,  Washington  5,  D.C. 

National  Child  Labor  Committee,  founded  in  1904  (in- 
corporated 1907)  to  protect  children  from  employment 
under  conditions  prejudicial  to  their  health,  education  or 
welfare;  to  improve  the  educational  opportunities  and  place- 
ment services  for  youth.  Membership:  17,000.  Chairman, 
Eduard  C.  Lindeman;  Treasurer,  Robert  Faig.  Headquar- 
ters: 419  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York  16,  N.Y.  A  meeting  will 
be  held  during  the  National  Conference  of  Social  Work  in 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  June  15,  1949. 

National  Civil  Service  League,  founded  in  1881  to  en- 
courage the  adoption  in  government  of  a  modern  personnel 
system  based  on  merit,  and  the  exclusion  of  partisan  control 
of  public  employment.  Membership:  Approximately  3,000. 
President,  Nicholas  Kelley;  Treasurer,  Ogden  H.  Hammond; 
Chairman  of  the  Council,  Robert  L.  Johnson;  Chairman  of 
Executive  Committee,  Winston  Paul;  Executive  Secretary, 
H.  Eliot  Kaplan.  Headquarters:  120  East  29th  St.,  New 
York  16,  N.Y. 

National  Conference  of  Christians  and  Jews,  Inc.,  founded 
in  1928  to  promote  justice  and  understanding  among 
Protestants,  Catholics,  and  Jews,  and  to  analyse,  moderate, 
and  finally  eliminate  intergroup  prejudices.  Membership: 
80,000.  President,  Everett  R.  Clinchy;  Treasurer,  Herbert  J. 
Osborne.  Headquarters:  381  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York  16, 
N.Y. 

National  Council  of  Catholic  Men,  founded  in  1922  to  co- 
ordinate in  a  common  voluntary  council  all  existing  Cath- 
olic men's  organizations;  to  serve  as  a  medium  for  the  dis- 
semination and  exchange  of  information;  to  promote  under- 
standing and  action  for  the  common  good.  Membership: 
3,000  societies.  President,  Emmet  A.  Blaesj  Secretary, 
Thomas  E.  Sly;  Treasurer,  James  H.  McCaffrey;  Executive 
Secretary,  James  E.  Mitchell.  Headquarters:  1312  Massa- 
chusetts Ave.,  NW,  Washington,  D.C.  A  meeting  will  be 
held  in  Washington,  D.C.,  Apr.  23-24,  1949. 

National  Council  of  Farmer  Cooperatives,  founded  in 
1928,  functions  as  a  conference  body  speaking  for  farmer 
cooperative  marketing  and  purchasing  associations.  Mem- 
bership: 114  associations  with  a  farmer  membership  of  ap- 
proximately 3,800,000.  President,  H.  H.  Rathbun  (died 
Sept.  29,  1948);  Executive  Secretary,  John  H.  Davis;  Treas- 
urer, Freda  B.  Couch.  Headquarters:  744  Jackson  Place, 
NW,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

National  Council  of  Jewish  Women,  founded  in  1893,  has 
a  program  of  local  and  overseas  service  and  education.  It 
maintains  homes  for  the  shelter  and  rehabilitation  of  un- 
attached Jewish  women  in  Athens  and  Paris,  offers  welfare 
work  scholarships  at  American  universities  to  qualified  Jew- 
ish women  who  will  return  to  their  communities  to  do  social 
reconstruction  work,  and  serves  the  varied  needs  of  the 
immigrant  before  and  after  arrival  in  this  country.  Mem- 
bership: 73,000.  National  President,  Mrs.  Joseph  M.  Welt; 
Chairman  of  Executive  Committee,  Mrs.  Irving  M.  Engel; 
Executive  Director,  Mrs.  Elsie  Elfenbein,  Headquarters: 
1819  Broadway,  New  York  23,  N.Y. 

National  Council  of  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations 
formed  as  a  national  committee  in  1866.  The  first  local 
organization  was  formed  in  London  in  1844  (in  the  United 
States  in  1851),  for  the  physical,  mental,  social,  moral,  and 
religious  education  of  youth.  Membership:  1,701,463  in 
local  associations.  President,  Eugene  R.  McCarthy;  General 
Secretary,  Eugene  E.  Barnett.  Headquarters:  347  Madison 
Ave.,  New  York  17,  N.Y.  Five  million  dollars  were  reported 
raised  toward  a  postwar  fund  for  restoring  associations  in 
war-devastated  areas  abroad.  Participation  was  voted  in 
reactivation  of  USO  on  a  modified  basis.  Official  consulta- 
tive relations  with  the  United  Nations  were  maintained 
through  the  World's  Committee  of  Y.M.C.A/s  at  Geneva. 

National  Education  Association  of  the  United  States, 
founded  in  1857  to  advance  the  interests  of  the  teaching 
profession,  promote  the  welfare  of  children,  and  foster  the 
education  of  all  the  people.  Membership:  441,127.  Presi- 
dent, Mabel  Studebaker.  Headquarters:  1201  16th  St., 
NW,  Washington  6,  D.C.  A  meeting  will  be  held  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  July  3-8,  1949. 

National  Farm  Chemurgic  Council,  Inc.,  founded  in  1935 
to  advance  the  industrial  use  of  American  farm  products 
through  applied  science.  The  Council  is  educational,  non- 
profit, and  nonpolitical.  Membership:  Over  4,000.  Presi- 
dent, Wheeler  McMillen;  Assistant  to  'President  and  Treas- 
urer, John  W.  Ticknor;  Secretary,  Richard  R.  Tryon. 
Headquarters:  350  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  1,  N,Y.  The  14th 
annual  chemurgic  conference  will  be  held  in  Memphis, 
Tenn.,  Mar.  30-Apr.  1,  1949. 

National  Federation  of  Business  and  Professional  Women's 
Clubs,  Inc.,  The,  founded  in  1919  to  improve  conditions  in 
all  professions  and  businesses  and  prepare  members  for 
leadership.  Membership:  140,000.  President,  K.  Frances* 
Scott,  M.D.;  Executive  Director,  Olive  H.  Huston.  Head- 
quarters: 1819  Broadway,  New  York  23,  N.Y.  The  next  bi- 
ennial convention  will  be  held  in  San  Francisco,  Calif. 
July  3-7,  1950. 

National  Federation  of  Music  Clubs,  founded  in  1898,  is  a 


philanthropic  organization  which  grants  scholarships,  builds 
music  studios,  organizes  choir  clinics,  etc.  Membership:  Ap- 
proximately 5,000  clubs,  with  nearly  500,000  members. 
Mrs.  Royden  James  Keith,  President.  Headquarters:  812 
KimbaU  Building,  306  South  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago  4,  III. 

National  Foundation  for  Infantile  Paralysis,  The,  founded 
in  1938  to  direct  and  unify  the  fight  against  infantile 
paralysis.  Activities  include  research,  education,  epidemic 
aid,  and  medical  care.  Grants  are  made  to  institutions,  and 
scholarships  and  fellowships  are  offered.  Membership: 
2,819  chapters.  President,  Basil  O'Connor;  Vice  President 
and  Secretary,  William  F.  Snyder;  Treasurer,  Howard  W. 
Dayton.  Headquarters:  120  Broadway,  New  York  5,1  N.Y. 

National  Fraternal  Congress  of  America,  founded  in 
1886  to  unite  all  fraternal  benefit  societies  of  America  for 
mutual  improvement  and  concerted  action.  Membership: 
108  societies.  President,  Jeanie  Willard;  Vice  President, 
George  G.  Perria.  Headquarters:  35  East  Wackei  Drive, 
Chicago  1,  111.  A  meeting  will  be  held  in  Washington,  D.C. 
in  September,  1949. 

National  Gallery  of  Art,  established  by  the  Congress  in 
1937,  to  assemble  and  maintain  a  national  collection  of 
paintings,  sculpture,  and  the  graphic  arts,  representative 
of  the  best  in  the  artistic  heritage  of  America  and  Europe. 
The  building,  was  constructed  with  funds  given  for  the 
purpose  by  Andrew  W.  Mellon.  The  Gallery's  collections 
of  more  than  16,000  works  of  art  represent  the  Mellon, 
Kress,  Widener,  Chester  Dale,  Rosenwald  Collections,  etc. 
Frequent  temporary  exhibits  are  held;  that  of  "Paintings 
from  the  Berlin  Museums,"  was  attended  by  nearly  a 
million  visitors  between  Mar.  17- Apr.  25,  1948.  Publica- 
tions include  Masterpieces  of  Painting  from  the  National 
Gallery  of  Art.  Attendance  for  the  fiscal  year  1948  was 
2,159,435.  Director:  David  E.  Finley.  Headquarters:  The 
Mall,  Washington  25,  D.C. 

National  Geographic  Society,  The,  founded  in  1888  for  the 
increase  and  diffusion  of  geographic  knowledge.  Member- 
ship: 1,800,000.  President  and  Editor,  Gilbert  Grosvenor; 
Vice  President  and  Associate  Editor,  John  Oliver  La  Gorce; 
Secretary,  Thomas  W.  McKnew;  Treasurer,  Robert  V, 
Fleming.  Headquarters:  1146  Sixteenth  St.,  NW,  Wash- 
ington 6,  D.C.  The  National  Geographic  Magazine  is  the 
official  publication  of  the  Society. 

Notional  Grange,  The  (Patrons  of  Husbandry),  founded  in 
1867  for  the  educational,  social,  economic,  and  legislative 
advancement  of  agriculture.  Membership:  About  811,000. 
Master,  Albert  S.  Goss;  Lecturer,  Edward  F.  Holter;  Secre- 
tary, Harry  A.  Caton.  Headquarters:  National  Grange 
Building,  744  Jackson  Place,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

National  Guard  Association  of  the  United  States,  The, 
founded  in  1879  and  recently  reorganized  as  an  individual 
membership  organization.  Membership:  About  20,000. 
President,  E.  A.  Walsh;  Secretary,  Fred  M.  Waterbury. 
Headquarters:  400  6th  St.,  NW,  Washington  1,  D.C.  The 
Association  works  zealously  for  universal  military  training. 

National  Health  Council,  founded  in  1921,  aims  at  the 
prevention  of  disease  and  maintenance  of  public  health 
through  common  planning  and  action  of  its  members  and 
development  of  citizen  participation  and  support  for  meas- 
ures that  will  help  the  individual  maintain  maximum  mental 
and  physical  health.  President,  Philip  H.  Mather;  Secretary, 
Reginald  M.  Atwater,  M.D.;  Treasurer,  Haven  Emerson, 
M.D.  Headquarters:  1790  Broadway,  New  York  19,  N.Y. 

National  Heart  Institute,  established  by  the  Congress  in 
1948,  to  conduct,  support,  and  foster  research  and  training 
in  diseases  of  the  heart  and  circulation  and  to  aid  the 
States  in  the  development  of  community  programs  for  the 
control  of  these  diseases.  The  Institute,  one  of  the  National 
Institutes  of  Health,  is  the  focal  point  of  leadership  and 
coordination  for  the  total  heart  program  of  the  Public 
Health  Service.  Director:  C.  J.  Van  Slyke,  M.D.  Head- 
quarters: National  Institutes  of  Health,  Public  Health 
Service,  Bethesda  14,  Md. 

National  Industrial  Conference  Board,  Inc.,  founded  in 
1916,  is  an  independent  and  nonprofit  research  institution 
in  the  field  of  industrial  economics.  It  is  supported  by  busi- 
ness organizations,  labor  unions,  government  agencies,  trade 
associations,  libraries,  colleges  and  universities.  Member- 
ship: Approximately  3,000.  President,  Virgil  Jordan;  Secre- 
tary, Clyde  L.  Rogers.  Headquarters:  247  Park  Ave.,  New 
York  17,  N.Y.  Meetings  are  held  each  month  except  during 
the  summer. 

National  Information  Bureau,  Inc.,  founded  in  1918,  is  a 
nonprofit  bureau  working  to  improve  standards  in  national 
and  international  philanthropy.  Some  600  agencies  are  in- 
vestigated annually.  The  Bureau  reports  state  whether  or 
not  11  standards  which  it  considers  essential  are  conformed 
to.  Members  eligible  for  confidential  reports  include  indi- 
viduals, corporations,  chambers  of  commerce,  some  650 
local  community  chests  and  councils  and  40  foundations. 
The  Giver's  Guide  to  National  Philanthropy  is  published 
annually,  and  members  receive  periodic  newsletters.  Presi- 
dent, Paul  L.  Feiss;  Secretary,  Craig  R.  Smith;  Treasurer, 
Valentine  E.  Macy,  Jr.  Headquarters:  205  East  42nd  St., 
New  York  17,  N.Y. 

National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters,  founded  in  1898 
for  furtherance  of  the  interest  of  literature  and  the  fine 
arts.  Membership:  250.  President,  Douglas  Moore;  Secre" 
tary,  William  Rose  Ben£t;  Secretary,  Philip  James.  Head- 
quarters: 633  West  155th  St.,  New  York  32,  N.Y.  At  the 


SOCf£T/£S  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


520 


SOCIETIES  AMD  ORGANIZATIONS 


7th  Public  Ceremonial  in  May,  1948,  given  jointly  with 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Letters,  15  $1,000 
Arts  and  Letters  grants  were  awarded. 

National  Institute  of  Social  Sciences,  founded  in  1912  to 
promote  research  in  the  social  sciences.  Membership:  Lim- 
ited to  600,  not  including  honorary  members.  President, 
Clarence  G.  Michalis;  Treasurer,  Lewis  Latham  Clarke; 
Secretary,  Rosina  Hahn.  Headquarters:  271  Madison  Ave., 
New  York  16,  N.Y. 

National  Jewish  Welfare  Board,  founded  in  1913,  is  the 
national  association  of  Jewish  Community  Centers  and 
YM-YWHA's  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  the 
recognized  agency  for  serving  the  religious,  welfare,  and 
morale  needs  of  Jewish  men  and  women  _  in  the  armed 
forces  and  in  veterans*  hospitals.  Membership:  321  Jewish 
Centers  with  about  500,000  members.  President,  Frank  L. 
Weil;  Executive  Director,  S,  D.  Gershovitz;  Treasurer, 
Joseph  H.  Cohen;  General  Secretary  of  National  Council, 
Louis  Kraft.  Headquarters:  145  East  32nd  St.,  New  York 
16,  N.Y.  The  next  national  meeting  will  be  held  in  1950  in 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

National  Kindergarten  Association,  founded  in  1909  to 
arouse  interest  in  kindergarten  education  and  to  help  secure 
it  for  the  children  of  the  whole  nation.  President,  Major 
Bradley  Martin;  Treasurer,  Eversley  Childs,  Jr.;  Secretary, 
Mrs.  Roger  C.  Aldrich;  Executive  Secretary,  Bessie  Locke; 
Editor,  Florence  Jane  Ovens.  Headquarters,  8  West  40th 
St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y.  The  annual  meeting  is  held  in 
January, 

National  Lawyers  Guild,  founded  in  1937,  is  a  bar  associ- 
ation seeking  to  make  the  law  a  living  and  flexible  instru- 
ment of  human  progress  and  justice.  Membership:  Approx- 
imately 4,000.  President,  Robert  W.  Kenny;  Executive 
Secretary,  Robert  J.  Silberstein;  Treasurer,  Nathan  B. 
Kogan.  Headquarters:  902  20th  St.,  NW,  Washington  6, 
D.C. 

National  League  of  American  Pen  Women,  founded  in 
1897,  has  branches  in  every  state  of  the  Union.  Member- 
ship: Over  4,000.  National  President,  Dr.  Margaret  H.  Se- 
hree.  Headquarters:  814  National  Press  Building,  Washing- 
ton, D.C.  The  League  makes  awards  in  all  branches  of 
creative  art.  National  board  meetings  are  held  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  each  month. 

National  Legion  of  Decency,  The,  formed  in  1934  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  Bishops  of  the  United  States  to  evaluate 
and  classify  entertainment  motion  pictures  exclusively,  ac- 
cording to  traditional  standards  of  morality  and  decency.  It 
functions  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Episcopal  Commit- 
tee on  Motion  Pictures  of  which  the  Most  Rev.  William  A. 
Scully,  D.D.,  is  Chairman.  The  Motion  Picture  Department 
of  the  International  Federation  of  Catholic  Alumnae  is  the 
official  reviewing  group  of  the  Legion,  Executive  Secretary, 
the  Rev.  Patrick  J.  Masterson;  Assistant  Executive  Secre- 
tary, Rev.  Thomas  F.  Little.  Headquarters:  35  East  51  St., 
New  York  22,  N.Y. 

National  Lutheran  Council,  founded  in  1918  to  witness 
for  the  Lutheran  Church  on  matters  which  require  an  ex- 
pression of  common  faith,  ideals,  and  program;  to  be  the 
National  Committee  for  the  Lutheran  World  Federation  in 
the  United  States.  Membership:  8  Lutheran  church  bodies. 
President,  Dr.  W.  G.  Sodt;  Secretary,  Dr.  A.  G.  Weng; 
Treasurer,  S.  F.  Telleen.  Headquarters:  231  Madison  Ave., 
New  York  16,  N.Y.  The  1948  Lutheran  World  Action  Ap- 
peal reached  a  total  of  $4,097,992.  The  annual  meeting 
of  the^Council  will  be  held  Feb.  1-4,  1949. 

National  Peace  Conference,  instituted  in  1933  and  re- 
organized in  1935,  serves  ( 1 )  as  a  council  board  on  which 
members  exchange  their  views  on  American  foreign  policy; 
(2)  as  a  clearing  house  for  the  views  of  its  affiliated  or- 
ganizations; and  (3)  as  a  publisher  of  objective,  non- 
partisan  information  on  world  events.  Membership:  33  or- 
ganizations. President,  Richard  R.  Wood;  Treasurer,  Eu- 
nice H.  Carter;  Secretary,  Bertha  V.  Louis.  Headquarters: 
8  West  40th  St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y.  The  Conference  pub- 
lishes 10  Bulletins  a  year. 

National  Recreation  Association,  founded  in  1906  to  the 
end  "that  every  child  in  America  shall  have  a  chance  to 
play,  that  everybody  in  America,  young  or  old,  shall  have 
an  opportunity  to  find  the  best  and  most  satisfying  use 
of  leisure  time."  Membership:  13,000.  President,  Howard 
Braucher;  Chairman  of  the  Board,  Robert  Garrett;  Secre- 
tary, Susan  M.  Lee;  Treasurer,  Adrian  M.  Massie.  Head- 
quarters: 315  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York  10,  N.Y. 

Natural  Resources  Council  of  America,  founded  in  1946 
to  advance  sound  natural  resource  management.  The  Coun- 
cil does  not  determine  policy,  but  acts  as  a  service  agency 
to  its  member  organizations  by  keeping  them  informed  on 
actions  of  Congress,  and  making  available  scientific  data 
and  other  information  to  aid  them  in  intelligent  under- 
standing of  conservation  problems.  Membership:  27  na- 
tional organizations  and  scientific  societies.  Chairman,  How- 
ard Zahniser;  Treasurer,  Harry  E.  Radcliffe;  Secretary, 
C.  R.  Gutermuth.  Headquarters:  822  Investment  Building, 
Washington  5,  D.C.  The  annual  meeting  is  held  in  October. 

National  Safety  Council,  founded  in  1913,  serves  as  a 
national  and  international  clearing  house  for  information 
about  causes  of  accidents  and  ways  to  prevent  them.  MeniT 
bership:  7,692.  Chairman,  Board  of  Directors,  James  Tan- 
ham;  President  and  Executive  Vice-President,  Ned  H.  Dear- 
born; General  Secretary,  R.  L.  Forney.  Headquarters:  20 


North  Wacker  Drive,  Chicago  6,  111.  In  1948,  Wilmington, 
Del.,  and  Oklahoma  City,  Okla.,  shared  the  grand  award 
among  cities  and  Connecticut  among  states  in  the  National 
Traffic  Safety  Contest.  National  Safety  Congress  will  be 
held  in  Chicago  Oct.  24-28,  1949. 

National  Sculpture  Society,  founded  in  1893,  to  foster  the 
development  and  appreciation  of  sculpture  in  America,  and 
to  support  any  movement  that  furthers  this  cause.  Member- 
ship: Approximately  300.  President,  Sidney  Waugh;  Treas- 
urer, Clyde  C.  Trees;  Secretary,  Carl  L.  Schmitz;  Educa- 
tional Director,  John  J.  Cunningham.  Headquarters:  1083 
Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  28,  N.Y.  Lindsey  Morris  Memorial 
Prize  to  Edmondo  Quattrocchi,  Mrs.  Louis  Bennett  Prize 
to  Jean  de  Marco.  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Society  on  2nd 
Tuesday  in  January. 

National  Society,  Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution, 
founded  in  1890  for  historical,  educational,  and  patriotic 
purposes.  The  DAR  sponsors  a  diversified  range  of  projects, 
including  advancement  of  American  music,  Americanism, 
American  Indians;  the  endowment  of  schools;  instruction 
in  the  correct  use  of  the  flag;  the  collection  of  genealogical 
records;  a  strong  national  defense  program;  restoration  of 
historic  spots;  an  expansive  conservation  program;  a  pro- 
gram in  occupational  therapy  at  Ellis  and  Angel  Islands. 
The  DAR  Manual  for  Citizenship  is  distributed  to  foreign- 
born  in  18  languages;  citizenship  work  is  promoted  by 
DAR  Good  Citizenship  Pilgrimage.  Membership:  161,813 
in  2,616  chapters.  President  General,  Mrs.  Roscoe  C. 
O*Byrne;  Recording  Secretary  General,  Mrs.  Edwin  Stanton 
Lammers;  Corresponding  Secretary  General,  Mrs.  John  T. 
Gardner;  Organizing  Secretary  General,  Laura  Clark  Cook; 
Treasurer  General,  Mrs.  Rex  Hays  Rhoades.  Headquarters: 
1720  D  St.,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C.  The  1949  Conti- 
nental Congress  will  be  held  in  Constitution  Hall,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  April  18-22. 

National  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Blindness,  Inc., 
founded  in  1915,  incorporated  in  1918.  A  voluntary  or- 
ganization concerned  with  diseases  and  other  conditions 
leading  to  blindness,  impaired  vision,  and  eyestrain.  En- 
deavors to  reduce  or,  where  possible,  to  eliminate  such 
causes  through  demonstration  projects,  guidance  to  pro- 
fessional and  technical  groups,  as  well  as  educational  Ac- 
tivities and  materials.  Members  and  donors,  42,000.  Presi- 
dent, Mason  H.  Bigelow;  Treasurer,  Eugene  M.  Geddes; 
Secretary,  Regina  E.  Schneider;  Executive  Director,  Frank- 
lin M.  Foote,  M.D.  Headquarters:  1790  Broadway,  New 
York  19,  N.Y.  Annual  conference  to  be  held  at  Hotel  New 
Yorker,  New  York,  N.Y.,  Mar.  16-18,  1949. 

National  Tuberculosis  Association,  founded  in  1904,  for 
the  study  of  tuberculosis  in  all  its  forms,  the  dissemination 
of  knowledge  about  the  cause  of  tuberculosis,  and  the  pro- 
motion of  international  relations  in  connection  with  its 
study  and  control.  Membership:  3,801.  President:  Her- 
bert L.  Mantz,  M.D.;  Secretary,  H.  Stuart  Willis,  M.D,; 
Treasurer,  Collier  Platt;  Managing  Director,  J.  E.  Perkins, 
M.D.  The  45th  Annual  Meeting  will  be  held  in  Detroit, 
Mich.,4  the  week  of  May  2,  1949. 

National  Urban  League,  founded  in  1910  to  improve  race 
relations,  and  particularly  living  and  working  conditions 
among  Negroes  in  cities.  Urban  League  locals  are  in  56 
cities  covering  28  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia. 
Membership:  55,000.  President,  Lloyd  K.  Garrison;  Secre- 
tary, Sadie  T.  M.  Alexander;  Treasurer,  Benjamin  J.  But- 
tenwieser;  General  Secretary,  Eugene  K.  Jones;  Executive 
Secretary,  Lester  B.  Granger.  Headquarters:  1133  Broad- 
way, New  York  10,  N.Y.  Publication:  Opportunity.  The 
1949  annual  meeting  is  scheduled  for  February  11,  in  New 
York,  N.Y. 

National  Vocational  Guidance  Association,  Inc.,  founded 
in  1913  to  foster  vocational  guidance  and  occupational 
adjustment  and  to  establish  and  improve  standards  of 
professional  service  in  these  fields.  Membership:  5,113. 
President,  Warren  K.  Layton;  Treasurer,  Edward  Landy. 
Headquarters:  82  Beaver  St.,  New  York  5,  N.Y. 

National  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  founded 
in  1874,  is  an  educational  organization  working  through 
the  Youth  Temperance  Council  for  young  people,  the 
Loyal  Temperance  Legion  for  children,  and  21  educa- 
tional departments.  Membership:  Approximately  400,000. 
President,  Mrs.  •  D.  Leigh  Colvin;  Corresponding  Secre- 
tary, Elizabeth  A.  Smart;  Treasurer,  Violet  T.  Black; 
Recording  Secretary,  Mrs.  Glenn  G.  Hays.  Headquarters: 
1730  Chicago  Ave.,  Evanston,  111.  In  1948,  66,312  new 
members  were  received.  Pennsylvania,  for  the  fifth  con- 
secutive year,  led  the  nation  in  total  membership.  The 
1949  national  meeting  will  be  held  in  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Near  East  Foundation,  founded  in  1930  "to  cooperate 
with  governments,  municipalities  (incorporated  or  other- 
wise), societies  and  individuals  in  the  care  and  instruc- 
tion of  children,  and  in  the  promotion,  maintenance  and 
support  of  community  activities  of  a  social,  economic, 
educational  and  philanthropic  character  in  the  Near  East 
and  in  countries  adjacent  thereto,"  President,  Cleveland 
E.  Dodge;  Treasurer,  Harold  Hatch;  Executive  Secretary, 
Edward  C.  Miller.  Headquarters:  54  East  64th  St.,  New 
York  21,  N.Y. 

New  Education  Fellowship,  founded  in  1915  to  bring 
together  progressive-minded  teachers,  parents,  social  work- 
ers, and  others  all  over  the  world  who  are  interested  in 
education.  It  is  made  up  at  present  of  national  sections  in 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


31  countries.  It  publishes  magazines,  pamphlets,  and  books, 
and  arranges  conferences.  The  American  Education  Fel- 
lowship (q.v.)  is  the  American  section.  Membership: 
About  17,000.  President,  Carleton  W.  Washburne;  Chair- 
man, Laurin  Zilliacus;  Secretary,  Clare  Soper.  Headquar- 
ters: 1  Park  Crescent,  London,  W.I,  England. 

New  York  Academy  of  Medicine,  The,  founded  in  1847 
for  the  f  advancement  of  the  science  and  art  of  medicine, 
the  maintenance  of  a  public  medical  library  and  the  pro- 
motion of  public  health  and  medical  education.  Member- 
ship: 2,800.  President,  George  Baehr;  Treasurer,  Shepard 
Krech;  Secretary,  Robert  E.  Pound.  Headquarters:  2  East 
103rd  St.,  New  York  29,  N.Y.  In  1948  the  Annual  Grad- 
uate Fortnight  with  exhibit  was  held  from  October  4-15 
on  Advances  in  Therapy.  The  annual  program  includes 
lectures  to  the  laity,  Friday  afternoon  lectures,  the  Salmon 
Memorial  Lectures,  and  medical  and  scientific  meetings. 

Nutrition  Foundation,  Inc.,  The,  founded  in  1941,  (1)  to 
do  research  on  basic  problems  in  the  science  of  nutrition; 
and  (2)  to  support  educational  measures  to  make  the 
science  of  nutrition  effective  in  the  lives  of  present  and 
future  generations.  Membership:  54.  Chairman,  Board  of 
Trustees,  Karl  T.  Compton;  President,  George  A.  Sloan; 
Scientific  Director,  Charles  Glen  King;  Treasurer,  Morris 
Sayre;  Executive  Secretary,  Ole  Salthe.  Headquarters: 
Chrysler  Building,  New  York  17,  N.Y.  In  1948  the  Founda- 
tion made  50  grants-in-aid  to  31  universities  totaling 
$307,517.  In  1949  the  spring  meeting  will  be  held  in  the 
Middle  West  and  the  fall  and  annual  meeting  in  New 
York,  N.Y. 

Overseas  Press  Club  of  America,  founded  in  1939,  aims 
to  bring  together  men  and  women  whose  past  or  present 
activities  in  the  service  of  the  American  press  abroad 
have  given  them  common  professional  and  social  inter- 
ests; to  provide  facilities  for  the  expression  of  these  in- 
terests; and  to  encourage  the  highest  standards  of  inde- 
pendence, democracy,  and  professional  skill  in  the  Ameri- 
can foreign  press  service.  Membership:  700.  President, 
W.  W.  Chaplin;  Secretary,  Hester  E.  Hensell;  Treasurer, 
Ralph  Jules  Frantz.  Headquarters:  Times  Building,  Suite 
411,  1475  Broadway,  New  York  18,  N.Y. 

Pan-American  Foundation,  founded  in  1938  to  promote 
and  maintain,  through  nongovernmental  means  and  agen- 
cies, the  principles  and  policies  of  Pan  Americanism.  The 
foundation  cooperates  with  inter-American  organizations, 
and  publishes  Pan  American  booklets,  pamphlets,  and 
bibliographies.  Director,  A.  Curtis  Wilgus;  Secretary,  Wil- 
liam A.  Reid.  Headquarters:  1217  13th  St.,  NW,  Wash- 
ington 5,  D.C. 

P.E.N.  Club— American  Center,  founded  in  1923  to  pro- 
mote greater  understanding  between  writers.  There  are 
50  centers  throughout  the  world.  The  international  sec- 
retariat is  in  London.  Membership:  American  Center — 
about  300,  President,  Henry  Seidel  Canby;  Secretary, 
Manual  Komroff;  Treasurer,  Kenneth  McCormick.  Head- 
quarters: 123  East  94th  St.,  New  York  28,  N.Y. 

Photographic  Society  of  America,  Inc.,  organized  in  1934 
to  succeed  the  Associated  Camera  Clubs  of  America, 
founded  in  1919.  It  is  an  association  of  photographers, 
amateur  and  professional,  and  others  interested  in  photog- 
raphy and  photographers,  which  serves  as  a  clearing  house 
for  ideas,  methods,  and  achievements  in  photography. 
Membership:  9,500.  President,  C.  B.  Phelps,  Jr.;  Secre- 
tary, Mrs.  A.  P.  Dewey;  Treasurer,  Charles  Heller.  Head- 
quarters: 1815  Spruce  St.,  Philadelphia  3,  Pa. 

Planned  Parenthood  Federation  of  America,  Inc.,  founded 
in  1921  as  the  American  Birth  Control  League  to  strengthen 
maternal  and  infant  health  through  providing  methods  of 
and  spreading  knowledge  on  conception  control.  In  1941 
name  changed  to  express  program  expansion  in  aid  to 
fertility,  education  for  marriage,  and  research  in  human 
reproduction.  Membership:  163  member  organizations. 
Chairman,  Charles  E.  Scribner;  Secretary,  Mrs.  Henry 
C.  Taylor;  Chairman,  Medical  Executive  Committee,  Dr. 
William  T.  Kennedy;  National  Director,  D.  Kenneth  Rose. 
Headquarters:  501  Madison  Ave.,  New  York  22,  N.Y.  An- 
nual Lasker  Foundation  Awards  to  John  Rock,  M.D.  and 
Richard  N.  Pierson,  M.D.  Publications:  Human  Fertility; 
News  Exchange.  The  Annual  Meeting  will  be  held  in 
October,  1949,  in  New  York. 

Poetry  Society  of  America,  The,  founded  in  1910  to 
secure  fuller  recognition  for  poetry  as  one  of  the  important 
forces  for  a  high  civilization  and  especially  to  foster  Amer- 
ican poetry  and  assist  poets.  Membership:  Approximately 
500.  President  1948,  Carl  Carmer,  President  1949,  Robert 
Hillyer;  Secretary,  Harold  Vinal;  Treasurer,  Frank  E. 
Gerry.  Headquarters:  Correspondence  should  be  addressed 
to  Secretary,  687  Lexington  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y.  Meetings 
are  held  at  122  East  58th  St.,  New  York  22,  N.Y.  Monthly 
awards  of  $10  and  $5;  yearly  awards  of  $100  and  $50. 

Reserve  Officers  Association  of  the  United  States,  founded 
in  1922  to  support  and  assist  in  the  development  of  a 
military  policy  tor  the  United  States  that  will  provide 
adequate  national  security.  Membership;  100,000.  Pres- 
ident, Clarence  E,  Barnes;  Vice  Presidents,  Henry  G.  Nul- 
ton,  John  P.  Bracken,  Morris  J.  Bmmxner;  Treasurer, 
Carroll  Morgan;  Executive  Director,  E.  A.  Evans.  Head- 

Siarters:    2517    Connecticut   Ave.,    NW,    Washington    8, 
.C.  The  1949  national  convention  will  be  held  in  Grand 
Rapids,  Mich.,  in  July. 


521  SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 

Rockefeller  Institute  for  Medico!  Research,  The,  founded 
in  1901  by  John  D.  Rockefeller  to  "assist  and  encourage 
investigations  in  the  sciences  and  arts  of  hygiene,  medicine 
and  surgery,  and  allied  subjects.  .  .  ."  It  is  organized  with 
three  departments:  the  Department  of  the  Laboratories, 
the  Hospital,  and  Animal  and  Plant  Pathology.  During 
1948,  research  was  conducted  by  a  full-time  staff  of  88, 
and  by  34  visiting  investigators.  Publications:  The  Journal 
of  Experimental  Medicine;  The  Journal  of  General  Physi- 
ology; and  the  Studies  from  the  Rockefeller  Institute  for 
Medical  Research.  President,  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.; 
Director,  Herbert  S.  Gasser;  Business  Manager,  Edric  B. 
Smith.  Headquarters:  66th  St.  and  York  Ave.,  New 
York  21,  N.Y. 

Rosicrucian  Order,  AMORC  (Ancient,  Mystical  Order 
Rosae  Crucis),  had  its  traditional  founding  in  Egypt;  first 
came  to  America  in  1694,  was  reactivated  in  1909.  The 
organization  is  a  nonprofit,  nonsectarian,  Fraternal  Order 
devoted  to  the  investigation  and  study  of  the  higher  prin- 
ciples of  life  as  found  expressed  in  man  and  nature  and 
works  actively  for  peace,  tolerance,  and  enlightenment  as 
the  means  to  banish  superstition  and  ignorance.  Publica- 
tions: Rosicrucian  Digest;  The  Rosicrucian  Forum;  The 
Rosicrucian  Library.  Imperator  and  Chief  Executive,  Ralph 
M.  Lewis;  Supreme  Secretary,  Cecil  A.  Poole.  International 
headquarters:  Rosicrucian  Park,  San  Jose,  Calif. 

Rotary  Internationa!  is  the  world- wide  organization  of 
Rotary  clubs,  the  first  of  which  was  formed  in  Chicago,  111,, 
in  1905.  Rotary  is  a  world  fellowship  of  business  and  pro- 
fessional executives  who  meet  together  to  further  the  "Ideal 
of  Service,'*  which  is  thought  for  and  help  to  others  in 
business  and  community  life.  Membership:  6,600  Rotary 
Clubs  in  80  countries  and  geographical  regions,  with  a 
membership  in  excess  of  320,000.  President,  Angus  S. 
Mitchell  (Australia);  Secretary,  Philip  Lovejoy  (U.S.A.); 
Treasurer,  Richard  E.  Vernor  (U.S.A.).  International  head- 
quarters: 35  East  Wacker  Drive,  Chicago  I,  111.  Offices 
for  serving  Rotary  Clubs  are  also  located  in  London, 
England  and  Zurich,  Switzerland.  Publication:  The  Rotar- 
ian  (official  organ  of  Rotary  International).  The  1949 
Rotary  International  Convention  will  be  held  in  New  York, 
N.Y.,  June  12-16. 

Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  founded  in  1799  for 
the  promotion  of  science  and  the  diffusion  and  extension 
of  useful  knowledge.  Membership:  1,100.  President,  Lord 
Brabazon;  Secretary,  A.  O.  Rankine;  Treasurer,  R.  E. 
Slade;  Resident  Professor  and  Director  of  the  Davy  Fara- 
day Research  Laboratory,  E.  K.  Rideal;  General  Secre- 
tary, Thomas  Martin.  Headquarters:  21  Albemarle  St., 
London,  W.I,  England. 

Royal  Society  of  Arts,  founded  in  1754  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  arts,  manufactures,  and  commerce.  Membership: 
approximately  5,000.  President,  H.R.H.  Princess  Elizabeth; 
Secretary,  K.  W.  Luckhurst.  Headquarters:  John  Adam  St., 
Adelphi,  London,  W.C.2,  England.  Albert  Gold  Medal  to 
Sir  William  Reid  Dick. 

Royal  Society  of  Canada,  The,  founded  in  1881  by  the 
then  Governor-General  (1)  to  encourage  studies  and  in- 
vestigations in  literature  and  science;  (2)  to  publish 
transactions  containing  records  of  the  work  performed, 
original  papers  and  memoirs  of  merit;  (3)  to  offer  prizes 
for  valuable  papers  on  subjects  related  to  Canada;  (4) 
to  aid  researches  already  begun  and  carried  so  far  as 
to  render  their  ultimate  value  probable;  and  (5)  to  assist 
in  the  collection  of  specimens  with  a  view  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  Canadian  Museum  of  archives,  ethnology,  archae- 
ology and  natural  history.  Membership:  398.  President, 
Gustave  Lanctot;  Honorary  Secretaries,  F.  J.  Alcock  and 
Seraphin  Marion;  Honorary  Treasurer,  L.  E.  Howlett;  Hon- 
orary Editor,  G.  W.  Brown.  Headquarters:  National  Re- 
search Building,  Ottawa,  Ontario.  The  1949  annual  meeting 
will  be  held  at  Dalhousie  University,  Halifax,  N.S., 
June  5-8. 

Royal  Society  of  Medicine,  founded  in  1805  (Royal 
Charter  1834)  "for  the  cultivation  and  promotion  of  physic 
and  surgery  and  of  the  branches  of  science  connected 
with  them."  Membership:  9,000.  President,  Sir  Henry 
Dale;  Secretary,  Geoffrey  R.  Edwards.  Headquarters:  1 
Wimpole  St.,  London,  W.I,  England.  A  total  of  200  medi- 
cal meetings  divided  amongst  the  24  Sections  are  held 
during  the  year. 

Royal  Society  of  South  Africa,  founded  in  1877  as  The 
South  African  Philosophical  Society  and  granted  a  Royal 
Charter  in  1908.  Membership:  limited  to  100  Fellows,  150 
ordinary  members;  bodies  in  exchange  relations  for  publi- 
cations number  240.  Publication:  Transactions.  Contribu- 
tions cover  pure  and  natural  sciences,  humanistic  studies, 
etc.  Monthly  meetings  held  at  Cape  Town.  President  1948, 
Professor  R.  S.  Adamson;  President  1949,  Dr.  J.  Jachson; 
Secretary,  A.  J.  H.  Goodwin.  Headquarters:  c/o  University 
of  Cape  Town,  Rondebosch,  South  Africa. 

Royal  Society,  The,  founded  in  1660  for  the  advance- 
ment of  natural  knowledge.  Membership:  546.  President, 
Sir  Robert  Robinson;  Treasurer  and  Vice-President,  Sir 
Thomas  Merton;  Secretary,  Sir  Alfred  Egerton;  Secre- 
tary and  Vice-President,  Sir  Edward  Salisbury;  Foreign 
Secretary,  E.  D.  Adrian.  Headquarters:  Burlington  House, 
Piccadilly,  London,  W.I,  England. 

Save  the  Children  Federation,  Inc.,  founded  in  1932  to 
study  the  needs  of  children  in  the  United  States  and  in 


SOCIfT/ES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


522 


SOCIETIES  AMD  ORGANIZATIONS 


other  lands  and  develop  and  operate  programs  for  their 
aid.  Membership:  105  corporation  members.  Chairman, 
John  Q.  Tilson;  President  and  Executive  Director,  John  R. 
Voris;  Secretary,  Henry  Israel;  Treasurer,  Joseph  A.  Butcher, 
Headquarters:  One  Madison  Ave.,  New  York  10,  N.Y. 

Science  Service,  founded  in  1921  as  a  nonprofit  institu- 
tion for  popularization  of  science,  with  trustees  nominated 
by  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  National  Re- 
search Council,  the  A.A.A.S.,  the  E.  W.  Scripps  Estate, 
and  the  journalistic  profession.  Its  activities  include  press 
service  for  newspapers  and  magazines,  publication  of  Sci- 
ence News  Letter  (weekly),  Chemistry  (monthly),  Things 
of  Science  (monthly),  conduct  of  radio  programs,  sponsor- 
ship of  15,000  Science  Clubs  of  America  in  secondary 
schools,  conduct  of  the  national  Science  Talent  Search, 
.editing  of  books,  preparation  of  experimental  kits,  etc. 
President,  Harlow  Shapley;  Director,  Watson  Davis.  Head- 
quarters: 1719  N  St.1,  NW,  Washington  6,  D.C. 

Scientific  Research  Society  of  America  (RES A),  founded  in 
1948  to  encourage  original  investigation  in  science,  pure 
and  applied,  especially  in  industrial  and  governmental 
organizations.  Membership:  10  incorporators.  Chairman, 
George  A.  Stetson;  Director,  Donald  B.  Prentice;  Treasurer, 
George  A.  Baitsell.  Headquarters:  54  Hillhouse  Ave.,  New 
Haven,  Conn.  First  annual  national  meeting  was  held  in 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  Nov.  27,  1948. 

Seeing  Eye,  Inc.,  The,  founded  in  1929  "to  act  as  a 
benevolent  and  charitable  association  to  raise  funds  for 
the  purpose  of  supplying  blind  persons  with  dogs  trained 
to  act  as  guides  for  such  persons;  .  .  .  and  to  educate 
and  to  train  such  blind  persons  in  the  proper  use  and 
handling  of  such  trained  dogs/*  Membership:  24,800, 
President,  Henry  A.  Colgate;  Treasurer,  James  Carey; 
Executive  Vice  President,  W.  H.  Ebeling.  Headquarters: 
Morristown,  NJ.  More  than  1,500  dogs  have  been  trained 
for  blind  persons  who  came  to  the  school  to  learn  how 
to  use  them. 

Social  Science  Research  Council,  founded  in  1923  (in- 
corporated 1924 )  to  advance  knowledge  of  human  relations 
through  scientific  research.  Membership;  30.  Board  Chair- 
man, Robert  B.  Hall;  President,  Pendleton  Herring;  Vice 
President,  Paul  Webbink.  Headquarters:  230  Park  Ave., 
New  York  17,  N.Y. 

Society  for  American  Archaeology,  founded  in  1935  to 
promote  and  stimulate  interest  and  research  in  the  archae- 
ology of  the  American  continents;  to  serve  as  a  bond  among 
those  interested  in  American  archaeology  and  to  aid  in 
directing  their  efforts  into  more  scientific  channels;  to 
publish  their  results;  to  aid  in  the  conservation  of  archae- 
ological data;  to  foster  the  formation  and  welfare  of  local 
societies.  President,  Waldo  R.  Wedel;  Secretary,  George 
I.  Quimby;  Treasurer.  Glenn  A.  Black;  Editor  of  American 
Antiquity  (quarterly),  Irving  Rouse.  Headquarters:  c/o 
Secretary,  Chicago  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Chicago, 

m. 

Society  of  American  Bacteriologists,  founded  in  1899. 
Membership:  3,740.  President,  Wm.  McD.  Hammon; 
Secretary-Treasurer,  John  E.  Blair.  Headquarters:  c/o 
John  E.  Blair,  1919  Madison  Ave.,  New  York,  N.Y.  Pub- 
lications: Journal  of  Bacteriology,  Bacteriological  Reviews, 
and  News-Letter.  The  1949  Annual  Meeting  will  be  held 
May  16-20  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  Eli  Lilly  Award  (1948) 
to  Alan  Bernheimer. 

Society  of  American  Foresters,  founded  in  1900  to  pro- 
vide a  medium  for  exchange  of  professional  thought,  and 
to  promote  the  science,  practice,  and  standards  of  forestry 
in  America.  Membership:  6,000.  Executive  Secretary, 
Henry  Clepper.  Headquarters:  Mills  Building,  Washing- 
ton 6,  D.C. 

Society  of  Automotive  Engineers,  Inc.,  founded  in  1905 
"'to  promote  the  Arts  and  Sciences  and  Standards  and 
Engineering  Practices  ^  connected  with  the  design,  con- 
struction and  utilization  of  automotive  apparatus,  all 
forms  of  self-propelled  or  mechanically-propelled  mediums 
for  the  transportation  of  passengers  or  freight  and  in- 
ternal-combustion prime-movers.  The  principal  means  for 
this  purpose  shall  be  the  holding  of  meetings  for  the  read- 
ing and  discussion  of  professional  papers  and  reports, 
the  publication  and  distribution  of  the  same,  and  social 
intercourse."  President,  R,  J.  S.  Pigott;  Treasurer,  B.  B. 
Bachman.  Headquarters:  29  West  39th  St.,  New  York  18, 
N.Y.  The  1949  Annual  Meeting  is  scheduled  for  January 
10-14  at  Detroit,  Mich.  The  1949  Summer  Meeting  will 
be  held  in  French  Lick,  Ind.,  June  5-10,  and  the  National 
West  Coast  Meeting  in  Portland,  Ore.  August  15-17. 

Society  of  Naval  Architects  and  Marine  Engineers,  The, 
founded  in  1893  to  advance  the  art,  science,  and  practice  of 
naval  architecture;  shipbuilding;  marine  engineering;  com- 
mercial and  governmental,  in  all  of  their  branches,  and  of 
the  allied  arts  and  sciences.  Membership:  5,300.  Publi- 
cations; Principles  of  Naval  Architecture;  Marine  Engineer- 
ing; The  Shipbuilding  Business  in  the  United  States  of 
America.  President,  E.  L.  Cochrane;  Secretary,  W.  N.  Lan- 
ders. Headquarters:  29  West  39th  St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y. 

Special  Libraries  Association,  founded  in  1909,  incorpo- 
rated in  1928,  by  librarians  of  business,  professional,  gov- 
ernmental, and  industrial  organizations  to  promote  the 
collection,  organization,  and  dissemination  of"  information 
in  specialized  fields.  Its  program  includes  an  annual  con- 


vention for  the  discussion  of  common  problems  by  experts 
in  various  fields  of  activity;  consultant  services  on  the 
organization  and  administration  of  special  libraries;  pub- 
lication of  professional  and  bibliographical  tools  and  man- 
uals; and  a  placement  service  for  members  and  employers. 
Chapters  established  on  a  geographical  basis  and  groups 
organized  in  accordance  with  subject  interests  of  members 
implement  this  program.  President,  Rose  L.  Vormelker; 
Treasurer,  David  Kessler;  Executive  Secretary,  Mrs.  Kath- 
leen B.  Stebbins.  Headquarters:  31  East  10th  St.,  New 
York  3,  N.Y.  Two  periodicals,  Special  Libraries  and  Tech- 
nical Book  Review  Index,  are  issued  10  times  yearly.  A 
Directory  of  Members  of  Special  Libraries  Association  was 
published  in  1948.  The  1949  annual  convention  will  be 
held  in  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  June  12-17. 

Temperance  league  of  America,  The,  successor  in  January, 
1948,  to  the  Anti-Saloon  League  of  America,  a  national 
temperance  organization  formed  in  1895  of  a  federation  of 
State  Leagues  active  in  temperance  education,  statistical 
research,  local  option  legislation,  and  in  the  adoption  o£ 
the  18th  Amendment  to  the  U.S.  Constitution.  President, 
Bishop  G.  D.  Batdorf;  Vice  President,  Bishop  Ralph  S. 
Cuchman;  Treasurer,  Samuel  Reid;  General  Superintendent, 
Clayton  M.  Wallace.  National  headquarters:  131  B  St., 
SE,  Washington,  D.C. 

National  Travelers  Aid  Association,  founded  in  1917  to 
promote  throughout  the  country  means  of  cooperation  and 
to  improve  the  standards  of  Travelers  Aid  Service,  to  study 
the  causes  of  migration,  and  to  encourage  a  public  under- 
standing of  moving  people.  Travelers  Aid  Service  includes 
individualized  information,  travel  and  short  contact  service 
to  travelers  and  other  persons  in  difficulty  away  from  their 
homes.  Membership:  operating  members — 109  Travelers 
Aid  Societies  providing  services  in  613  communities;  935 
cooperating  organizations  and  individuals;  associate  mem- 
bers. President,  John  G.  Thompson;  Secretary,  Mrs.  Robert 
C.  Clothier;  General  Director,  Conrad  Van  Hyning.  Head- 
quarters: 425  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York  16,  N.Y.  Six  regional 
conferences  are  scheduled  for  1949.  As  a  member  agency 
of  the  USO,  it  has  administration  of  the  USO  Travelers 
Aid  Service  to  the  military  and  general  supervisory  responsi- 
bility for  the  lounges  for  troops  in  transit. 

United  Seamen's  Service,  Inc.,  founded  in  1942  to  pro- 
mote and  foster  the  welfare  of  seamen  and  other  personnel 
of  the  U.S.  Merchant  Marine.  The  work  of  the  Service 
includes  the  provision  and  maintenance  of  clubs  and  other 
facilities  for  the  use  of  the  merchant  marine,  and  recrea- 
tional, convalescence,  personal,  and  other  services  for  their 
benefit,  in  major  foreign  ports  of  the  world.  President, 
William  S.  Newell;  Secretary,  Dorothy  C.  Kahn;  Executive 
Director,  Otho  J.  Hicks.  Headquarters:  39  Broadway,  New 
York  6,  N.Y.  The  annual  meeting  of  trustees  is  held  each 
October. 

United  Service  for  New  Americans,  Inc.,  established  in 
1946  by  consolidation  of  the  National  Refugee  Service 
and  the  National  Service  to  Foreign  Born  of  the  National 
Council  of  Jewish  Women.  Its  purpose  is  to  assist  refu- 
gees and  displaced  persons  in  their  migration,  resettlement, 
social  and  economic  adjustment,  and  Americanization. 
Membership:  500  members  of  the  Board  of  Directors; 
1,200  affiliated  local  groups  and  agencies  in  48  states. 
President,  Edwin  Rosenberg;  Chairman  of  the  Board,  Mrs. 
Irving  M.  Engel;  Secretary,  Mrs.  S.  E.  Sobeloff;  Treasurer, 
Carlos  L.  Israels;  Executive  Director,  Joseph  E.  Beck. 

United  States  Committee  for  the  Care  of  European  Chil- 
dren, Inc.,  The,  incorporated  in  1940.  The  Committee  brings 
to  the  United  States  from  Europe,  unaccompanied  refugee 
children  up  to  the  age  of  21  years,  170  in  1948.  Most  of 
the  children  are  placed  in  foster  homes  under  the  super- 
vision of  local  children's  agencies  which  have  been  ap- 
proved by  the  U.S.  Children's  Bureau.  Honorary  President, 
Mrs.  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt;  President,  Marshall  Field; 
Secretary-Treasurer,  Carl  S.  Stern;  Executive  Director, 
Ingeborg  Olsen.  Headquarters:  215  Fourth  Ave.,  New 
York  3,  N.Y. 

United  States  Conference  of  Mayors,  The,  founded  in 
1932  to  improve  municipal  administration  throughout  the 
United  States.  To  this  end  the  conference  works  to  pro- 
vide interchange  of  information  and  experience  between 
the  major  municipalities  of  the  country,  and  to  foster 
relationships  on  mutual  problems  between  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  and  the  cities.  Membership: 
250  American  cities.  President,  George  W.  Welsh;  Execu- 
tive Director,  Paul  V.  Betters.  Headquarters:  730  Jack- 
son Place,  NW,  Washington,  D.C. 

United  States  Junior  Chamber  of  Commerce,  founded  in 
1920  to  provide  a  medium  of  expression  for  young  men 
through  which  they  may  acquire  a  sense  of  civic  responsi- 
bility. Membership:  180,000.  President,  Paul  D.  Bagwell; 
Executive  Vice  President,  Frank  Fister.  Headquarters: 
Akdar  Building,  Tulsa,  Okla. 

United  States  National  Student  Association,  founded  in 
1946  as  a  nonpolitical,  npnsectarian,  nonprofit  representa- 
tive intercollegiate  organization  to  promote  the  interests 
and  welfare,  and  to  serve  the  needs  of  students  of  the 
United  States.  Membership:  265  colleges  and  universities 
(900,000  students).  President,  Ted  Harris;  Secretary- 
Treasurer,  Helen  J.  Rogers:  Public  Relations  Director, 
Allan  Ostar.  Headquarters:  304  North  Park  St.,  Madison  5, 


SOCIETIES  AND  ORGANIZATIONS 


523 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


Wise.  The  Association  has  a  seat  on  the  U.S.  Commission 
for  UNESCO,  is  an  associate  member  of  the  Department  of 
Higher  Education  of  the  National  Education  Association, 
and  is  a  sponsoring  organization  of  World  Student  Service 
Fund.  Publication:  NSA  News. 

Unifed  World  Federalists,  Inc.,  founded  in  1947  to  bring 
about  an  American  public  opinion  favorable  to  making 
the  major  objective  of  United  States  foreign  policy  the 
creation  of  a  federal  world  government  of  limited  powers, 
adequate  to  insure  peace.  Membership:  40,000.  President, 
Cord  Meyer,  Jr.;  Secretary,  Lawrence  Fuchs;  Treasurer, 
Duncan  Spencer.  Headquarters :  7  East  12th  St.,  New 
York,  N.Y. 

Veterans  of  Foreign  Wars  of  the  Unifed  States,  founded 
in  1399  "to  preserve  and  strengthen  comradeship  among 
its  members;  to  assist  worthy  comrades;  to  perpetuate  the 
memory  and  history  of  our  dead  and  to  assist  their  widows 
and  orphans;  to  maintain  true  allegiance  to  the  government 
of  the  United  States  of  America  and  fidelity  to  its  consti- 
tution and  laws;  to  foster  true  patriotism;  to  maintain  and 
extend  the  institution  of  American  freedom;  and  to  pre- 
serve and  defend  the  United  States  from  all  her  enemies, 
whomsoever."  Membership  is  open  to  American  citizens 
who  have  been  awarded  a  campaign  medal  or  badge  for 
service  in  the  Armed  Forces  on  foreign  soil  or  in  hostile 
waters.  Membership:  1,500,000.  Commander-in-Chief,  Ly- 
all  T.  Beggs;  Adjutant  General,  H.  N.  Hensley;  Quarter- 
master General,  R.  B.  Handy,  Jr.;  Judge  Advocate  General, 
James  Hardin;  Surgeon  General,  Dr.  Oliver  C.  Pratz;  Na- 
tional Chaplain,  Max  J.  Matz.  Headquarters:  Broadway  at 
34th  St.,  Kansas  City  2,  Mo.  The  50th  National  Conven- 
tion will  be  held  in  Miami,  Fla.,  Aug.  28-Sept.  2,  1949. 

Wildlife  Management  Institute,  founded  in  1946,  is  dedi- 
cated to  the  conservation,  restoration  and  management  of 
wildlife  resources  and  the  application  of  sound  wildlife 
practices  and  techniques  on  both  public  and  private  lands. 
Membership:  746.  President,  Ira  N.  Gabrielson;  Vice  Presi- 
dent, C.  R.  Gutermuth;  Treasurer,  C.  Stewart  Comeaux; 
Secretary,  Ethel  M.  Quee.  Headquarters:  822  Investment 
Building,  Washington  5,  D.C.  The  institute  issues  scholar- 
ships, fellowships,  and  research  grants.  It  furnishes  techni- 
cal counsel  to  cooperating  organizations,  disseminates  in- 
formative literature,  and  publishes  outstanding  manuscripts 
on  natural  science  subjects. 

Wistar  Institute  of  Anatomy  &  Biology,  The,  founded  in 
1892  for  the  preservation  and  free  exhibition  of  the  mu- 
seum originally  known  as  The  Wistar  and  Horner  Museum; 
publication  of  original  scientific  material;  research  in  bio- 
logical and  related  fields;  etc.  President,  William  H.  Du- 
Barry;  Secretary,  William  G.  Rhoads;  Executive  Director, 
Edmond  J.  Farris.  Scientific  staff:  Members,  Associate 
Members,  and  Fellows.  Headquarters:-  36  St.  and  Wood- 
land Ave.,  Philadelphia  4,  Pa.  Publications:  Journal  of 
Morphology,  American  Journal  of  Anatomy,  Anatomical 
Record,  Journal  of  Experimental  Zoology,  American  Jour- 
nal of  Physical  Anthropology*  Journal  of  Cellular  and  Com- 
parative Physiology,  Journal  of  Nutrition,  Journal  of  Com- 
parative Neurology. 

Women's  American  ORT  (Organization  for  Rehabilitation 
through  Training),  founded  in  1927  for  the  training  and  re- 
training of  impoverished  people  in  technical  trades  and 
agriculture  so  that  they  may  become  useful  wanted  citizens. 
More  than  50  trades  are  taught  in  ORT  schools  in  22  coun- 
tries throughout  the  world  (principally  in  Europe).  Mem- 
bership: 20,000.  President,  Mrs.  Ludwig  Kaphan;  Treas- 
urer, Mrs.  Alexander  Konoffj  Corresponding  Secretary,  Mrs. 
Seymour  Nathan;  Executive  Secretary,  Mrs.  Lisbeth  H. 
Goodstein.  Headquarters:  212  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  10, 
N.Y. 

Woodrow  Wilson  Foundation,  founded  in  1922  in  recog- 
nition of  the  national  and  international  services  of  Wood- 
row  Wilson.  The  Foundation  has  developed  a  program  to 
further  the  Wilsonian  concept  of  international  organization 
and  world  cooperation.  Publications:  United  Nations  News, 
and  reprints.  President,  Thomas  K.  Finletter;  Secretary,  Al- 
len W.  Dulles;  Executive  Director,  Julie  cTEstournelles; 
Librarian,  Harriet  Van  Wyck.  Headquarters:  45  East  65th 
St.,  New  York  21,  N.Y.  The  Foundation,  in  cooperation 
with  the  American  Political  Science  Association,  makes  an 
anmial  award  for  the  outstanding  publication  of  the  year 
dealing  with  government  and  democracy. 

Woods  Hole  Oceanographic  Institution,  The,  founded  in 
1930,  is  a  privately  endowed  nonprofit  organization  at 
Woods  Hole,  Mass.,  for  the  study  of  oceans  in  all  their 
aspects,  including  problems  in  hydrography,  biology,  chem- 
istry, geology,  and  meteorology.  President,  Henry  B.  Bige- 
low:  Director,  Columbus  O'D.  Iselin.  Publications:  Papers 
in  Physical  Oceanography  and  Meteorology,  and  Collected 
Reprints. 

World  Association  of  Girl  Guides  and  Scouts,  founded  in 
1928  to  encourage  understanding  and  friendship  among 
girls  of  all  nations  and  promote  the  fundamental  aims  of 
Girl  Scouting  and  Girl  Guiding,  as  expressed  in  the  Prom- 
ise and  Laws,  throughout  the  world.  Membership:  3  mil- 
lion. Chairman,  World  Committee,  Mrs.  E.  Swift  Newton 
(U.S.A.).  World  Bureau:  9  Palace  St.,  London,  S.W.I, 
England.  The  12th  biennial  conference  met  at  Coopers- 
town,  N.Y,,  August,  1948. 

World  Council  of  Churches,  founded  provisionally  1938, 


officially  inaugurated  1948  in  Amsterdam.  Unites  churches 
of  the  world  for  cooperative  study,  research,  youth  work, 
evangelism  and  inter-church  aid.  Membership:  145  church- 
es in  44  countries.  Presidium:  Marc  Boegner,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  T.  C.  Chao,  Archbishop  S.  Germanos, 
Bishop  G.  Bromley  Oxnam,  the  Archbishop  of  Upsala.  Gen- 
eral Secretary,  .W.  A,  Visser  *t  Hooft.  Offices:  17  Route  de 
Malagnou,  Geneva,  Switzerland;  7  Kensington  Church 
Court,  London,  England;  297  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York  10, 
N.Y. 

World's  Young  Women's  Christian  Association,  founded  in 
1894  to  unite  and  serve  national  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Associations.  Membership:  Approximately  1,500,000 
women  and  girls  of  every  race;  5,000,000  more  share  in  its 
activities.  President,  Lilace  Reid  Barnes  (U.S.A.);  Treas- 
urer, Catherine  Picot  (Switzerland).  Headquarters:  37 
Quai  Wilson,  Geneva,  Switzerland.  The  association  has 
been  accepted  in  consultative  status  with  the  United  Na- 
tions. The  executive  committee  met  in  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land, in  May,  1948. 

Young  Women's  Christian  Associations  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  founded  in  1858  to  promote  the  physical, 
social,  intellectual,  and  spiritual  interests  of  young  women. 
Membership:  A  constituency  of  3,000,000.  President,  Mrs. 
Arthur  Forrest  Anderson;  Secretary,  Margaret  E.  Burton; 
Treasurer,  Mrs.  Roland  P.  Beattie;  General  Secretary,  Mrs. 
Harrison  S.  Elliott.  Headquarters,  600  Lexington  Ave.,  New- 
York  22,  N.Y.  In  1948  the  first  YWCA  International  Study 
Conference  on  Women  and  World  Reconstruction  was  held 
at  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.Y., 
with  45  women  from  27  nations  present. 

Zonta  Internationa!,  founded  in  1919,  is  a  service  club 
of  business  executive  and  professional  women  working  for 
the  advancement  of  understanding,  goodwill,  and  peace. 
Membership:  7,000;  200  clubs.  International  President, 
Elizabeth  A.  Judge;  International  Treasurer,  Ruth  H.  Gates; 
Executive  Secretary,  Harriet  C.  Richards.  Headquarters:  59 
East  Van  Buren  St.,  Chicago  5,  111.  Theme  for  1948-49 
"Community  Service  for  World  Service."  The  1949  inter- 
national convention  will  be  held  at  Quebec,  Canada,  in 
June* 

SOIL  CONSERVATION  SERVICE.  A  scientific  and  tech- 
nical agency  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, established  in  1935.  The  principal  responsibil- 
ity of  the  Service  is  to  assist  farmers  and  ranchers 
in  soil  conservation  districts,  through  its  planning 
technicians  and  other  soil  and  water  conservation 
specialists.  As  of  Nov.  1,  1948,  there  were  2,073  p£ 
these  farmer  organized  and  farmer  managed  soil- 
conservation  districts  including  1,132,321,880  acres 
and  4,500,260  farms  in  all  48  states,  Puerto  Rico, 
the  Virgin  Islands,  Alaska,  and  Hawaii, 

Approximately  626,000  complete  soil-conserva- 
tion plans,  covering  about  222  million  acres  of  farm 
and  ranch  land,  had  been  developed  by  technicians 
of  the  Service,  working  with  farmers  and  ranchers, 
by  July  1,  1948.  More  than  157  million  acres  of 
this  land  had  been  treated  with  soil-saving  and 
water-management  practices  according  to  the  needs 
and  capabilities  of  the  land.  Detailed  conservation 
surveys,  which  are  made  by  the  Service  to  provide 
data  and  information  required  for  farm  planning, 
had  been  completed  on  280  million  acres. 

Other  responsibilities  assigned  to  the  Service  in- 
clude special  treatment  of  land  for  flood  control,  to 
supplement  major  downstream  flood-control  works 
such  as  reservoirs  and  levees;  water  conservation 
and  utilization  for  development  of  irrigation  lands 
of  the  West;  and  management  and  development  of 
government-owned  submarginal  lands  in  32  states. 
The  Service  carries  on  flood-control  operations  in 
11  major  watersheds,  and  is  making  investigations 
and  surveys  in  many  other  watersheds  to  collect 
data  for  the  planning  of  flood-control  projects. 

Research  studies  to  perfect  soil-conservation 
practices  and  to  develop  measures  for  applying 
•  those  needed  in  different  regions,  are  conducted 
by  the  Service  at  experiment  stations  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  chiefly  in  cooperation  with  the  State 
and  territorial  Experiment  Stations.  Chief:  Hugh 
H,  Bennett. 

SOUTH  AFRICA,  Union  of.  A  self-governing  dominion 
of  the  British  Commonwealth  of  Nations,  com- 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


524 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


posed  of  four  provinces — Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
Natal,  Orange  Free  State,  and  Transvaal.  South 
Africa  retains  control  of  South-West  Africa,  a  for- 
mer German  territory  mandated  to  the  Union  in 
1920  by  the  League  of  Nations.  Seat  of  the  gov- 
ernment, Pretoria.  Seat  of  the  Legislature,  Cape 
Town. 

Area  and  Population.  The  area  of  the  Union  is 
472,494  square  miles.  That  of  South- West  Africa 
is  317,725  square  miles.  Population  at  the  1946 
census  was  11,259,000,  of  whom  2,335,000  were 
Europeans,  7,736,000  Bantu,  283,000  Asiatic,  and 
905,000  of  other  races.  Chief  cities  in  1946  (Euro- 
pean population  only):  Johannesburg,  324,304; 
Cape  Town,  214,201;  Durban,  124,792;  Pretoria, 
124,542. 

Education  and  Religion.  State-aided  and  state- 
conducted  schools  for  Europeans  are  adequate  in 
number,  but  schools  for  the  native  population  are 
relatively  fewer.  The  Union  has  five  universities 
(1945  enrollment,  14,222)  and  a  number  of  tech- 
nical, trade,  and  commercial  schools;  and  schools 
for  the  handicapped. 

The  religious  affiliations  of  the  European  popu- 
lation at  the  time  of  the  1936  census  were:  Dutch 
churches,  54  percent;  Anglican,  17  percent;  Meth- 
odist, 7  percent;  with  the  remainder  largely  Roman 
Catholic,  Jewish,  and  Presbyterian. 

Production.  Gold  mining,  which  occupies  four- 
fifths  of  the  country's  employed  population  and 
furnishes  the  chief  export,  is  the  country's  most  im- 
portant business  with  production  in  1948  at  £  100 
million.  South  Africa  stands  first  in  the  production 
of  diamonds  as  well  as  gold,  but  in  its  domestic 
economy  diamonds  are  outranked  by  coal  in  value 
of  output  Lime  and  limestone,  copper,  asbestos, 
and  platinum  are  other  minerals  produced  in  quan- 
tity. 

The  raising  of  sheep  and  goats  occupies  a  con- 
siderable section  of  the  population.  In  agriculture 
proper,  fruits,  both  citrus  and  other,  and  tobacco 
are  increasingly  emphasized.  In  1947-48  tobacco 
production  was  163,722,000  lb,  and  wool  205,170,- 
000  lb.  Metals  and  engineering  is  the  largest  in- 
dustry and  food  processing  the  second,  but  textiles 
and  clothing  are  also  important  and  a  tendency  to- 
wards diversification  is  apparent. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  (excluding  gold)  in  1947 
were  S.A.£96  million  and  imports  S.A.£276  mil- 
lion. Exports  are  dominated  by  gold  but  imports 
are  diversified  and  include  apparel  and  other  con- 
sumer goods.  The  adverse  balance  of  trade  with 
the  United  States  in  1947  was  S.A.  £76  million. 

Transportation.  The  government  operated  13,255 
miles  of  railways  in  1945  and  road  motor  services 
over  18,324  route  miles.  In  that  year  7,406,564 
tons  net  of  shipping  entered  the  four  chief  ports 
of  Durban,  Cape  Town,  Port  Elizabeth,  and  East 
London.  The  South  African  Railways  and  Harbors 
Board  operates  internal  airways  connected  with  all 
African  airlines, 

Finance.  The  budget  estimates  for  1948-49  pro- 
vided for  revenue  of  £137,500,000;  expenditure 
of  £130,597,000;  and  a  resulting  surplus  of  £6,- 
903,000.  Net  debt  (Mar.  31,  1948):  £592,174,- 
000,  of  which  £583,974,000  was  internal.  The 
Union's  gold  reserves  declined  by  Sept.  30,  1948, 
to  £66,100,855  or  30.9  percent  (legal  minimum: 
30  percent)  and  imports  were  therefore  restricted. 

Government.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  the 
Governor  General,  appointed  by  the  Crown  upon 
recommendation  of  the  South  African  Government, 
and  in  the  Executive  Council  (Cabinet)  which  is 
responsible  to  Parliament.  Parliament  consists  of 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Assembly.  The  Senate  has 


a  basic  membership  of  40,  8  elected  for  each  of 
the  four  provinces  and  8  appointed  by  the  Gover- 
nor General.  Each  Senator  must  be  a  British  sub- 
ject of  European  descent.  The  House  of  Assembly 
has  a  basic  membership  of  150,  elected  from  the 
provinces  roughly  in  proportion  to  the  white  popu- 
lation. 

The  Representation  of  Natives  Act,  1936,  pro- 
vided for  direct  representation  of  natives  in  the 
Senate  by  four  additional  members,  for  three  addi- 
tional members  in  the  House  of  Assembly,  and  for 
a  Natives  Representation  Council.  The  Asiatic 
Land  Tenure  and  Indian  Representation  Act  of 
1946  gave  the  Indians  of  Natal  and  Transvaal  joint 
representation  by  two  senators,  one  elected  by  the 
Indians  and  one  appointed  by  the  Government, 
and  entitled  them  to  a  representation  of  three  in 
the  House  of  Assembly. 

Governor  General,  Major  Gideon  B.  van  Zyl, 
Prime  Minister  and  Minister  for  External  Affairs, 
D.  F.  Malan  (Nationalist),  succeeding  General 
Jan  Smuts  (United  Party),  as  a  result  of  the  elec- 
tion of  May  26,  1948.  Election  results:  Government 
parties  79  (70  Nationalist,  9  Afrikaners);  Opposi- 
tion 74  (United  Party  65,  Labor  6,  Native  3). 

Events,  1948.  The  session  of  Parliament  which 
opened  on  January  16  was  scarcely  more  than  an 
overture  for  the  general  election  that  was  to  take 
place  in  May.  General  Smuts,  the  Prime  Minister, 
made  several  Cabinet  changes  just  before  the  ses- 
sion opened.  The  Speech  from  the  Throne  included 
a  reference  to  the  bill  fdr  controlling  the  exploita- 
tion of  uranium  deposits  discovered  on  the  Rand 
and,  it  was  rumored,  elsewhere  in  South  Africa. 
This  bill  was  passed  after  the  election  as  the 
Atomic  Energy  Bill.  On  March  27  the  Governor 
General  approved  the  bill  passed  by  Parliament 
enabling  the  Union  Government  to  apply  the  Gen- 
eral Agreement  on  Tariffs  and  Trade  concluded  at 
Geneva  on  Oct.  80,  1947. 

Defeat  of  Smuts.  The  victory  of  the  Nationalist 
Party,  with  the  aid  of  the  Afrikaner  Party,  in  the 
election  of  May  26,  appeared  to  come  as  a  general 
surprise.  Actually  Prime  Minister  Smuts  and  his 
United  Party,  together  with  the  Labor  Party,  won 
a  majority  of  the  votes  cast  (551,590  to  443,719), 
but  rural  seats  have  a  preference  up  to  30  percent 
in  the  electoral  quota.  There  appeared  to  have 
been  a  shift  to  the  Nationalists  in  rural  areas. 

General  Smuts  lost  his  seat  in  the  Transvaal  con- 
stituency of  Standerton,  and  on  May  28  he  handed 
the  resignation  of  his  Cabinet  to  Governor  General 
van  Zyl.  Van  Zyl  immediately  asked  Dr.  Daniel 
Francois  Malan,  Nationalist  leader,  to  form  a  new 
government.  Smuts  at  first  insisted  on  leaving  pub- 
He  life,  but  on  June  1  he  accepted  a  seat  pffered  by 
C.  W.  Clark,  who  won  in  Pretoria  East.  The  ac- 
ceptance gave  Smuts  the  position  of  Leader  of  the 
Opposition,  a  desirability  if  the  United  Party  was 
to  be  kept  a  close-knit  organization  after  its  de- 
feat. Smuts  reached  his  78th  birthday  on  May  24, 
1948. 

The  Malan  Government,  Malan  announced  his  Cab- 
inet on  June  3.  The  Prime  Minister  kept  for  himself 
the  portfolio  for  External  Affairs.  Malan  had  been 
Minister  of  the  Interior  in  the  Hertzog  administra- 
tions. N.  C.  Havenga  was  designated  Minister  of 
Finance,  a  post  he  had  held  from  1924  to  1938. 
Havenga,  the  leader  of  the  Afrikaner  Party,  was 
the  only  member  of  that  party  appointed  to  a  Cabi- 
net post.  The  appointments  on  the  whole  were 
more  moderate  than  the  composition  of  the  new 
House  of  Assembly  suggested. 

Several  of  the  Nationalists  who  gained  seats  were 
interned  as  suspects  in  World  War  II  or  were  mem- 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


525 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


bers  of  totalitarian  organizations,  but  Dr.  Malan 
himself  was  exonerated  in  1946  of  significant  col- 
laboration with  the  Nazis  (see  YEAR  BOOK  for 
1946,  p.  613).  In  the  election  campaign  he  Ac- 
knowledged his  membership  in  the  Broederbund, 
a  secret  society  seeking  Afrikaner  domination  over 
the  British.  At  the  same  time  he  maintained  a  feud 
with  the  Ossewabrandwag,  a  Fascist-minded  or- 
ganization imitating  the  Nazi  ceremonial,  and  dur- 
ing the  campaign  a  mutual  boycott  was  carried  on. 

The  Nationalists  fought  the  election  chiefly  on 
the  issue  of  outright  separation  ( apartheid )  of  Eu- 
ropeans and  natives;  topographically,  politically, 
and  economically;  as  well  as  socially.  Nationalist 
fear  of  the  end  of  the  white  race  and  of  white  civi- 
lization in  South  Africa  appeared  to  be  extreme. 
Although  they  were  republican,  they  gave  repeated 
assurances  during  the  campaign  that  there  would 
be  no  immediate  attempt  to  break  with  the  Com- 
monwealth. 

Native  Rights,  In  pursuance  of  the  racial  policy 
announced  in  the  election  campaign,  Malan  an- 
nounced on  September  1  his  belief  that  Parliament 
could  amend  the  Representation  of  Natives  Act  by 
a  simple  majority.  The  reference  was  to  the  South 
Africa  Act  of  1909,  which  provided  that  the  exist- 
ing franchise  of  non-Europeans  in  Cape  Province 
could  not  be  changed  except  by  a  two-thirds  ma- 
jority of  both  houses  of  Parliament  sitting  together. 
This  procedure  was  followed  in  the  passage .  of  the 
Representation  of  Natives  Act,  1936,  which  intro- 
duced a  system  of  communal  representation  for 
all  natives. 

In  November  Prime  Minister  Malan  told  the 
Transvaal  National  Party  Congress  that  the  Cabi- 
net had  approved  a  system  of  national  registration 
which  would  asist  the  country  in  its  policy  of 
apartheid,  since  the  identity  cards  would  show  the 
race  of  the  holders*  A  person  would  be  classed  as 
non-European  if  at  least  one  grandparent  were 
black.  Dissension  within  the  Government  was  in- 
dicated when  Havenga,  leader  of  the  Afrikaner 
Party,  told  the  party  congress  on  December  1  that 
he  intended  to  stand  by  the  South  Africa  Act  and 
the  Constitution.  Subsequently  the  Afrikaner  Party 
withdrew  from  the  provincial  elections  to  be  held 
in  March,  1949. 

The  Nationalist  plan  of  abolishing  native  rep- 
resentation would  serve  the  double  purpose  of 
apartheid  and  increasing  the  slender  Nationalist 
majority  in  Parliament.  Three  members  of  the 
House  of  Assembly,  three  Senators,  and  the  Natives 
Representation  Council  would  disappear. 

An  allied  issue  was  the  treatment  of  Indians  in 
South  Africa.  In  July,  1948,  India  asked  that  the 
matter  be  taken  up  oy  the  General  Assembly  of 
the  United  Nations  at  its  next  meeting,  as  had  been 
done  in  1946  and  1947,  when  results  were  incon- 
clusive. The  feud  between  the  two  countries  was 
continued  in  the  UN  Trusteeship  Committee  in 
November,  when  the  Chairman  reprimanded  South 
Africa's  representative  Eric  Louw  for  an  over-per- 
sonalized attack  on  India's  Mrs.  Pandit.  Mr.  Louw 
had  suggested  that  Mrs.  Pandit  look  to  her  own 
country  for  the  kind  of  inhuman  excesses  she  at- 
tributed to  South  Africa. 

Souffi-Wesf  Africa.  Once  again  in  1948  South  Af- 
rica refused  to  place  under  UN  trusteeship  the  for- 
mer mandated  territory  of  South- West  Africa.  On 
November  16,  speaking  in  the  Trusteeship  Com- 
mittee meeting  in  Paris,  Louw  called  the  question 
a  domestic  one  and  asked  whether  it  was  surpris- 
ing that  decent  South  Africans  from  all  parties  were 
questioning  South  Africa's  membership  in  an  or- 
ganization [the  United  Nations]  "where  the  Union 


and  its  Government  are  annually  abused  and  vili- 
fied." The  Indian  delegation  had  previously  offered 
a  resolution  proposing  that  a  UN  commission  be 
sent  to  South-West  Africa.  On  November  26  the 
General  Assembly,  by  a  vote  of  43  to  1,  criticized 
South  Africa  for  its  refusal  to  place  South-West 
Africa  under  Trusteeship. 

0w/n«f/mg  Gold  Reserves.  South  Africa's  shortage 
of  foreign  exchange,  apparent  as  early  as  April, 
was  attributed  to  the  unaltered  price  of  gold  since 
September,  1939,  by  Dr.  de  Kock,  Governor  of  the 
South  African  Reserve  Bank,  in  his  annual  address 
on  July  28.  As  the  gold  supply  continued  to  fall 
the  reserve  ratio  was  reduced  from  30  to  25  per- 
cent, and  on  November  4  a  plan  of  reducing  im- 
ports by  rationing  dollars  was  announced. 

When  the  25  percent  ratio  was  threatened  South 
Africa  bought  $10  million  of  United  States  cur- 
rency from  the  International  Monetary  Fund.  In 
December  the  restriction  of  the  very  large  pur- 
chases from  the  United  States  had  not  yet  been 
felt,  and  de  Kock  urged  the  need  of  American 
credits.  — ALZADA  COMSTOCK 

SOUTH  AMERICA.  A  continent  comprising  10  repub- 
lics (Argentina,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia, 
Ecuador,  Paraguay,  Peru,  Uruguay,  and  Vene- 
zuela) and  three  colonies  (British  Guiana,  French 
Guiana,  and  Surinam).  Total  area:  6,937,445 
square  miles  ( 17,968,000  square  kilometers ) .  Esti- 
mated population:  88,680,000  (Jan.  1, 1940). 

SOUTH  CAROLINA.  A  south  Atlantic  State.  Area:  30,- 
989  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  1,991,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  1,899,804.  Chief 
cities:  Columbia  (capital),  62,396  inhabitants  in 
1940;  Charleston,  71,275.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDU- 
CATION, MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNI- 
VERSITIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $104,481,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $106,360,000. 

Le0islation.  The  annual  session  of  the  General 
Assembly  convened  January  13  and  adjourned 
April  15.  Appropriations  for  the  ensuing  year  to- 
taled about  $100  million,  a  record  for  one  year. 
Included  were  increased  amounts  for  teachers'  sala- 
ries, health  and  welfare  purposes,  and  highways. 
Appropriations  for  farm-to-market  roads  were  un- 
precedentedly  high.  Cities  in  the  State  were  grant- 
ed about  $2  million  as  their  share  of  the  State  ex- 
cise tax  on  hard  liquors. 

Otlier  major  developments  included  the  creation 
of  interim  committees  to  study  revision  of  the 
1895  Constitution;  reorganization  of  the  State  de- 
partments and  agencies;  and  revision  of  legislative 
processes  and  procedures.  The  interstate  parole 
and  probation  compact  was  adopted.  By  popular 
vote,  in  November,  South  Carolina  joinecf  the 
other  States  in  legalizing  divorce,  and  provided 
specific  grounds  on  which  divorces  may  be  ob- 
tained. 

Elections.  Thurmond  won  his  home  State's  8 
electoral  votes  with  a  popular  majority  over  Tru- 
man, Dewey,  and  other  candidates  of  more  than 
50,000.  Incumbent  Democratic  Senator  Burnet  R. 
Maybank  was  reelected.  Democrats  retained  the  6 
House  seats.  There  were  no  Statewide  contests  for 
State  office. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  J.  Strom  Thurmond; 
Lieut.  Governor,  George  Bell  Timmerman;  Secre- 
tary of  State,  W.  P.  Blackwell;  Attorney  General, 
John  M.  Daniel;  State  Treasurer,  Jeff  B.  Bates; 
Comptroller  General,  E.  C,  Rhodes;  State  Auditor, 
J,  M.  Smith. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


526 


SPAIN 


SOUTH  DAKOTA.  A  west  north  central  State.  Area: 
77,615  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  623,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  642,961.  Chief  cit- 
ies: Pierre  (capital),  4,322  inhabitants  in  1940; 
Sioux  Falls,  40,832.  See  AGMCULTURE,  EDUCATION, 
MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $36,175,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $30,035,000. 

Elections.  Dewey  won  the  4  electoral  votes  with 
a  popular  majority  over  Truman  and  Wallace  not 
half  as  large  as  his  40,000  majority  in  1944.  Con- 
gressman Karl  E.  Mundt,  Republican,  was  elected 
Senator.  Republicans  retained  the  2  House  seats. 
Incumbent  Republican  Governor  George  T.  Mick- 
elson  was  reeiected.  Other  State  officers  elected  in- 
cluded: Lieutenant  Governor — Rex  Terry;  Secre- 
tary of  State — Annamae  RiifT;  Attorney  General — 
Sigurd  Anderson;  Land  Commissioner — Bernard 
Linn.  The  voters  approved  a  $30  million  bond  is- 
sue for  veterans*  bonuses. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  George  T.  Mickelson; 
Lieut.  Governor,  Sioux  K.  Grigsby;  Secretary  of 
State,  Annamae  Riiff;  Attorney  General,  Sigurd 
Anderson;  State  Treasurer,  C.  E.  Buehler;  State 
Auditor,  Steve  E.  Anderson;  Commissioner  of 
School  and  Public  Lands,  John  A.  Lunden. 

SOUTH  PACIFIC  COMMISSION.  This  regional  inter- 
national organization  was  set  up  by  the  South  Seas 
Conference  at  Canberra,  Australia,  in  January- 
February,  1947,  when  an  Agreement  was  signed  oy 
the  Governments  of  Australia,  France,  the  Nether- 
lands, New  Zealand,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the 
United  States  of  America.  It  was  established  as  a 
consultative  and  advisory  body  to  assist  the  six 
signatory  governments  in  promoting  the  social  and 
economic  advancement  of  the  approximately  2  mil- 
lion peoples  in  the  non-self-governing  territories 
within  the  scope  of  the  Commission.  The  terri- 
torial scope  has  been  defined  as  comprising  "all 
those  non-self-governing  territories  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  which  are  administered  by  the  participating 
governments  and  which  lie  wholly  or  in  part  south 
of  the  Equator  and  east  from  and  including  Neth- 
erlands New  Guinea." 

For  the  accomplishment  of  the  purposes  of  the 
organization,  the  Agreement  provides  for  two  bod- 
ies auxiliary  to  the  Commission:  (1)  The  South 
Pacific  Research  Council,  a  standing  advisory  body 
to  be  composed  of  persons  distinguished  in  the 
fields  of  research  within  the  competence  of  the 
Commission;  and  (2)  the  South  Pacific  Confer- 
ence, a  periodic  conference  of  representatives  of 
the  local  inhabitants  in  the  region. 

An  interim  organization  was  established  at  Syd- 
ney in  April,  1947,  and  functioned  in  the  inter- 
vening period.  On  Nov.  26-28,  1947,  a  Preparatory 
Conference  attended  by  representatives  of  the  par- 
ticipating governments  met  in  Australia  for  the 
purpose  of  considering  matters  affecting  the  pre- 
liminary organization  of  the  Commission. 

United  States  participation  in  the  South  Pacific 
Commission  was  authorized  by  Public  Law  (80th 
Congress,  2nd  Session),  approved  by  the  President 
on  Jan.  28,  1948.  The  President  on  that  day  also 
signed  the  instrument  of  acceptance  of  the  Agree- 
ment Establishing  the  South  Pacific  Commission. 
The  Agreement,  duly  ratified  by  the  signatory  gov- 
ernments, came  into  force  on  July  29,  1948. 

The  Commission,  which  held  its  First  Session  at 
Sydney,  Australia,  on  May  11-21,  1948,  is  com- 
posed of  two  Commissioners  and  their  alternates 
appointed  by  each  of  the  six  governments.  Among 


the  more  important  items  on  the  agenda  were  the 
permanent  seat  of  the  Commission;  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  Secretary  General,  the  Deputy  Secre- 
tary General,  and  the  Deputy  Chairman  of  the 
South  Pacific  Research  Council,  the  organization 
of  the  Research  Council,  the  South  Pacific  Confer- 
ence, and  the  establishment  of  the  Working  Com- 
mittee, which  meets  frequently  between  sessions 
and  makes  policy  decisions  for  the  Commission 
and  the  Secretariat.  The  six  nations  also  agreed 
that  the  following  projects  should  be  given  imme- 
diate and  active  attention:  (1)  Production  of 
food  to  be  increased  in  order  to  raise  nutrition 
standards  and  to  augment  food  exports;  ( 2 )  mech- 
anization of  the  copra  industry  and  the  study  of 
by-products  and  essential  uses  of  copra  residue; 
(3)  intensification  of  fisheries  research  to  improve 
present  inadequate  supplies;  (4)  construction  of 
more  ships  to  encourage  production  and  to  relieve 
shortages  of  goods;  ( 5 )  improvement  of  infant  and 
maternal  welfare;  (6)  collection  and  dissemination 
of  information  on  training  of  islanders  in  technical 
skills;  (7)  stimulation  of  education  by  radio  and 
film  strips;  and  (8)  dissemination  of  information 
on  modern  agricultural  practice. 

The  selection  of  Noumea,  New  Caledonia,  as  the 
site  for  the  permanent  headquarters  of  the  Com- 
mission, together  with  appointments  to  the  senior 
positions  on  the  staff  of  the  Commission  and  of 
the  Research  Council,  were  among  the  major  de- 
cisions enacted  by  the  Commission  at  its  Second 
Session,  which  was  held  at  Sydney  from  October  25 
to  November  2,  1948. 

The  Senior  Commissioners  for  the  Commission 
in  1948  were:  Australia,  Mr.  J.  R.  Halligan;  France, 
Mr.  R.  F.  Lassalle-Sere;  the  Netherlands,  Mr.  A.  J. 
Beversluis;  New  Zealand,  Mr.  C.  G.  R.  McKay;  the 
United  Kingdom,  Sir  Brian  Freeston;  and  the 
United  States,  Dr.  Felix  M.  Keesing. 

— EDNA  H.  BARR 

SOYBEANS.  The  1948  soybean  crop  of  the  United 
States  was  estimated  at  220,201,000  bushels— the 
largest  on  record.  This  compares  with  the  1947 
crop  of  183,558,000  bu.  and  the  10-year  average 
(1937-46)  of  134,642,000  bu.  The  yields  of  the 
principal  producing  States  were  (in  bushels):  Il- 
linois 78,504,000,  Iowa  35,443,000,  Indiana  31,- 
196,000,  Ohio  18,614,000,  Missouri  15,900,000, 
Minnesota  15,614,000.  For  the  United  States  the 
yield  per  acre  was  21.4  bu. 

SPAIN.  A  state  of  southwestern  Europe,  occupying 
the  greater  part  of  the  Iberian  peninsula. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  196,607  square  miles, 
including  the  Balearic  and  Canary  Islands.  Popu- 
lation, 27,761,000  (1948  est).  Principal  cities, 
Madrid  (capital),  Barcelona,  Valencia,  Sevilla,  Za- 
ragoza,  Malaga,  Murcia,  and  Bilbao. 

Education  and  Religion.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the 
official  religion  of  the  state.  After  the  Civil  War, 
the  Church  was  restored  to  its  preeminent  position, 
its  confiscated  property  returned,  religious  educa- 
tion introduced  in  the  public  schools,  and  divorce 
suppressed.  According  to  the  latest  census,  the 
country  has  45,000  non-coeducational  elementary 
schools,  with  an  enrollment  of  4,480,619  pupils, 
and  an  additional  attendance  of  483,243  adults. 
There  are  120  intermediate  schools  or  institutos, 
with  an  attendance  of  185,644  students,  and  twelve 
universities  throughout  Spain,  that  in  1945  had  a 
total  enrollment  of  39,400  students.  There  are  also 
31  seminaries  or  ecclesiastical  schools  with  6,555 
students  enrolled.  The  government  claims  that  the 
rate  of  illiteracy  is  only  5  percent  of  the  youth 


SPAIN 


527 


SPAIN 


population,  and  about  20  percent  of  the  adults. 

Production.  Spain's  economy  is  based  on  agricul- 
ture and  mining.  Chief  items  of  mineral  production 
in  1947  (in  metric  tons)  were  estimated  as  follows: 
coal,  10,476,000;  iron  ore,  396,600;  pig  iron,  502,- 
800;  steel  ingots,  541,200;  and  lead,  28,320.  Prin- 
cipal agricultural  exports  consist  of  citrus  fruits, 
olive  and  vegetable  oils,  fresh  fruits,  onions,  raisins, 
almonds,  bananas,  tomatoes,  potatoes,  olives,  and 
cork  products.  Important  industries  are  textiles, 
metallurgical  and  chemical  products,  glass,  leather, 
fish,  and  vegetable  canneries. 

Foreign  Trade.  For  1948  (9  months  actual,  3 
months  estimated ) :  total  exports  were  valued  at 
$339,960,000;  total  imports  at  $469,200,000.  Total 
exports  in  1947,  valued  at  $306  million;  total  im- 
ports, valued  at  $396  million.  (Official  rate  of  ex- 
change, November,  1948:  $U.S.  =  11,22  pesetas.) 

Spain  has  important  trade  agreements  signed 
with  the  United  Kingdom,  France,  and  other  Eu- 
ropean and  Latin  American  countries.  On  Apr.  3, 
1948,  she  signed  an  agreement  with  Argentina, 
and  on  May  10,  another  one  with  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  settling  the  liquidation 
of  the  German  assets,  gold,  and  property  in  Spain. 
Although  there  is  no  trade  agreement  with  the 
United  States,  the  average  monthly  trade  exchange 
amounts  to  nearly  $6  million. 

Transportation.  The  country  has  7,932  miles  of 
broad-gauge  track  and  2,955  miles  of  narrow-gauge 
lines.  The  national  highway  system  consists  of 
about  79,672  miles  of  highway  and  6,100  miles  of 
provincial  roads.  The  merchant  marine  had  a  reg- 
istered tonnage  of  over  one  million  tons  in  1946. 
The  Iberia  National  Airlines  serves  the  country  and 
provides  transportation  to  the  Balearic  Islands,  as 
well  as  transoceanic  service  to  the  Canary  Islands 
and  Argentina.  Spain  is  also  served  by  American, 
British,  Dutch,  Swiss,  Portuguese,  Cuban,  and 
Mexican  international  airlines. 

Finance.  In  the  1947  budget,  revenue  was  esti- 
mated at  12,963,523,857  pesetas  and  expenditure 
at  11,358,827,402  pesetas,  of  which  4,800,848,758 
were  allocated  to  the  armed  forces,  or  more  than 
one-third  of  the  whole.  Currency  in  circulation  in 
September,  1948,  was  25,300  million  pesetas.  Gold 
reserves  on  the  same  date  were  $111  million.  Cost 
of  living  in  September,  1948,  was  450  (July,  1936 
=  100). 

Government.  As  a  result  of  the  Civil  War  that 
ended  in  1939,  the  Spanish  Republic  established 
in  1931  was  replaced  oy  the  dictatorship  of  Gen- 
eralissimo Francisco  Franco,,  who  was  recognized 
as  head  of  the  Rebel  Nationalist  Government  in 
Burgos  during  the  early  stages  of  the  Civil  War, 
on  Oct.  1,  1936.  A  law  promulgated  by  Franco  on 
Mar.  31,  1947,  and  ratified  by  die  Cortes  on 
June  7  of  the  same  year,  granted  him  life  tenure 
as  Chief  of  the  State  and  set  up  a  Regency  Coun- 
cil, which  is  to  enthrone  a  king  as  his  successor,  if 
he  dies  or  has  to  be  replaced.  The  Cortes  Parlia- 
ment has  as  its  principal  function  the  planning  and 
formulation  of  laws,  but  its  members  cannot  in- 
troduce legislation.  Cabinet  Ministers,  Civil  Gov- 
ernors, university  heads  and  presidents  of  learned 
bodies  are  ex-officio  members  of  the  Cortes. 

Events,  1948.  Spain  had  another  year  under 
Franco's  dictatorship,  with  no  indications  of  an 
immediate  return  to  a  democratic  form  of  govern- 
ment. 

Domestic  Front.  Political  news  from  inside  Spain 
has  consisted  mostly  of  speculations  with  regard 
to  Franco's  successor.  The  only  tolerated  opposi- 
tion, composed  of  the  different  monarchist  factions, 
were  working  to  have  their  candidates  approved 


by  the  Caudillo  (Franco)  and  the  European  pow- 
ers. Early  in  the  year,  Franco  filled  all  vacancies  of 
the  Council  of  the  Realm,  the  important  political 
organ  which  is  to  select  the  king  in  case  of  resigna- 
tion or  death  of  the  Caudillo.  New  appointees  were 
army  officers,  important  businessmen,  members  of 
the  nobility  and  the  higher  clergy.  An  effort  to  win 
the  support  of  the  Latin  American  republics  was 
the  resurrection  of  the  old  Institute  de  la  Hispani- 
dad  (a  cultural  orgardsation  created  by  the  Fa- 
lange  to  strengthen  cultural  ties  with  Spanish- 
speaking  countries).  In  Barcelona,  the  Institute 
held  a  formal  Congress  in  May,  where  all  propa- 
ganda aimed  at  the  similarity  between  the  objec- 
tives of  Peron  in  Argentina  and  Franco  in  Spain. 
In  June,  Laureano  Gomez,  leader  of  the  Conserva- 
tive Party  of  Colombia,  who  fled  his  country  after 
the  Bogota  riots  in  April  (see  COLOMBIA),  made 
his  residence  in  Madrid,  where  the  Institute  for- 
mally entertained  him. 

The  Search  for  Dollars.  The  economic  condition 
of  the  country  was  difficult.  Reports  from  tourists 
who  returned  from  Spain  indicated  that  in  the 
rural  areas  the  situation  was  better  than  in  the 
cities,  where  poverty  was  evident.  The  contrast 
between  the  wealthy  classes  of  Spaniards  and  the 
middle  and  lower  classes  was  sharper  than  ever. 
In  Madrid,  for  example,  there  were  more  beggars, 
fewer  taxis,  and  such  a  scarcity  of  electricity  that 
elevators  functioned  only  at  certain  hours  of  the 
day.  The  government  tried  to  ease  the  shortage  of 
exchange  by  securing  economic  help  from  the  Unit- 
ed States.  Franco's  ambassador  in  Paris,  Jose  F£- 
lix  Lequerica,  came  to  the  U.S.  to  try  to  obtain  a 
loan. 

In  November,  Franco  stated  to  the  New  Yorfc 
Times  correspondent  in  Madrid  that  he  was  seek- 
ing a  $200  million  loan  from  the  U.S.  This  help, 
according  to  him,  did  not  have  to  be  included  in 
the  EGA  because  "the  other  nations  that  partici- 
pate in  it  do  not  appear  to  want  Spain."  This,  of 
course,  meant  that  Franco  wanted  the  $200  mil- 
lion, but  no  interference  with  his  form  of  govern- 
ment He  pointed  out  that  Spain  was  the  bulwark 
against  Communism  in  Europe  and  added  that  he 
could  wait  no  longer  for  economic  help.  The  Ma- 
drid press  was  disturbed  over  the  Truman  victory, 
as  they  had  expected  an  easier  time  if  John  Foster 
Dulles  had  become  Governor  Dewey's  Secretary 
of  State. 

Monarchist  Activities.  The  different  monarchist 
pretenders  continued  to  pull  their  respective  wires 
during  the  year.  The  Carlistas  were  active  in  Jan- 
uary and  February,  but  as  they  were  divided  into 
two  factions,  they  accomplished  little.  Neverthe- 
less, pretender  Carlos  Pio,  who  calls  himself  Car- 
los VIII,  said  in  June  that  he  stood  the  best  chance 
of  becoming  Franco's  successor,  as  Alfonso  XIII's 
son,  Juan  de  Borbon,  had  lost  Franco's  favor.  Car- 
los announced  as  his  program  that  he  would  keep 
law  and  order;  would  cooperate  especially  with  the 
United  States,  and  would  "defend  the  sanctity  of 
private  property." 

Monarchist  activities  within  Spain  were  high- 
lighted by  trouble  caused  to  Franco  by  various 
Borb6n  followers,  some  of  whom  Franco  did  not 
hesitate  to  imprison.  Two  of  these  were  General 
Kindelan  and  the  colorful  Duchess  of  Valencia, 
who  was  sentenced  in  December  to  one  year's  in- 
carceration. From  without,  pretender  Juan  de  Bor- 
b6n  attempted  to  draw  closer  to  Franco.  In  August, 
he  and  the  Caudillo  met  on  board  a  yacht,  and  it 
was  rumored  that  conversation  centered  around 
the  education  of  Juan's  son,  prince  Juan  Carlos. 
The  Madrid  press  reported  that  the  young  prince 


SPAIN 


528 


SPANISH  LITERATURE 


would  come  to  Spain  to  continue  his  high-school 
studies  in  a  Spanish  school,  in  order  to  prepare 
him  for  his  future  duties  as  King  of  Spain.  This 
rapprochement  between  Juan  and  Franco  was 
credited  to  Foreign  Minister  Alberto  Martin  Ar- 
tajo,  former  head  of  Catholic  Action,  and  was 
meant  to  counterbalance  the  efforts  made  by  the 
Socialists  to  form  a  coalition  with  other  monarchist 
factions,  with  the  purpose  of  ousting  Franco  from 
power. 

Municipal  Elections.  On  November  21,  an  election 
for  members  of  town  councils  was  held.  The  event 
attracted  little  attention  from  the  people,  as  the 
electoral  law  grants  the  vote  ^only  to  "heads  of 
families  with  full  civil  capacity,"  a  method  of  elim- 
inating government  opponents.  Voting  took  place 
in  9,332  cities,  but  as  restrictions  eliminated  more 
than  half  of  the  voting  population,  it  was  esti- 
mated that  not  more  than  20  percent  went  to  the 
polls.  One  result  of  the  election  indicated  internal 
division  among  the  groups  supporting  Franco.  All 
the  candidates  were  picked  by  top  men  in  the 
Franco  clique.  Some  were  monarchists,  some  Fa- 
langists, others  belonged  to  Church  groups,  indus- 
try or  big  business.  Each  of  these  groups  strug- 
gled to  control  the  municipal  positions,  and  Franco 
appeared  to  be  favoring  the  Church  and  the  mon- 
archists, rather  than  the  Falangists. 

International  Front.  On  February  10,  the  borders 
with  France  that  had  been  closed  since  1946  were 
officially  opened.  The  Franco  press  thought  this 
was  a  feather  in  their  cap,  but  the  English  and 
French  governments  announced  that  the  opening 
of  the  border  had  not  changed  their  foreign  policy. 
During  the  year,  important  visitors  from  the  United 
States  gave  occasional  spurts  to  Franco's  optimism. 
Among  them  were  James  A.  Farley  and  Senator 
Chan  Gurney,  Chairman  of  the  Senate  Armed  Serv- 
ices Committee.  Both  visitors  publicly  expressed 
their  friendship  toward  Franco's  regime;  however, 
the  State  Department  stated  that  their  opinions  did 
not  reflect  the  stand  of  the  U.S.  government,  but 
were  purely  personal  ones. 

The  most  important  international  event  of  the 
year  was  Franco's  effort,  backed  by  a  small  group 
of  Latin  American  countries  under  the  leadership 
of  Argentina,  to  gain  admission  for  Spain  to  the 
United  Nations,  and  participation  in  the  EGA.  The 
traditional  propaganda  line  was  used  at  the  Paris 
meeting  of  the  U.N.,  to  the  effect  that  Spain  was 
needed  for  the  defense  of  the  western  hemisphere. 
However,  this  boomeranged,  because  the  Benelux 
countries  and  France  and  England  feared  that  in 
case  of  war  the  United  States  would  center  all 
strength  south  of  the  Pyrenees  and  abandon  north- 
ern Europe.  The  pro-Franco  proposal  thus  met 
with  a  cold  reception  from  a  majority  of  the  Unit- 
ed Nations  countries. 

Another  important  development  on  the  interna- 
tional front  was  the  signature  of  a  pact  between 
the  Spanish  Socialist  Trade  Union  movement, 
headed  by  Indalecio  Prieto,  and  the  supporters  of 
Spanish  pretender  Juan  de  Borbon.  This  pact  was 
presented  on  October  6  to  the  British,  American, 
and  other  Western  governments.  The  British  For- 
eign Office  made  a  favorable  comment,  and  natu- 
rally the  Franco  government  protested.  The  main 
features  of  the  pact  were  that  both  parties  pledged 
themselves  to  the  reestablishment  of  a  democratic 
government  in  Spain,  eliminating  all  totalitarian 
tendencies;  the  holding  of  free  elections  to  deter- 
mine the  form  of  government  preferred  by  the 
Spanish  people;  and  the  incorporation  of  Spain  in 
ERP  and  the  Brussels  Alliance.  See  PORTUGAL. 

— MIGUEL  JOBR|N 


SPANISH  GUINEA.  A  West  African  colony  of  Spain, 
comprising  the  mainland  area  known  as  Continental 
Guinea  (10,040  square  miles;  pop.  138,797),  and 
the  islands  (pop.  28,708)  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea: 
Fernando  P6  (800  sq.  mi.),  Annobon  (7  sq,  mi.)? 
Corisco  (5.5  sq.  mi.),  Little  Elobey  (22  acres), 
and  Great  Elobey  (0.75  sq.  mi.).  Chief  towns: 
Santa  Isabel  (capital),  and  Bata.  The  principal 
products  are  cacao,  coffee,  vegetables,  fruits,  and 
timber.  Spanish  Guinea  is  divided  into  two  dis- 
tricts: Continental  Guinea  and  Fernando  P6.  In- 
cluded in  the  district  of  Continental  Guinea  are 
the  islands  of  Great  Elobey,  Little  Elobey,  Corisco, 
and  Annobon.  The  whole  territory  is  under  a  gov- 
ernor general,  assisted  by  a  sub-governor,  and  a 
secretary  general. 

SPANISH  LITERATURE.  No  change  of  any  significance 
can  be  recorded  in  Spanish  letters  during  the  past 
12  months.  If  any  trend  can  be  detected  in  com- 
parison with  previous  years  it  is  rather  a  slacken- 
ing in  tempo.  The  generation  of  young  novelists 
and  poets  who  became  known  after  the  Civil  War 
and  gave  rise  to  the  hope  of  a  certain  awakening 
seems  to  have,  at  least  for  the  moment,  reached  an 
impasse  and  no  new  book  has  appeared  lately  to 
foster  that  hope.  This  slackening  in  tempo  and  the 
scarcity  of  new  works  are  parallel  no  doubt  to  what 
is  happening  in  other  European  countries  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  insecurity  and  transitional  character  of 
our  time,  but  is  also  due  to  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  Spanish  Me  under  the  present  regime. 

In  contrast  with  the  dearth  of  new  literary  values 
are  still  the  considerable  amount  of  books  that  are 
published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Superior  Coun- 
cil for  Scientific  Research  and  the  thriving  business 
of  some  editorial  houses  with  numerous  series  of 
"Complete  Works"  of  classic  as  well  as  modern, 
and  of  foreign  as  well  as  Spanish  writers,  or  with 
the  ever-increasing  number  of  translations  of  well 
known  and  popular  European  and  American 
writers. 

Survival  of  the  Past.  A  simple  gaze  at  any  bibli- 
ography or  book  catalog  leaves  the  very  clear  im- 
pression that  the  Spanish  literary  and  intellectual 
production  leans  heavily  toward  religious  and  ec- 
clesiastical subjects.  The  works  on  theology,  phi- 
losophy and  history  of  religion,  and  Biblical  and 
canonical  studies  probably  outnumber  the  publica- 
tions in  any  other  field.  Historical  subjects,  studies 
on  archeology,  and  editions  or  commentaries  of 
Spanish  classics  come  in  second  place. 

Centennial  commemorations,  such  as  Cortes'  and 
Cervantes7  last  year,  are  given  much  prominence. 
This  year  those  of  the  16th  century  philosopher 
Francisco  Suarez,  the  dramatist  Tirso  de  Molina, 
and  the  19th  century  thinker  Jaime  Balmes  have 
been  celebrated  with  great  pomp,  a  wealth  of  lec- 
tures and  committees,  and  the  same  doubtful  re- 
sults, as  far  as  lasting  contributions  are  concerned. 
If  to  this  is  added  mat  the  contemporary  authors 
who  still  are  in  the  limelight  are  the  survivors  of 
the  "generation  of  '98,"  the  conclusion  that  the 
clock  has  stopped  or  at  least  slowed  down  consid- 
erably cannot  be  escaped. 

Azorin,  for  instance,  has  been  the  most  promi- 
nent author  of  the  year.  He  was  the  object  of  two 
important  testimonial  homages  and  the  publication 
of  his  complete  works,  now  in  the  8th  volume,  to- 
gether with  his  new  book  Con  permiso  de  los  cer- 
vantistas,  a  collection  of  articles  on  Cervantes,  have 
attracted  much  attention.  Baroja's  "complete 
works"  are  also  being  published  with  great  success 
and  the  5th  volume  of  his  Memoires  (La  intuicidn 
y  el  estilo )  has  been  widely  read. 


SPANISH  LITERATURE 


529 


SPANISH  LITERATURE 


In  the  languid  life  of  the  Spanish  theater  the 
veteran  Jacinto  Benavente,  close  to  his  83d  birth- 
day, has  been  once  more  the  author  of  the  two 
most  successful  and  valuable  plays  of  the  season: 
El  divorcio  de  las  almas  and  Abdication.  He  re- 
ceived, besides,  the  Prize  Mariano  de  Cavia  in- 
tended to  stimulate  young  journalists,  for  his  article 
"Al  dictado/'  The  great  scholar  Ramon  Menendez 
Pidal  was  reappointed  Director  of  the  Spanish 
Academy,  after  8  years  of  an  unfair  separation 
from  that  office,  which  he  held  before  1936.  Writ- 
ers like  Eugenio  d'Ors,  Concha  Espina,  or  Doctor 
Gregorio  Maran6n  have  been  also  much  in  the 
public  light  for  different  reasons. 

Jose  Ortega  y  Gasset,  who  seems  to  have  gone 
back  to  Spain  permanently  after  12  years  of  self- 
imposed  exile,  although  we  do  not  know  of  any 
new  book  of  his  published  this  year,  is  still  the 
leader  of  intellectual  life  in  Spain  on  its  highest 
levels.  This  impression  of  the  lack  of  new  stimulus 
in  Spanish  letters  is  strengthened  when  we  con- 
sider that  probably  the  two  most  interesting  books 
of  criticism — Melchor  Fernandez  Almagro's  En 
torno  al  98:  Politico,  y  literatura  and  Victoriano 
Garcia  Martfs  El  Ateneo  de  Madrid  (1935-1935) 
— deal  with  the  forces  and  atmosphere  which 
shaped  the  trend  of  Spanish  literature  and  life  at 
the  beginning  of  the  century. 

Fiction,  Poetry,  and  Drama.  The  first  two  are  the 
fields  in  which,  as  in  previous  years,  the  new  gen- 
erations are  more  active.  As  we  have  already  said, 
nothing  strikingly  new  has  been  produced,  but  a 
few  books  deserve  to  be  mentioned. 

Among  the  novels:  El  destello  by  Ricardo  Gu- 
116n;  La  sombra  del  cipres  by  Miguel  Delibes, 
which  received  the  Nadal  Prize  awarded  to  the 
most  promising  new  novelist;  Hospital  General  by 
Pombo  Angulo;  and  Caminos  de  noche  by  Sebas- 
tian Juan  Arbo.  Of  the  better  known  young  novel- 
ists, Camilo  Jose  Cela  seems  to  have  abandoned 
fiction  for  a  moment  and  has  published  a  book  of 
travels  through  the  central  plateau,  Las  botas  de 
siete  leguas  and  a  Cancionero  de  la  Alcarria. 

Poetry  continues  to  be  the  literary  genre  which 
has  the  greatest  attraction  for  young  writers,  due 
as  we  pointed  out  last  year  to  the  impulse  given 
to  this  form  of  expression  by  previous  generations. 
The  "Collection  Adonais"  has  reached  already  its 
51st  volume.  Among  the  new  volumes  are  Serial 
de  vida  by  Jose"  Maria  Souviron;  Contempladdn 
del  tiempo  by  Eugenio  de  Nora;  Las  incredulidades 
by  Rafael  Mpntesinos;  Elegias  (1943-45)  by  Dio- 
nisio  Ridraejo;  Vacaci6n  de  estio  by  Guillermo 
Diaz  Plaja;  and  an  interesting  translation  of  Eng- 
lish metaphysical  poets,  Poetas  ingleses  metafisicos, 
done  by  Mauricio  Molho  and  Blanca  G.  Escandon. 

At  tie  same  time  two  new  collections  have 
begun  publication.  One  is  "El  viento  Sur,"  in 
which  the  volume  Soria  by  Gerardo  Diego,  the  best 
known  of  Spanish  poets  living  in  Spain,  is  to  be 
published  shortly  ( it  may  have  appeared  already ) . 
The  other  is  "Norte"  which  includes  three  volumes 
of  translations  (Rilke,  William  Blake,  and  Rim- 
baud )  and  three  by  Spanish  poets :  Gabriel  Gelaya, 
Movimientos  elementales;  Rafael  Mugica,  La  sole- 
dad  cerrada;  and  Leopoldo  de  Luis,  HuSsped  de 
un  tiempo  sombrio.  Of  the  older  poets,  Vicente 
Aleixandre  has  published  En  la  muerte  de  Miguel 
Hernandez  and  Rafael  Murube,  Tierra  y  cancion. 

Nothing  remarkable  has  been  produced  in  the 
theater.  As  we  pointed  out,  Benavente  is  the  most 
successful  dramatist  and  producers  try  to  infuse 
some  new  life  by  constant  revivals  of  old  plays. 
The  actress  Catalina  Bdrcena  has  reappeared  in 
Madrid  after  a  long  absence,  with  the  same  plays 


by  Martinez  Sierra  which  made  her  known  SO  years 
ago.  Juan  Jose  by  Dicenta,  a  social  play,  which 
stirred  audiences  at  the  beginning  of  the  century, 
has  also  been  revived.  Of  new  plays  only  two  de- 
serve mention:  El  beso  de  la  bella  durmiente,  by 
Agustin  de  Foxa  (produced  in  Madrid),  and  El 
aprendiz  de  amante  by  Victor  Ruiz  Iriarte  (pro- 
duced in  Barcelona). 

Erudition  and  Literary  Criticism.  This  is  perhaps  the 
field  in  which  Spanish  letters  as  a  whole  show 
greatest  activity  at  present,  or  should  we  say  in 
which  Spanish  writers  feel  themselves  on  safer 
ground.  We  should  therefore  note  a  few  additions 
to  the  literary  knowledge  of  the  past.  First  in  im- 
portance comes  the  newly  revised  and  amplified 
edition  of  the  Espana  del  Cid  by  Menendez  Pidal, 
the  master  of  Spanish  historians  and  critics,  who 
also  contributed  to  the  Cervantes  centennial  with 
a  remarkable  essay,  Cervantes  y  el  ideal  caballe- 
resco. 

Deserving  of  first  place  among  editions  of  Span- 
ish classics  is  the  translation  done  by  Lorenzo 
Riber  of  the  Complete  Works  of  Luis  Vives,  the 
greatest  Spanish  humanist  of  the  Renaissance. 
Mention  is  also  due  the  edition  of  Fernando  de  He- 
rrera,  Rimas  ineditas,  by  Jose  Manuel  Blecua.  Al- 
though of  a  purely  philological  interest,  the  first 
fascicle  (letter  A)  of  the  Tesoro  lexicogrdfico  es- 
panol  by  S.  Gili  Gaya  is  of  great  value  for  the 
study  of  the  Spanish  language.  Other  books  which 
should  receive  the  attention  of  scholars  and  stu- 
dents of  Spanish  letters  are:  the  study  of  Garcilaso 
de  la  Vega  by  Rafael  Lapesa,  now  at  Princeton 
University;  Los  tratados  sobre  educacidn  de  princi- 
pes>  by  Maria  Angeles  Galino;  La  mala  vida  en  la 
Espana  de  Felipe  IV  by  Jose  Deleito  y  Pifmela; 
La  Condamine  en  la  America  Central,  by  Ricardo 
Majo  Framis;  and  Antonio  Alcald  Galiano,  by 
Felipe  Ximenez  de  Sandoval. 

New  Reviews — Significant  Trends — Varia.  A  curious 
and  at  the  same  time  interesting  phenomenon  is 
this — that  while  Spanish  writers  as  far  as  original 
creations  are  concerned  seem  to  be  fighting  against 
the  vacuum  produced  by  isolation  in  a  semitotali- 
tarian  regime;  they  are  giving,  nevertheless,  many 
signs  of  vitality.  Of  these  one  is  especially  notice- 
able; the  abundance  of  new  literary  reviews,  some 
of  them  of  considerable  interest,  such  as  Finisterre 
(reappeared  after  a  long  interruption),  and  al- 
though of  minor  character,  Doncel  and  Raiz. 

Two  of  these  reviews  should  be  mentioned  sep- 
arately: Cuadernos  Hispanoamericanos  and  Mundo 
HispdnicOj  for  together  with  many  other  trends — 
such  as  the  constantly  increasing  numbers  of  Span- 
ish intellectuals  crossing  the  Atlantic  toward  the 
South  and  the  invitation  to  visit  Spain  extended 
to  Spanish-American  writers  sympathetic  with  the 
present  Spanish  regime,  etc. — they  show  a  de- 
cided and  strong  trend  toward  the  "rapproche- 
ment" of  the  Spanish-speaking  countries  under  the 
aegis  of  the  "Hispanidad"  movement, 

Of  a  different  nature,  in  the  sense  that  it  is  not 
official  but  the  result  of  an  imperative  longing,  are 
the  few  attempts  to  bridge  the  gulf  with  Spanish 
writers  in  exile.  A  few,  like  Benjamin  James,  have 
returned  lately  to  the  fatherland;  books  before  for- 
bidden are  beginning  to  be  reprinted;  homages 
have  been  published  or  organized  in  Spain  in  honor 
of  writers  like  Juan  Ram6n  Jimenez  and  Jorge 
Guillen;  and  the  contributions  of  many  writers 
whose,  names  could  not  even  be  mentioned  two 
or  three  years  ago,  appear  in  increasing  numbers 
in  Spanish  reviews  and  periodicals.  In  mis  the  lit- 
erary magazine  Insula,  a  true  island  in  the  Spanish 
atmosphere,  leads  the  way. 


SPANISH  SAHARA 


530 


SPICK 


Three  writers,  identified  in  the  past  decades 
with  youthful  movements  of  renovation,  have  been 
received  in  the  Spanish  Academy:  the  ]poet  Ge- 
rardo  Diego,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  "ultraist" 
movement  in  the  twenties,  and  the  critics  Damaso 
Alonso,  the  main  exponent  of  neogongorism,  and 
Jose  Maria  Cossio. 

No  writer  of  great  prominence  has  died  within 
the  year.  The  best  known  among  those  who  passed 
away  are  Maria  de  Maeztu,  who  died  in  Argen- 
tine, Pedro  de  Repide,  and  Francisco  Camba. 

Literature  in  Exile.  After  covering  at  some  length 
the  literary  events  in  Spain  itself,  it  should  be  re- 
called that  a  number  of  the  most  prominent  Span- 
ish writers  are  still  living  in  exile.  They  are  scat- 
tered in  many  countries,  especially  in  Mexico, 
South  America,  and  the  United  States;  they  are 
forced  to  make  their  living  by  teaching,  writing 
for  reviews  and  magazines,  working  in  some  edi- 
torial enterprises,  or  in  occupations  alien  to  their 
main  interests.  Their  books,  published  mainly  in 
South  America,  are  slow  in  reaching  us.  For  these 
reasons  it  is  not  easy  to  follow  their  activities  nor 
to  sum  up  briefly  their  literary  accomplishments. 

It  can  be  stated  however  that  the  most  valuable 
Spanish  books  are  today  published  outside  Spain. 
Such  is  the  case  for  instance  of  Americo  Castro's 
Espana  en  su  historia,  cristianos,  moros  y  judios, 
probably  the  most  important  book  published  in 
Spanish  in  1948.  It  is  a  profound  and  scholarly 
work  interpreting  Spanish  culture  as  an  integration 
of  European  and  Oriental  elements.  It  is  worthy 
of  occupying  a  distinguished  place,  at  the  side  of 
the  great  works  about  Spain  of  men  like  Unarnuno, 
Ortega  y  Gasset,  or  Menendez  Pidal.  Very  valu- 
able are  also  two  books  of  criticism  by  Pedro  Sali- 
nas, Jorge  Manrique  o  tradicion  y  originalidad  and 
La  poesia  de  Ruben  Dario,  or  the  book  by  Ferrater 
Mora,  El  sentido  de  la  muerte,  a  remarkable  philo- 
sophical essay.  Although  published  in  English, 
Madariaga's  The  Fall  of  the  Spanish  American 
Empire  could  also  be  included.  Poetry,  fiction,  and 
drama  are  not  lacking  among  the  exiled  Spanish 
writers,  but  no  book  has  appeared  during  1948  in 
these  fields,  as  far  as  we  know,  which  can  compare 
in  importance  with  those  mentioned. 

— ANGEL  DEL  Rio 

SPANISH  SAHARA.  A  Spanish  colony  in  northwest 
Africa,  comprising  two  zones:  Rio  de  Oro  (73,362 
sq.  mi,),  and  Sekia  el  Hamra  (32,047  sq.  mi.). 
Population:  37,000,  exclusive  of  some  31,000  no- 
mads. The  colony  is  under  the  administration  of  the 
High  Commissioner  of  Morocco. 

SPICES.  The  continuance  of  political  uncertainty  in 
Indonesia  in  1948  has  had  a  direct  effect  on  the 
supply  and  price  of  pepper,  the  world's  most  im- 
portant spice.  Before  World  War  II  Indonesia 
(The  Netherlands  East  Indies)  supplied  90  per- 
cent of  the  world's  pepper.  Neglect  of  vines  during 
the  Japanese  occupation  sharply  curtailed  pepper 
exports  from  the  ancient  "Spice  Islands."  The  In- 
donesian 1948  pepper  crop  is  estimated  at  only 
11  million  Ib.,  less  than  one-tenth  of  prewar,  and 
about  18  percent  of  total  world  production. 

The  following  statement  from  the  American 
Consulate  General  in  Batayia  illustrates  the  out- 
look in  the  Banka  area:  "Replanting  took  place 
steadily,  and  was  particularly  heavy  in  February 
and  March,  1948.  This  replanting,  however,  de- 
creased with  the  corning  of  the  dry  season  in  May. 
At  the  end  of  May  a  total  of  371,500  vines  were 
standing  (prewar  12  million),  of  which  about  180,- 
000  were  bearing.  Many  of  these  old  vines,  how- 


ever, are  not  being  allowed  to  bear,  being  used  for 
producing  seedlings/' 

While  Indonesia  has  been  losing  ground,  India 
has  risen  to  the  opportunity  and  is  today  the 
world's  leading  pepper  exporter,  accounting  for 
about  80  percent  of  die  world's  production.  India's 
1947_48  cropj  harvested  from  December  to  March, 
was  about  38.1  million  Ib.  The  1948-49  crop  is 
estimated  at  40  percent  above  last  year's,  or  about 
50  million  Ib.,  of  which  the  United  States  may  re- 
ceive about  half. 

In  a  visit  to  the  United  States  in  December, 
1948,  Vallabdas  V.  Mariwala,  president  of ,  an 
Indian  trade  group,  predicted  that  his  country  will 
retain  much  of  its  present  expanded  business. 

Despite  the  increase  in  Indian  production,  total 
world  production  for  1948  is  estimated  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Commerce  at  about 
35  percent  of  prewar.  United  States  prewar  imports 
of  pepper  alone  have  at  times  exceeded  today's 
total  world  production.  Although  the  desire  of  In- 
dian exporters  for  dollar  credits  tended  to  favor  the 
United  States  in  1948,  warehouse  stocks  of  pepper 
in  the  Port  of  New  York  has  been  less  than  2  mil- 
lion Ib.  since  June,  1946,  as  opposed  to  about  94 
million  Ib.  in  1938-39.  Imports  have  moved  di- 
rectly into  consuming  channels.  Active  bidding 
forced  quotations  for  black  pepper  warehoused  in 
New  York  from  about  40<£  per  Ib.  in  March  to  80<£ 
in  December,  1948. 

During  1948  pepper  traders  have  been  looking 
forward  eagerly  to  a  solution  of  the  Indonesian- 
Dutch  difficulties  which  would  bring  peace  to  In- 
donesia and  result  in  opening  up  the  pepper-pro- 
ducing districts.  A  resumption  of  pepper  shipments 
would  greatly  ease  the  present  world  shortage  and 
probably  result  in  a  downward  readjustment  of 
prices. 

The  1948  price  and  supply  of  other  spices  and 
seeds  remained  about  the  same  "as  1947,  close  to 
prewar  levels. 

Production  of  mustard  seed  in  the  United  States 
for  1948  is  predicted  at  only  about  14.5  million  Ib., 
compared  with  20,990,000  in  1947.  This  is  due 
to  crop  conditions.  The  United  States  still  produces 
almost  all  the  mustard  seed  that  it  consumes.  The 
same  is  not  true,  however,  of  domestically-grown 
sage,  which  boomed  during  the  war  and  has 
slipped  badly  since.  High  growing  costs  in  this 
country  invited  the  postwar  reentry  of  quality  Dal- 
matian sage,  and  our  imports  are  almost  back  on 
a  prewar  footing. 

The  report  on  the  first  of  Zanzibar's  two  annual 
clove  crops  indicates  production  in  1948  of  9,473,- 
000  Ib.,  just  slightly  above  the  lowest  crop  on  rec- 
ord. The  1948  Spanish  paprika  crop  is  estimated 
at  31,856,000  Ib.,  about  the  same  as  1947.  United 
States  imports  for  the  first  six  months  of  1948  to- 
taled 1,815,000  Ib.,  and  4,046,000  Ib,  in  1947. 
Portugal's  paprika  crop  will  be  lower  in  1948, 
estimated  at  2,204,600  Ib.  In  1947  the  United 
States  imported  1,116,000  Ib.  from  Portugal.  Pro- 
duction of  ginger  root  on  the  island  of  Jamaica  is 
estimated  at  3.5  million  Ib.,  slightly  larger  than 
1947.  There  was  a  slight  increase  in  Cassia  im- 
ports despite  China's  civil  strife. 

At  their  43rd  annual  convention  in  May,  1948, 
members  of  the  American  Spice  Trade  Association 
voted  to  assess  themselves  one  dollar  per  thousand 
dollars  of  sales  volume  to  finance  research  and  pub- 
lic relations  programs.  The  research  program  start- 
ed in  1947  was  continued  and  expanded.  A  "Spice 
of  the  Month"  promotional  campaign  was  launched 
in  September,  1948,  to  help  homemakers  under- 
stand the  proper  use  of  spices.  Emphasis  in  this 


STATE 


531 


STATE 


program  is  on  basic,  rather  than  gourmet,  foods. 
Wartime  rationing  and  postwar  high  food  costs 
have  resulted  in  increased  consumer  awareness  of 
the  value  of  proper  seasoning  in  the  American  cui- 
sine. Numerous  sources  report  a  definite  trend  to- 
ward cooked  dishes  using  lower-cost  ingredients 
but  calling  for  greater  skill  in  preparation.  The 
American  Spice  Trade  Association  has  received  an 
unprecedented  number  of  requests  for  food  infor- 
mation and  recipes  calling  for  spices,  seeds,  and 
herbs,  and  reports  a  new  tendency  on  the  part  of 
the  homemaker  to  experiment  with  well-seasoned 
foreign  dishes  to  give  variety  to  her  cuisine. 

— BERNARD  L.  LEWIS 

STATE,  U.S.  Department  of.  Under  the  direction  of 
Secretary  of  State  George  C.  Marshall,  the  Depart- 
ment of  State  in  1948  engaged  in  activities  aimed 
at  achieving  national  security,  world-wide  eco- 
nomic reconstruction,  and  a  lasting  peace. 

In  pursuance  of  these  and  related  objectives,  the 
Department  arranged  for  and  coordinated  Ameri- 
can participation  in  the  United  Nations,  in  other 
international  bodies,  and  in  international  confer- 
ences, including  a  large  number  on  professional 
and  scientific  subjects.  This  participation  involved 
attendance  at  the  Second  Special  (Palestine)  Ses- 
sion and  the  Third  Regular  Session  of  the  General 
Assembly,  discussions  in  the  Security  Council  and 
the  other  basic  organs,  and  activities  in  relation  to 
the  specialized  agencies.  The  Department,  with 
Congressional  authorization,  formally  accepted 
membership  in  the  World  Health  Organization  (a 
specialized  agency  of  the  United  Nations),  the 
South  Pacific  Commission,  and  the  Caribbean 
Commission,  all  three  of  which  had  been  organized 
with  the  active  help  of  the  United  States  or  (in 
the  case  of  the  Caribbean  Commission,  in  1942) 
on  the  initiative  of  this  country. 

Among  the  international  meetings  in  which  the 
United  States  participated  in  1948  were  the  Ge- 
neva Conference  on  Freedom  of  Information,  the 
Geneva  Maritime  Conference,  and  the  Habana 
Conference  on  Trade  and  Employment  (all  three 
of  which  were  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  Unit- 
ed Nations).  In  addition,  this  Government  took 
part  in  the  Special  Paris  Meeting  of  the  Council 
of  Foreign  Ministers  on  the  disposition  of  former 
Italian  colonies,  the  Belgrade  Conference  on  Navi- 
gation of  the  Danube,  the  Ninth  International  Con- 
ference of  American  States  at  BogotA,  the  London 
Conference  on  Safety  of  Life  at  Sea,  and  talks  in 
London  regarding  the  future  government  of  Ger- 
many and  international  control  of  the  Ruhr.  Out- 
standing achievements  of  these  Conferences  in- 
cluded the  signing  of  charters  at  Bogotd  for  the 
Organization  of  American  States,  at  Habana  for 
an  International  Trade  Organization,  and  at  Ge- 
neva for  an  Intergovernmental  Maritime  Consulta- 
tive Organization,  as  well  as  the  drafting  of  three 
conventions  on  freedom  of  information  by  the  Ge- 
neva Conference  on  that  subject. 

The  Department  continued  its  efforts  to  achieve 
the  settlement  of  territorial,  treaty,  and  control 
problems  arising  from  the  war.  In  Korea,  the  De- 
partment cooperated  with  a  United  Nations  com- 
mission which  carried  out  the  terms  of  the  General 
Assembly  resolution  of  Nov.  14,  1947,  resulting  in 
the  establishment  of  a  Republic  of  Korea  recog- 
nized by  the  United  Nations.  The  Department  took 
part  in  discussions  concerning  an  Austrian  treaty 
in  meetings  of  the  Deputies  of  the  Council  of  For- 
eign Ministers  and  on  a  proposed  protocol  to  the 
Italian  treaty,  with  respect  to  Italian  colonies,  in 
meetings  of  the  Deputies  and  of  the  Foreign  Min- 


isters. Negotiations  regarding  Japanese  problems 
were  continued  in  the  Far  Eastern  Commission. 
The  Soviet  blockade  of  the  western  sectors  of  Ber- 
lin was  the  subject  of  discussions  at  Moscow  and 
Berlin,  which  were  recounted  in  a  documented 
narrative  published  by  the  Department. 

As  an  important  step  toward  the  realization  of 
collective  security  and  world  order,  the  Depart- 
ment encouraged  the  development  of  a  western 
European  union  and  engaged  in  conversations  with 
representatives  of  Belgium,  Canada,  France,  Lux- 
embourg, the  Netherlands,  and  the  United  King- 
dom on  security  problems  of  common  interest  in 
relation  to  the  Vandenberg  Resolution  of  June  11, 
1948.  In  furtherance  of  the  objective  of  the  United 
States  to  achieve  world  peace  through  economic 
security,  the  Department  maintained  close  liaison 
with  the  Economic  Cooperation  Administration, 
developing  policy  on  foreign-assistance  programs, 
aiding  in  the  development  and  conclusion  of  agree- 
ments with  the  participating  countries,  and  cur- 
rently exchanging  pertinent  information  with  die 
Administration  and  its  staff.  Two  United  States  ob- 
servers were  sent  by  the  Department  to  the  Rome 
Manpower  Conference  attended  by  representatives 
of  the  16  countries  which  had  participated  in  the 
Paris  Conference  of  the  OEEC  (Organization  for 
European  Economic  Co-operation). 

Developments  in  the  organizational  structure  of 
the  Department  during  the  year  included  the  re- 
organization of  the  overseas-information  and  edu- 
cational-exchange units;  the  designation  of  public 
leaders  to  comprise  Advisory  Commissions  for  In- 
formation and  Educational  Exchange;  the  estab- 
lishment of  media  for  close  coordination  with  the 
Economic  Cooperation  Administration  regarding 
foreign-policy  aspects  of  the  European  recovery 
program;  and  the  establishment  of  an  Interim  Of- 
fice for  German  Affairs,  to  perform  consular  func- 
tions for  German  nationals  in  the  United  States. 

In  the  Foreign  Service,  diplomatic  missions  were 
newly  established  in  Ceylon,  Israel,  and  Korea, 
and  the  Legation  in  Afghanistan  was  elevated  to 
Embassy  status.  Personnel  changes  in  the  Foreign 
Service  included  the  appointment  of  new  or  first 
Ambassadors  to  19  countries  and  new  or  first  Min- 
isters to  5  countries.  Realignment  of  consular  work 
in  various  parts  of  the  world  to  meet  changed  con- 
ditions involved  the  closing  of  19  Consulates,  the 
opening  of  13,  and  changes  in  the  status  of  9  other 
posts.  Paul  C.  Daniels  was  appointed  as  the  first 
United  States  Representative  on  the  Council  of 
the  Organization  of  American  States,  established 
in  accordance  with  trie  Charter  adopted  at  Bogoti. 

High-ranking  officers  of  the  Department  as  of 
Dec.  20,  1948,  were  as  follows:  Secretary  of  State, 
George  C.  Marshall;  Under  Secretary  of  State, 
Robert  A.  Lovett;  Counselor,  Charles  E.  Bohlen. 
The  six  positions  of  Assistant  Secretary  of  State 
and  the  incumbents  were:  Economic  Affairs,  Wil- 
lard  L.  Thorp;  Political  Affairs,  vacant,  Norman 
Armour  having  resigned  during  the  year;  Occupied 
Areas,  Charles  E.  Saltzman;  Transportation  and 
Communications,  Garrison  Norton;  Public  Affairs, 
George  V.  Allen,  who  was  appointed  in  1948;  and 
Administration,  John  E.  Peurifoy.  Ernest  A.  Gross 
was  Legal  Adviser,  and  W.  Park  Armstrong,  Jr. 
was  appointed  as  Special  Assistant  for  Research 
and  Intelligence. 

Assisting  the  Secretary  and  the  Under  Secretary 
were:  George  F.  Kennan  as  Director  of  the  Policy 
Planning  Staff;  Michael  F.  McDermott  as  Special 
Assistant  to  the  Secretary  for  Press  Relations; 
George  C.  McGhee  as  Coordinator  for  Aid  to 
Greece  and  Turkey;  and  Carlisle  H.  Humelsine  as 


STATE 


532 


SUGAR 


Director  of  the  Executive  Secretariat.  Two  newly 
created  posts  were  occupied  by  Henry  R.  Labou- 
isse,  Jr.,  as  Coordinator  for  Foreign  Aid  and  Assist- 
ance, and  Wilbert  Chapman  as  Special  Assistant 
for  the  handling  of  international  fisheries  and  wild- 
life problems. 

The  organization  of  the  Department  is  indicated 
below. 

1.  The  Assistant  Secretary  for  Political  Affairs 
administers  four  Offices,  those  dealing  with  Euro- 
pean, Near  Eastern  and  African,  Far  Eastern,  and 
American  Republic  Affairs.  These  Offices  consist 
respectively    of    (1)    Divisions    dealing    severally 
with  the  British  Commonwealth.,  central  Europe, 
northern  Europe,  eastern  Europe,  southern  Europe, 
and  western  Europe;  (2)  Divisions  concerned  with 
the  Near  East,  south  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  Greek- 
Turkish-Iranian  area;  ( 3 )  the  Divisions  of  Chinese, 
Northeast  Asian,  Southeast  Asian,  and  Philippine 
Affairs;  and   (4)    Divisions  dealing  with  special 
inter-American  affairs,  Mexico,  Caribbean  repub- 
lics, Central  American  republics  and  Panama,  Bra- 
zil, countries  on  the  north  and  west  coast  of  South 
America,  and  River  Plate  countries. 

2.  The  Assistant  Secretary  for  Economic  Affairs 
administers  the  Offices  of  International  Trade  Pol- 
icy, of  Financial  and  Development  Policy,  and  of 
the  Foreign  Liquidation  Commissioner,  consisting 
respectively  of  (1)   Divisions  dealing  with  com- 
mercial policy,  international  resources,  petroleum, 
and  international  labor  and  social  affairs;  (2)  the 
Divisions  of  Financial  Affairs,  Investment  and  Eco- 
nomic Development,  and  Economic-Property  Pol- 
icy; and  (3)  the  Research  and  Statistics,  Adminis- 
trative, Budget  and  Accounting,  Compliance,  and 
General  Disposals  Divisions. 

3.  The  Assistant   Secretary  for  Transportation 
and  Communications  has  jurisdiction  over  the  Of- 
fice of  Transport  and  Communications,  consisting 
of  the  Aviation  and  Telecommunications  Divisions. 

4.  The  Assistant  Secretary  for  Public  Affairs  has 
under   his    jurisdiction    the    UNESCO    Relations 
Staff,  the  Public  Affairs  Overseas  Program  Staff, 
and  the  Offices  of  Public  Affairs,  International  In- 
formation, and  Educational  Exchange.  The  three 
Offices  consist  respectively  of  ( 1 )  the  Divisions  of 
Public  Liaison,  Public  Studies,  Historical  Policy 
Research,  and  Publications;  (2)  the  Secretariat  of 
the  United  States  Advisory  Commission  on  In- 
formation, and  the  International  Press  and  Publica- 
tions,   International    Broadcasting,    and    Interna- 
tional Motion   Pictures   Divisions;    and    (3)    the 
Secretariats  of  the  United  States  Advisory  Com- 
mission on  Educational  Exchange  and  of  the  Inter- 
departmental Committee  on  Scientific  and  Cultural 
Cooperation,  and  the  Divisions  of  Libraries  and 
Institutes  and  of  Exchange  of  Persons. 

5.  The  Assistant   Secretary  for  Administration 
is  responsible  for  four  Offices,  concerned  with  the 
Foreign    Service,     Departmental    administration, 
budget  and  planning,  and  controls,  and  consist- 
ing respectively  of  (1)  the  Divisions  of  Foreign 
Service  Planning,  Foreign  Service  Personnel,  For- 
eign Reporting  Services,  Foreign  Service  Admin- 
istration, and  Foreign  Buildings  Operations,  and 
the  Foreign  Service  Institute;  (2)  the  Divisions  of 
Departmental  Personnel,  Central  Services,  Com- 
munications and  Records,  Cryptography,  Interna- 
tional Conferences,  and  Language  Services;    (3) 
the  Divisions  of  Finance  and  of  Organization  and 
Budget;  and  (4)  Divisions  responsible  for  policies 
concerning  passports,  visas,  protective  services,  se- 
curity, and  munitions. 

6.  The  Assistant  Secretary  for  Occupied  Areas 
is  responsible  for  the  coordination  of  Department 


of  State  policies  with  respect  to  the  occupation  and 
government  of  occupied  areas,  to  arms  and  arma- 
ment matters,  to  refugees  and  displaced  persons, 
and  to  questions  coming  before  the  Far  Eastern 
Commission.  He  provides  Department  of  State 
representation  on  the  State-Army-Navy-Air  Force 
Coordinating  Committee. 

7.  The  Legal  Adviser  is  responsible  for  all  mat- 
ters of  a  legal  character  concerning  the  Depart- 
ment and  the  Foreign  Service.  His  Office  includes 
Assistant  Legal  Advisers  for  Political  Affairs,  In- 
ternational  Claims,    Administration    and    Foreign 
Service,  Public  Affairs,  International-Organization 
Affairs,  Economic  Affairs,  Military  Affairs  and  Oc- 
cupied Areas,  and  Special  Problems,  and  an  As- 
sistant for  Treaty  Affairs. 

8.  The  Special  Assistant  to  the  Secretary  for 
Research  and  Intelligence  has  jurisdiction  over  the 
Office  of  Intelligence  Research  and  the  Office  of 
Libraries  and  Intelligence  Acquisition,   consisting 
respectively  of  (1)  the  Divisions  of  Research  for 
American  Republics,  Europe,  Far  East,  and  Near 
East  and  Africa,  and  the  Division  of  International 
and  Functional  Intelligence;  and  (2)  the  Divisions 
of  Library   and   Reference   Services,   Acquisition 
and  Distribution,   and  Biographic  Information. 

9.  The  Office  of  United  Nations  Affairs,  com- 
prising the  Divisions  of  United  Nations  Political 
Affairs,  United  Nations  Economic  and  Social  Af- 
fairs, International  Security  Affairs,  and  Depend- 
ent Area  Affairs,  serves  as  the  focal  point  of  the 
Department  for  coordination   and  integration  of 
matters  relating  to  American  participation  in  the 
United  Nations  and  in  related  specialized  and  re- 
gional international  organizations. 

SUEZ  CANAl.  A  sea-level  canal,  103  miles  long, 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  connecting  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  owned  by  the 
French  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Maritime 
de  Suez,  in  which  the  government  of  Great  Britain 
holds  295,026  shares  of  a  total  of  652,932.  A  board 
of  32  administrators  governs  the  canal.  In  June  the 
former  U.S.  Ambassador  to  Turkey,  S.  Pickney 
Tuck,  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  board,  the 
first  American  to  act  in  that  capacity.  The  conces- 
sion held  by  the  French  company  will  expire  on 
Nov.  17,  1968,  when  it  will  revert  to  the  Egyptian 
government. 

The  number  of  ships  passing  through  the  canal 
in  1939  and  1946,  with  net  tonnages,  and  total 
receipts,  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 

Year  -      Ships        Net  tonnage       Receipts  (franca) 

1939 5.277         29,573,394         1.389,199,381 

1946 5,235         33,239,833         6,523,785,799 

Of  the  total  number  of  ships  ( excluding  military 
vessels)  passing  through  the  canal  in  1946,  Great 
Britain  led  with  2,311  ships  aggregating  12,711,578 
net  tons,  followed  by  the  United  States  with  785 
ships  of  5,645,750  net  tons;  Norway  312  ships, 
1,816,297  net  tons;  Netherlands  244  ships,  1,735,- 
071  net  tons;  France  95  ships,  640,331  net  tons, 
A  total  of  1,046  warships  and  transports  of  9,008,- 
589  net  tonnage  passed  through  the  canal  in  1946. 
In  the  same  year  925,924  civil  and  military  passen- 
gers went  through  the  canal. 

SUGAR.  The  world  output  of  beet  and  cane  sugar 
for  the  1948-49  season  was  estimated  at  37,664,- 
000  short  tons  (raw  value),  11  percent  more  than 
the  83,869,000  tons  produced  in  1947-48.  Major 
increases  in  Mexico,  Europe  generally,  the  U.S.S.R., 
India,  Pakistan,  the  Philippines,  Formosa,  Java, 


SULFUR 


533 


Australia,  and  Hawaii  more  than  offset  decreases' 
in  the  United  States  and  Cuba.  The  world  output 
for  1948-49  (considering  the  production  in  India 
and  Pakistan  in  terms  of  gur — a  low  grade  of 
brown  sugar)  was  the  largest  on  record  and  com- 
pared with  the  previous  high  of  36,238,000  short 
tons  produced  in  the  1939-40  season. 

In  North  and  Central  America,  including  the 
West  Indies,  the  output  of  sugar  was  estimated  at 
11,285,000  short  tons,  compared  with  12,004,000 
tons  in  1947-48.  Sugar  production  in  South  Amer- 
ica was  expected  to  total  3,151,000  tons  in  1948-49, 
compared  with  3,171,000  tons  in  1947-48.  The 
preliminary  estimate  of  sugar  output  in  the  United 
States  for  1948-49  was  1,850,000  short  tons,  com- 
pared with  the  1947-49  output  of  2,208,000  tons. 

SULFUR.  Heavy  domestic  and  world  demand  for 
sulfur  caused  domestic  producers  to  mine  more 
than  4.8  million  long  tons  in  1948  (1947:  4,441,- 
214  tons),  about  600,000  tons  above  total  world 
estimated  production  in  1946.  Apparent  consump- 
tion by  domestic  and  foreign  consumers  was  high- 
er than  that  of  the  record  year  1947,  4,839,548 
long  tons.  Mines  in  Texas  produced  the  major 
share  of  this  all-time-high  output,  the  remainder 
coming  mainly  from  Louisiana. 

SUPREME  COURT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  In  1948  the 
Supreme  Court  was  composed  of  the  following 
members:  Chief  Justice,  Fred  M.  Vinson  (1946); 
Associate  Justices:  Hugo  L.  Black  (1937);  Stanley 
Reed  (1938);  Felix  Frankfurter  (1939):  William  O. 
Douglas  (1939);  Frank  Murphy  (1940);  Robert  H. 
Jackson  (1941);  Wiley  Rutledge  (1943);  Harold  H. 
Burton  (1945);  Associate  Justice  (resigned),  Owen  J. 
Roberts  (1930). 

The  dates  used  indicate  the  year  which  included 
nomination,  confirmation,  and  entry  upon  duty. 
Under  present  law  a  justice  who  retires  remains  a 
"member  of  the  Court/* 

The  officers  of  the  Supreme  Court,  in  1948,  were: 
Clerk,  Charles  Elmore  Cropley  (1927);  Marshal, 
Thomas  E.  Waggaman  (1938);  Reporter,  Walter 
Wyatt  (1946);  Librarian,  Helen  Newman  (1947), 
See  LAW. 

SURINAM  (Netherlands  Guiana).  A  colony  On  the 
northern  coast  of  South  America,  belonging  to  the 
Netherlands.  Area,  54,291  square  miles.  Population 
(1946),  203,580,  including  the  Negroes  and  In- 
dians living  in  the  forests.  Chief  towns:  Paramaribo 
(capital),  73,067  inhabitants,  Nieuw  Nickerie,  5,- 
000,  Albina,  Coronie,  and  Moengo.  Education 
(1945):  115  schools  and  26,496  students.  The 
principal  agricultural  products  are  sugar,  rice, 
maize,  coffee,  cacao,  balata,  bananas,  oranges,  mo- 
lasses, rum,  and  timber.  Minerals  produced  include 
bauxite,  gold,  and  salt.  Trade  (1946):  imports 
15,710,868  guilders;  exports  11,513,612  guilders. 
Shipping  (1946):  381  vessels  of  747,128  register 
tons  cleared.  Finance  (1947):  revenue  9,207,000 
guilders;  expenditure  9,216,000  guilders.  The  ex- 
ecutive authority  and  administration  are  under  a 
governor,  assisted  by  an  advisory  council.  There 
is  a  representative  body  called  the  States  of  Suri- 
nam consisting  of  15  members  ( 5  appointed  by  the 
governor  and  10  elected  by  the  voters).  Governor: 
Willem  Huender. 

SVALBARD  (Spitsbergen).  An  arctic  archipelago  ( 10° 
to  35°  E.  and  74°  to  81°  N.)  owned  by  Norway. 
The  principal  islands  are  West  Spitsbergen  (or 
Mainland),  North  East  Land,  Prince  Charles  Fore- 
land, Edge  Island,  Barents  Land,  King  Karl's  Land, 


SWEDEN 

Hope  Island,  and  Bear  Island  (69  sq.  mi.).  Total 
area,  24,294  square  miles.  Population  on  Jan.  1, 
1940,  about  1,000.  Green  Harbor  (capital),  New 
Aalesund,  Coles  Bay,  Longyearbyen,  and  Braganza 
Bay  were  the  main  settlements,  all  on  the  western 
coast  of  West  Spitsbergen.  Coal  is  the  chief  prod- 
uct (342,000  metric  tons  in  1947  and  429,600  in 
1948). 

SWAZILAND.  A  British  protectorate  in  southern  Af- 
rica, at  the  southeastern  comer  of  the  Transvaal. 
Area,  6,705  square  miles.  Population  (1946  cen- 
sus): 186,880,  including  183,362  Bantu  natives, 
2,871  Europeans,  and  641  colored.  Capital,  Mba- 
bane. Agriculture  and  cattle  raising  are  important 
occupations  of  the  people.  Cotton,  tobacco,  maize, 
sorghums,  pumpkins,  groundnuts,  beans,  and  sweet 
potatoes  are  the  main  agricultural  products.  Live- 
stock (1947):  434,995  cattle,  25,865  sheep,  125,- 
503  goats,  and  7,769  pigs.  Minerals  produced  in- 
cluded asbestos,  tinstone,  and  gold.  Swaziland  is 
united  with  the  Union  of  South  Africa  for  customs 
purposes,  and  receives  a  proportionate  share  of  the 
customs  dues  collected.  The  territory  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  resident  commissioner  acting  for  the 
High  Commissioner  for  the  British  High  Commis- 
sion Territories  in  South  Africa.  Native  chiefs  con- 
tinue to  rule  their  tribes. 

SWEDEN.  A  constitutional  monarchy  of  Scandinavia. 
Capital,  Stockholm.  Sovereign,  Gustav  V,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  on  Dec.  8,  1907. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  173,398  square  miles. 
The  estimated  population,  on  July  1,  1947,  was 
6,803,000.  Vital  statistics  (1947):  birth  rate,  18.9 
per  1,000;  death  rate,  10.8;  marriage  rate,  8.6. 
Chief  cities  (with  1948  est  pop.):  Stockholm, 
703,000  (Greater  Stockholm,  895,000);  Gothen- 
burg, 337,000;  Malmo,  181,000. 

Education  and  Religion.  Education  in  the  public 
elementary  schools  is  free  and  compulsory.  Chil- 
dren not  attending  schools  under  government  su- 
pervision must  furnish  proof  of  having  been  pri- 
vately educated.  In  1944  the  elementary  schools 
had  519,302  students.  The  203  secondary  schools, 
in  1946,  had  a  total  of  63,826  students;  in  addition 
there  were  military,  navigation,  agriculture,  veteri- 
nary, and  other  special  schools.  In  1946  the  uni- 
versities at  Gothenburg,  Lund,  Stockholm,  and 
Uppsala  had  a  total  of  9,122  students  enrolled,  The 
majority  (90  percent)  of  the  population  adhere  to 
the  Lutheran  Protestant  Church.  Protestant  Dis- 
senters, Roman  Catholics,  Jews,  and  some  others 
make  up  the  minority. 

Production.  Sweden  s  harvest  of  bread  grains  in 
1948  amounted  to  about  950,000  tons.  This  is  75 

Eercent  more  than  in  1947,  when  the  crops  failed, 
ut  12  percent  less  than  the  average.  Livestock 
(1946  census):  2,869,429  cattle;  1,165,234  swine; 
592,782  horses;  482,013  sheep;  9,055,916  chickens. 
Mining  is  the  leading  industry  of  Sweden.  Min- 
eral and  metallurgical  output  (in  metric  tons) 
during  1947  included:  iron  ore  (for  1946),  6,867,- 
000;  pig  iron,  718,800;  steel  ingots,  1,188,000. 
Other  principal  mineral  and  metallurgical  prod- 
ucts were  ferro-alloys,  manganese  ore,  tungsten, 
copper,  zinc,  aluminum,  peat,  and  shale  oil.  Ball 
bearings,  cream  separators,  lighthouse  apparatus, 
telephone  supplies,  motors,  and  many  kinds  of 
electrical  machinery  are  produced  by  the  metal- 
lurgical industries. 

The  public  forests  cover  approximately  7^  mil- 
lion hectares  and  yielded  7,961,000  cubic  meters 
of  timber  in  1944.  Value  of  sawmill  production  in 
1945  was  432  million  kronor,  that  of  furniture  fac- 


SVVFDFN 


534 


SWEDEN 


tories  408  million  kroner,  and  wood-pulp  factories 
433,450,000  kronor. 

Fur  production  in  1946  totaled  71,011  pelts  of 
several  varieties  of  fox  fur.  At  the  end  of  1947  there 
was  a  total  of  200,000  gross  tons  of  merchant  ship- 
ping under  construction  in  Swedish  yards. 

Foreign  Trade.  Sweden's  imports  in  1948  were 
valued  at  4,876  million  kronor  ( 10  months  actual, 
2  months  estimated),  considerably  less  than  the 
1947  figure  of  5,175  million.  Exports  for  the  same 
periods  were  3,750  million  and  3,220  million  kro- 
nor, respectively. 

Finance.  Government  revenue  for  1948-49  was 
estimated  at  4,769  million  kronor  in  the  budget 
presented  to  the  Riksdag  on  Jan.  12,  1948.  Ex- 
penditures were  set  at  4,230  million  kronor.  Total 
national  debt  on  Sept.  30,  1947,  amounted  to  11,- 
015  million  kronor. 

Transportation.  The  roads  of  Sweden,  on  July  1, 
1947,  totaled  56,100  miles.  At  the  end  of  1945  the 
railroads  totaled  16,717  kilometres,  of  which  12,- 
041  kilometres  miles  were  owned  by  the  state. 
Commercial  airlines  link  the  chief  cities  and  main- 
tain services,  together  with  foreign  companies, 
with  nearby  foreign  countries.  The  Swedish  mer- 
cantile marine,  on  July  1,  1947,  comprised  2,078 
ships  aggregating  1,755,060  gross  tons. 

Government.  The  Constitution  of  1809,  as  subse- 
quently amended,  vested  executive  power  in  a 
hereditary  King,  acting  under  the  advice  of  a 
Council  of  State  (Cabinet),  which  is  responsible 
to  the  Diet  or  Riksdag.  The  Upper  Chamber  of  the 
Riksdag  has  150  members,  one-eighth  of  whom  are 
elected  annually  by  provincial  and  city  councils; 
the  Lower  Chamber  has  230  members,  elected  by 
direct  male  and  female  suffrage  for  four  years. 
Party  strength  m  this  House,  as  a  result  of  the 
general  election  of  Sept.  19,  1948  (see  below,  un- 
der Events):  Social  Democrats,  112;  People's 
Party  (Liberals),  57;  Farmers*  Union,  30;  Con- 
servatives, 22;  Communists,  9.  Prime  Minister  ( ap- 
pointed Oct.  10,  1946):  Tage  Erlander. 

Events,  1948.  "In  the  present  situation,  Great 
Britain  appears  to  realize  better  than  the  faraway 
United  States  that  a  well-armed,  neutral  Sweden 
is  a  not  entirely  useless  breakwater  on  the  other 
side  of  the  North  Sea/'  With  this  commentary,  the 
Morgan  Tidningen,  mouthpiece  of  the  Erlander, 
Government,  sounded  the  keynote  of  Swedish  pol- 
icy in  an  editorial  published  in  mid-October.  By 
that  time  it  had  become  clear  that  Sweden,  unlike 
her  Scandinavian  neighbors,  was  relying  on  her 
armed  strength  and  time-tested  neutrality,  rather 
than  the  protection  of  the  Western  European  bloc 
or  of  the  proposed  Atlantic  Union,  to  safeguard 
her  freedom  and  independence  in  the  event  of  a 
third  world  war. 

For  Sweden,  the  situation  in  1948  was  not  much 
different  from  what  it  had  been  in  the  heyday  of 
Hitler's  power.  By  their  national  aspirations  and 
ideological  sympathies,  the  Swedes  were  unmis- 
takably in  the  Western  camp,  yet  at  the  same 
time  they  were  uncomfortably  aware  of  the  over- 
powering nearness  of  a  strong  and  ruthless  neigh- 
bor, inclined  to  take  umbrage  at  the  slightest  prov- 
ocation. Under  the  circumstances  the  Swedes  could 
hardly  be  blamed  for  putting  their  trust  once  again 
in  absolute  neutrality. 

In  the  face  of  several  fairly  plain  hints  from  the 
West  that  a  Scandinavian  defense  pact,  analogous 
to  that  of  the  five-power  Western  Union,  was  re- 
garded as  an  indispensable  prerequisite  to  western 
European  security,  Sweden  stood  her  ground.  She 
was  ready  to  talk  joint  defenses  with  Denmark  and 
Norway,  but  only  on  condition  that  there  be  no 


tie-up  with  the  military  system  sponsored  by  the 
United  States  and  Britain. 

This  Swedish  attitude  found  expression  both  in 
the  preparatory  talks  leading  to  the  establishment 
of  the  Scandinavian  Defense  Committee  on  Octo- 
ber 15  (see  also  NORWAY)  and  in  the  subsequent 
deliberations  of  that  body.  The  decision  to  form 
such  a  committee  was  made  at  a  conference  in 
Stockholm  (September  8-9)  of  the  Defense  Min- 
isters of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark.  The 
Committee  itself  also  held  a  series  of  meetings  in 
Stockholm  (November  15-17).  While  no  com- 
munique was  issued,  it  was  officially  stated  that 
the  delegates  had  reached  an  understanding  of  the 
three  countries7  strategic  problems,  which  made 
for  a  clearer  valuation  of  a  defense  cooperation. 

Twice  during  the  year,  in  March  and  in  Novem- 
ber, General  Helge  Jung,  commander-in-chief  of 
Sweden's  armed  forces,  called  for  a  strengthening 
of  national  defenses  in  view  of  the  growing  inter- 
national tension.  An  additional  defense  appropria- 
tion of  205  million  kronor  for  the  purchase  of  new 
material,  especially  for  the  Air  Corps,  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  Riksdag  late  in  April.  In  every  branch 
of  the  armed  forces,  measures  were  taken  to  bring 
military  preparedness  up  to,  or  even  beyond,  the 
levels  maintained  during  World  War  II.  Security 
regulations,  especially  in  the  strategic  northern 
provinces,  were  tightened. 

Count  Folke  Bernadotte,  a  nephew  of  the  King, 
was  appointed  United  Nations  Mediator  in  Pales- 
tine on  May  21,  1948.  On  September  17,  upon  his 
return  to  Palestine  from  Crete,  he  was  assassinated 
in  Jerusalem.  (See  also  entry  under  NECROLOGY.) 

The  General  Election.  On  the  domestic  scene,  the 
principal  event  of  the  year  was  a  general  election 
to  the  Second  Chamber  of  the  Riksdag,  held  on 
September  19.  The  very  lively  campaign  centered 
around  economic  issues.  In  a  determined  attempt 
to  end  the  alleged  "economic  misrule"  of  the  So- 
cial Democrats,  the  three  non-Communist  opposi- 
tion parties  (Conservatives,  Liberals  or  People's 
Party,  and  the  Farmers*  Union)  banded  together 
in  one  election  bloc.  This  arrangement  made  it 
possible  for  the  three  parties  to  pool  their  votes 
when  one  of  their  candidates  failed  to  secure  a 
separate  majority. 

The  combined  onslaught  failed,  however,  to  at- 
tain its  goal.  While  one  of  the  opposition  groups, 
the  People's  Party,  scored  an  impressive  victory, 
more  than  doubling  its  strength  in  the  Riksdag, 
its  gains  were  made  for  the  most  part  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  partners  in  the  election  bloc.  The  So- 
cial Democrats  did  lose  a  good  deal  of  votes  to  the^ 
opposition  bloc  as  a  whole,  but  they  were  able  to' 
recoup  part  of  their  losses  by  cutting  heavily  into 
Communist  strength.  The  Communists*  poor  show- 
ing was  due  largely  to  the  popular  reaction  against 
events  in  Czechoslovakia  and  Finland.  The  total 
vote  was  substantially  higher  than  in  1944.  Here 
are  the  detailed  figures,  with  those  for  the  preced- 
ing election  (1944)  shown  in  brackets: 

Social  Democrats:  1,701,957  votes  and  112  seats 
[1,436,571  and  115];  People's  Party;  814,123 
votes  and  57  seats  [398,293  and  26];  Farmers* 
Union:  474,075  votes  and  30  seats  [421,094  and 
35];  Conservatives:  448,308  votes  and  22  seats 
[488,921  and  39];  Communists;  237,135  votes  and 
9  seats  [318,466  and  15]. 

Although  the  Social  Democrats  retained  a  slight 
margin  of  control  in  the  House — except  in  the  un- 
likely event  of  a  joint  opposition  vote  including  the 
Communists — Premier  Erlander  immediately  after 
the  election  made  a  bid  for  Agrarian  support  He 
offered  to  form  a  coalition  government  of  his  own 


SWEDISH  LITERATURE 


535 


SWEDISH  LITERATURE 


party^  and  the  Farmers*  Union,  "but  rejected  the 
latter's  proposal  that  the  Liberals  and  Conserva- 
tives should  also  be  included,  as  during  the  war. 
"To  join  formally  in  one  Cabinet  forces  which 
strive  at  different  directions,  and  therefore  can  be 
expected  to  neutralize  each  other,  would  mean  to 
paralyze  the  power  of  action  which  today  is  so  nec- 
essary in  order  to  pursue  a  clear  and  determined 
economic  policy/'  Erlander  declared.  As  a  result, 
the  Farmers'  Union,  on  October  18,  declined  to 
enter  the  Government.  Thus  the  Social  Democratic 
Cabinet  remained  in  power,  except  for  a  minor  re- 
shuffle of  portfolios  on  October  28.  (Previously, 
on  September  22,  Minister  of  Trade  Axel  Gjoeres 
had  been  replaced  by  John  Ericsson  in  a  policy 
disagreement. ) 

The  Economic  Situation.  Economic  conditions 
showed  signs  of  improvement  during  the  year, 
with  the  outlook  at  the  end  of  1948  considerably 
better  than  it  had  been  a  year  earlier.  The  dollar 
shortage  continued,  though  somewhat  less  acute, 
and  rigid  import  controls  had  to  be  maintained. 
Only  bread  was  taken  off  the  rationing  list,  early 
in  October,  while  meat,  fats,  butter,  sugar,  coffee, 
and  gasoline  stayed  on  the  list. 

Industrial  production  was  at  a  high  level 
throughout  the  year.  The  export  of  iron  ore,  which 
had  slumped  after  the  war,  increased  substantially 
as  both  Western  Germany  and  the  Polish-Czech 
economic  combine  in  Silesia  contracted  for  new 
deliveries.  By  1949,  iron-ore  shipments  were  ex- 
pected to  reach  the  12  million-ton  level  again. 

The  drive  to  increase  exports  while  restricting 
the  importation  of  all  but  essential  goods  paid  off 
during  the  year.  In  October,  Sweden's  foreign 
trade,  for  the  first  time  since  January  1946,  showed 
a  modest  export  surplus.  For  the  year  taken  as  a 
whole,  there  would  still  be  an  import  surplus, 
which  was  expected,  however,  to  be  less  than  half 
that  of  1947.  — JOACHIM  JOESTEN 

SWEDISH  LITERATURE.  On  the  whole,  the  year  1948 
was  an  uneventful  one  on  the  Swedish  book  mar- 
ket. Few  Swedish  authors  gave  their  very  best;  no 
new  talent  of  real  size  appeared;  the  literary  de- 
bate went  on  without  raising  remarkable  issues  or 
giving  impressive  answers.  The  situation  in  Swe- 
den was  rather  like  that  in  America,  in  England, 
in  France,  and  in  the  other  Scandinavian  countries; 
the  comparative  meagerness  of  the  Swedish  crop 
is  not  surprising. 

There  were,  however,  in  Sweden  as  in  other 
countries,  some  exceptions  from  the  universal  rule. 
Harry  Martinson  published  a  volume  called  Vagen 
till  Klocknke  (The  Way  to  Klockrike).  Some  of 
his  work  has  previously  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish; he  came  to  literature  from  the  forecastles  of 
many  freighters  and  has  written  poetry  and  prose, 
both  equally  imaginative  and  expressive,  about  his 
experiences  as  a  sailor,  his  poor  childhood  in  south- 
ern Sweden,  and  about  the  Swedish  landscape. 
This  new  book  is  a  novel,  and  a  good  one.  It  is 
about  a  hobo,  who  chooses  to  be  one,  and  what 
it  feels  like  to  be  an  outlaw;  it  is  an  amusing  book 
but  also  a  serious  one,  containing  an  abundance 
of  fancyful  ideas  and  descriptions  of  persons  and 
places,  but  also  a  vision  of  peacefulness  which  has 
a  quality  of  almost  mystic  sincerity.  From  the  be- 
ginning of  his  career,  Harry  Martinson  has  be- 
longed to  the  artistic  frontiersmen  of  Swedish  lit- 
erature. 

The  other  prose  writer  who  published  a  really 
outstanding  book  this  year  arrived  at  her  present 
position  by  way  of  the  trial  and  error  method.  She 
is  Stina  Aronson,  who  during  her  25  years  as  an 


author  has  w  written  numerous  books  in  various 
styles.  In  her  two  latest  works,  Hitom  hirnlen  ( This 
Side  of  Heaven),  a  novel;  and  Sang  till  poktjar- 
nan  (Chant  to  the  Polar-Star),  a  collection  of  short 
stories  in  which  she  has  used  her  experiences  as 
the  wife  of  a  T.B.  doctor  in  the  Finnish-populated 
wilderness  of  'northern  Sweden.  These  two  books 
are  the  first  to  describe  these  primitive  souls  with 
real  insight;  they  also  manage  to  reproduce  the 
snowbound  stillness  of  the  country  in  a  highly  sug- 
gestive and  remarkably  artistic  way. 

If  the  year  offered  few  literary  top  results,  there 
appeared,  however,  an  unusually  large  amount  of 
serious,  rather  effective,  and  promising  things; 
compared  to  the  American  book  market,  the  pro- 
portion of  pure  entertainment  is  small.  A  choosy 
reader  was  able  to  find  at  least  twenty  prose  books 
worth  while;  but  it  would  be  of  little  use  to  mobi- 
lize a  company  of  names  which  an  American  read- 
er had  never  heard  of  and  probably  never  will 
hear  of  again. 

Poetry.  There  was  some  good  poetry  published, 
especially  in  new  volumes  by  Ragnar  Bengtsson 
and  Elsa  Grave.  The  new  Swedish  poetry  is  writ- 
ten by  people  who  are  extremely  well  read  in  the 
works  of  their  American,  English,  and  French  col- 
leagues. The  leading  name  in  the  whole  phalanx 
is  Erik  Lindegren,  a  poet  with  several  similarities 
to  Dylan  Thomas;  in  1948  he  started  a  new  bi- 
monthly, Prisma,  which  attempts  to  be  a  Swedish 
counterpart  to  Horizon.  It  pays  great  attention  to 
developments  abroad  and  has  supplied  the  debate 
with  valuable  stuff.  Finally,  there  appeared  half  a 
dozen  first  novels  or  collections  of  stories  that 
seemed  at  least  promising. 

Non-fiction.  In  the  field  of  non-ficton,  there  were 
several  events  worth  noting.  The  comparatively 
young  Strindberg  expert  Torsten  Eklund  wrote  an 
immense  and  interesting  book  on  Strindberg's  pe- 
culiarities, observed  from  the  viewpoint  of  an  Ad- 
ler  student,  and  the  old  Strindberg  expert  Martin 
Lamm  published  a  learned  and  readable  expose^ 
of  modern  drama  from  Scribe  to  Lorca.  From  a 
Marxist  position,  Per  Olof  Zennstrom  explained 
Picasso  in  a  way  that  could  please  readers  of  other 
denominations,  too,  and  Oscar  Reutersward  pub- 
lished a  study  on  Monet  and  the  impressionists, 
which  should  be  worth  the  attention  of  an  inter- 
national public,  Sten  Selander,  poet  and  critic  of 
Stockholm  extraction,  who  is  also  a  botanist  of 
some  standing,  has  spent  his  last  forty  summers  in 
the  high  mountain  area  of  western  Lapland.  His 
new  book  on  that  country,  its  landscape*  flowers, 
and  few  inhabitants,  is  probably  the  best  tiling  he 
has  ever  written.  Herbert  Tingsten,  editor-in-chief 
of  Dagens  Nyheter,  Sweden's  largest,  militandy 
liberal,  and  anti-isolationist  newspaper,  published 
a  selection  of  his  beliefs  and  dissections,  Argument. 
He  would  remind  an  American  reader  of  Parrrng- 
ton,  Hayek,  and  Edmund  Wilson  (the  critic). 

Despite  what  has  been  said,  there  is,  on  the 
whole,  no  reason  for  book-minded  Swedes  to  la- 
ment conditions.  During  the  last  ten  years  or  so, 
there  has  been  a  remarkable  increase  in  the  inter- 
est in  good  books;  and  the  impression  of  growing 
maturity  was  confirmed  during  the  last  year.  The 
sales  figures  for  valuable  literature  have  risen  con- 
siderably, while  the  interest  in  things  of  no  con- 
sequence is  on  the  downgrade. 

Translations.  Most  American  and  English — and 
some  German,  French,  and  Italian — novels  of  im- 
portance are  translated  shortly  after  their  publica- 
tion in  their  home  countries.  Among  translations 
which  appeared  in  Sweden  during  1948,  and 
which  aroused  great  interest,  were  Thomas  Manr/s 


SWIMMING 


536 


SWITZERLAND 


Doctor  Faustus,  T.  S.  Eliot's  Four  Quartets,  Gra- 
ham Greene's  The  Heart  of  the  Matter,  Edmund 
Wilson's  Memoirs  of  Hecate  County,  Christopher 
Sykes'  Four  Studies  in  Loyalty,  and  Carlo  Levi's 
Christ  Stopped  at  Eboli.  There  were  also  quite  a 
few  new  editions  of  the  classics,  including  some 
minor  American  classics,  which  previously  had 
been  overlooked  by  Swedish  publishers,  among 
them  Faulkner's  As  I  Lay  Dying,  John  O'Hara's 
Appointment  in  Samarra,  and  Eudora  Welty's  A 
Curtain  of  Green. 

Reprints.  Perhaps  the  most  important  feature  of 
the  book  year,  however,  was  the  large  amount  of 
good  books  in  cheap  editions.  Although  the  num- 
ber of  bookstores  in  Sweden  is  relatively  much 
larger  than  that  in  America — and  also  the  stores 
are  much  better  stocked — there  are  naturally  vast 
areas  in  the  country  where  no  books  are  available; 
and  Sweden  has  no  book  clubs  of  the  American 
type.  During  1948,  the  63/£  million  Swedes  bought 
well  over  2  million  books  in  cheap  editions,  com- 
parable for  instance  to  Bantam  Books,  at  a  price 
of  about  40  cents  a  copy;  the  main  outlets  were 
newsstands  and  tobacconists.  This  is  much  more 
than  any  previous  year,  and  might  be  of  great 
value  for  the  education  of  a  literary  public  in  the 
future. 

Awards.  Sweden's  largest  and  most  coveted  lit- 
erary prize,  awarded  by  Samfundet  De  Nio  (The 
Society  of  Nine),  went  to  Sigfrid  Lands trom,  a 
poet  and  writer  of  philosophical  contes,  who  has 
a  small  but  fastidious  and  fanatical  following. 

— THORSTEN  JONSSON 

SWIMMING.  Feats  of  American  swimmers  in  the 
Olympics,  when  men  and  women  from  the  United 
States  scored  the  most  impressive  triumph  in  the 
history  of  the  games,  proved  the  high  mark  of  the 
sport  in  1948.  As  is  customary  in  the  aquatic  sport, 
records  tumbled  so  frequently  that  scorers  had  a 
hard  time  keeping  in  the  swim. 

A  feature  of  the  campaign  was  the  comeback  of 
Alan  Ford,  free-style  star.  Among  the  new  world 
standards  was  Ford's  mark  of  fifty-five  and  four- 
tenth  seconds  (0:55.4)  for  100  meters.  Ford  also 
combined  with  his  New  Haven  S.C.  teammates, 
Edward  Hueber,  Frank  Dooley,  and  Howard  John- 
son to  establish  relay  marks  of  3:23.8  for  400 
yards  and  3:48.6  for  400  meters. 

Allen  Stack  of  the  New  Haven  S.C.  established 
backstroke  times  of  1:04  for  100  meters  and  5:03.9 
for  400  meters,  while  Joe  Verdeur  of  the  Atlantic 
City  Brighton-Drake  S.C.  continued  his  assault  on 
breast-stroke  records  with  a  clocking  of  2:14,7  for 
200  yards  and  2:30  for  200  meters.  Michigan  Uni- 
versity's medley  trio  of  Harry  Holiday,  Robert 
Sohl  and  Richard  Weinberg  clipped  the  300-yard 
relay  standard  from  2:50.5  to  2:49.2. 

Ohio  State  University's  squad  captured  the  na- 
tional A.A.U.  indoor  championship,  the  outdoor 
team  honors  going  to  the  Brighton-Drake  S.C.  The 
Crystal  Plunge  squad  of  San  Francisco,  led  by 
comely  Ann  Curtis  who  later  turned  professional, 
swam  away  with  team  crowns  in  both  women's 
national  A.A.U.  meets.  Ohio  State  was  dethroned 
by  Michigan  as  National  Collegiate  Athletic  As- 
sociation ruler. 

Men's  national  A.A.U.  outdoor  champions  were: 
Robert  Nugent,  New  York  A.C.,  100  meters  free 
style;  Ed  Gilbert,  Austin,  Texas,  200;  Jimmy  Mc- 
Lane,  New  Haven  S.C.,  400  and  800;  Jack  Taylor, 
Firestone  Club,  Akron,  Ohio,  1,500;  Allen  Stack, 
100  back  stroke;  Joe  Verdeur,  200  breast  stroke 
and  300  medley;  Brighton-Drake  S.C.,  300  medley 
relay;  New  Haven  S.C.,  800  free-style  relay;  Bruce 


Harland,  Ohio  State,  three  and  ten  meter  dives; 
Forbes  Norris,  Harvard,  long  distance;  University 
Circle  Y.M.C.A.  of  Cleveland,  long  distance  team. 

Senior  indoor  champions  follow:  Wally  Ris, 
Iowa,  100-yard  free  style;  Bill  Smith,  Ohio  State, 
220  and  440  free  style;  Allen  Stack,  150  back 
stroke;  Joe  Verdeur,  220  breast  stroke;  Miller  An- 
derson, Ohio  State,  one  and  three  meter  dives; 
Michigan,  300  medley  relay;  New  Haven  S.C., 
400  relay. 

Women's  national  A.A.U.  outdoor  title  winners 
were:  Ann  Curtis,  100,  400,  and  800  meter  free 
style;  Joan  Mallory,  Crystal  Plunge,  1,500  free 
style;  Sue  Zimmerman,  Multnomah  A-C.  Portland, 
Ore.,  100  and  200  back  stroke;  Jeanne  Wilson, 
Lake  Shore  A.C.,  Chicago,  100  and  200  breast 
stroke;  Barbara  Jensen,  Athens  A.C.,  Oakland, 
Calif.,  300  medley;  Los  Angeles  A.C.,  300  medley 
relay;  Crystal  Plunge,  800  free  style  relay;  Zoe 
Ann  Olsen,  Athens  A.C.,  one  and  three  meter 
dives;  Jean  Lutyena,  Riviera  Club,  Indianapolis, 
long  distance;  Riviera  Club,  long  distance  team. 

Women's  A.A.U.  indoor  champions  were  Marie 
Corridon,  Women's  Swimming  Association,  New 
York,  100-yard  free  style;  Sue  Zimmerman,  100 
and  200  back  stroke;  Carol  Pence,  St.  Louis,  100 
breast  stroke;  Ann  Curtis,  220  and  440  free  style; 
Clara  Lamore,  Providence,  R.I.,  220  breast  stroke; 
Mrs.  Nancy  Merki  Lees,  Multnomah  A.C.,  300 
medley;  Multnomah  A.C.,  300  medley  relay;  Crys- 
tal Plunge,  400  free-style  relay;  Mrs.  Victoria  M. 
Draves,  Los  Angeles,  one  meter  dive;  Zoe  Ann 
Olsen,  three  meter  dive.  See  OLYMPIC  GAMES. 
— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

SWITZERLAND.  An  independent  Federal  Republic  in 
the  center  of  Western  Europe,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Germany,  east  by  Austria  and  Liechten- 
stein, south  by  Italy,  and  west  by  France.  Area: 
15,944  square  miles.  Population  (1948  est):  4,588,- 
000.  Chief  cities:  Bern  (capital),  population  140,- 
000;  Zurich,  377,000;  Basle,  178,000,  Geneva,  146,- 
000;  Lausanne,  103,000.  There  are  four  national 
languages,  German,  French,  Italian,  and  Romansch. 
German  is  spoken  by  71.9  percent  of  the  population 
and  is  the  official  language  of  the  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  in  19  cantons;  French  by  20.4  percent, 
the  official  language  of  5  cantons;  Italian  by  6  per- 
cent, in  the  canton  of  Ticino,  and  Romansch  by  1.1 
percent,  in  the  canton  of  Grisons.  Vital  statistics 
(1947):  births,  87,724;  deaths,  51,384;  marriages 
39,401. 

Education.  Primary  school  attendance  is  compul- 
sory and  free.  There  were  430,332  children  attend- 
ing primary  schools,  and  51,000  secondary  schools 
in  1947.  Commercial,  technical  and  vocational 
schools  form  an  important  part  of  the  educational 
system,  and  private  schools  have  a  high  reputation. 
Seven  cantons  have  their  own  universities — Basle, 
Bern,  Fribourg,  Geneva,  Lausanne,  Neuchatel,  and 
Zurich.  Other  institutes  of  higher  learning  include 
the  Swiss  Federal  Institute  of  Technology  in  Zurich, 
and  the  Swiss  School  of  Economics  and  Public  Ad- 
ministration in  St.  Gall. 

Religion.  The  population  of  the  country  includes 
2,457,242  Protestants;  1,724,205  Catholics;  19,429 
Jews.  The  Protestants  are  in  a  majority  in  12  can- 
tons, of  which  9  are  German  and  3  are  French- 
speaking;  the  Catholics  in  10  cantons,  of  which  7 
are  German  and  2  partly  French,  with  one  Italian- 
speaking. 

Production.  Dairying  and  stock  raising  prevail  in 
the  mountain  regions,  while  crops  are  grown  chiefly 
in  the  lowlands.  In  1947  grain  crops  totaled  95.1 
million  Swiss  francs;  potatoes,  126.5  million  Swiss 


SWITZERLAND 


537 


SYRIA 


francs;  vintage  grapes,  130.0  million  Swiss  francs; 
fruits,  143.7  million  Swiss  francs;  vegetables  165.2 
million  Swiss  francs.  The  gross  income  from  agri- 
cultural products  in  1948  is  estimated  at  2,130.5 
million  Swiss  francs.  Livestock  (1948  census): 
142,085  horses,  1,424,113  cattle,  766,957  hogs.  In 
1947  the  production  of  milk  totaled  20,600  quintals. 
In  the  same  year  the  vineyards  yielded  880,907 
hectoliters  of  wine.  Machinery,  textiles,  clothing, 
chemicals,  metals,  and  watchmaking  are  the  main 
industries.  Other  manufactured  products  are  food- 
stuffs, lumber,  paper,  and  printing.  In  December, 

1947,  there  were  11,215  factories,  employing  520,- 
806  workers.  In  September,  1948,  the  cost  of  liv- 
ing index  was  163.2  (1939  =  100). 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1948  Switzerland's  imports  were 
valued  at  5,004  million  Swiss  francs;  exports  at 
3,432  million  francs.  Principal  exports  (in  millions 
of  Swiss  francs)  were:  machinery  648.6;  instru- 
ments and  apparatus,  203.4;  watches  and  watch 
Earts,  743.5;  dyes,  269;  pharmaceutical  products, 
10;  chemical  products  121.7. 
Transportation.  In  1947  the  state  owned  92  per- 
cent of  the  railroads,  which  comprised  1,767  miles 
of  standard  gage  and  45  miles  of  narrow  gage  lines, 
1,476  miles  being  electrified.   The.  river  port  of 
Basle  affords,  through  the  River  Rhine,  a  vital  link 
with  several  seaports  in  northwestern  Europe.  In 

1948,  the  freight  handled  in  that  port  amounted 
to  2,779,266  tons.  Switzerland's  first  merchant  fleet 
which  arose  as  a  result  of  the  war  emergency  in 
1941  consists  of  13  vessels  (2  under  construction) 
totaling  approximately  40,000  dead  weight  tons. 
Swissair  is  the  only  civil  aviation  company  operat- 
ing international  lines.  Airports  for  the  continental 
air  traffic  are  located  at  Zurich,  Basle,  and  Geneva. 
Geneva  and  Kloten,  near  Zurich,  are  the  airports 
of  inter-continental  traffic. 

Finance.  According  to  the  1947  budget,  revenue 
amounted  to  812,932,000  Swiss  francs;  expenditure 
803,925,000  Swiss  francs.  The  main  source  of  reve- 
nue is  customs;  defense  the  major  item  of  expendi- 
ture. Customs  receipts  for  1947  amounted  to  464,- 
484,000  Swiss  francs. 

Government.  Th£  Swiss  Confederation  is  a  federal 
republic  consisting  of  22  Cantons,  three  of  them 
being  further  sub-divided  into  half-cantons.  Pres- 
ent Federal  Constitution  has  been  in  force  since 
May  29,  1874.  It  vests  supreme  authority  in  a  bi- 
cameral Federal  Assembly  (Council  of  States  and 
National  Council),  and  a  Federal  Council  (the 
executive  authority).  The  Council  of  States  has  44 
members,  two  from  each  Canton  and  one  from 
each  half-canton,  elected  according  to  the  legisla- 
tion of  each  Canton.  The  National  Council  repre- 
sents the  people.  Its  members  are  elected  for  a 
period  of  four  years,  each  representing  22,000  citi- 
zens. Every  male  citizen,  upon  his  20th  year,  may 
vote  and  is  eligible  for  election;  clergymen,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  deputies.  Swiss  representatives 
have  great  freedom  of  action  since  they  are  not 
bound  to  their  party. 

Bern  is  the  seat  of  the  Federal  Council,  the  7 
members  of  which  are  elected  every  four  years  by 
the  Federal  Assembly  (both  chambers  united). 
The  President  and  Vice  President  of  Switzerland 
are  elected,  for  terms  of  one  year  only,  by  the  Fed- 
eral Assembly  and  they  are  the  first  magistrates  of 
the  Republic.  The  President  has  no  special  power. 
However,  he  presides  over  the  Federal  Council 
and  represents  Switzerland  with  foreign  nations. 
President  for  1949  is  Ernest  Nobs;  Vice  President, 
Max  Petitpierre,  The  Federal  Council  may  initiate 
legislation  and  its  members  may  be  present  at  the 
deliberation  to  defend  the  proposed  measure;  re- 
jection of  such  measures  does  not  lead  to  resigna- 


tion of  the  Federal  Council.  On  the  other  hand  the 
Federal  Council  has  no  veto  power  over  the  meas- 
ures approved  by  the  Federal  Assembly. 

The  cantons  are  autonomous  states  with  juris- 
diction in  civil  and  criminal  law,  justice,  police, 
public  works,  and  education.  Their  own  constitu- 
tion is  adapted  to  their  needs  and  varies  in  form 
from  the  ancient  institution  of  the  citizens'  assem- 
bly ( Landsgemeinde )  to  the  parliaments  of  the 
large  cantons.  Active  participation  by  Swiss  voters 
is  by  the  initiative  and  the  referendum.  By  federal 
initiative,  50,000  citizens  may  demand  a  direct 
public  vote  on  questions  or  amendments  of  the 
Federal  Constitution.  By  the  right  of  referendum, 
30,000  voters  or  8  cantons  can  force  the  federal 
law  to  the  plebiscite,  even  though  this  law  may 
have  been  passed  by  both  chambers.  These  two 
measures,  the  initiative  and  the  referendum,  are 
also  granted  by  the  cantons'  constitutions  and  serve 
as  checks  against  despotism  and  party  rule. 

Events,  1948.  Swiss  voters  elected  their  represent- 
atives to  the  National  Council  (see  Government 
above)  and  as  a  result  of  the  election  the  standing 
of  the  various  political  parties  is  as  follows;  Pro- 
gressive Democrats  51,  Conservative  Catholics  44, 
Socialists  49,  peasants,  artisans,  and  bourgeois  21, 
Landesring  9,  Liberals  7,  Democrats  5,  Workers' 
Party  ( Communists )  7,  without  party  affiliation  1. 
The  Council  of  States  consists  of  Progressive  Dem- 
ocrats 11,  Conservative  Catholics  18,  Socialists  5, 
Ssasants,  artisans,  and  bourgeois  4,  Liberals  2, 
empcrats  2,  without  party  affiliation  2. 

With  the  reservation  not  to  enter  into  any  en- 
gagements which  are  incompatible  with  her  prin- 
ciple of  traditional  neutrality,  Switzerland  cooper- 
ates in  the  realization  of  the  Marshall  Plan.  Switzer- 
land's goal  remains  the  most  intensive  development 
of  her  trade  relations  with  as  many  countries  as 
possible  and  she  has  during  the  past  years  granted 
credits  to  other  nations  to  the  amount  of  approxi- 
mately 1,000  million  Swiss  francs. 

Although  Switzerland  has  not  applied  for  mem- 
bership in  the  United  Nations,  by  reason  of  her 
strict  neutrality,  she  was  anxious  to  demonstrate 
her  ardent  desire  for  international  collaboration  in 
all  the  United  Nations  organizations  which  do  not 
deal  with  political  problems.  Switzerland  has  a  seat 
in  the  International  Labor  Organization,  Interna- 
tional Civil  Aviation  Organization,  the  Food  and 
Agricultural  Organization,  the  World  Health  Or- 
ganization, the  UNESCO,  the  International  Tele- 
communications Union,  the  Universal  Postal  Union, 
the  International  Court  of  Justice.  Switzerland  is 
participating  in  the  United  Nations  Conference  on 
Trade  and  Employment  in  Geneva.  She  is  also  a 
member  of  the  International  Children's  Emergency 
Fund  and  has  taken  an  active  part  in  the  United 
Nations  Appeal  for  Children.  The  Swiss  Govern- 
ment contribution  to  this  organization  has  amount- 
ed, in  1948,  to  $1,609,317.  Switzerland's  share  in 
the  United  Nations  Appeal  for  Children  is  put  at 
$156,101.  — H.  W.  HIRS 

SYRIA.  An  Arab  republic  with  a  short  coastline  on 
the  northeastern  corner  of  the  Mediterranean.  (See 
also  ARAB  LEAGUE  AFFAIRS  and  PALESTINE.  ) 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  54,000  square  miles 
of  which  8,000  are  cultivated  and  8,000  more 
cultivable.  Population:  three  million.  Chief  cities: 
Damascus  (capital)  with  over  346,000  inhabitants; 
Aleppo,  337,700.  The  majority  are  Arabs  (includ- 
ing 300,000  Beduin  nomads)  with  Kurdish,  Ar- 
menian, and  Jewish  minorities.  The  overwhelming 
proportion  are  Sunni  Arabs  with  some  other  Mos- 
lem sects  represented  and  an  important  minority 
of  Christians  divided  into  several  sects, 


SYRIA 


538 


TANGANYIKA 


Education.  The  new  government  is  strengthening 
and.  expanding  a  national  system  of  public  instruc- 
tion. In  1945-46  there  were  over  1,000  Syrian  pri- 
mary schools  (one-third  private)  with  147,000 
pupils,  and  64  secondary  schools  (more  than  half 
of  them  private)  with  some  11,500  pupils.  Among 
the  39  foreign  primary  and  secondary  schools  with 
over  4,000  pupils  are  Aleppo  College  (American) 
and  the  young  American  College  at  Damascus 
started  at  the  special  request  of  the  Syrian  Ministry 
of  Education.  The  7  technical  schools  had  almost 
1,000  students,  and  the  Syrian  University  (with 
schools  of  law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  and  dentistry) 
had  over  1,000  students. 

Production.  Almost  all  the  cultivated  land  de- 
pends on  rainfall  and  even  half  of  that  lies  i. allow 
much  of  the  time  because  of  the  population's  mal- 
distribution. River  water  is  abundant  for  irriga- 
tion but  only  a  fraction  of  it  is  used.  Wheat  and 
barley  are  the  leading  cereals;  1948's  wheat  crop 
was  estimated  at  500,000  tons,  200,000  tons  for 
export  (the  1947  harvest  having  been  bad).  To- 
bacco, olives,  fruits,  vegetables,  and  nuts  are  pro- 
duced. Hemp  and  silk  cocoons  are  important  indus- 
trial crops,  but  agricultural  industries  are  still  lim- 
ited. Cement  production  has  gone  up  although  sale 
is  restricted  due  to  loss  of  the  Palestine  market. 
The  few  other  industries  including  textiles,  soap- 
making,  tanning,  and  canning  are  protected  by  rel- 
atively high  tariffs,  modified  in  certain  instances 
by  Syria  and  Lebanon's  adherence  to  the  1947 
Geneva  General  Agreement  on  Tariffs  and  Trade. 

Foreign  Trade  (Syria  and  Lebanon).  Chief  ex- 
ports are  agricultural:  vegetable  products,  textile 
materials,  and  goods.  Among  the  many  imports  are 
textile  materials  and  goods,  vegetable  and  mineral 
products,  metals  and  metal  work,  machinery,  and 
means  of  transport.  In  1947  exports  totaled  £S83.6 
million,  chiefly  to  Palestine,  France,  the  United 
States,  and  Egypt;  imports  totaled  £S313.5  mil- 
lion, chiefly  from  the  JJnited  States,  Great  Britain, 
and  France. 

The  huge  deficit  in  the  foreign  trade  balance  be- 
came even  larger  in  the  first  half  of  1948,  exports 
amounting  to  £S23.3  million  and  imports  to 
£S228.9  million.  Figures  for  1948's  first  six  months 
revealed  an  increase  in  exports  to  the  United  States 
over  the  equivalent  1947  period,  and  a  decrease 
in  imports.  The  growing  overall  deficit  is  no  longer 
offset  by  the  revenue  from  certain  types  of  invisible 
exports  such  as  the  tourist  trade  and  remittances 
from  emigrants. 

Transportation  and  Communication.  There  are  over 
500  miles  of  railway  owned  by  three  companies — 
not  enough  to  fill  the  need.  However,  through  the 
1940  completion  of  the  "Berlin  to  Baghdad"  rail- 
way, it  is  possible  to  travel  by  train  from  Europe 
to  Baghdad  across  Syria.  The  4,000  miles  of  road 
are  not  as  good  as  those  in  Lebanon  except  for 
the  one  connecting  Damascus  and  Beirut.  Ameri- 
can, British,  Egyptian,  and  Iraqi  airlines  service 
Damascus.  The  government  operates  the  Syrian 
Broadcasting  Corporation  and  telephone  and  tele- 
graph facilities, 

Finance  (Syria  and  Lebanon).  The  1948  regular 
Lebanese  budget  was  initially  estimated  at  £S67 
million  and  the  Syrian  at  £S127,9  million.  The 
removal  of  military  installations  and  the  withdraw- 
ing of  foreign  armies  had  an  immediate  effect  on 
employment.  The  deteriorating  situation  was  re- 
flected in  a  decrease  in  bank  deposits,  shrinking 
money  in  circulation,  diminishing  stocks,  and  in- 
creasing bank  credits.  In  July  currency  in  circula- 
tion amounted  to  £S379  million.  In  September  of 
1948  the  cost  of  living  index  was  still  at  a  high 


of  495  (1939  =  100)  although  it  had  dropped 
from  the  1945  peak  of  607.  In  October  the  official 
exchange  rate  was  £S2.202  to  the  U.S.$. 

Government.  The  Republic's  independence  was 
proclaimed  by  the  Free  French  in  1941  but  it  was 
not  evacuated  by  French  troops  until  1946.  The 
President  (Shukri  al-Kuwatli  elected  in  1943)  is 
elected  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for  five  years. 
In  conjunction  with  his  Ministers  he  is  responsible 
to  the  Chamber.  Deputies  are  elected  by  universal 
suffrage  every  four  years. 

Events,  1948.  As  part  of  Syria's  economic  devel- 
opment program,  plans  were  made  to  start  work 
on  Syria's  only  significant  port,  Latakia,  early  in 
1949.  Swiss  experts  came  to  Aleppo  to  make  rec- 
ommendations for  Euphrates  irrigation  projects. 
The  cultivation  of  sugar  beets  was  intensified  and 
the  machinery  and  equipment  for  a  sugar  refinery 
in  Homs  ordered  from  Czechoslovakia. 

Faris  al-Khoury  represented  Syria  as  a  nonper- 
manent  member  of  the  United  Nations  Security 
Council  for  1947  and  1948,  In  November  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  UN  International  Law 
Commission  to  codify  international  law. 

Relations  with  France  and  Lebanon.  In  January, 
Syria  refused  -France's  offer  for  a  renewal  of  the 
financial  agreement  providing,  among  other  things, 
for  a  continued  backing  of  Syrian  currency  by 
French  francs.  Its  ability  to  acquire  foreign  ex- 
change was  a  little  stronger  than  was  Lebanon's 
and  it  did  not  depend  so  closely  upon  trade  with 
France.  In  June,  Syria  modified  her  opposition  to 
Lebanon's  ratifying  the  Lebanese-French  agree- 
ment. Both  Syria  and  Lebanon  recognized  that 
economic  friction  should  be  kept  at  a  minimum, 
even  though  the  currencies  were  separate,  so  the 
Customs  Union  was  maintained. 

Palestine  Problem.  December,  1947  witnessed  the 
first  demonstrations  against  the  Palestine  partition 
plan  with  attacks  on  the  American  and  French  Le- 
gations and  on  the  Syrian  Communist  headquar- 
ters. The  December  mustering  of  fighting  men  was 
followed  by  January  laws  forbidding  the  unauthor- 
ized movement  of  Jews  and  the.  expulsion  of  Pal- 
estinian Jews.  On  May  15  a  state  of  emergency 
was  declared  and  in  June  Damascus  experienced 
its  first  Israeli  air  raids.  Although  President  al- 
Kuwatli  started  his^  second  term,  Prime  Minister 
Jamil  Mardam  Bey's  Cabinet  resigned  in  August 
and  he  formed  a  new  one. 

In  early  December  dissatisfaction  (possibly  fired 
by  the  reactionary  Moslem  Brotherhood)  with  the 
Palestinian  turn  of  events  and  with  the  economic 
situation  exploded  in  Damascus.  For  several  days 
general  strikes  and  demonstrations  assumed  such 
proportions  that  all  legations  were  heavily  guard- 
ed, city  activity  suspended,  and  troops  put  in 
charge.  Mardarn  Bey's  Cabinet  was  forced  to  re- 
sign and  not  until  December  17  was  another  lead- 
er, Khaled  al-Azam,  Foreign  Affairs  and  Justice 
Minister  in  1939,  able  to  form  a  new  Cabinet. 
— DOROTHEA  SEELYE  FRANCK 

TANGANYIKA.  A  trust  territory  in  East  Africa,  ad- 
ministered since  Dec.  13,  1946,  by  Great  Britain 
under  a  trusteeship  agreement  with  the  United 
Nations.  Area:  362,688  square  miles.  Population 
(1946  estimate):  5,648,015  natives,  7,245  Euro- 
peans, and  57,765  Asiatics.  Dar-es-Salaam,  the 
capital,  had  64,200  inhabitants.  Education  ( 1946) : 
enrollment  in  government-operated  schools  for  na- 
tives totaled  29,601.  There  are  schools  for  Europe- 
ans and  Indians,  the  latter  receiving  grants  in  aid. 
Most  of  the  people  are  pagans.  Of  680,000 
Christian  Africans,  433,000  are  Roman  Catholics. 


TANGIER 


539 


JARIFf  COMMISSION 


Production  and  Trade.  Tanganyika  lias  extensive 
forests  which  yield  mvule,  podo,  certain  mahoga- 
nies, and  camphor.  In  1946  the  timber  output 
amounted  to  2.1  million  cu.  ft.,  valued  at  £-1  mil- 
lion. Agriculture,  die  principal  occupation  of  the 
people,  furnishes  a  variety  of  cereals,  vegetables, 
and  fruits  for  home  consumption,  as  well  as  the 
country's  principal  export — sisal.  In  1946  the  ex- 
port of  sisal  amounted  to  106,806  tons.  Mineral 
output  in  1946  was  valued  at  £1,623,863 — the 
chief  minerals  mined  being  gold,  diamonds,  lead, 
and  mica.  Foreign  trade,  excluding  silver  bullion 
and  specie  (1947):  imports  were  valued  at  £13,- 
680,000;  exports,  £11,280,000.  Cotton  piece  goods, 
foodstuffs,  cigarettes,  kerosene  and  gasoline,  ma- 
chinery other  than  electrical,  building  materials, 
iron  and  steel  manufactures,  liquor,  and  sugar  were 
the  principal  imports. 

Finance.  In  1947:  revenue  was  estimated  at  £5,- 
766,100  (£5,146,761  actual  in  1946);  expendi- 
ture, £5,808,600  (£5,140,443  actual  in  1946). 

Government  Tanganyika  is  administered  by  Great 
Britain  under  trusteeship  from  the  United  Nations. 
Administration  is  by  a  governor,  aided  by  an  exec- 
utive council  created  by  the  Tanganyika  Order-in- 
Council  of  1920.  Laws  of  the  territory,  since  1926, 
are  made  by  the  governor  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  legislative  council  (constituted  in  1926), 
composed  of  15  official  and  14  unofficial  members; 
of  the  latter,  3  are  Asian  and  2  are  African.  Gov- 
ernor: Sir  William  Battershill  (appointed  Apr.  28, 
1945).  See  EAST  AFRICA  HIGH  COMMISSION. 

TANGIER.  An  Internationalized  Zone  in  northwest- 
ern Morocco  at  the  Atlantic  entrance  to  the  Strait 
of  Gibraltar.  Area,  225  square  miles,  and  popula- 
tion (1947),  about  103,000.  Over  half  the  popula- 
tion dwells  in  the  city  of  Tangier. 

Tangier  forms  part  of  the  Empire  of  Morocco, 
the  Sultan  being  represented  there  by  a  Mendoub. 
The  official  languages  in  the  Tangier  Zone  are 
French,  Spanish,  and  Arabic.  The  education  of  the 
native  Moslems  is  left  largely  to  the  Koranic 
schools,  though  both  the  French  and  Spanish  au- 
thorities maintain  several  educational  institutions, 
to  some  of  which  natives  are  admitted. 

Production.  The  Tangier  Zone  has  very  little  agri- 
cultural production  and  must  import  much  of  its 
food.  Through  its  port,  however,  passes  a  consider- 
able transit  commerce,  much  of  which  is  carried 
over  the  railway  to  Fez  and  other  points  in  the 
French  Zone.  As  a  rule  imports  exceed  exports  in  a 
ratio  of  eight  or  more  to  one. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  1946  imports  were  valued  at 
3,561  million  francs  and  exports  at  486.7  million 
francs. 

Finance.  Ordinary  budget  estimates  (1948):  rev- 
enue 583,381,000  francs;  expenditure  561,479,000 
francs.  The  extraordinary  budget  was  balanced  at 
289,150,000  francs. 

Government.  The  provisional  international  admin- 
istration, set  up  in  pursuance  to  an  agreement 
signed  at  Paris  on  Aug.  31,  1945,  is  headed  by  an 
administrator.  In  the  legislative  assembly,  France 
and  Spain  have  4  members  each;  Great  Britain  and 
Italy  3  each;  the  United  States,  Belgium,  Nether- 
lands, and  Portugal  1  each.  The  natives  are  also 
represented  by  several  members,  chosen  by  the 
Mendoub.  See  Events. 

Events,  1948.  The  Soviet  government,  after  sev- 
eral months  of  delay,  finally  agreed  on  February 
22  to  let  Italy  resume  participation  in  the  inter- 
national administration  of  Tangier.  Meanwhile, 
the  Powers  appeared  to  come  no  closer  to  a  per- 
manent settlement  of  the  Tangier  problem,  The 


city  still  continued  to  be  administered  under  a 

Erovisional  agreement  that  originally  was  to  have 
isted  six  months,  but  was  by  late  1948  approach- 
ing its  fourth  year  of  existence. 

The  Soviets  continued  in  their  refusal  to  partici- 
pate in  the  government  of  the  international  zone 
as  long  as  Franco  Spain  was  one  of  the  parties  to 
the  agreement.  The  Sultan  of  Morocco  also  made 
clear  his  wish  to  join  in  the  joint  administration, 
since  after  all  Tangier  formed  part  of  the  Sherifian 
Empire  of  which  he  was  the  titular  ruler.  The 
Moorish  inhabitants  of  Tangier  likewise  com- 
plained that  they  were  grossly  underrepresented 
in  the  Tangier  Assembly,  despite  their  preponder- 
ance in  the  total  population,  and  they  objected 
strongly  to  the  ban  on  the  publication  of  Arabic 
newspapers  in  the  zone. 

Early  in  the  spring  the  Administrator  of 'the  In- 
ternational Zone,  Admiral  Luiz  Antonio  de  Magal- 
haes  Correia  of  Portugal,  resigned,  though  he  con- 
tinued to  serve  several  months  while  his  successor 
was  chosen.  In  the  fall  this  ticklish  job  was  filled 
by  Jonkheer  Henri  F.L.C.  van  Vredenburch,  a 
Dutch  diplomat. 

In  November  Spain  instituted  a  blockade  of 
Tangier  along  the  frontier  between  the  Interna- 
tional and  Spanish  Zones.  Tangier  depends  for  its 
food  chiefly  on  French  Morocco.  The  Spanish 
used  various  pretexts  to  hold  up  shipments  of  food 
across  their  zone,  while  the  Spanish  press  opened  a 
campaign  for  the  annexation  of  Tangier,  which 
during  the  recent  war  had  been  occupied  by  Span- 
ish troops.  The  Madrid  government  was  also  sus- 
pected of  using  the  blockade  as  a  means  of  forcing 
the  International  Administration  to  issue  a  license 
for  the  operation  of  a  radio  station  in  Tangier,  al- 
ready partly  erected.  In  any  case,  by  the  end  of 
November  the  blockade  was  sufficiently  effective 
to  oblige  the  International  Administration  to  char- 
ter a  ship  to  make  weekly  trips  from  Casablanca 
carrying  flour  and  other  provisions.  There  was  also 
talk  of  an  airlift  but  this  seemed  unnecessary  since 
Tangier,  unlike  Berlin,  was  on  the  open  sea. 

Late  in  March  Tangier  was  the  scene  of  a  confer- 
ence attended  by  several  hundred  leaders  of  the 
Moslem  natives  of  North  Africa,  chosen  principally 
from  the  various  independence  movements  of  Mo- 
rocco (Spanish  and  French),  Algeria,  and  Tunisia. 
They  heard  and  debated  two  reports:  the  first,  on 
the  attitude  of  the  Arab  League  toward  North  Af- 
rica brought  from  Cairo  by  Abd  el  Khaleq  Torrais, 
nationalist  leader  in  Spanish  Morocco;  the  second, 
from  the  North  African  unofficial  delegate  to  the 
United  Nations  in  Lake  Success.  The  message  from 
the  Arab  League  was  to  the  effect  that  North  Af- 
rica, a  probable  battleground  in  a  third  world  war, 
should  remain  neutral — a  policy  which,  after  warm 
debate,  was  rejected  by  the  majority  of  the  con- 
ferees at  Tangier.  — ROBERT  GALE  WOOLBERT 

TARIFF  COMMISSION,  U.S.  An  independent  nonparti- 
san  agency  of  the  U.S.  Government  created  by 
Congress  Sept.  8,  1916,  to  supply  factual  informa- 
tion to  the  President,  the  Congress  and  the  Com- 
mittees of  Congress  that  handle  tariff  legislation. 
Special  functions  of  a  continuing  nature  respecting 
rate  changes,  unfair  practices,  and  discriminations 
were  added  by  the  Tariff  Acts  of  1922  and  1930. 
The  Trade  Agreements  Act  (1934)  named  the 
Tariff  Commission  as  a  source  of  information  and 
advice  for  the  President  in  conducting  negotiations. 
The  Trade  Agreements  Extension  Act  of  1948  and 
Executive  Order  10004  of  Oct.  5,  1948,  extend  the 
Commission's  functions  respecting  trade  agree- 
ments. Section  22  of  the  Agricultural  Adjustment 


TAXATION 


540 


TAXATION 


Act,  as  amended,  authorizes  the  President  to  direct 
the  Tariff  Commission  to  make  an  investigation 
of  articles  imported  under  conditions  that  interfere 
with  agricultural  support  programs.  Section  504  of 
the  Philippine  Trade  Act  of  1946  provides  for  in- 
vestigation by  the  Tariff  Commission  as  to  limita- 
tions on  certain  imports. 

The  full  Commission  consists  of  six  Commission- 
ers, appointed  by  the  President  and  confirmed  by 
the  Senate  for  terms  of  six  years  each,  one  term 
expiring  each  year.  Not  more  than  three  Commis- 
sioners may  be  of  the  same  political  party.  The 
Chairman  and  Vice  Chairman  are  designated  by 
the  President  annually  from  the  members  of  the 
Commission. 

The  work  of  the  Commission  falls  into  two 
groups:  (1)  general  administrative  and  auxiliary 
services  under  the  Secretary;  and  (2)  professional, 
scientific  and  technical  work  under  the  Planning 
and  Reviewing  Committee. 

During  1948  the  Commission  issued  several  re- 
ports. These  include:  The  Operation  of  the  Trade 
Agreements  Program  1934~-Apr.  1948;  United 
States  Import  Duties,  1948  (rates);  The  Import 
Quota  on  Long  Staple  Cotton  (1948);  and  Plastics 
Products.  Chairman:  Oscar  B.  Ryder. 

TAXATION.  The  year  1948  was  featured  by  the 
passage  of  a  new  Revenue  Act  which  provided  the 
first  substantial  tax  reduction  in  many  years.  The 
measure,  which  reduced  the  tax  yield  by  about 
$4800  million,  was  strongly  opposed  by  the  Ad- 
ministration but  was  quickly  passed  over  the  Presi- 
dent's veto. 

The  Revenue  Act  of  1948.  Despite  the  President's 
warning  that  the  huge  needs  of  the  Government 
for  national  defense  and  other  purposes  made 
large-scale  tax  reduction  inadvisable,  Congress 
passed  the  Revenue  Act  of  1948  by  overwhelming 
majorities.  In  the  Senate  the  vote  was  78  to  11  and 
in  the  House,  289  to  67.  Approximately  the  same 
proportion  of  legislators  voted  to  over-ride  the 
President's  veto,  which  was  sent  to  Congress  on 
April  2  and  rejected  within  a  matter  of  hours. 
Many  Democrats  elected  to  oppose  the  President's 
wishes  by  voting  for  the  Republican-sponsored  bill. 
The  new  lower  taxes  were  made  retroactive  to  Jan. 
1, 1948,  but  the  lower  withholding  taxes  took  effect 
May  1. 

The  new  law  provided  income  tax  reductions  of 
12.6  percent  on  the  first  $2,000  of  taxable  income, 
of  7.4  percent  on  incomes  between  $2,000  and 
$136,719,  and  5  percent  on  all  incomes  above  this 
figure.  Personal  exemptions  were  increased  from 
$500  to  $600,  while  an  additional  special  $600  ex- 
emption was  given  taxpayers  over  65  years  old  and 
to  blind  persons.  The  standard  deduction  that  may 
be  taken  in  lieu  of  contributions,  interest  payments, 
etc.  was  increased  to  10  percent  of  the  gross  income 
up  to  a  maximum  of  $1,000  from  the  former  5  per- 
cent and  $500  limit. 

An  important  change  was  that  permitting  tax- 
payers in  non-community  property  States  to  get 
split-income  benefits  by  dividing  in  half  the  total 
taxable  income  of  husband  and  wife  and  paying 
the  surtax  at  the  lower  rates  prevailing  on  the 
smaller  incomes.  By  applying  this  provision  to 
estate  and  gift  taxes  as  well,  these  taxes  were  re- 
duced by  about  25  percent 

Under  the  new  law  the  maximum  total  tax  was 
set  at  77  percent  of  the  net  income  as  compared 
with  85^  percent  under  the  old  law.  The  effective 
tax  rate  on  an  income  of  $100,000  received  by  a 
married  person  with  two  dependents  was  reduced 
from  62.30  to  45.64  percent;  on  an  income  of  $10,- 


000,  from  18.62  to  13.61  percent,  with  correspond- 
ing reductions  on  intermediate  incomes^  Measur- 
ing the  tax  relief  in  another  way,  of  the  increment 
of  income  between  $90,000  and  $100,000  the  in- 
dividual was  permitted  to  retain  36.75  percent  un- 
der the  new  law  as  against  17.92  percent  under 
the  old;  of  the  part  of  the  income  between  $20,000 


IN  BILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 


'40  '48  '4$*$Q     '40 '-48 '49 '50     '40  '48  '49  '50     '40 '4S '49-'50    '40'48"49'50 
TAXES  ON          TAXIS  ON  BCCISE  MISC.         CUSTOMS  AND 

INDIVIDUALS   CORPORATIONS        TAXIS  RECEIPTS       OTHER  TAXES 

FEDERAL  RECEIPTS 

and  $25,000  the  taxpayer  could  keep  68.25  percent 
as  against  47.37  percent.  The  over-all  cut  in  indi- 
vidual taxes  was  estimated  at  $4,774  million. 

The  Administration  had  opposed  the  tax  reduc- 
tion on  the  ground  that  it  would  eliminate  most 
of  the  budget  surplus  and  thus  make  it  impossible 
to  effect  a  further  substantial  reduction  in  the  large 
public  debt  Because  the  nation  faced  such  heavy 
demands,  it  was  pointed  out,  it  was  essential  that 
receipts  be  kept  at  the  highest  possible  level.  More- 
over, it  was  charged  that  the  House  bill  distributed 
the  tax  relief  inequitably  and  gave  inadequate  re- 
lief to  the  taxpayers  with  the  lowest  incomes. 

Acknowledging  the  need  for  tax  relief  to  offset  in 
part  the  hardship  caused  to  low  income  groups 
through  the  rapid  rise  in  prices,  the  President  rec- 
ommended a  straight  tax  credit  of  $40  per  capita. 
To  make  up  the  $3,200  million  loss  that  a  cost-of- 
living  adjustment  would  cause,  he  proposed  that 
the  excess-profits  tax  on  corporations  be  reenacted, 
with  some  reductions  from  the  1945  rate.  This 
tax,  it  was  pointed  out,  would  apply  only  to  22,000 
corporations  with  the  largest  excess  profits,  out  of 
a  total  of  360,000  taxable  corporations. 

In  support  of  the  tax  cuts  it  was  argued  that,  due 
to  the  large  surplus,  there  was  room  for  adequate 
defense  and  foreign  aid  programs  and  for  tax  re- 
duction as  well.  In  addition,  it  was  asserted  that 
maintenance  of  taxes  at  levels  sufficiently  high  to 
produce  a  very  large  budget  surplus  weakened  the 
incentive  to  reduce  non-essential  expenditures.  It 
was  claimed  that  individual  tax  rates  were  so  high 
as  to  prevent  saving  and  discourage  business  en- 
terprise. Finally,  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  exist- 
ence of  a  substantial  surplus  made  the  time  propi- 
tious to  reduce  the  tax  burden  and  relieve  inequi- 
ties in  the  tax  structure. 

On  July  27,  the  President,  among  the  measures 
he  submitted  to  the  special  session  of  Congress 
called  to  combat  inflation  and  to  take  up  other  mat- 
ters left  over  from  the  regular  session,  again  pro- 
posed the  reestablishment  of  an  excess-profits  tax 
on  corporations.  No  action,  however,  was  taken  on 
this  proposal. 


TAX  COURT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


541 


Inferno!  Revenue  Collections.  During  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1948,  internal  revenue  collections 
of  the  Government  totaled  $41,865  million,  as 


w\Campori$on  first  3  months      

&    ^ fiscal  years  (949  and  1949 


.•••••ai 


,1 


r»54    '35      "36      "37      '38     "39      40      '41       42      '43      '44      45      46      '47      '48     '49 

EXTERNAL  REVENUE  COLLECTIONS 

compared  with  $39,108  million  the  year  before. 
A  large  part  of  the  increase  was  accounted  for  by 
individual  income  taxes,  which  amounted  to  $20,- 
998  million  for  the  fiscal  year.  Taxes  on  corpora- 

INTERNAL  REVENUE  COLLECTIONS 
[ Millions  of  dollars.  Fiscal  years  ending  June  SO] 

Tax  1947  1948 

Individual  income $19,343  $20,998 

Corporation  income  and  profits 9,676  10,174 

Old-age  insurance 1,459  1,613 

Unemployment  insurance 186  209 

Railroad  retirement 380  560 

Estate  and  gift 779  899 

Liquor 2,475  2,255 

Tobacco 1,238  1,300 

Stamp 80  79 

Manufacturers*  and  retailers'  excise 1,940  2,119 

Miscellaneous 1,552  1,659 

Total 39,108        41,865 

tion  income  and  profits  yielded  $10,174  million, 
a  rise  of  $498  million  over  1947.  Employment 
taxes  totaled  $2,381  million,  social  security  taxes 
making  up  more  than  three-fourths  of  this  sum. 
Liquor  taxes,  primarily  the  $9  per  gallon  tax  on 
distilled  liquors  and  the  $8  per  barrel  tax  on  beer, 
amounted  to  $2,255  million. 

Another  important  excise  tax,  that  on  tobacco, 
brought  in  $1,300  million,  the  major  component 
being  the  tax  of  $3.50  per  1,000  cigarettes.  Manu- 
facturers' and  retailers*  excise  taxes  yielded  $2,119 
million,  the  largest  revenue  coming  from  such 
items  as  gasoline,  automobiles,  and  jewelry.  Mis- 
cellaneous taxes  on  theater  admissions,  transporta- 
tion, telephone  service,  and  a  number  of  other 
items  Brought  in  $1,659  million. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  collections  by 
principal  taxes  for  the  fiscal  years  1947  and  1948. 
— SAMUEL  S.  SHIPMAN 

TAX  COURT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  The.  An  inde- 
pendent agency  of  the  U.S.  Government  which 
adjudicates,  after  trial,  controversies  involving  the 
existence  of  overpayments  in  income,  excess  profits, 
estate,  gift  and  unjust  enrichment  taxes,  and  per- 
sonal holding  company  surtaxes  in  cases  where  de- 
ficiencies have  been  determined  by  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Internal  Revenue;  similarly  to  adjudicate 
controversies  relating  to  excess  profits  on  Navy  con- 
tracts and  Army  aircraft  contracts,  suits  for  refunds 
of  processing  taxes  and  for  determination  of  the 
amount  of  excessive  profits  on  war  contracts  in 
cases  brought  by  contractors  aggrieved  by  deter- 
minations made  under  the  Renegotiation  Act.  Hear- 
ings are  held  at  Washington  and,  for  the  con- 
venience of  taxpayers,  at  other  places  within  the 
United  States.  Practice  is  limited  to  practitioners 
enrolled  under  the  rules. 
In  cases  arising  under  Section  721  (a)  (2)  (C) 


and  Section  722  of  the  Internal  Revenue  Code  and 
those  arising  under  the  Renegotiation  Act,  the  de- 
cisions of  the  Tax  Court  are  final.  All  other  deci- 
sions are  subject  to  review  by  the  United  States 
Court  of  Appeals  °  for  the  prescribed  circuit,  or,  by 
agreement,  by  the  United  States  Court  of  Appeals 
for  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  thereafter  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  upon  the 
granting  of  a  writ  certiorari.  Presiding  Judge: 
Bolon  B.  Turner. 

TEA.  In  1948  the  world's  tea  industry  saw  the  war- 
born  gap  between  supply  and  demand  being  grad- 
ually closed  by  increased  production  from  areas 
which  were  not  contributing  to  the  market  during 
the  war  and  immediate  postwar  years.  Although 
it  is  estimated  that  it  will  be  a  few  years  before 
prewar  production  is  reached,  good  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  rehabilitation  of  the  tea  estates 
of  Java-Sumatra  despite  a  chaotic  political  situa- 
tion. 

In  1947,  the  last  year  for  which  complete  figures 
are  available,  India — the  major  supplier  of  tea 
to  the  consuming  countries — reported  the  highest 
tea  production  on  record,  592^  million  Ib.  And 
1947  tea  production  figures  for  Ceylon,  the  second 
most  important  tea  exporting  country,  showed  a  19 
million  Ib.  gain  from  280  million  to  299  million 
Ib.  Prospects  for  Pakistan  production  are  also  heart- 
ening. The  comparatively  new  tea  industry  in 
British  East  Africa  reported  a  rise  from  30  million 
Ib.  in  1946  to  32  million  Ib.  in  1947. 

World  supplies  of  tea  climbed  to  981  million  Ib. 
in  1947,  compared  to  941  million  Ib.  in  1946. 

UNITED  STATES  TEA  IMPORTS  BY  KINDS  « 
(Thousands  of  Ib.) 

Black  Teas:  1945-6*     1946-7*    1947-48* 


India 52,271 

Ceylon 42,063 

Java-Sumatra 

Blended 22 

Congou 38 

Japan 

Formosa ... 

Africa 

Other 


45,019        31,077 

33,455        33,099 

28  849 

12  20 

503          1,102 

162 

171          3,016 

3,796 

36  36 


Total 94,394        79,224        73,157 


7,515  2,999 

246  383 

623  12 

1  3 


Green  Teas: 
India  

Ceylon 

Japan  

Ping  Suey  <          .  «     . 

.     .          24 

Country  Green  

Other 

Total 

.   .         31 

Oolong  Teas: 
Formosa  ... 

Canton  

30 

Other     

.    ..          13 

8,385 


3,397 


842          1,021 
225  209 

55  56 

Total 43          1,122          1,286 

Mixed  &  various * . .  1  5 

Grand  Total 94,468        88,732        77,845 

a  Tea  passed  by  the  examiners  for  admission.  6  Years  ended 
June  30. 

These  figures  include  total  production  in  India, 
Ceylon,  Pakistan,  Java-Sumatra,  and  British  East 
Africa,  plus  exports  from  all  other  producing  coun- 
tries. Actual  production  or  consumption  figures  are 
not  available  for  China,  Japan,  or  Russia.  Analyz- 
ing both  production  and  consumption  figures ,  in- 

0  Public  Law  773,  enacted  by  the  80th  Congress,  2nd 
Session,  revising,  etc.  Title  28 — Judiciary  and  Judicial  Pro- 
cedure— of  the  United  States  Code,  in  Section  43,  changed 
the  name  of  the  United  States  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  to 
United  States  Court  of  Appeals. 


542 


THEWSJON 


formed  sources  liave  estimated  that  by  1950  world 
consumption  will  be  1,095  million  Ib.  and  world 
production  will  be  1,115  million  Ib. 

Hampering  the  return  to  prewar  normalcy  are 
continued  labor  shortages  everywhere,  spiral-rising 
production  costs,  and  general  political  unrest.  All 
these  factors  create  grave  problems.  Higher  costs 
and  the  imposition  of  export  duties  by  their  re- 
spective governments  have  inevitably  lifted  the 
world's  price  of  tea,  and  United  States  retail  prices 
have  naturally  reflected  this  trend. 

During  the  war  years,  price  controls  kept  United 
States  tea  prices  at  prewar  level  until  October, 
1946.  With  the  dropping  of  governmental  controls, 
the  price  of  tea  took  a  sharp  increase  in  1947.  In 
1948,  prices  edged  up  a  little  higher. 

The  United  States  continues  to  be  the  second 
largest  importing  country,  behind  the  United  King- 
dom, the  number  one  importer  in  the  world. 
Among  the  importing  countries,  the  United  States 
is  second  in  consumption  and  fourth  among  all  the 
nations  of  the  world.  In  1948,  a  total  of  83.8  mil- 
lion Ib.  of  tea  went  into  retail  channels.  This  is  2 
million  Ib.  under  1947  figures  but  almost  twice 
1943's  figures  which  marked  the  wartime's  lowest 
ebb. 

This  84  million  Ib.,  enough  tea  to  make  approx- 
imately 20,000  million  cups,  was  supplied  last  year 
primarily  by  Ceylon,  India,  Africa,  Formosa,  Con- 
gou China,  and  Java-Sumatra,  in  their  respective 
order  of  importance.  Before  the  war  and  the  re- 
sulting debilitation  of  tea  estates,  India,  Ceylon, 
and  Java-Sumatra  were  responsible  for  most  of  the 
black  tea  moving  in  world  commerce. 

— ANTHONY  HYDE 

TELEVISION.  One  of  the  youngest  and  fastest  grow- 
ing of  American  industries  may  be  said  to  have 
come  of  age  in  1948.  Television  began  the  year 
with  less  than  200,000  receivers  in  operation;  man- 
ufacturers produced  only  30,000  in  January  but  in 
November  120,000  were  produced.  Max  F.  Bal- 
colm,  President  of  the  Radio  Manufacturers  As- 
sociation, estimated  the  year's  total  production,  at 
850,000.  The  new  medium  was  considered  to  ac- 
count for  one-third  of  the  radio  manufacturers'  dol- 
lar volume  of  about  $700  million.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  about  50  stations  were  operating  and  74  had 
construction  permits.  Two  States  levied  taxes  on 
receivers  used  for  entertainment  in  public  places. 

This  tremendous  growth  was  made  in  spite  of 
certain  restrictions.  The  Federal  Communications 
Commission  decreed  a  "freeze"  on  September  30 
on  television  station  allocations  and  applications  in 
order  to  permit  studies  of  interference  problems 
and  spacing  between  stations.  The  number  of  chan- 
nels available  for  broadcasting  was  reduced  from 
13  to  12,  and  the  maximum  number  of  channels 
assigned  in  any  given  area  was  limited  to  7.  Pro- 
duction of  picture  tubes  was  hampered  by  a  short- 
age of  glass  blanks,  but  one  manufacturer  devel- 
oped a  tube  using  metal  sides  and  a  glass  face. 

In  Canada  television  reception  was  limited  to  the 
Toronto-Hamilton-Windsor  area  where  programs 
from  the  United  States  could  be  received.  Further 
development  was  awaiting  the  approval  of  the 
Canadian  Broadcasting  Corporation,  which  de- 
ferred action  pending  completion  of-  policy  deci- 
sions on  station  licensing  and  use  of  government 
funds. 

According  to  David  Sarnpff,  President  of  the 
Radio  Corporation  of  America,  television  so  ap- 
pealed to  the  public  that  by  the  end  of  1948  the 
industry  was  two  years  ahead  of  the  dates  set  by 
the  most  optimistic  forecasts  made  at  the  end  of 


the  war.  Television  receivers  were  made  available 
in  a  price  range  from  less  than  $150  to  the  thou- 
sands, with  the  average  slightly  more  than  $300. 
The  higher-priced  models  generally  included  re- 
ception of  standard  and  frequency  modulation 
radiobroadcasts,  together  with  an  automatic  chang- 
er for  playing  phonograph  records.  Both  direct- 
view  and  projection  tubes  were  used,  the  largest 
diameter  of  the  former  being  20  inches.  Projection 
systems  beginning  with  screen  sizes  of  12  by  16 
inches  provide  sizes  beyond  the  largest  practicable 
direct- view  tubes. 

Rapid  progress  was  made  toward  the  completion 
of  a  television  network  to  parallel  the  existing 
transcontinental  radiobroadcast  network.  Television 
requires  a  system  capable  of  transmitting  a  wide 
band  of  frequencies,  a  requirement  that  has  been 
met  by  coaxial  cable  and  radio-relay  systems  which 
were  developed  primarily  for  long-distance  tele- 
phone service.  On  September  20  a  midwestern  net- 
work was  placed  in  commercial  operation  to  join 
the  cities  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Chicago,  111.;  Toledo, 
Ohio;  Detroit,  Mich.;  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Buffalo, 
N.Y.;  and  Milwaukee,  Wis.  Service  is  furnished  by 
coaxial  cables  except  for  the  Toledo-Detroit  and 
Chicago-Milwaukee  links,  where  radio  relays  are 
used. 

By  the  end  of  the  year  the  joining  of  this  network 
to  the  already  operating  eastern  network  which  in- 
cludes Boston,  Mass.,  New  York,  N.Y.,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Washington,  D.C.,  and  Richmond,  Va.,  was 
imminent.  Construction  of  a  new  radio-relay  system 
was  begun  between  New  York  and  Chicago  and 
eventually  may  provide  additional  channels  for  tele- 
vision. The  relay  systems  operate  on  microwaves  of 
a  frequency  approximating  4,000  megacycles  per 
second. 

Tests  were  continued  on  another  method  o£  ex- 
tending television  coverage  to  which  the  name 
"stratovision"  has  been  given  by  its  sponsors,  the 
Westinghouse  Electric  Corporation  and  the 
Glenn  L.  Martin  Company.  Based  on  the  premise 
that  the  range  of  high-frequency  radio  waves  is 
limited  by  the  distance  from  the  antenna  to  the 
horizon  and  can  be  increased  by  raising  the  an- 
tenna, the  system  uses  transmitters  carried  in  air- 
planes cruising  at  an  altitude  of  30,000  ft. 

A  method  for  decreasing  television  station  inter- 
ference in  areas  where  two  stations  are  received  on 
the  same  channel  was  tested  between  New  York 
and  Washington  by  the  Radio  Corporation  of  Amer- 
ica. Known  as  television  carrier  synchronization, 
it  limits  interference  to  only  the  first  minute  of  each 
15-minute  period  while  the  transmitters  are  being 
synchronized.  The  range  of  effectiveness  is  believed 
to  extend  to  about  65  miles  from  a  transmitter.  En- 
gineers of  the  same  company  made  a  new  study  of 
radio  frequencies  above  500  megacycles  as  a 
medium  for  the  expansion  of  television  broadcast- 
ing. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  year  manufacturers  intro- 
duced some  new  features  with  the  changeover  to 
new  models,  and  began  a  trend  toward  lower 
prices.  The  availability  of  a  16-inch  tube  with  metal 
sides  in  particular  was  said  to  make  receivers  more 
adaptable  to  mass  production,  thereby  lowering  the 
cost.  Receivers  using  the  tube  were  priced  tenta- 
tively at  $500  or  less. 

One  manufacturer  announced  a  new  receiver  in 
which  the  viewer,  by  means  of  a  switch  on  a  long 
cord,  could  enlarge  a  conventional  10-inch  rec- 
tangular picture  to  a  circular  picture  using  the  full 
face  of  a  12-inch  tube,  but  with  the  loss  of  the 
"fringe  areas"  of  the  picture.  The  device  permits 
the  viewer  to  enlarge  the  picture  for  close-ups  of 


TENNESSEE 


543 


TENNIS 


faces  or  specific  scenes  and  return  to  the  conven- 
tional size  when  the  entire  scene  is  desired,  and  is 
applicable  to  tubes  of  various  sizes. 

While  demand  for  tubes  for  new  receivers  con- 
tinued at  a  high  level,  a  large  market  for  replace- 
ments began  to  appear.  Work  also  was  begun  on 
tiie  installation  of  more  than  1,200  receivers  with 
10-inch  picture  tubes  and  5-channel  selectivity  in 
the  1,600-room  Park  Central  Hotel  in  New  York, 
said  to  be  the  first  major  hotel  installation  of  tele- 
vision in  every  room  or  suite. 

With  the  rapid  expansion  of  television  programs 
there  were  many  "firsts."  One  was  the  celebration 
of  the  Christmas  mass  at  midnight  in  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral  in  New  York  with  Francis  Cardinal 
Spellman,  Archbishop  of  New  York,  officiating. 
The  program  was  broadcast  by  the  New  York  tele- 
vision transmitters  of  the  American,  Columbia, 
and  National  broadcasting  systems.  A  major  televi- 
sion broadcast  that  required  considerable  advance 
planning  and  arrangement  of  technical  details  was 
the  coverage  of  the  national  conventions  of  the 
Republican  and  Democratic  Parties,  both  of  which 
were  held  in  Philadelphia.  Additional  channels 
were  added  to  the  existing  television  network,  and 
the  program  was  distributed  to  Baltimore,  Md., 
and  Newark,  N.J.,  in  addition  to  Richmond,  Wash- 
ington, New  York,  and  Boston. 

As  the  year  ended,  a  United  States  court  decision 
was  near  on  an  anti-trust  action  begun  in  1945 
based  on  the  restriction  of  the  use  of  patents  and 
processes  of  Scophony  Ltd.  of  London,  England. 
The  patents  cover  a  method  of  television  reproduc- 
tion completely  different  from  the  cathode-ray  tube 
method  commonly  used  in  the  United  States. 

— G.  Ross  HENNINGER 

TENNESSEE.  An  east  south  central  State.  Area:  42,- 
246  sq.  mi,  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  3,149,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  2,915,841.  Chief 
cities:  Nashville  (capital),  167,402  inhabitants  in 
1940;  Memphis,  292,942.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDU- 
CATION, MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVER- 
SITIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $127,967,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $123,700,000. 

Elections.  Truman  won  a  plurality  of  about  67,000 
over  Dewey.  Thurmond  ran  about  197,000  behind 
Truman.  Of  the  12  electoral  votes,  11  went  to  Tru- 
man and  1  to  Thurmond.  In  the  Senate  race,  Con- 
gressman Estes  Kefauver,  Democrat,  beat  Repub- 
lican Carroll  Reece.  The  10  House  seats  remained 
as  before — 8  Democrat,  2  Republican.  Gordon 
Browning,  Democrat,  Governor  in  1937,  won  the 
gubernatorial  contest.  No  other  statewide  officers 
are  popularly  elected. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Jim  Nance  McCord; 
Lieut.  Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  Joe  C. 
Carr;  Attorney  General,  Roy  H.  Beeler;  State  Treas- 
urer, C.  C.  Wallace;  State  Comptroller,  Jared  Mad- 
dux. 

TENNESSEE  VALLEY  AUTHORITY  (TVA).  An  independ- 
ent corporate  agency  of  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment created  by  Congress  in  1933  to  provide  for 
the  unified  development  of  all  the  resources  of  the 
40,910-square-mile  watershed  of  the  Tennessee 
River  and  its  tributaries.  Development  of  the  Val- 
ley includes  control  of  the  Tennessee  River  for 
navigation,  flood  control  and  power  production; 
soil  and  forest  conservation;  agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial development,  and  national  defense.  The 
area  contains  portions  of  7  southern  States — Ala- 
bama, Georgia,  Kentucky,  Mississippi,  North  Caro- 


lina, Tennessee,  and  Virginia — and  supports  a  pop- 
ulation of  approximately  three  million.  Wilson  Dam 
and  the  World  War  I  nitrate  plants  at  Muscle 
Shoals  in  northern  Alabama  were  transferred  to 
TVA  in  1933.  The  system  of  26  dams  includes  16 
constructed  by  TVA,  5  acquired  by  transfer  and 
purchase  and  5  privately  owned  projects  operated 
as  a  part  of  the  system  under  contractual  agree- 
ment. Two  dams,  the  Watauga  and  South  Holston 
projects,  are  now  under  construction  in  upper  East 
Tennessee.  Closure  of  Watauga  Dam  was  effected 
and  storage  of  water  begun  Dec.  1,  1948,  and  the 
South  Holston  Dam  is  scheduled  for  completion 
late  in  1950. 

The  complete  reservoir  system  is  estimated  to  be 
capable  of  reducing  Mississippi  River  flood  peaks 
at  Cairo,  111.,  by  2.5  to  3  feet.  TVA  engineers  esti- 
mate the  average  annual  direct  benefits  from  TVA 
flood  control  operations  to  amount  to  almost  sis 
million  dollars  in  the  lower  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
Valleys,  in  addition  to  about  five  million  dollars 
in  the  Tennessee  Valley. 

A  630-mile  channel  for  nine-foot  navigation  is 
now  complete  from  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Tennessee  at  Paducah,  Ky.,  making  the  Ten- 
nessee a  part  of  the  nation's  6,000-mile  intercon- 
nected inland  waterway  system.  River  traffic  in- 
creased from  33  million  ton-miles  in  1933  to  more 
than  400  million  ton-miles  in  1948,  with  particular 
gains  in  the  movement  of  petroleum  products, 
grain,  automobiles,  and  coal. 

The  Muscle  Shoals  plant,  supplying  phosphorous, 
ammonium  nitrate,  and  calcium  'carbide  for  war, 
in  peacetime  produces  improved  high  analysis 
phosphatic  fertilizers  used  in  test-demonstrations 
by  practical  farmers  in  26  states.  TVA's  power  sys- 
tem now  produces  15,000  millipn  kilowatt-hours 
of  electricity  annually — the  largest  single  integrat- 
ed system  in  the  United  States.  Power  is  sold  at 
wholesale  to  141  municipalities  and  rural  coopera- 
tives (reaching  more  than  850,000  consumers)  and 
to  some  large  industrial  customers.  Unique  features 
of  TVA  are  location  of  the  principal  offices  in  the 
region  rather  than  in  the  national  capital,  and  the 
widespread  participation  of  Tennessee  Valley  peo- 
ple and  institutions  in  the  program.  TVA  is  headed 
by  a  board  of  three  directors.  Chairman  Gordon  R. 
Clapp  and  Director  James  P.  Pope  are  the  present 
members.  The  third  position  on  the  Board  is  va- 
cant. 

TENNIS.  American  tennis  stars  maintained  their 
hold  on  the  major  prizes,  retaining  both  the  Davis 
and  Wightman  Cups,  symbols  of  world  supremacy. 

Meeting  Australia  in  the  challenge  round  at  For- 
est Hills  in  September,  the  United  States  men  tri- 
umphed by  5-0.  Ted  Schroeder  of  La  Crescenta, 
Calif.,  defeated  Adrian  Quist,  6-3,  4-6,  6-0,  6-0, 
and  .Billy  Sidwell,  6-2,  6-1,  6-1,  while  Frank 
Parker  of  Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  conquered  Sidwell, 
6-4,  6-4,  6-4,  and  Quist,  6-2,  6-2,  6-3,  in  singles 
matches.  Billy  Talbert  of  New  York  and  Gardnar 
Mulloy  of  Miami,  Fla.,  annexed  the  doubles  by 
halting  Sidwell  and  Colin  Long,  8-6,  9-7,  2-6, 
7-5. 

United  States  women  defeated  their  British  sis- 
ters, 6—1,  to  keep  the  Wightman  Cup.  Louise 
Brough  of  Beverly  Hills,  Calif.,  set  back  Mrs.  Betty 
Hilton,  6^1,  6-1,  and  Mrs.  Jean  Bostock,  6-2,  4-6, 
7-5;  Doris  Hart  of  Miami  subdued  Joy  Gannon, 
6-1,  6-4;  Mrs.  Margaret  Osborne  duPont  of  Wil- 
mington, Del.,  defeated  Mrs.  Bostock,  6-4,  8-6, 
and  Mrs.  Hilton,  6-3,  6-4.  In  the  doubles,  Mrs. 
Molly  Blair  and  Mrs.  Bostock  won  from  Miss  Hart 
and  Mrs.  Patricia  Canning  Todd  of  La  Jolla,  Calif., 


TEXAS 


544 


TEXTILES 


6-3,  6-4,  for  England's  lone  win,  while  Miss 
Brough  and  Mrs.  duPont  beat  Mrs.  Hilton  and  Mrs. 
Kay  Stammers  Menzies,  6-2,  6-2. 

The  national  championships  followed  the  Davis 
Cup  matches  in  September  at  Forest  Hills  and  a 
parative  unknown,  20-year-old  Richard  (Pan- 


cho)  Gonzales  of  Los  Angeles,  battled  his  way  to 
the  throne  left  vacant  when  Jack  Kramer  joined  the 
pro  ranks  in  1947.  One  of  the  youngest  players 
ever  to  win  the  title,  the  promising  coast  star  van- 
quished Eric  Sturgess  of  South  Africa,  6-2,  6-3, 
14-12,  in  the  final.  Mrs.  duPont  crowned  years  of 
effort  in  the  women's  singles  by  upsetting  Miss 
Brough,  defending  champion  and  winner  at  Wim- 
bledon, 4-6,  6-4,  15-13.  The  mixed  doubles  hon- 
ors went  to  Miss  Brough  and  Tom  Brown  of  San 
Francisco. 

In  the  national  doubles  at  Brookline,  Mass.,  Mul- 
loy  and  Talbert  won  the  men's  title  and  Miss 
Brough  and  Mrs.  duPont  retained  the  women's 
laurels. 

Talbert  also  added  the  U.S.  indoor  title  to  his 
collection  in  the  March  tourney  in  New  York,  the 
women's  crown  going  to  Mrs.  Todd.  Jean  Borotra 
and  Marcel  Bernard  of  France  won  the  men's  dou- 
bles while  Talbert  and  Miss  Hart  took  the  mixed 
doubles. 

The  Wimbledon  championship  in  July  saw  Bob 
Falkenburg  of  Hollywood,  Calif.,  win  the  men's 
singles,  but  only  after  a  battle  with  Bromwich  that 
ended  at  7-5,  0-6,  6-2,  3-6,  7-5.  Miss  Brough 
shared  three  crowns,  winning  the  singles,  the  dou- 
bles with  Mrs.  duPont  and  the  mixed  doubles  with 
Bromwich.  Bromwich  and  Frank  Sedgman,  bril- 
liant Australian,  triumphed  in  the  men's  doubles. 

Title  winners  in  the  French  international  tourney 
were  Parker,  singles;  Jaroslav  Drobny  of  Czecho- 
slovakia and  Lennart  Bergelin,  Sweden,  doubles; 
Mrs.  Nell  Landry,  France,  women's  singles;  Mrs. 
Todd  and  Miss  Hart,  women's  doubles,  and  Mrs, 
Todd  and  Drobny,  mixed  doubles. 

Singles  winners  in  some  of  the  other  major  tour- 
naments follow:  Parker  and  Mrs.  Todd,  Belgian; 
Bromwich  and  Miss  Hart,  New  South  Wales;  Bill 
Tully  of  Bronxville,  N.Y.,  Canadian;  Sturgess  and 
Mrs.  Todd,  Argentina;  Drobny  and  Mrs.  Sheila 
Summers  of  South  Africa,  Pan  American;  Talbert 
and  Miss  Hart,  Bermuda;  Schroeder  and  Miss  Ger- 
trude Moran  of  Santa  Monica,  Calif.,  national 
hard-court;  George  Stewart  of  Panama  and  Althea 
Gibson  of  Wilmington,  N.C.,  American  (Negro) 
Tennis  Association. 

Professional  racquet-swingers  capped  a  big  cam- 
paign with  the  world  championships  at  Forest  Hills 
in  June,  when  Kramer  turned  back  Robert  L.  Riggs 
of  Altadena,  Calif.,  14-12,  6-2,  3-6,  6-3,  in  the 
final.  Kramer,  ranked  as  the  No.  1  pro,  added  an- 
other title  when  he  and  Francisco  Segura  of  Ecua- 
dor defeated  Riggs  and  Don  Budge,  defenders, 
4-6,  5-75  6-2,  7-5,  8-6,  in  the  doubles. 

— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

TEXAS.  A  west  south  central  State.  Area;  265,896 
sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  7,230,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  6,414,824.  Chief  cities: 
Austin  (capital),  87,930  inhabitants  in  1940;  Hous- 
ton, 384,514.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MIN- 
ERALS AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND 
COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  August  31, 
1946,  total  revenue  amounted  to  $304,285,000; 
total  expenditure,  $272,250,000. 

Elections.  Truman  won  a  majority  over  Dewey, 
Thurmond,  Wallace  and  other  candidates,  and  car- 
ried the  23  electoral  votes.  Democratic  Congress- 


man Lyndon  B.  Johnson  won  the  Senate  race. 
Democrats  were  reelected  to  all  State  offices,  in- 
cluding: Governor — Beauford  H.  Jester;  Lieuten- 
ant Governor — Allan  Shivers;  Attorney  General — 
Price  Daniel;  Comptroller — George  H.  Sheppard; 
Treasurer — Jesse  James;  Land  Commissioner — 
Bascom  Giles;  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion— L.  A.  Woods.  Proposals  popularly  approved 
abolish  the  State-levied  property  tax;  provide  for 
the  succession  when  the  governor-elect  dies;  and 
provide  for  automatic  reapportionment  of  the  leg- 
islature. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Beauford  H.  Jester; 
Lieut.  Governor,  Allan  Shivers;  Secretary  of  State, 
Paul  Brown;  Attorney  General,  Price  Daniel;  State 
Treasurer,  Jesse  James;  State  Auditor,  C.  H.  Cav- 
ness;  Comptroller,  George  H.  Sheppard. 

TEXTILE  FOUNDATION,  Inc.  This  Foundation  was 
created  by  the  U.S.  Congress  in  1930  to  engage 
in  Economic  and  Scientific  Research  for  the  benefit 
of  the  textile  industries  and  their  allied  branches, 
including  raw  materials.  It  operates  with  private 
funds.  Over  25  research  workers  in  Foundation 
Laboratories  at  Princeton,  N.J.,  are  engaged  on 
fundamental  research  problems  related  to  textiles 
and  textile  products,  including  projects  for  the 
U.S.  Navy,  Signal  Corps,  and  Q.M.C.  The  Foun- 
dation also  engages  in  economic  research  such  as 
studies  of  marketing,  management,  textile  educa- 
tion, etc.  It  is  managed  by  5  directors  (the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture,  the  Secretary  of  Commerce, 
and  3  others  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States). 

TEXTILES.  The  volume  in  Ib.  of  textile  production 
in  1948  was  1.59  percent  above  1947  and  was 
exactly  the  average  of  the  8  high-level  years  1941- 
1948.  These  8  years  are  actually  60  percent  above 
the  average  for  the  8  preceding  years,  1933-1940, 
The  excellence  of  1948  as  a  whole  in  textiles  is 
sometimes  forgotten  by  those  who  remember  prin- 
cipally its  last  few  months  when  there  were  price 
declines,  curtailment,  and  compressed  profit  mar- 
gins. 

The  year  was  probably  the  greatest  ever  experi- 
enced in  the  category  of  expenditure  for  expansion, 
modernization,  and  renovation  of  textile  mills  with 
reliable  estimates  of  the  figure  running  in  excess  of 
$500  million.  This  was  nearly  20  percent  over 
1947's  $414  million.  The  similar  figure  for  1946 
approximated  $300  million  and  for  1945,  $200  mil- 
lion. Despite  the  fact  that,  with  late  1948,  compe- 
tition returned  to  textile  markets  as  a  whole — or 
perhaps  because  of  that,  projected  capital  expendi- 
tures by  textile  mills  for  1949  are  estimated  at  close 
to  $450  million  or  a  near  duplication  of  1948.  These 
great  capital  investments  come  largely  from  profits 
rather  than  from  borrowings,  and  have  been  stimu- 
lated by  the  urge  to  mechanize  every  process  to  the 
utmost  and  to  reduce  the  burden  of  labor  cost  per 
unit  of  product  to  the  minimum.  Such  moderniza- 
tion is  one  of  the  recognized  means  for  giving  hope 
of  company  survival  in  the  era  of  keen  competition 
which  apparently  is  now  near  at  hand. 

Because  of  management  readiness  to  buy  any 
machinery  or  equipment  which  by  its  savings 
would  pay  for  itself  in  a  short  time,  machinery 
makers  have  continued  their  introduction  of  new 
and  improved  devices  at  a  steadily  increasing  pace. 
The  year  saw  the  introduction  of  new  looms, 
new  wool  preparatory  machines,  improved  cotton 
combs,  and  substantial  developments  in  tensionless 
finishing  with  the  object  of  reducing  the  residual 
shrinkage  in  the  finished  fabric. 


Courtesy  Cunard  White  Star 


CARQNIA,  the  world's  largest  postwar  liner,  was  completed  during  1948.  Built  by  John  Brown  &  Company  of  Clyde- 
bank,  Scotland,  the  over-all  length  of  the  Caron/a  is  715  feet,  breadth  moulded,  91  feet,  draught  moulded,  30  feet. 
The  gross  tonnage  is  approximately  34,000.  Propulsion  is  by  twin  screw  triple  expansion  impulse  reaction  turbines. 


Courtesy  of  United  Fruit  Company 

S.S.  YAQUE,  completed  in  1948  for  the  United  Fruit  Company,  has  an  over-all  length  of  386  feet,  displacement  of  9,338 
tons,  and  a  speed  of  16  knots.  There  are  cabins  for  12  passengers.  She  has  197,000  cu.  ft.  of  refrigerated  cargo  space, 


A   MOBILE   X-RAY   MACHINE   of 

250,000-volt  capacity  is  built  for 
the  laboratories  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  at  Altoona,  Pa.  The 
unit  is  shown  in  operation  examin- 
ing the  interior  structure  of  the 
high-tensile  steel  used  in  a  side 
frame  for  a  high  speed  freight  car 
truck.  Such  internal  defects  as  con- 
cealed cracks  and  imperfectly 
welded  joints  are  revealed  clearly 
by  this  technique,  which  grew  out 
of  rapid  wartime  technical  prog- 
ress in  the  field  of  radiographic 
testing  of  rnetals.  The  entire  unit  is 
mounted  on  wheels  so  that  it  may 
be  moved  about  the  laboratory 
building  or,  when  it  is  necessary, 
to  a  considerable  distance  away. 


A  MOBILE  NEWSREEL  THEATER  is 

installed  in  a  luxurious  recreation 
car  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad's 
all-coach  streamliner  The  Jeffer- 
sonian,  operating  on  the  run  be- 
tween New  York  and  St.  Louis. 
The  photograph  shows  the  the- 
ater's full  capacity-— six  persons. 


Pennsylvania  Railroad  Photos 


Wide  World  Photo 

TRUMAN  WINS.  The  upset 
of  1948  was  President  Tru- 
man's victory  at  the  polls  on 
Nov.  1,  1948.  Here  the  vic- 
torious President  smiles  and 
waves  as  he  greets  a  crowd 
outside  his  Kansas  City  hotel 
just  after  Governor  Thomas 
E.  Dewey  conceded  the  Presi- 
dential election  during  the 
morning  of  November  3d. 


r^& 


GOVERNOR  THOMAS  E 
DEWEY  and  Mrs.  Dewey, 
about  to  cast  their  votes  at 
the  polling  booth  in  the 
election  of  Nov.  2,  1948,  in 
which  Governor  Dewey  was 
defeated  by  President  Tru- 
man for  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States. 


V  PROGRESSIVE  PARTY 
RALLY.  An  assemblage  of 
1 9,000  people  congregates 
in  Madison  Square  Garden, 
New  York  City,  to  hear  Pro- 
gressive Party  Presidential 
candidate  Henry  Wallace. 
European  Photos 


Photo  from  European 

GEN.  DWIGHT  EISENHOW- 
ER, President  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, meets  the  alumni  at 
Baker  Field,  New  York,  before 
the  Columbia-Pennsylvania 
football  game.  He  is  shown 
putting  on  a  necktie  made  up 
of  the  colors  of  Columbia. 


T  LEAP  TO  FREEDOM.  A  school- 
teacher's  leap  to  freedom  at 
the  U.S.S.R.  Consulate  in  New 
York,  Aug.  12,  1948.  Consulate 
workers  lift  the  seriously  in- 
jured Mrs.  Oksana  Kosenkina, 
Russian  teacher,  who  leaped 
from  the  third  floor  window 
in  an  effort  to  gain  her  free- 
dom and  thus  escape  being 
returned  to  the  U.S.S.R. 

Wide  World  Photo 


TEXTILES 


545 


TEXTILES 


TABLE  1— INDEX  OF  TEXTILE  ACTIVITY 


Year 
1939 

Index 
100 

Year 
1943. 

Index 
142 

Year 
1946 

Index 
142 

1941 

142 

1944.  . 

.  134 

1947 

138 

1942 

150 

1945 

.  131 

1948 

140 

Textile  activity  based  on  total  consumption  of 
the  chief  fibers — cotton,  rayon,  and  wool — was 
close  to  equaling  the  big  years  of  1941,  1943,  and 
1946.  It  was  greater  than  in  1944,  1945,  and  1947 
and  below  the  all-time  high  year  of  1942  by  only 
6%  percent  (see  Table  1).  Production  of  various 
types  of  textiles  in  1948  compared  with  1947  as 
follows:  cotton  broad  woven  goods,  5  percent  less; 
woolen  and  worsted  fabrics,  3  percent  more;  rayon 
broad-woven  fabrics,  14  percent  more;  synthetic 
filament  and  staple,  14%  percent  more;  hosiery,  2% 
percent  less. 

A  prime  reason  for  the  lessening  of  cotton  goods 
production  in  1948  and  for  the  price  weakness  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  year  was  the  falling  off  by 
about  42  percent  of  the  previously  large  exports 
which  had  reached  a  record  high  of  nearly  1S500 
million  yards  in  1947.  Since  there  is  no  immediate 
expectation  of  export  revival,  1949  will  have  to 
progress  without  this  supporting  influence.  Con- 

TABLE  2— PRODUCTION  OF  COTTON  AND 
WOOL  GOODS 

Cotton  broad  Woolen  and 

woven  goods  worsted  fabrics 

Year  (linear  yards')  (square  yards') 

1939 8,287,000,000  482,000,000 

1940 (not  given)  444,000,000 

1941 10,432,000,000  650,000,000 

1942 11,108,000,000  685,000,000 

1943 10,568,000,000  661,000,000 

1944 9,536,000,000  658,000,000 

1945 8,724,000,000  608,000,000 

1946 9, 144,000,000  645,000,000 

1947 9,808,000,000  555,000,000 

1948 9,500,000,000  «  560,000,000 « 

a  Estimated. 

tributing  causes  of  export  decline  were  scarcity  of 
dollar  exchange  among  consuming  nations  and  rap- 
id rehabilitation  of  war-damaged  mills  abroad  and 
growth  of  wholly  new  industries  in  previously  agri- 
cultural nations,  However,  yardage  production  of 
cotton  and  wool  goods  in  1948  compares  favorably 
with  recent  years  (see  Table  2). 

The  average  number  of  wage  earners  in  the  tex- 
tile industry  during  1948  was  1,275,000  which  was 
2%  percent  above  the  1947  figure  of  1,244,000. 
The  average,  however,  does  not  disclose  the  high 
point  of  1,312,000  in  March;  nor  does  it  include 
the  1,1503000  persons  employed  in  the  apparel 
manufacturing  industry.  Average  hourly  earnings 
in  the  textile  industry  closed  the  year  near  $1.18 
which  is  14  percent  above  the  1947  average  and 
134  percent  over  1939.  The  average  hourly  rate 

TABLE  3— INDICES  OF  TEXTILE-MILL 
EMPLOYMENT 


Year 
1939 

Em- 
ployees 
.   .     100 

Pay- 
rolls 
100 

Year 
1944..  . 

Em- 
ployees 
...'.       99 

Pay- 
rolls 
175 

1940 

98 

101 

1945 

94 

174 

1941 

.     112 

136 

1946..  . 

....     104 

179 

1942 

112 

163 

1947 

108 

250 

1943 

.     107 

177 

*  1948  .  .  . 

290  « 

«  Estimated. 

for  1948  was  about  $1.15.  Average  weekly  earnings 
in  1948  were  about  $45.04,  which  was  about  10 
percent  over  1947.  Rates  in  the  three  main  branches 
of  the  industry  indicate  that  workers  in  wool  mills 
earn  the  most,  with  rayon  and  silk  mill  employees 
next,  followed  by  cotton  mill  workers.  The  hourly 
rates  near  the  close  of  1948  were  $1.31,  $1-18,  and 
$1.10  respectively  (see  Table  3). 


Prices  and  Production.  Wholesale  prices  for  all 
textiles  passed  the  point  at  which  they  doubled  the 
1935-39  average  late  in  1947.  The  high  point  came 
in  April,  1948,  when  prices  were  111  percent  over 
that  base  period.  At  the  end  of  1948,  this  average 
had  declined  again  to  the  "double  point/'  or  about 
101  percent  over  1935-39.  Previous  to  April,  1948, 
the  rise  had  been  virtually  continuous  with  only 
slight  interruptions  since  1939  (see  Table  4). 

TABLE  4— INDICES  OF  WHOLESALE  PBICES 
(Adapted  from  Rayon  Organon} 


Year 
1935-39  . 
1940  

All 
Textiles 
100 
104 

Cotton 
woven 
fabrics 
100 
94 

Woolens 
and 
worsteds 
100 
106 

Hosiery 
and 
underwear 
100 
101 

Rayon 
yarn  and 
staple 
fiber 
100 
96 

1941  
1942  

....   120 
136 

123 

148 

119 
135 

102 
113 

97 

98 

1943.... 

.  .  .     137 

148 

138 

114 

98 

1944 

139 

152 

138 

114 

98 

1945  

141 

159 

138 

115 

98 

1946  . 

164 

198 

140 

132 

99 

1947..  . 

199 

262 

160 

162 

120 

1948..  . 

210° 

277  o 

181  « 

170  a 

133  a 

«  Estimated. 

Cotton  goods  show  the  greatest  percentage  rise, 
averaging  in  1948  177  percent  over  1935-39;  wool 
goods  were  up  only  81  percent;  hosiery  and  under- 
wear, 70  percent;  rayon  filament  and  staple,  33 
percent.  Cotton  goods,  perhaps  because  of  their 
greatest  advance,  were  the  first  to  succumb  to  re- 
adjustment in  the  second  half  of  1948.  Prices  on 
the  more  important  gray  goods  constructions  de- 
clined 20  to  30  percent  from  the  peak  in  the  first 
half  of  1948  to  the  valley  near  the  end  of  that  year. 
Making  this  decline  possible  without  elimination 
of  all  profit,  a  decline  in  raw  cotton  prices  brought 
the  fiber  down  from  about  37  cents  to  31  cents,  or 
about  16  percent  off.  Labor  rates,  however,  went 
up  5  percent  in  the  same  period. 

Wool  goods  were  slightly  higher  from  the  mill  in 
the  fall  of  1948  than  in  the  spring,  a  change  in- 
duced almost  wholly  by  the  sharp  rise  in  raw  wool 
prices  in  Australia  forced  by  unexpectedly  large 
raw-wool  buying  there  by  the  U.S.S.R.,  and  by 
continuing  decline  in  the  size  of  the  United  States 
domestic  wool  clip.  Retail  prices  on  wool  products 
were  weak  as  the  year  closed.  Hosiery  and  under- 
wear prices  were  shaded  as  the  year  progressed, 
but  the  primary  rayon  market  was  firm  with  small 
advances. 

Economists  believe  that  the  readjustments  of 
1948  will  steer  textiles  into  a  fairly  steady  period 
both  as  to  prices  and  demand  for  the  first  part  of 
1949 — after  that,  domestic  labor  and  tax  legisla- 
tion and  foreign  developments  will  be  the  govern- 
ing factors  for  gain  or  loss,  Textile  inventories  as 
reported  for  1948  touched  the  highest  figures  in 
the  war  and  postwar  years,  but  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  these  figures  are  in  dollars.  With  textile 

TABLE  5— INDEX  OF  TEXTILE  INVENTORIES    "1 
(Adapted  from.  Rayon  Organon") 


Year 
1939 

Inven- 
tories 
100 

Year 
1943  .  . 

Inven- 
tories 
...  141 

Year 
1946  .  .  , 

Inven- 
tories 
...  199 

1941 

131 

1944. 

...  142 

1947  .  .  , 

...  224 

1942 

157 

1945  .  . 

...  152 

1948  ,  .  . 

...  257  « 

<>>  Estimated. 

inventories  at  an  index  number  of  257  for  1948 
(see  Table  5)  and  textile  prices  at  210,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  stocks  in  physical  volume  are  only  slightly 
(about  20  percent)  above  1939,  the  base  year. 

Among  various  trends  which  continued  through 
1948  on  an  important  scale  was  the  growth  in  pro- 


rfXTJJUES 


546 


THEATER 


duction  and  use  of  synthetic  fibers.  Rayon  filament 
and  staple  for  the  first  time  passed  the  1,000  mil- 
lion Ib.  mark  in  annual  production  recording  1,100 
million  Ib.3  divided  into  834  million  Ib.  of  filament 
and  266  million  Ib.  of  staple.  Of  this  rayon,  viscose 
process  (plus  a  small  amount  of  cupra  process) 
accounted  for  66  percent  of  the  filament  and  68 
percent  of  the  staple,  acetate  process  rayon  ac- 
counting for  the  remainder.  The  total  figure  for 
1948  marks  a  gain  of  16  percent  over  1947  and  is 
double  the  1938  output.  Unless  considerable  new 
capacity  comes  to  view  in  1949,  and  which  is  not 
in  sight  as  the  year  begins,  the  gain  of  rayon  output 
in  the  United  States  in  1949  will  be  relatively  small. 

Synthetics,  other  than  rayon,  including  nylon, 
saran,  Vinyon,  Velon,  Fiberglas,  etc,  have  also 
been  growing.  Although  there  is  no  authoritative 
figure  for  production  of  these  fibers,  it  is  probable 
that  they  barely  pass  an  80  million  Ib.  total,  with 
nylon  and  Fiberglas  being  the  most  important. 
Among  the  new  fibers  introduced  in  1948  are  Or- 
ion, the  DuPont  development  which  has  properties 
that  lie  between  rayon  and  nylon,  and  a  new  group 
of  Vinyons  made  by  Carbide  &  Carbon  Chemicals 
Corporation  which  seem  at  present  to  have  more 
important  industrial  than  apparel  uses. 

Mew  Machines  and  Technology.  Among  the  new 
machines  made  available  to  the  industry  in  1948 
are  several  notable  looms.  The  Kellogg  loom  is  a 
conventional  bobbin-changing  type,  with  pressed 
steel  replacing  castings  in  its  frame,  ball  or  roller 
bearings  throughout,  unit-assembly  design  of  the 
major  loom  motions,  and  a  speed  said  to  be  20  to 
30  percent  higher  than  similar  previous  types.  The 
Warner  &  Swasey  loom,  based  on  a  Sulzer  Swiss 
design,  has  a  new  system  of  filling  insertion  which 
does  away  with  conventional  shuttles,  picker  sticks, 
bobbins,  etc.;  makes  single-width  or  multiple-width 
fabrics  up  to  or  totaling  110  inches;  has  speed  in 
excess  of  215  picks  per  minute  which  is  equivalent 
to  430  picks  on  54-inch  goods,  a  rate  hitherto  un- 
achieved. 

The  Baker  loom  for  woolens  and  worsteds  is  a 
conventional  type  with  many  engineering  improve- 
ments. Two  circular  looms  came  out  of  France — 
the  Fayolle-Ancet,  said  to  produce  15  sq.  yd.  of 
cloth  per  hour,  and  the  Saint  Freres,  designed  for 
tubular  jute  bagging  but  said  to  be  adaptable  for 
cotton,  rayon,  and  wool. 

A  machine  for  direct  conversion  of  rayon  tow 
into  sliver,  with  or  without  blending  with  other 
fibers,  was  offered  by  the  Warner  &  Swasey  Com- 
pany on  Pacific  Mills  design.  Saco-Lowell  Shops 
offered  a  direct  spinner  which  will  produce  spun 
yarn  directly  from  synthetic  fiber  tow.  A  new  wool- 
en card  of  European  design  was  offered  by  Dues- 
berg-Bosson.  A  new  and  much  improved  cotton 
comber  was  introduced  by  Whitin  Machine  Works. 
A  new  method  of  spinning  into  a  cup  with  the 
winding  achieved  centrifugally  was  designed  by 
Prince-Smith  &  Stalls,  Ltd.,  of  England.  In  rayon 
manufacture  the  swing  toward  continuous  spinning 
processes  was  further  advanced  by  the  Nelson  proc- 
ess developed  in  England  and  the  Filamatic  proc- 
ess of  American  Viscose  Corporation, 

Knitting  techniques  advanced  principally  through 
the  introduction  of  high-speed  multi-feed  machines 
which  have  immense  production  rates  going  up  to 
as  high  as  125  yd.  per  hour  of  60  inch  jersey.  The 
Redman  shrinking  machine  for  tubular  knit  goods 
was  put  on  the  market  after  three  years  of  develop- 
ment. It  removes  relaxation  shrinkage  to  the  point 
where  the  product  can  be  guaranteed  to  have  not 
over  5  percent  residual  shrinkage. 

For  finishing  woven  goods  the  Rodney  Hunt  Ma- 


chine Company  offered  a  group  of  machines  with 
the  Tensitrol  principle  which  permits  high-speed, 
tensionless  processing.  Stainless-steel  has  come  to 
be  the  standard  material  for  most  dye  vats,  wash- 
ers, etc.  Continuous-range  finishing  continued  to 
develop,  and  the  problem  shifted  during  the  year 
from  the  mere  design  of  ranges  to  the  engineering 
of  the  most  efficient  means  of  operating  them.  Print- 
ing has  been  speeded  up  with  smoother-running 
rotary  machines  and  mechanized  screen  printers. 

In  the  wool  field  solvent  scouring  of  wool,  in 
place  of  caustic  baths  and  washing,  gives  promise 
of  increasing  acceptance.  One  mill  has  carried  on 
this  process  alone  for  nearly  12  years,  but  the 
broadening  interest  at  present  is  due  to  high  cost 
of  soap,  Government  drives  against  stream  pollu- 
tion by  wool-scouring  wastes,  and  the  desire  for 
economical  recovery  of  the  lanolin  removed  from 
the  wool.  Experimentation  looking  toward  contin- 
uous dyeing  of  wool  goods  has  been  in  progress, 
but  little  acceptance  of  such  processes  has  been 
gained.  Shrink-pro ofing  and  moth-proofing  of  wool 
made  great  progress  in  acceptance  during  1948, 
and  these  finishes  are  at  last  appearing  in  retail 
offerings  to  the  consumer. 

Research  in  textiles  was  still  on  the  up-curve 
during  1948.  Numerous  new  laboratory  machines 
and  devices  for  testing  and  recording  were  intro- 
duced and  earl)?  experiments  made  in  textiles  with 
radio-active  isotopes  from  the  atomic  pile  at  Oak 
Ridge.  Fibers,  finishes,  machines,  and  techniques 
are  all  under  experimentation  in  the  various  re- 
search centers.  In  particular,  there  is  interest  in  a 
wool  project  initiated  in  1948  which  is  aimed  at 
improving  the  drape,  feel,  and  other  properties  of 
medium  and  coarser  wools  now  somewhat  neg- 
lected in  favor  of  fine  wools,  so  that  they  can  be 
used  to  augment  the  supplies  of  fine  wools  now  rel- 
atively high  in  price  because  short  in  supply. 

— WILLIAM  B.  DALL 

THEATER.  Animation  and  variety  characterized  the 
New  York  theatrical  season  of  1948.  Healthy  criti- 
cal and  public  controversy  intensified  interest  in 
plays  by  Tennessee  Williams  and  Maxwell  Ander- 
son. Tallulah  Bankhead,  extreme  individualist, 
precipitated  discussion  on  the  nature  of  acting.  Mu- 
sical comedy,  throwing  off  the  shackles  of  conven- 
tion, took  on  new  life  with  modest  productions 
like  Small  Wonder  and  Lend  an  Ear.  As  a  whole, 
thanks  to  importations  like  Edward,  My  Son,  Red 
Gloves,  and  The  Mad  Woman  of  Chaillot,  the  New 
York  stage  represented  the  best  current  works  of 
the  Continent. 

Anne  of  ffie  Thousand  Days.  As  a  dramatist,  Max- 
well Anderson  demonstrated  again  that  he  can  no 
longer  write  a  suspenseful  play,  and  his  effort  to 
combine  prose  and  poetry  resulted  in  grandilo- 
quence rather  than  powerful  dialogue.  Otherwise, 
his  presentation  of  Henry  VIII  was  so  compre- 
hensive and  real  that  he  compelled  attention 
through  scattered  episodes  while  wooing,  winning, 
and  murdering  an  Anne  who  seemed  a  bit  too  lofty 
for  historic  confirmation. 

As  the  O/r/s  Go.  Low  comedy  at  its  lowest  and 
best  was  what  Bobby  Clark  dispensed  at  the  Win- 
ter Garden.  Repetitious,  as  usual,  and  unrestrained 
in  his  consideration  of  manners  and  morals,  Bobby 
made  Michael  Todd's  comeback  a  box  office  suc- 
cess. Irene  Rich,  also  effecting  a  comeback,  made 
an  attractive  and  deft  lady  president.  The  beautiful 
girls  in  the  old  "Ziegfeld  revue  tradition  were  em- 
phasized as  a  drawing-card,  and  luckily,  because 
the  singing,  songs,  comedy,  and  scenery  were  only 
negligible  assets, 


THEATER 


547 


THEATER 


Bravo.  Edna  Ferber  and  George  Kaufmann, 
authors  of  The  Royal  Family,  turned  out  a  dud. 
Immersed  in  a  plethora  of  amateur  talk  about  play- 
ers and  playwrights,  an  earnest  plea  for  the  fair 
treatment  of  refugees  sank,  hopelessly. 

The  Cup  of  Trembling.  For  those  who  follow, 
thirstily,  the  case  histories  of  Alcoholics  Anony- 
mous, this  play>  written  by  Louis  Paul  from  his 
novel,  Breakdown,  was  brim-full  of  interest.  Others 
pushed  the  cup  aside,  and  the  more  quickly  be- 
cause of  Elizabeth  Bergner's  precious  artistry, 

Don'f  listen,  Ladles.  Artificial  comedy  rarely 
pleases  an  American  audience,  for  it  is  seldom  con- 
tent to  follow  dialogue  for  the  sake  of  dialogue. 
"Too  talky"  was  the  customary  criticism. 

Edward,  My  Son.  One  of  the  biggest  hits  of  the 
season,  imported  from  England  with  the  original 
stars,  Robert  Morley,  co-author,  and  Peggy  Ash- 
croft.  These  two  managed  handsomely  to  cover 
the  life  span  of  the  two  leading  characters  by  way 
of  episodes  which  seemed  much  more  substantial 
than  they  really  were.  Novelty,  surprise,  contrast- 
ing scenes,  and  a  trick  titular  device  were  only  a 
few  of  the  features  that  made  this  play  extraordi- 
nary entertainment. 

Goodbye,  My  Fancy.  As  soon  as  the  veterans 
noticed  Madeleine  Carroll's  name  in  electric  lights, 
they  rushed  affectionately  to  see  her  in  a  play 
about  a  congresswoman,  college  life,  and  ethics. 

Hold  it!  A  musical  flop,  introduced  to  Broadway 
a  millionaire  producer,  Anthony  B.  Farrell,  who 
retaliated  for  box  office  neglect  by  buying  his  own 
theater,  naming  it  the  Mark  Hellinger,  paying  per- 
formers while  out  of  work,  and  readying  a  new 
musical  for  the  next  season. 

Howdy,  Mr.  Ice!  The  new  name  for  the  old  frozen- 
water  show  at  the  Center  Theatre,  which  delighted 
audiences  made  up  largely  of  out-of-towners. 

Inside  USA.  Nomenclature  served  as  the  come-on 
for  the  Howard  Dietz-Arthur  Schwartz  musical. 
Other  resemblances  to  John  Gunther's  book  ceased 
with  the  mention  of  the  title.  What  the  audience 
did  get  was  a  conventional  revue  with  the  queen 
of  clowns,  Beatrice  Lillie,  mincing,  side-stepping, 
and  imitating  superlatively.  Her  co-star,  Jack 
Haley,  seemed  somewhat  tepid  in  comparison,  but 
Herb  Shriner,  the  oncoming  Will  Rogers,  precip- 
itated a  cascade  of  laughter.  Valerie  Bettis  and 
Eric  Victor  won  the  dance  honors. 

Joy  to  the  World.  Poor  Hollywood  came  in  for 
another  expose  in  this  loose  comedy.  Again  the 
movie  dictator  blustered  and  ordered  his  slaves 
about.  And  again  promiscuity  and  injustice  flour- 
ished. As  compared,  though,  with  newspaper  head- 
lines of  movie  colony  goings-on,  the  revelations 
were  tame,  synthetic  and  even  silly. 

Kiss  Me,  Kate.  Unanimously  hailed  as  an  overnight 
hit^was  this  musical  which  brought  back  Cole  Por- 
ter's tunes  to  Broadway,  shreds  of  The  Taming  of 
the  Shrew,  and  enough  laughs  to  purge  the  soul. 

The  Leading  Lady.  Written  by  Ruth  Gordon  and 
starring  her,  this  was  about  a  famous  actor  and 
his  actress  wife,  and  what  is  called  professional 
jealousy.  He  died  of  it;  the  rest  of  the  play  was 
spent  in  a  tedious  effort  to  make  his  actress  widow 
forget  him  and  marry  someone  worthy  who  really 
loved  her.  By  the  time  that  happened,  the  play, 
the  patience  of  the  audience,  and  the  run  of  the 
play  was  over. 

Lend  an  Ear.  Though  entertainments  that  take 
their  origin  in  Chicago  and  other  points  west  rarely 
meet  with  New  York  approval,  this  play  won  im- 
mediate attention,  critical  praise  and  audience 
support.  A  company  of  talented  young  people  put 
the  entertainment  in  the  hit  class. 


life  with  Mother.  Pleasurable  was  the  encounter 
with  old  friends  provided  by  Russel  Grouse  and 
Howard  Lindsay  in  their  sequel  to  Life  With  Fa- 
ther.  Again  Clarence  strutted  and  cried,  "Oh 
Gawd!"  and  again  Vinnie  was  insistent,  wily,  and 
completely  captivating.  If  this  beloved  pair  could 
only  continue  thus  throughout  the  years,  even 
though  their  vehicle  be  attenuated,  transparent, 
and  obviously  a  tour  de  force,  the  whole  world  of 
theatergoers  would  rejoice. 

Light  Up  the  Sky.  Expose  permeated  the  staid 
atmosphere  of  Moss  Hart's  newest  comedy;  and 
whether  or  not  the  characters  concerned  were  true 
to  certain  originals  or  not,  their  behavior  resembled 
certainly  that  of  actors,  playwrights,  and  producers 
during  the  trying  days  of  a  try-out.  The  laughter, 
at  any  rate,  was  almost  continuous,  thanks  to  the 
juicy  parts  which  Moss  gave  such  fine  actors  as 
Virginia  Field,  Sam  Levene,  Glenn  Anders,  and 
Phyllis  Povah. 

The  Linden  Tree.  There's  an  old  wheeze  about 
English  plays  not  succeeding  in  these  United 
States  and  J.B.  Priestley  had  proved  it  and  dis- 
proved it  intermittently.  In  this  case  he  proved  it, 
conclusively,  for  the  public  was  not  at  all  inter- 
ested in  the  story  of  domestic  troubles  encased  in 
volubility. 

Look,  Ma,  I'm  Dancin'!  Some  skilled  young  people 
and  a  backstage  ballet  revolution  hoisted  this  play 
over  a  comparatively  long  engagement.  Certain 
critics  regarded  Nancy  Walker  as  an  important  ad- 
dition to  comedy  ranks;  an  overvaluation,  cer- 
tainly, if  spontaneity  and  charm  are  essential  to  a 
comedienne  who  expects  to  gain  the  stature  of  a 
Fannie  Brice  or  a  Beatrice  Lillie. 

love  life.  One  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  Ameri- 
can marriage  supplied  the  somewhat  somber  back- 
ground in  this  play  by  Alan  Jay  Lerner  and  Kurt 
Weil.  The  approach  was  new,  yet  not  particularly 
successful,  for  there  was  too  much  stress  on  heart- 
break and  disillusion  for  a  musical. 

The  Mad  Woman  of  Chaillot.  Even  though  fantasy 
served  as  the  background,  the  characters  concerned 
were  delightful  and  the  humor  fresh.  Martita  Hunt, 
Estelle  Winwood  and  Vladimir  Sokoloff  made  the 
fantastic  characters  believable,  in  spite  of  their 
deviations  from  the  so-called  normal  The  outdoor 
cafe  setting  was  simultaneously  the  most  realistic 
and  the  most  imaginative  replica  of  the  al  fresco 
scene  that  has  ever  come  to  Broadway. 

Magdalena.  Saturated  with  excellencies,  yet  badly 
edited.  Though  the  score  by  Villa-Lobos  never 
equaled  the  melodic  charm  of  his  famous  celli 
composition,  it  boasted  a  brilliant  mechanical 
piano  number.  The  most  original  musical  to  reach  * 
Broadway  in  years  and  also  the  best  sung,  Magda- 
lena was  doomed  from  the  first  by  an  old-fashioned 
story  that  throttled  a  production  which  should 
have  run  for  months. 

Make  Mine  Manhattan.  The  outstanding  features 
of  this  musical  by  Arnold  Horwitt  and  Richard 
Lewine  were  Sid  Caesar's  reverse  onomatopoetic 
numbers  in  which  he  imitated  everything  ^  from  a 
machine  gun  to  a  slot  machine,  Dave  Burns*  diver's 
sketch,  and  a  take-off  on  a  movie  director  with  a 
cloak-and-suit  training.  The  dances  were  attrac- 
tive, the  singers  pleasant,  and  the  music  forget- 
table. 

Me  and  Mo//y.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  Gertrude 
Berg,  actress-author,  overweighted  this  domestic 
comedy  with  hokum,  the  play  rang  true,  had  an  au- 
thentic feeling  for  Jewish  family  life,  several  touch- 
ing scenes,  three  or  four  fine  characterizations,  and 
many  laughs. 

Misfer   Roberts.   Good   dramatizations   of  novels 


THEATER 


548 


THEATER 


are  so  rare  that  only  two  or  three  of  them  brighten 
stage  history.  This  war  play,  however,  was  so  good 
that  It  surpassed  the  original  book  by  Thomas 
Heggen.  The  play  was  so  good,  indeed,  that  even 
though  it  was  out-and-out  theater,  it  was  easy  to 
accept  as  real  life.  This  play  should  run  forever. 

My  Romance.  Anne  Jeffreys,  vocally  excellent  and 
notably  beautiful,  did  as  much  as  possible  with  an 
evaporated  version  of  what  was  once  a  turbulent 
prima  donna  role.  And  although  Sigmund  Romberg 
has  written  some  of  the  loveliest  melodies  in  the 
history  of  the  American  stage,  he  failed  to  lift  this 
score  to  his  customary  heights. 

Power  without  Glory.  Largely  because  its  theme 
was  not  unified  and  the  ending  confused,  this  Eng- 
lish importation  did  not  achieve  a  profitable  run.  A 
second-act  scene  in  which  a  sister,  in  the  presence 
of  her  family,  decided  to  betray  her  brother  as  a 
murderer,  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  dramatic 
incidents  of  the  season. 

Tne  Rope  of  lucrefkr.  Majorie  and  Sherman  Ewing, 
who  entered  the  producing  ranks  last  year  with 
Angel  in  the  Wings,  returned  with  an  impressive 
production  by  Andre  Obey,  made  into  a  music 
drama  by  Ronald  Duncan  and  Benjamin  Britten, 
composer  of  the  grand  opera,  Peter  Grimes.  His 
score,  in  this  instance,  was  so  lacking  in  sustained 
melodies  and  hovered  so  near  dissonance  that  it 
had  little  appeal  for  the  popular  audience.  Kitty 
Carlisle,  in  the  role  which  Katharine  Cornell  cre- 
ated here,  sang  well  and  looked  handsome. 

Red  G/oves.  The  most  discussed  play  of  the 
season  was  Jean-Paul  Sartre's  Paris  hit,  Les  Mains 
Sales,  produced  here  by  Jean  Dalrymple.  Being 
largely  a  controversy  on  Communism,  the  piece 
recalled  Arthur  Koestler's  self -analyses  in  Darkness 
at  Noon.  Academic  rather  than  dramatic,  only 
three  scenes  had  enough  action  to  relieve  the  mo- 
notony of  interminable  dialogue:  a  bomb  blast, 
a  pistol  frisking,  and  a  murder.  Charles  Boyer, 
making  his  American  debut,  was  excellent  as  the 
Communist  leader. 

The  Respectful  Prostitute.  The  dramatist  who  prac- 
tically dominated  the  New  York  season  was  a 
Frenchman,  the  versatile  existentialist,  Jean-Paul 
Sartre.  He  was  represented  by  four  plays:  Red 
Gloves,  The  Respectful  Prostitute,  The  Victors,  and 
two  revivals  of  No  Exit.  The  Respectful  Prostitute 
was  simultaneously  excellent  theatre  and  an  effec- 
tive attack  on  race  discrimination  in  the  South.  To 
establish  his-  urgent  principles,  the  dramatist 
stacked  the  cards,  almost  shamelessly.  Yet  his  mes- 
sage came  through  surely  to  hundreds  of  his  audi- 
ences; and  his  characters,  though  drawn  on  too 
broad  lines,  must  have  left  a  deep  impression.  The 
play  practically  established  Meg  Mundy  as  an  ac- 
tress of  noteworthy  ability. 

Set  My  People  Free.  The  superb  acting  of  Juano 
Hernandez  and  one  exciting  scene — a  Negro's  as- 
sumption of  spiritual  and  political  power  during  a 
church  ceremony — were  the  only  justifications  for 
this  play  by  Dorothy  Heyward. 

The  Silver  Whistle.  A  modern  histrionic  Adas,  Jose 
Ferrer  held  the  entire  weight  of  this  play  by  Robert 
E.  McEnroe  on  consciously  talented  shoulders,  but 
shoulders  that  were  also  grateful.  For  his  role  of 
vagabond  was  a  lush  one,  a  composite  of  Francois 
Villon,  Omar  Khayyam,  and  Cyrano  de  Bergerac, 
garnished  with  poetry  excerpts,  preaching,  mug- 
ging, and  courting.  That  wondrous  actress,  Doro 
Merande,  provided  laughable  foiling  as  an  inmate 
of  a  poorhouse.  The  play  itself  was  an  attenuated 
retelling  of  the  miracles  wrought  by  personality  in 
old  plays  like  The  Servant  in  the  House  and  The 
Passing  of  the  Third  Floor  Back. 


Skipper  Next  to  God.  The  Experimental  Theatre, 
borrowing  John  Garfield  from  Hollywood,  pro- 
duced a  drama  about  a  Dutch  sea  captain  and  his 
cargo  of  refugees.  Though  confused  in  its  purposes, 
the  piece  carried  on  for  a  time,  yet  not  long  enough 
to  insure  the  future  of  the  Experimental  Theatre. 

Small  Wonder.  One  act  was  enough.  That  act, 
however,  had  the  brilliant  young  comedian,  Tom 
Ewell,  who  is  a  complete  entertainment  in  him- 
self. As  a  skilled  raconteur  and  facial  expressionist, 
he  gave  personal  continuity  to  the  varied  sketches. 
Mary  McCarty  and  the  dancing-singing  chorus  of 
youngster  principals  performed  small  wonders  with 
repetitious  stepping  numbers  and  synthetic  songs. 

Summer  and  Smoke.  Tennessee  Williams'  newest 
play  presented  a  consistent  study  of  man  and 
woman  in  their  relation  to  soul  and  body.  It  had 
conviction  and  poetry.  Though  it  lacked  the  action 
and  suspense  of  A  Streetcar  Named  Desire,  the 
characters  were  compelling.  The  prologue  recalled 
Frank  Wedekind's  pioneer  play  of  adolescence, 
The  Awakening  of  Spring.  The  subsequent  adult 
conflict  between  passion  and  conscience,  convention 
and  fear  was  embellished  with  dialogue  that  was 
intentionally  euphemistic  at  times  and  deliberately 
crude  at  others.  An  illuminated  chart  of  the  male 
body  and  off-stage  incidental  music  gave  new  life 
to  the  old  story  of  the  saint  who  became  a  sinner 
and  the  sinner  who  took  on  sanctity. 

Where's  Charley?  Veteran  of  many  revivals, 
Charlie's  Aunt  bobbed  up  again  under  the  title 
Where's  Charley?  Ray  Bolger  supplied  a  satisfac- 
tory answer  by  clowning  all  over  the  place,  singing, 
dancing,  and  shifting  attire  with  easy  indecorum. 

The  Young  and  Fair.  Life  in  a  girl's  school  was 
used  as  the  medium  for  a  plea  for  democracy  in 
this  play  written  by  N.  Richard  Nash  and  pre- 
sented by  Vinton  Freedley.  One  girl  was  a  female 
Hitler,  another  an  ostracized  Jewess,  and  still  an- 
other a  Gestapo  member,  intent  on  pinning  a  theft 
on  an  innocent  schoolmate.  The  plot  was  reminis- 
cent of  many  other  schoolgirl  feuds  and  too  fragile 
to  hold  its  lofty  content. 

Plays  with  brief  runs.  Among  the  less  fortunate 
productions  were:  Seeds  in  the  Wind;  Doctor  So- 
cial; The  Eallams;  The  Vigil;  For  Heaven's  Sake; 
Mother;  Kathleen;  The  Survivors;  Harvest  of  Years; 
The  Last  Dance;  Make  Way  for  Lucia;  Minnie  and 
Mr.  Williams;  The  Men  We  Marry;  Sundown 
Beach;  Oh!  Mr.  Meadowbrook!;  Time  for  Eliza- 
beth; Sally;  Strange  Bedfellows;  and  Jenny  Kissed 
Me,  starring  the  character  actor  Leo  G.  Carroll. 

Repertory.  Varied  in  range  was  the  work  of  the 
repertory  companies.  Their  bills  included  plays  by 
Shakespeare  and  Henrik  Ibsen.  The  D'Oyly  Carte 
Company,  happily  returned  to  these  shores,  made 
an  artistic  and  financial  success.  The  Dublin  Gate 
Theatre  Players  pleased  with  their  acting,  though 
not  with  their  plays;  and  the  Habima  company 
drew  its  customary  Yiddish  theater  enthusiasts. 

Revivals.  Tallulah  Bankhead,  in  Noel  Coward's 
Private  Lives,  transformed  the  piece  into  an  exhi- 
bitionistic  debauche  and  packed  the  house  with 
gasping,  shocked,  but  never  outraged  audiences. 
But  Gertrude  Lawrence  wasn't  able  to  revivify  the 
same  playwright's  outmoded  Tonight  at  8:30. 
Though  several  decades  old,  The  Play's  the  Thing, 
starring  the  suave  actor,  Louis  Calhern,  enjoyed 
an  extensive  run. 

London  Season.  Plays  "which  attracted  audiences 
in  London  included  The  Chiltern  Hundreds,  Ed- 
ward, My  Son,  Don't  Listen,  Ladies,  and  a  revival 
of  The  Relapse,  by  Sir  John  Van  Burgh.  Popular 
also  were  the  American  importations  Oklahoma, 
Annie  Get  Your  Gun,  and  Diamond  Lil. 


THEOSOPH/STS 


549 


TOGGLAND 


Paris  Season.  Outstanding  favorite  of  the  Paris 
season  was  Jean  Louis  Barrault,  whose  repertory 
ranged  from  Shakespeare  and  drawing-room  com- 
edy to  pantomime  scenes  from  the  motion  picture 
Les  Enfants  de  Paradis.  Important  also  were  Jean- 
Paul  Sartre's  Dirty  Hands,  Invitation,  to  the  Cha- 
teau, and  The  Little  Hut,  The  musical  hits  includ- 
ed Imperial  Violets.,  The  Folies  Bergere,  and  a 
musical  version  of  Madame  Sans-Gene. 

— BERNARD  SOBEL 

THEOSOPHISTS.  The  three  main  objectives  of  this 
group  'are:  ( 1 )  To  form  a  nucleus  of  the  Universal 
Brotherhood  of  Humanity  without  distinction  of 
race,  creed,  sex,  caste,  or  color;  (2)  to  encourage 
the  study  of  comparative  religion,  philosophy,  and 
science;  ( 3 )  to  investigate  the  unexplained  laws  of 
nature  and  the  powers  latent  in  man. 

The  Theosophical  Society  in  America.  Chartered  in 
1866  as  a  branch  of  the  Theosophical  Society,  with 
international  headquarters  in  Adyar,  India,  which 
was  founded  in  New  York  in  1875.  A  National 
Convention  and  a  Summer  Training  School  for 
workers  are  held  annually.  President,  James  S.  Per- 
kins. Headquarters,  P.  O.  Box  419,  Wheaton,  111. 

TIBET.  An  autonomous  country  in  central  Asia,  north 
and  northwest  of  the  Himalayas.  Chinese  sover- 
eignty over  Tibet  was  established  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury, but  all  Chinese  officials  were  expelled  from 
the  country  in  1912.  Since  1939  however,  the  Chi- 
nese Republic  has  had  a  representative  at  Lhasa, 
the  capital.  Area,  469,294  square  miles.  Population, 
3,772,061  (1946  estimate).  Agriculture,  stock  rais- 
ing, wool  spinning  and  knitting  are  the  chief  occu- 
pations. Principal  minerals  are  gold,  borax,  and  salt. 
There  is  a  large  trade  with  China  and  India.  The 
government  is  a  theocracy,  ruled  by  the  14th  Dalai 
Lama  through  a  regent.  Lamaism,  a  modified  form 
of  Buddhism,  is  the  religion  of  the  people. 

TIMOR,  Portuguese.  The  areas  in  the  Malay  Archipel- 
ago, consisting  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  island  of 
Timor,  together  with  the  territory  of  Ambeno  and 
the  nearby  islands  of  Pulo  Gambing  and  Pulo  Jako. 
Total  area:  7,330  square  miles.  Population:  463,- 
796.  Capital:  Dilly  (Dilli).  Coffee,  sandalwood, 
sandalroot,  copra,  and  wax  are  the  principal  ex- 
port products.  For  the  year  1946,  estimated  reve- 
nue and  expenditure  were  balanced  at  9,430,000 
escudos.  Public  debt  (Jan.  19  1947):  34,488,000 
escudos,  A  governor  heads  the  government  of  the 
colony. 

TIN.  World  production  of  tin  showed  a  substantial 
increase  in  1948  due  to  improved  facilities,  sup- 
plies, and  conditions  of  labor  in  Malaya  and  the 
Netherlands  East  Indies,  the  principal  producing 
areas.  World  production  of  tin  in  concentrates  was 
approximately  150,000  long  tons,  not  quite  as  high 
as  the  prewar  average  of  170,000  tons  (1947: 
113,500  tons).  World  smelter  production  of  tin 
metal  was  159,300  long  tons  (1947:  124,500  tons), 
reflecting  some  reductions  in  stocks  of  concentrates. 
World  consumption  of  tin,  limited  by  alloca- 
tions of  the  Combined  Tin  Committee  and  con- 
servation measures  imposed  by  government,  for 
the  first  time  since  1944  did  not  exceed  production. 
World  consumption  was  approximately  140,000 
long  tons  (1947:  132,600  tons).  The  United  States 
is  currently  consuming  about  45  percent  of  world 
production,  largely  for  tinplate  used  as  canmaking 
stock,  the  balance  for  solder,  babbit,  bronze,  tubes, 
and  foil.  Restrictions  on  use,  orders  M-43  and  M-81, 
were  extended  to  June  30,  1949. 


The  Combined  Tin  Committee  which  sits  in 
Washington  includes  members  from  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  Netherlands,  France,  Belgi- 
um, China,  India,  and  Canada.  Its  specific  function 
is  to  allocate  tin  metal  among  the  importing  na- 
tions based  on  the  total  pool  of  metal  made  avail- 
able by  the  main  producing  nations. 

An  International  Tin  Study  Group  was  organ- 
ized in  1947  to  study  problems  or  difficulties  not 
likely  to  be  resolved  by  the  ordinary  development 
of  world  trade  in  tin.  At  the  second  meeting  of  the 
Group  in  Washington  in  April,  the  Group  acted  to 
set  up  a  Working  Party  to  study  the  practicability 
of  framing  an  intergovernmental  agreement  on  tin 
conforming  to  the  principles  of  the  International 
Trade  Organization. 

At  the  third  meeting  at  the  Hague  in  October  it 
was  agreed  to  submit  a  proposal  for  such  an  agree- 
ment to  the  member  governments,  final  details  to 
be  worked  out  at  an  intergovernmental  tin  confer- 
ence. The  present  membership  of  the  Tin  Study 
Group  includes  Australia,  Belgium,  Bolivia,  British 
Colonies,  Canada,  China,  Czechoslovakia,  France, 
India,  Italy,  Netherlands,  Siam,  United  Kingdom, 
and  United  States. 

The  production  of  tin  in  the  form  of  concentrates 
by  principal  producers  was  approximately  as  fol- 
lows: Malaya,  44,381  long  tons  (1947:  27,026 
tons);  Bolivia,  36,500  tons  (1947:  33,259  tons); 
Netherlands  East  Indies,  29,000  tons  (1947:  15,- 
915  tons);  Belgian  Congo,  14,500  tons  (1947: 
14,897  tons);  Nigeria,  9,300  tons  (1947:  9,139 
tons). 

The  1948  production  of  the  tin  smelter  operated 
by  the  United  States  government  at  Texas  City, 
Tex.,  was  approximately  38,000  long  tons.  The 
price  of  Grade  A  tin  was  held  at  94  cents  per  Ib. 
until  June  1  when  it  was  raised  to  $1.03  and  held 
there  for  the  balance  of  the  year  1948. 

— JOHN  ANTHONY 

TOBACCO.  The  1948  tobacco  crop  of  the  United 
States  was  estimated  at  1,897,926,000  Ib.,  com- 
pared with  the  1947  crop  of  2,109,581,000  Ib.  and 
the  10-year  average  (1937-46)  of  1,664,265,000 
Ib.  Yields  of  the  chief  producing  States  of  the 
United  States  for  the  years  1947  and  1948,  with 
acreage  harvested,  are  presented  in  the  accompany- 
ing table. 


State 
Mass. 

Acreage 

1947 
7400 

harvested 

1948 
7,800 
19,100 
500 
39,700 
18,300 
9,400 
19,900 
500 
5,300 
200 
47,000 
113,100 
2,700 
604,000 
103,000 
82,900 
20,100 
340,400 
103,100 
400 
300 

Production 
(Thousand  Ib.) 
1947           1948 
11,500        11,603 
24,602        23,523 
1,080             650 
58,518        63,505 
21,125        21,330 
10,198        12,590 
37,350        28,533 
780             625 
4,680          6,095 
190            220 
38,400        35,250 
154,752       145,180 
3,360         3,308 
907,181      746,300 
155,495      128,750 
127,142        96,993 
27,036        20,846 
385,073      413,390 
140,500      138,350 
370             360 
249             225 

Conn. 

19  200 

N.Y  

800 

Pa 

39400 

Ohio 

18500 

Ind  

9,000 

Wis 

24900 

Minn  

600 

Mo  

5,200 

JCans  

200 

Md  

48,000 

Va  

139,300 

W.Va  

2,800 

NC. 

792,600 

so    

137,000 

Ga 

.     107  900 

Fla 

26,500 

Ky 

.     349,500 

Tenn 

115  600 

Ala  

400 

La  

600 

XJ,S  

1,845,400 

1,537,700 

2,109,581 

1,897,926 

TOGOLAND,  British.  A  United  Nations  Trusteeship 
territory  since  Dec.  13,  1946,  administered  by  the 
United  Kingdom.  Area:  13,041  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation (1940),  391,473  natives.  Chief  exports  are 


TOGO1AN0 


550 


TRADE 


cacao,  coffee,  kola  nuts,  palm  kernels,  and  palm 
oil.  Trade,  finance,  and  education  figures  are  in- 
cluded with  those  of  the  Gold  Coast. 

TOGOLAND,  French.  A  United  Nations  trusteeship 
territory  under  French  administration  since  Dec. 
13,  1946.  Area  under  French  administration,  21,- 
893  square  miles.  Capital,  Lome.  Total  population 
in  1946  was  918,000  natives  and  638  Europeans. 
The  majority  of  the  population  is  pagan;  by  1946, 
however,  87,425  natives  had  embraced  Catholi- 
cism, and  about  29,000  the  Protestant  faith. 

Agriculture  and  grazing  occupy  most  of  the  peo- 
ple. Chief  crops  are  cocoa,  yams,  millet,  cotton, 
and  palm  kernels.  Native  industries  include  weav- 
ing, pottery,  woodcarving  and  straw-plaiting.  Chief 
exports:  palm-kernels,  cocoa,  ginned  cotton,  copra, 
coffee,  and  groundnuts. 

TOKELAU  (Union  Islands).  A  group  of  islands  in  the 
Pacific  consisting  of  three  clusters  of  islets  (Faka- 
ofo,  Nukunono,  Atafu)  in  Lat.  8°  to  10°  S.  and 
Long.  171°  to  172°  W.  Formerly  a  part  of  the 
Gilbert  and  Ellice  Islands  colony,  the  islands  were 
transferred  to  the  jurisdiction  of  New  Zealand  on 
Feb.  11,  1926.  Area:  4  square  miles.  Population: 
1,388  ( 1945  census ) .  Copra  is  the  principal  export. 
Tokelau  is  administered  by  New  Zealand  through 
its  High  Commissioner  for  Western  Samoa. 

TONGA  (Friendly  Islands).  An  independent  Polynesian 
kingdom  under  British  protection  since  1899.  Sit- 
uated about  180  miles  southeast  of  Fiji,  Tonga 
comprises  150  islands  and  islets  forming  three  main 
groups  called  respectively  Tongatabu,  Haaipai,  and 
Vavau.  Total  area:  250  square  miles.  Population: 
40,670.  Capital,  Nukualofa,  on  Tongatabu.  Native 
produce  consists  almost  entirely  of  copra  and  ba- 
nanas. Citrus  fruits,  taro,  breadfruits,  yams,  and 
fish  also  are  important.  In  1946  exports  were  val- 
ued at  £230,117;  imports,  £273,125.  The  1947 
revenue  amounted  to  £159,200;  expenditure  to 
£106,600.  Queen,  Her  Majesty  Salote  Tubou.  Brit- 
ish agent  and  consul,  C.  W.  T.  Johnson. 

TRACK  AND  FIELD  ATHIETICS.  With  the  Olympics  as 
an  incentive,  stars  the  world  over  put  on  their 
greatest  shows  of  all  time  during  the  long  indoor 
and  outdoor  campaigns  of  1948,  the  climax  coming 
at  the  London  games  when  men  and  women  of 
58  nations  competed  for  coveted  medals. 

One  of  the  year's  outstanding  men  was  Harrison 
Dillard  of  Baldwin-Wallace  College  in  Ohio,  who 
set  a  world  record  of  thirteen  and  six-tenths  sec- 
onds (0:13.6)  for  the  120-yard  high  hurdles  in 
April.  After  dominating  all  rivals  to  compile  an 
amazing  streak  of  82  straight  victories,  Dillard  had 
his  string  snapped  in  the  national  A.A.U.  cham- 
pionships when  he  attempted  to  qualify  in  both 
sprint  and  hurdles  for  the  final  Olympic  try  outs, 
A  week  later,  smashing  into  the  hurdles,  Dillard 
failed  to  qualify  in  his  specialty,  but  he  did  make 
the  team  as  a  sprinter  and  went  on  to  take  the 
100-meter  dash  at  London  in  the  Olympic-tvins 
time  of  0:10.3. 

The  triumph  of  Bob  Mathias,  17-year-old  school- 
boy from  Tulare,  Cal.,  in  the  national  decathlon 
and  his  subsequent  triumph  in  England  were  other 
highlights.  The  retirement  of  Gil  Dodds  after  a 
successful  indoor  season  also  marked  1948.  After 
setting  an  indoor  mile  record  of  4:05.3,  Dodds  was 
felled  by  mumps.  He  later  took  the  national  out- 
door 1,500-meter  title,  but  strained  an  Achilles 
tendon  in  training  and  hung  up  his  spikes. 

Mel  Fatten  became  the  first  in  history  to  run  100 


yards  in  0:09.3,  but  he  lost  to  Barney  Ewell  in 
the  final  100-meter  Olympic  trial.  Chuck  Fonville 
of  Michigan  set  a  world  shot  put  mark  of  58  feet, 
three-eighths  inches,  but  a  back  injury  kept  him 
from  qualifying  for  the  Olympics. 

Herb  MoKenley  from  Jamaica,  B.W.I.,  flew  to 
world  records  of  0:45.9  for  400  meters  and  0:46 
for  the  440-yard  dash.  Another  athlete  from  the 
Caribbean,  Lloyd  La  Beach  of  Panama,  tied  the 
listed  world  standard  of  0:10.2  for  100  meters. 

National  A.A.U.  senior  outdoor  champions  fol- 
low: Barney  Ewell,  Lancaster,  Pa.,  100  meters; 
Lloyd  La  Beach,  200;  Herb  McKenley,  400;  Herb 
Barten,  University  of  Michigan,  800;  Gil  Dodds, 
Boston  A.A.,  1,500;  Curtis  Stone,  Shanahan  C.C. 
of  Philadelphia,  5,000;  Edward  O'Toole,  New  York 
A.C.,  10,000;  Henry  Laskau,  Maccabi  A.C.  of  New 
York,  3,000  walk;  Forest  Efaw,  Stillwater,  Okla., 
3,000  steeplechase;  William  Porter,  Northwestern 
University,  110  low  hurdles;  Roy  Cochran,  Los 
Angeles  A.C.,  400  hurdles;  Madill  Gartiser,  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri,  200  low  hurdles;  Francis  De- 
laney,  San  Francisco  Olympic  Club,  16-pound  shot 
put;  Fortune  Gordien,  University  of  Minnesota, 
discus;  Stephen  Seymour,  Los  Angeles  A.C.,  jave- 
lin; Robert  Bennett,  Rhode  Island  A.A.,  16-pound 
hammer  throw;  Henry  Dreyer,  New  York  A.C.,  56- 
pound  weight  throw;  Fred  Johnson,  Michigan 
State  College,  broad  jump;  Gaylord  Bryan,  Stan- 
ford University,  running  hop,  step  and  jump;  Tom 
Scofield,  University  of  Kansas,  and  William  Vessie, 
New  York  A.C.,  tie  in  high  jump;  A.  R.  Morcom, 
New  Hampshire  State  A.A.,  and  Robert  Richards, 
Illinois  A.C.,  tie  in  pole  vault;  New  York  A.C., 
team;  Russell  Thomas,  Jeannette,  Pa.,  pentathlon; 
Bob  Mathias,  decathlon. 

A.A.U.  indoor  winners  follow:  William  Mathis, 
Urbana,  III,  60  yards;  Dave  Bolen,  Boulder,  Colo., 
600;  Philip  Thigpen,  Seton  Hall  College,  1,000; 
Thomas  Quinn,  New  York  A.C.,  one  mile;  Curtis 
Stone,  three  miles;  Harrison  Dillard,  60-yard  high 
hurdles;  Henry  H.  Laskau,  one-mile  walk;  Lorenzo 
Wright,  Wayne  University,  broad  jump;  John  Vis- 
locky,  New  York  A.C.,  high  jump;  Robert  Rich- 
ards, pole  vault;  Norman  Wasser,  University  of 
Illinois,  16-pound  shot  put;  Robert  Bennett,  Provi- 
dence, R.I.,  35-pound  weight  throw;  Seton  Hall 
College,  one-mile  relay;  Manhattan  College,  two- 
mile  relay;  New  York  Pioneer  Club,  medley  relay; 
New  York  A.C.,  team. 

Team  championships  in  both  the  women's 
A.A.U.  indoor  and  outdoor  meets  were  won  by 
Tuskegee  Institute  of  Alabama.  Mabel  Walker  of 
Tuskegee,  Alice  Coachman  of  Albany  State  Col- 
lege in  Georgia,  Juanita  Watson  of  Tuskegee,  and 
Stella  Walsh  of  the  Polish  Women's  A.C.  of  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  were  among  the  United  States  leaders. 
Stella  Walsh  captured  three  titles  in  the  A.A.U. 
outdoor  tests,  taking  the  100  and  200  meter  dashes 
and  the  running  broad  jump.  See  OLYMPIC  GAMES. 
-—THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

TRADE,  U.S.  Foreign.  During  the  calendar  year  1948, 
general  imports  into  the  United  States  reached  a 
new  record  high  of  $7,070.3  million,  or  23.3  per- 
cent above  the  1947  value  of  $5,733.4  million. 
Imports  of  vegetable  foods  registered  the  largest 
increase  from  $129.6  million  in  November  to  $182.7 
million  in  December  reflecting  sharp  increases  in 
imports  of  cocoa  beans,  raw  coffee,  and  sugar.  Im- 
ports of  inedible  vegetable  products  advanced  82 
percent  from  the  November  value  of  $53  million  to 
a  December  value  of  $96.6  million,  with  the  chief 
increases  in  imports  of  crude  rubber  and  copra. 
Textile  imports  rose  from  $45.7  million  in  Novem- 


TRADE 


551 


TRANSJORDAN 


ber  to  $67.7  million  in  December,  metal  imports 
from  $74.5  million  to  $115.6  million  reflecting  in- 
creased imports  of  several  metals  including  refined 
copper,  reclaimed  scrap  lead,  and  tin  blocks,  bars, 
and  pigs.  On  the  other  hand  imports  in  December 
of  edible  animals  and  animal  products  dropped 
sharply  from  $39.6  to  $29.8  million  as  cattle  im- 
ports slumped  from  the  relatively  high  levels  of 
September,  October,  and  November.  Table  1  re- 
cords the  value  of  general  imports  and  imports  for 
consumption  into  the  United  States,  month  by 
month,  for  the  calender  years  of  1947  and  1948. 

TABLE  1— U.S.  IMPORTS  OF  MERCHANDISE 
(Millions  of  dollars) 


Month 
January  

Gen 
imp 
1947 
.  .     .     530.9 

wal 
torts  ° 
1948 

545.0 
582.2 
665.8 
528.0 
549.4 
615.4 
558.3 
598.8 
558.2 
597.3 
550.1 
721.  4  * 

Imports  for 
Consumption  b 
1947         1948 
535.6         555.9 
425.2         573.9 
434.7         638.4 
484.0         525.6 
455.8         543.7 
469.6         595.8 
444.6         563.0 
404.6         589.2 
473.1         588.0 
504.9         601.7 
448.8         557.2  ,J 
562.5         705.8  e  , 

February  

436  7 

March  

4445 

April  

512  1 

May 

4740 

June 

4630 

July. 

449  7 

August 

4002 

September  

473.1 

October  

.  .    .     491.6 

November  . 

.    .  .     454.7 

December 

6029 

U.S.  Total 5,773.4     7,070.3  e     5,643.3     7,038.4  e 

a  General  imports  include  imports  for  immediate  consumption 
plus  entries  into  bonded  warehouses.  b  Imports  for  consump- 
tion include  imports  for  immediate  consumption  plus  with- 
drawals for  consumption  from  bonded  warehouses.  "Pre- 
liminary. 

Exports.  Total  exports  o£  the  United  States  for 
the  calender  year  1948  amounted  in  value  to  $12,- 
614.2  million,  17.7  percent  under  the  1947  record 
high  of  $15,340.2  million  (figures  include  exports 
under  the  Department  of  the  Army  Civilian  Supply 
Program  for  1947  and  1948). 

TABLE  2— EXPORTS  OF  MERCHANDISE 
(Millions  of  dollars} 


Month 
Js,nuSiry 

Dome 
foreign 
1947  a 
1.113  7 

'Stic  and 
i  exports    . 
1948  « 
1,091.6 
1,086.4 
1,138.6 
1,120.5 
1,102.1 
1,014.0 
1,019.3 
990.1 
926.1 
1,021.4 
819.9 
1,  283.7  b 

Domestic 
exports 
1947*        1948° 
1,093.6       1,081.5 
1,126.8       1,075.8 
1,303.4       1,126.1 
1,276.1       1,110.0 
1,399.9       1,090.7 
1,221.5       1,004.7 
1,143.0       1,010.0 
1,134.6         981.1 
1,101.4         916.0 
1,217.5       1,011.3 
1,129.7         813.0 
1,104.8       1.271.8& 

February 

.'    1,146.0 

March 

.  .     1,326  4 

April 

1  294  3 

May  

.  .  .    1,413.5 

June    

.  .  .   1,234.9 

July  

...    1,154.7 

August     

.  .  .   1,145.0 

September     .    . 

...   1,111.7 

October  .  .  

.  .  .   1,234.7 

November 

...   1,141.2 

December 

..     1,113.6 

U  S  Total 

14  429.7 

12,614.2  6 

14,252.3 

12,494.0  & 

tt  Army  Civilian  Supply  exports,  initiated  during  World  War 
II  to  furnish  relief  to  the  civilian  populations  of  occupied  coun- 
tries, are  not  included  in  1947  figures  but  are  included  in  those 
for  1948.  Exports  under  this  program  were  valued  at  $901 
million  for  the  calendar  year  1948  ($910.5  million  for  1947). 
&  Preliminary. 

All  commodity  groups  showed  increased  exports 
from  November  to  December  with  exports  of  ma- 
chinery and  vehicles  amounting  to  $360.3  million 
in  December,  compared  with  $204.7  million  in 
November.  Among  other  important  commodity 
groups  showing  large  gains  in  exports  from  Novem- 
ber to  December  of  1948  were  metals  and  manu- 
factures from  $63.6  to  $112.5  million;  textiles 
from  $126,5  to  $185.7  million;  vegetable  foods 
from  $150.2  to  $192.7  million;  and  inedible  vege- 
table products  from  $35.9  to  $73.2  million. 

Exports  under  the  Department  of  the  Army  Ci- 
vilian Supply  Program  rose  slightly  from  $40  mil- 
lion in  November  to  $45.8  million  in  December. 
While  exports  under  the  European  Cooperation 


Administration,  and  other  United  States  foreign 
relief  programs  are  included  in  the  export  figures 
contained  in  this  summary,  separate  figures  are  not 
available  for  exports  under  any  of  these  programs 
except  the  Department  of  the  Army  Civilian  Sup- 
ply Program. 

TRANSJORDAN.  An  Arab  kingdom,  east  of  Palestine. 
Area:  34,700  square  miles.  Population:  over  340,- 
000,  of  which  about  190,000  are  settled  and  the 
rest  nomadic.  The  capital,  Amman,  had  about 
20,000  inhabitants  before  its  population  was  al- 
most doubled  by  the  influx  of  Palestinian  Arab 
refugees.  Some  281  miles  of  the  Hejaz  railway  pass 
through  Trans  Jordan  to  beyond  Maan.  Over  1,400 
miles  of  asphalted  roads  link  Amman  with  all  parts 
of  the  state  and  with  neighboring  countries.  Most 
of  the  people  are  Sunni  Moslems,  and  a  few  are 
Christians. 

Education.  In  1944  the  175  schools  (both  gov- 
ernment and  foreign)  had  some  16,000  students. 
The  Islamic  Higher  College  was  scheduled  to  open 
in  the  fall  of  1948. 

Production.  In  addition  to  the  2,000  square  miles 
of  land  cultivated  fairly  steadily  there  are  at  least 
1,000  cultivable,  the  rest  being  desert.  Essentially 
an  agricultural  country,  especially  in  the  western 
part,  Transjordan  produces  varied  crops:  wheat, 
maize,  barley,  sesame,  and  vegetables.  The  esti- 
mated record  cereal  crop  for  1948  was  450,000  tons 
of  which  only  50,000  were  needed  for  local  con- 
sumption. 

Cattle  breeding  is  important  and  a  large  number 
are  exported;  other  livestock  are  also  produced  in 
substantial  quantities  and  exported.  The  few  in- 
dustrial establishments  include  tobacco,  cloth- 
weaving,  and  leather.  Among  minerals  exported  are 
phosphate,  silica  sand,  and  manganese.  Petroleum 
Development  (Transjordan  Ltd.),  a  subsidiary  of 
the  Iraq  Petroleum  Company,  in  which  American 
and  French  interests  own  23,75  percent  each,  was 
prospecting  for  oil. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  additional  to  those  men- 
tioned above  are  cereals,  skins  and  hides,  and  wool; 
most  of  the  exports  go  to  neighboring  countries. 
Principal  imports  include  animals,  food,  soap,  olive 
oil,  gasoline,  kerosene,  clothing,  iron,  timber,  and 
paper — the  chief  suppliers  were  neighboring  coun- 
tries, Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States.  Trade 
(1946):  imports  were  valued  at  £P6,607,233,  and 
exports  at  £P2,044,171.  Since  Palestine  played  an 
important  part  in  both  exports  and  imports  the 
trade  pattern  was  drastically  altered  in  1948.  In 
May  all  imports  were  subjected  to  import  licenses 
for  the  first  time. 

Finance.  For  the  first  three-quarters  of  1947  gov- 
ernment expenditure  totaled  £P2,298,523  and  rev- 
enue amounted  to  £P3,006,732.  The  currency 
used  was  the  Palestinian  pound  ( £P),  equivalent 
to  the  pound  sterling,  and  worth  U.S.$4.03.  When 
in  February  Palestine's  large  sterling  balances  were 
blocked  and  Palestine  left  the  sterling  area,  Trans- 
Jordan  followed  suit,  but  planned  to  return  with 
its  own  currency. 

Government.  King  Abdullah  Ibn  Hussein  of  the 
Hashemite  family  (and  great  uncle  of  Iraq's  young 
king)  was  appointed  Emir  of  Transjordan  in  1921 
under  the  British  Mandate  and  crowned  king  in 
1946  at  the  Mandate's  end.  He  is  assisted  by  a 
Cabinet  consisting  of  the  Prime  Minister  and  not 
more  than  five  other  Ministers,  and  a  Parliamen* 
made  up  of  a  House  of  Representatives  (elected  for 
four-year  terms)  and  a  House  of  Notables  (half 
as  large)  appointed  by  the  King  (for  eight-year 
terms ) . 


TREASURY 


552 


TRIESTE 


Events.  Relations  with  Great  Brifoln.  Concern  over 
the  effect  of  the  Palestine  problem  on  British- 
Transjordan  relations  was  reflected  in  a  British 
government  announcement  in  January.  It  stated 
that  if  the  Arab  Legion  should  cooperate  in  an 
attack  on  any  Jewish  state  following  British  with- 
drawal from  Palestine,  the  Legion's  annual  British 
subsidy  of  about  £2  million  would  be  withdrawn. 
In  March  the  two  countries  signed  a  new  20-year 
treaty  of  alliance,  replacing  the  1946  one,  to 
strengthen  Transjordan's  legal  independence.  Ar- 
ticle 3  provided  that  either  party  would  come  to 
the  aid  of  the  other  in  case  of  war.  In  May  the 
British  cabinet  decided  to  withdraw  seconded  offi- 
cers from  service  with  Transjordan's  Arab  Legion 
and  to  reconsider  giving  aid  to  other  Arab  armies. 
Although  the  British  government  withdrew  its 
quarterly  subsidy  in  July,  it  was  resumed  three 
days  later  as  a  result  of  Transjordan's  acceptance 
of  the  Palestine  truce  requested  by  the  United 
Nations  Security  Council. 

Palestine  Problem.  On  Dec.  2,  1947,  both  houses 
of  Parliament  voted  unanimously  to  support  Arab 
interests  in  Palestine,  which  were  threatened  by 
the  United  Nations  Palestine  partition  vote.  After 
active  Arab  Legion  fighting  in  Palestine,  June  1 
was  marked  by  the  first  Israeli  bombing  of  Amman. 
In  July,  King  Abdullah  personally  calmed  the  sec- 
ond of  two  demonstrations,  in^  which  shouts  of 
"Down  with  the  British"  and  "Down  with  Tru- 
man" were  heard.  In  August  the  King  reported  that 
Trans  Jordan  was  spending  about  £P25Q,000 
monthly  for  aid  to  Palestine  refugees.  The  year 
was  marked  by  Abdullah's  conferences  with  Iraqi 
and  other  Arab  leaders,  both  in  Amman  and  other 
capitals,  and  was  climaxed  by  his  unilateral  action 
in  Palestine  described  in  ARAB  LEAGUE  AFFAIRS. 
See  PALESTINE.  — DOROTHEA  SEELYE  FBANCK 

TREASURY,  US.  Department  of  the.  A  Department  of 
the  U.S.  Government  which  was  composed  in  1948 
of  the  following  principal  branches. 

Bureau  o£  Accounts 

Bureau  of  Customs 

Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing 

Bureau  of  Federal  Supply 

Bureau  of  Internal  Revenue 

Bureau  of  the  Mint 

Bureau  of  Narcotics 

Bureau  of  Public  Debt 

Committee  on  Practice 

Comptroller  of  the  Currency 

Division  of  Tax  Research 

Office  of  Administrative  Services 

Office  of  Contract  Settlement 

Office  of  the  General  Counsel 

Office  of  International  Finance 

Office  of  the  Secretary 

Office  of  Tax  Legislative  Counsel 

Office  of  the  Technical  Staff 

Office  of  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States 

United  States  Coast  Guard 

United  States  Savings  Bonds  Division 

United  States  Secret  Service 

The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  1948  was  John 
W.  Snyder.  See  the  separate  listing  of  important 
bureaus;  BANKS  AND  BANKING;  COAST  GUARD;  FI- 
NANCIAL REVIEW;  PUBLIC  FINANCE;  SILVER;  TAX- 
ATION. 

TRIESTE,  Free  Territory  of.  A  United  Nations  protec- 
torate on  the  northeastern  Adriatic  which  came 
into  existence  on  Sept.  15,  1947,  as  a  result  of  the 
terms  laid  down  in  the  peace  treaty  with  Italy, 
signed  at  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1947.  As  defined  in  the 
peace  treaty  with  Italy,  the  Free  Territory  of  Trieste 
covers  an  estimated  area  of  276  square  miles;  80 
miles  of  coastline  and  67  miles  of  land  boundary. 
On  Dec.  1,  1946,  the  inhabitants  numbered  262,- 
514, 


Government.  A  governor,  to  be  appointed  by  the 
Security  Council  of  the  United  Nations  for  a  term 
of  5  years,  will  be  assisted  by  a  council  of  govern- 
ment and  a  popularly-elected  unicameral  assem- 
bly. Neither  the  governor,  nor  the  director  of  pub- 
lic safety  whom  he  appoints,  may  be  an  Italian  or 
Yugoslav  national.  The  Free  Territory  is  garri- 
soned by  5,000  American  and  5,000  British  troops. 

Events,  1948.  The  Security  Council  was  unable  in 
1948  to  agree  on  a  candidate  for  the  governorship 
of  Trieste,  so  that  the  post  remained  vacant.  On 
March  20,  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and 
France  jointly  proposed  that  the  Free  Territory  of 
Trieste  should  be  returned  to  Italian  sovereignty. 

Three  Agreements  covering  the  supply  to  the 
British-United  States  Zone  of  the  Free  Territory, 
of  currency,  finance  and  foreign  exchange  were 
signed  at  Rome  on  March  9.  On  April  16,  an  Agree- 
ment was  initiated  between  the  Allied  Military 
Government  of  the  British-United  States  Zone  of 
the  Free  Territory  and  the  Italian  Ministry  of  For- 
eign Trade,  defining  the  procedure  for  implement- 
ing the  Financial  Agreements  of  March  9. 

The  representative  of  Yugoslavia,  on  July  29, 
requested  the  Security  Council  to  consider  the 
question  of  the  independence  and  integrity  of  the 
Free  Territory,  and  in  particular  to  examine  the 
legality  of  the  agreements  of  March  9  and  of  April 
16  concluded  by  the  administration  of  the  British- 
United  States  Zone  of  the  Free  Territory  with  the 
Government  of  Italy.  He  further  requested  the 
Council:  to  declare  that  the  above-mentioned 

reements  were  violations  of  those  provisions  of 


the  Treaty  of  Peace  with  Italy  which  pertain  to  the 
Free  Territory  of  Trieste;  to  undertake  the  meas- 
ures it  considered  necessary  and  sufficient  to  nullify 
these  agreements;  and  to  assure  the  respect  of  the 
Governments  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Brit- 
ain of  their  international  obligations,  thus  guaran- 
teeing the  independence  of  the  Free  Territory. 

The  representative  of  Yugoslavia,  invited  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  Council's  discussion  of  the  Yugoslav 
complaint,  submitted  to  the  Council  a  draft  resolu- 
tion, which  was  supported  by  the  representative  of 
the  Ukrainian  S.S.R.,  calling  for  th,ose  agreements 
to  be  declared  null  and  void.  The  representative 
of  the  Ukrainian  S.S.R.  submitted  a  draft  resolution 
to  the  effect  that  the  Security  Council  consider  it 
urgently  necessary  to  settle  the  question  of  the 
appointment  of  the  Governor  of  the  Free  Territory 
of  Trieste.  United  States  and  British  representa- 
tives called  the  Yugoslav  charges  flimsy  and  un- 
warranted. The  Council  on  August  19  rejected  both 
the  Yugoslav  and  the  Ukrainian  resolutions. 

On  July  13,  the  Italian  delegation  to  the  Or- 
ganization for  European  Economic  Cooperation 
(OEEC),  to  which  the  governments  of  countries 
fully  participating  in  the  European  Recovery  Pro- 
gram (ERP)  must  belong,  proposed  to  the  Council 
of  the  Organization  that  the  British-United  States 
Zone  of  the  Free  Territory  of  Trieste  should  be  ad- 
mitted to  membership.  The  proposal  was  accepted 
by  the  Council  and  was  subsequently  ratified.  Prior 
to  the  formal  ratification,  provision  was  made  for 
the  Zone's  requirements  to  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion in  all  planning  for  the  allocation  of  ERP  mate- 
rial among  the  participating  countries.  In  addition, 
the  United  States  Foreign  Assistance  Act,  on  which 
the  ERP  was  based,  provided  for  the  continued 
supply  to  the  Zone,  during  the  interim  period  prior 
to  its  formal  admission  to  OEEC,  of  its  basic  re- 
quirements of  food,  fuel  and  medical  supplies. 
These  supplies  had  hitherto  been  furnished  under 
the  United  States  Foreign  Relief  Program  which 
terminated  on  June  30,  1948. 


TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO 


553 


Tt/W/S/A 


As  soon  as  the  OEEC  Council's  acceptance  of 
Trieste's  membership  became  known,  members  of 
the  staff  of  the  Commander  of  the  British-United 
States  Zone  of  the  Free  Territory  visited  Paris  and 
presented  the  Zone's  ERP  plan  to  the  representa- 
tives of  the  United  States  Economic  Cooperation 
Administration  (EGA).  The  Allied  Military  Gov- 
ernment's proposals  for  the  use  of  the  local  cur- 
rency counterpart  of  the  ERP  funds  for  which  it 
had  asked  was  approved  by  EGA  and,  on  Septem- 
ber 25,  the  OEEC  announced  that  $18  million  had 
been  provisionally  allocated  for  the  first  year  of  the 
Zone's  plan.  The  Commander  of  the  Zone,  Maj. 
Gen.  T.  S.  Airey,  announced  that  of  this  amount, 

rroximately  $12  million  would  be  required  for 
purchase  of  food  and  fuel,  and  the  remainder 
for  industrial  raw  materials  and  equipment. 

In  November  the  annual  report  of  the  Yugoslav 
Army  Military  Government  on  the  administration 
of  the  Yugoslav  Zone  of  the  Free  Territory  was 
distributed  to  the  members  of  the  Security  Council. 
The  report,  among  other  things,  stated  that  the 
Zone  which  remained  under  the  administration  of 
the  Yugoslav  Army  covers  approximately  510 
square  kilometers  with  a  population  of  68,000.  It 
stated  that  the  Yugoslav  Zone  constitutes  an  admin- 
istrative region  composed  of  two  districts  with 
towns  and  localities.  The  organs  of  the  people's 
authority  in  their  administrative  units  are  the 
elected  regional,  district,  town  and  local  people's 
committees,  the  assemblies  of  which  take  decisions 
within  the  sphere  of  their  competence. 

TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO.  A  British  crown  colony  ly- 
ing off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  comprising  the  is- 
lands of  Trinidad  (1,864  square  miles),  Tobago 
(116  square  miles),  and  adjacent  islands.  Total 
population  (1946  census,  provisional),  568,619. 
Capital,  Port  of  Spain  (on  Trinidad),  94,564  in- 
habitants. Under  an  agreement  reached  in  1941, 
the  United  States  was  granted  99-year  leases  on 
the  islands  for  naval  and  air  bases. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  African  descent, 
but  there  is  still  a  large  number  of  East  Indians 
(192,445),  and  a  number  of  Chinese.  There  were 
294  primary  and  intermediate  schools  in  1946  with 
94,343  pupils. 

Production,  etc.  Petroleum  production  and  agri- 
culture are  the  leading  economic  activities  of  the 
colony.  Sugar,  cocoa,  rum  and  bitters,  copra,  coffee, 
grapefruit,  tonka  beans,  and  rubber  are  important 
crops.  Foreign  trade  in  Trinidad  dollars  (1947): 
imports  $118,783,075;  exports  $87,115,147;  reex- 
ports $4,852,915  ($1  U.S.  =  $1.18  Trinidad). 

Government.  Finance  (1947  est):  revenue  $35,- 
946,944;  expenditure  $37,444,750.  The  governor, 
Sir  John  Shaw  (appointed  Mar.  7,  1947),  is  as- 
sisted by  an  8-member  executive  council  and  an 
18-member  legislative  council.  See  BRITISH  WEST 
INDIES;  CARIBBEAN  COMMISSION. 

TRUCIAL  OMAN.  The  Arab  states  (Abu  Dhabi,  Aj- 
man,  Debai,  Shargah,  Ras  al  Khaimah,  and  Umm 
ul  Qawain)  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  Area:  6,023 
square  miles.  Population:  estimated  at  100,000. 
Chief  capital:  Abu  Dhabi.  Pearls  are  the  chief  ex- 
port from  the  coast  ports.  The  rulers  of  the  six 
states  are  in  treaty  relations  with  Great  Britain. 

TUNGSTEN.  Imports  of  tungsten  ores  and  concen- 
trates declined  significantly  in  1948,  largely  due 
to  declining  shipments  from  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Spain, 
and  Siam,  the  first  two  being  principal  wartime 
producers.  Imports  from  China  and  Korea  repre- 
sented 32  percent  and  21  percent  of  receipts, 


respectively,  during  the  first  9  months.  The  ap- 
proaching conquest  of  China  by  Communist  forces 
is  expected  to  jeopardize  continued  imports  from 
this  principal  world  producer.  In  terms  of  concen- 
trates containing  60  percent  WO3,  imports  in  the 
9  month  period  totaled  5,680  net  tons  ( 1947:  9,677 
tons ) . 

However,  domestic  production  was  at  a  signifi- 
cantly higher  rate,  3,031  tons  in  9  months  (1947: 
3,180  tons).  Nevada,  North  Carolina,  and  Califor- 
nia were  the  principal  producing  States.  Domestic 
consumption  of  tungsten,  used  principally  in  the 
form  of  ferrotungsten  and  tungsten  metal  powder, 
reached  a  postwar  high  in  1948.  Consumption  in 
the  first  9  months  totaled  6,447  net  tons  ( 1947: 
8,200  tons ) ,  Stocks  of  concentrates  in  the  hands  of 
producers,  consumers,  and  dealers  declined  during 
the  year.  At  the  end  of  September,  they  totaled 
4,783  net  tons  (60  percent  WO3  basis).  On  May 
22,  the  duty  on  ores  and  concentrates  was  reduced 
to  $6.03  a  net  ton  unit  of  WO8  from  the  former 
rate  of  $7.93.  — JOHN  ANTHONY 

TUNISIA.  A  protectorate  of  France  on  the  coast  of 
North  Africa  opposite  Sicily.  Under  Article  60  of 
the  1946  constitution  of  France,  Tunisia  forms  a 
part  of  the  French  Union  and  is  at  present  classi- 
fied as  an  "associated  state/' 

Its  area  is  approximately  48,332  square  miles. 
Population  (1946  census):  was  3,232,383  of  which 
7.5  percent  were  Europeans  (142,812  French), 
87.6  percent  Moslems  (nearly  all  Arab-speaking), 
and  2.2  percent  native  Jews.  The  chief  cities,  with 
their  1946  populations,  are:  Tunis  (the  capital), 
364,593;  Sfax,  54,637;  Bizerta,  39,327;  Sousse,  86,- 
566. 

Production.  Tunisia  has  from  ancient  times  been 
a  great  grain-growing  country.  Despite  the  general 
impression  of  desert  conditions,  about  one-third  of 
the  land  is  arable  and  one-tenth  is  in  forests.  But 
the  crops  vary  greatly  in  volume  from  year  to  year, 
depending  largely  on  climatic  conditions.  In  1946 
the  production  of  wheat  was  325,000  metric  tons, 
barley  156,000  tons,  wine  548,628  hectoliters,  and 
olive  oil  11,700  short  tons  (1947).  Principal  min- 
eral production  (1947):  iron  ore  399,600  metric 
tons  (55  percent  metal  content),  phosphate  1,743,- 
500  metric  tons.  Lead,  zinc,  manganese,  copper, 
mercury,  and  a  low  grade  of  lignite  are  mined. 
Fishing  is  well  developed  and  yields  an  average  of 
8,000  tons  a  year.  Foreign  trade  ( 1947 ) :  imports 
18,324,000,000  francs;  exports  6,204,000,000 
francs. 

Government.  Tunisia  became  a  protectorate  of 
France  in  1881,  and  is  under  the  supervision  of  the 
French  Foreign  Office,  to  which  the  Resident-Gen- 
eral is  subject.  The  latter,  who  is  also  Tunisian 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  in  effect  administers 
the  country,  though  a  Bey — Sidi  Mohamed  el- 
Amin — nominally  reigns.  He  is  assisted  by  min- 
isters, but  there  are  no  representative  institutions. 

Events,  1948.  The  Tunisians  have  the  reputation 
of  being  the  most  docile  of  the  people  of  French 
North  Africa,  and  their  modern  history  supports 
this  belief.  At  the  same  time,  they  are  most  closely 
in  touch  with  affairs  in  the  Arab-speaking  Middle 
East  and  most  susceptible  to  movements  of  opinion 
wii:hin  the  Arab  League  countries.  The  latter  were 
desirous  of  discouraging  France  from  pursuing  a 
pro-Zionist  policy  in  die  United  Nations,  and  they 
sought  to  achieve  this  end  by  exerting  pressure 
through  the  peoples  of  French  North  Africa.  It  was 
assumed  that  the  government  in  Paris  would  go  to 
considerable  lengths  to  avoid  unnecessary  trouble 
with  its  Moslem  subjects. 


TUNNHS 


554 


TURKEY 


In  Tunisia  a  very  sore  point  with  the  nationalists 
was  the  deposition  and  detention  of  Sidi  Mohamed 
el-Moncef  Bey.  This  ruler,  belonging  to  a  dynasty 
that  had  reigned  in  Tunisia  since  1691,  had  been 
deposed  on  May  12,  1943,  after  occupying  the 
throne  for  less  than  a  year  (having  succeeded  in 
June,  1942)  He  had  been  deposed  by  General 
Giraud  on  the  charge  that  he  had  compromised 
the  internal  and  external  security  of  the  Regency 
by  assisting  the  occupying  forces  of  the  Axis — a 
charge  which  his  supporters  hotly  denied.  The  de- 
posed Bey  had  been  deported  to  Madagascar  and 
later  obliged  to  live  under  guard  at  Pau  in  southern 
France. 

At  the  end  of  August  a  representative  of  the 
Tunisian  nationalists  was  in  Lake  Success  to  lay 
the  groundwork  for  a  formal  complaint  against 
France,  charging  her  with  repeated  violations  of 
the  Treaty  of  Bardo  of  1881,  setting  up  the  French 
protectorate  in  Tunisia.  Such  a  protest  would,  in 
order  to  be  entertained  by  the  Security  Council, 
have  had  to  be  presented  by  a  member  of  the 
United  Nations,  but  it  was  assumed  that  such  a 
state  could  be  found.  Action  would  presumably 
have  been  asked  under  Articles  34  and  35  of  the 
Charter,  requiring  the  Security  Council  to  investi- 
gate the  situation  as  a  threat  to  the  peace  and  se- 
curity of  the  area  in  question.  However,  on  Sep- 
tember 1  the  exiled  Bey,  on  whose  behalf  these 
steps  were  to  be  taken,  died  at  the  age  of  67,  thus 
forcing  at  least  a  temporary  halt  in  the  plans  for  a 
UN  appeal. 

By  early  1948  much  of  the  war  damage  suffered 
by  Tunisia,  and  estimated  to  represent  a  loss  of 
over  60,000  million  francs,  had  been  repaired.  For 
example,  52  of  the  58  major  structures  destroyed 
had  been  rebuilt  (such  as  bridges,  tunnels,  and 
dams).  The  French  government  had  undertaken 
to  provide  80  percent  of  the  cost  of  this  rehabili- 
tation and  reconstruction.  The  French  budget  had 
also  been  called  on  to  pay  the  deficit  of  some  $30 
million  a  year  in  Tunisia's  foreign  trade  since  1946. 

Drought,  which  so  often  scourges  Tunisian  agri- 
culture, was  again  wreaking  havoc  late  in  the  win- 
ter, and  appeals  for  help  were  sent  to  France,  car- 
ried by  the  Resident  General,  M,  Jean  Mons.  In 
September  a  group  of  French  farm  operators  from 
Tunisia  were  in  New  York  en  route  to  Montana 
where  they  intended  to  study  wheat-growing  meth- 
ods on  Thomas  Campbell's  vast  ranch.  They  re- 
ported that  the  1948  wheat  crop  in  the  Regency 
would  feed  the  people  for  only  three  months.  Later 
in  the  fall  Mr.  Campbell  himself  went  to  French 
North  Africa  to  give  advice  on  the  spot  (see 
ALGERIA). 

In  mid-March  Tunisia  was  hit  by  strikes  in  lead 
mines,  textile,  and  other  industries. 

On  July  25  Prime  Minister  Mustafa  Kaak  was 
attacked  in  a  mosque  by  a  fanatical  nationalist 
student.  The  minister,  who  was  also  president  of 
the  Tunis  Bar  Association,  belonged  to  the  school 
of  thought  favorable  to  continuing  the  French  con- 
nection for  some  time  to  come. 

The  French  Assembly  on  August  20  passed  a 
bill  surrendering  France's  claim  to  Italian  property 
in  Tunisia.  This  renunciation  of  rights  acquired 
under  the  Italian  peace  treaty  was  made  in  the 
interests  of  improving  relations  between  the  two 
countries.  — ROBERT  GALE  WOOLBERT 

TUNNELS.  Postwar  improvement  programs,  both 
here  and  abroad,  have  called  for  the  construction 
of  new  railroad  and  highway  tunnels.  In  this  coun- 
try, dam  construction  has  necessitated  the  reloca- 
tion of  two  railroad  tunnels. 


Work  on  the  Brooklyn-Battery  vehicular  tunnel 
is  progressing  and  it  should  be  opened  early  in 
1950.  The  twin  tubes  under  the  East  River  in  New 
York  Harbor  are  9,117  ft.  from  portal  to  portal  and 
will  be  completed  at  a  cost  of  $77  million,  exclusive 
of  real  estate. 

The  1,200-ft,  four  lane,  twin-bore  tunnel 
through  West  Rock  at  New  Haven  was  holed 
through  on  November  9.  When  completed  it  will 
form  the  final  link  in  the  Wilbur  Cross-Merritt 
Parkway  system.  Construction  on  the  Squirrel  Hill 
tunnel  on  the  Penn-Lincoln  Parkway  at  Pittsburgh 
started  this  year.  It  will  require  about  two  years  to 
complete  the  4,225-ft  twin  tubes.  San  Francisco 
plans  a  $5  million  tunnel  under  .Russian  Hill — to 
serve  as  an  outlet  to  the  congested  financial  district 
— which  will  require  three  years  to  complete. 

In  Spain,  the  Viella  highway  tunnel  has  been 
completed  after  22  years  of  intermittent  work.  It 
serves  a  fertile  valley  at  the  head  of  the  Garonne 
River  which  was  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  coun- 
try six  months  each  year.  It  extends  16,572  ft.  and 
is  said  to  be  the  longest  highway  tunnel  in  the 
world. 

The  6,700-ft,  $8  million,  double-track  tunnel 
for  the  Union  Pacific  in  western  Wyoming  will  re- 
place the  old  Aspen  tunnel  and  eliminate  the  last 
stretch  of  single-track  on  the  main  line  between 
Omaha,  Neb.,  and  Ogden,  Utah.  A  Norfolk  and 
Western  double-track  tunnel  will  replace  the  Elk- 
horn  as  part  of  a  $12  million  relocation  program 
and  eliminate  several  heavy  grades  and  sharp 
curves.  This  7,050-ft.  tunnel,  started  in  January, 
1948,  will  be  completed  early  in  1950.  Opening 
the  3,622-ft.  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  tunnel  through 
Jenkins  Mountain  in  February,  opened  up  a  vast 
unexploited  coal  region  in  Wise  Co.,  Va. 

The  7,100-ft  relocation  tunnel  on  the  Burlington 
should  be  completed  in  July,  1949.  It  was  built 
by  the  Government  in  connection  with  the  Boysen 
Dam  project.  Another  relocation  tunnel,  for  the 
Pennsylvania  R.R.,  was  made  necessary  because  of 
the  Conemaugh  River  Dam.  This  2,660-ft.  double- 
track  tunnel  near  Saltsburg,  Pa.,  is  also  nearing 
completion. 

In  France,  66  of  the  70  railway  tunnels  damaged 
by  the  retreating  Germans  have  been  repaired  and 
are  in  operation.  In  Yugoslavia  a  1,128-ft.  railway 
tunnel  is  being  built  to  link  the  Trieste-Gorica  line 
with  Ljubljana  and  the  rest  of  the  Yugoslav  railway 
system. 

In  England,  several  new  tunnels  are  being  built 
to  facilitate  electrification  of  the  Manchester-Shef- 
field line.  A  single-track  tunnel  at  Thurgoland  was 
put  into  use  in  October  for  the  down  line  while  the 
up  track  will  be  centered  in  the  old  double-track 
tunnel.  New  twin-bore  tunnels  are  being  construct- 
ed at  Woodhead  to  be  completed  early  in  1952. 
Electrification  will  increase  tunnel  capacities  25 
percent.  — J.  W.  HAZEN 

TURKEY.  A  republic  comprising  Asia  Minor  and  a 
narrow  zone  in  Europe  along  the  Straits  between 
the  Aegean  and  the  Black  Seas. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  296,184  square  miles. 
Population:  over  19  million.  Chief  cities  (1945 
census):  Ankara  (capital)  226,712,  Istanbul  (Con- 
stantinople, port)  860,558,  Izmir  (Smyrna,  port) 
198,396.  Ninety-five  percent  are  Turks  with  Greek, 
Armenian,  and  Jewish  minorities  resident  in  the 
cities  and  the  Kurds  a  restive  dement  in  eastern 
Turkey.  Although  Islam  is  no  longer  the  state  re- 
ligion, most  Turks  are  Moslems. 

Communications.  In  1947  there  were  over  4,700 
miles  of  railway  with  extensions  under  construe- 


TURKEY 


555 


TURKEY 


tion.  The  26,000  miles  of  roads  are  not  nearly 
enough  for  the  country's  needs  and  many  of  them 
are  poor.  For  that  reason  road  improvement  and 
road-building  are  an  important  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can aid  program,  with  American  equipment  al- 
ready at  work.  American,  British,  and  French  air- 
lines connect  Turkey  with  the  rest  of  the  world 
and  Turkish  State  Airlines  operates  within  Turkey 
and  to  Greece.  New  airports  are  being  built.  Radio, 
telegraph,  and  telephone  facilities  are  operated  by 
the  government. 

Education.  High  on  the  program  of  the  new 
Turkish  Republic  was  the  establishment  of  a  state 
educational  system.  Primary  education  is  compul- 
sory and  all  public  education  is  free.  In  1947-48 
there  were  over  15,000  primary  schools  (private, 
public,  and  foreign)  with  almost  1,500,000  pupils; 
265  secondary  schools  with  63,135  pupils;  86  ly- 
cees  with  23,744  pupils,  231  vocational  schools 
with  66,649  pupils;  and  34  institutions  of  higher 
learning  with  25,648  students.  Among  the  latter 
are  the  (state)  Universities  of  Istanbul  and  Ankara 
(with  a  number  of  faculties  including  law,  medi- 
cine, and  engineering)  and  the  two  American  col- 
leges, Robert  College  and  Istanbul  Women's  Col- 
lege in  Istanbul.  Important  in  the  overall  educa- 
tional program  are  the  People's  Houses  founded 
to  promote  the  intellectual  and  cultural  develop- 
ment of  the  people,  and  the  Rural  Life  Institutes 
established  to  train  village  leaders.  In  1948  two 
thousand  new  school  buildings  were  constructed. 

Production.  Forty  million  cultivated  acres  (one- 
third  of  them  fallow)  provide  a  living  for  two- 
thirds  of  the  population;  20  million  more  are  cul- 
tivable. Although  such  efforts  are  being  made, 
production  is  still  hampered  by  primitive  tech- 
niques. Chief  crops  in  1948  were:  wheat  (155  mil- 
lion bushels),  barley  (90  million  bu.),  maize  (23.6 
million  bu.),  oats  (21  million  bu.),  rye  (15.5  mil- 
lion bu. ),  with  vegetables,  and  fruit  important. 
With  the  use  of  modern  machinery  wheat  could 
be  Turkey's  most  important  export.  A  particularly 
fine  tobacco  is  produced.  Livestock  breeding  is 
widespread  and  the  number  growing,  much  of  it 
being  exported  to  Middle  Eastern  countries.  Tur- 
key has  valuable  forest  resources. 

Large-scale  industry  has  developed  steadily  and 
rapidly  since  the  first  state  five-year  plan  launched 
in  1934,  except  for  a  downward  trend  during 
World  War  II.  Between  1936  and  1946  textile  pro- 
duction almost  doubled  with  the  1948  wool  and 
cotton  production  total  higher  than  the  1947.  Sugar 
production  is  increasing.  New  industries  including 
paper,  glassware,  iron  and  steel  have  been  estab- 
lished. State  control  of  industry  is  exercised  through 
the  Siimer  Bank.  Mining,  under  the  government's 
Eti  Bank,  is  also  developing  rapidly.  Coal  and 
chrome  are  the  principal  minerals.  Coal  production 
in  1947  (over  3.9  million  metric  tons)  was  170 
percent  higher  than  in  1935  and  the  1948  total  was 
expected  to  be  even  higher.  The  1947  chrome  out- 
put of  117,975  metric  tons  was  well  over  half  the 
world's  production.  Chrome  output  will  be  in- 
creased when  new  American  washing  equipment 
is  installed.  Annual  iron-ore  production  in  1947 
was  12,133  metric  tons.  Other  significant  minerals 
are  lignite,  copper,  and  sulphur.  In  February  oil 
was  discovered  in  eastern  Turkey. 

Foreign  Trade.  The  main  exports  are  cereals,  to- 
bacco, minerals,  dried  fruits,  livestock  and  prod- 
ucts. Important  imports  include  textiles,  paper, 
machinery,  vehicles,  chemicals,  tea,  coffee,  and 
cocoa.  In  1947  total  exports  amounted  to  £T625 
million  (24  percent  to  the  United  States,  the  rest 
to  Great  Britain,  Italy,  and  other  countries)  and 


imports  to  £T685  million  (33  percent  from  the 
United  States,  the  rest  from  Italy,  Great  Britain, 
and  other  countries ) .  Exports  in  the  first  six  months 
of  1948  were  48  percent  below  those  of  1947's  cor- 
responding period  while  imports  were  30  percent 
higher.  However,  Turkey's  exports  in  October, 
1948,  amounting  to  £T73.8  million  were  more 
than  twice  those  of  October,  1947,  and  imports 
at  £T56.4  million  were  slightly  higher  than  those 
of  October,  1947.  Thus  the  opening  of  the  1948-49 
export  season  produced  the  first  monthly  export 
surplus  of  1948. 

Finance.  The  1949  regular  budget  presented  to 
the  Assembly  provided  for  expenditure  of  £T1,- 
415.5  million  (slightly  larger  than  1948's  budget). 
This  included  large  appropriations  for  defense,  edu- 
cation, and  capital  expenditure.  Revenues  were  to 
total  £T1,295.5  million,  the  deficit  to  be  made 
up  by  new  taxes  and  long  term  public  loans.  As 
of  July  1  Turkey's  public  debt  was  £T1,526  mil- 
lion, of  which  £T986  million  was  domestic  and 
£T540  million  was  foreign.  Currency  in  circula- 
tion in  November  amounted  to  £T984  million.  In 
June,  1948,  the  cost  of  living  index  was  343  ( 1937 
=  100)  having  remained  fairly  steady  since  the 
initial  climb  to  347  in  1943;  in  November  of  1948 
it  was  353.  Since  1947  the  exchange  rate  has  been 
£T2.83  to  the  U.S.  dollar. 

Government.  The  1924  Constitution  confers  both 
executive  and  legislative  power  on  the  Grand  Na- 
tional Assembly  of  465  deputies  elected  every  four 
years  by  universal  direct  suffrage.  Its  executive  au- 
thority is  exercised  through  the  President  of-  the 
Republic  elected  by  it  and  through  the  Council  of 
Ministers  chosen  by  the  President.  President  Ismet 
Inonii  took  over  in  1938  following  the  death  of 
the  father  of  the  Turkish  Republic,  Kemal  Atatxirk. 
The  strict  state  control  which  was  responsible  for 
the  country's  initial  extraordinary  progress  is  being 
criticized  both  within  and  without  the  country  by 
those  who  feel  Turkey's  citizens  are  now  able  to 
participate  to  a  greater  extent  in  governing  them- 
selves and  developing  their  country. 

Events,  1948.  American  Aid.  The  Foreign  Assistance 
Act  of  1948,  in  its  Title  III  called  the  "Greek- 
Turkish  Assistance  Act  of  1948,"  authorized  the 
allocation  of  $275  million  for  Greece  and  Turkey 
(in  addition  to  the  1947  allocation  of  $400  million, 
one-fourth  of  which  went  to  Turkey).  These  funds 
were  intended  to  continue  military  support  and 
provide  economic  assistance  under  the  European 
Recovery  Program.  Shipments  of  equipment  (in- 
cluding vessels  and  planes )  and  assignment  of  per- 
sonnel continued  during  1948  with  349  Americans 
detailed  to  Turkey  in  the  program  as  of  June  30. 
In  April  a  United  States-Turkish  Road  Agreement 
was  signed  whereby  the  United  States  would  help 
expand  Turkey's  road  system.  A  five-member  Unit- 
ed States  mission  was  despatched  during  Novem- 
ber to  study  Turkish  requirements  for  agricultural 
equipment;  increased  agricultural  production  was 
intended  to  help  Turkey  contribute  its  full  share 
to  Europe's  economic  recovery.  In  October  Turkey 
signed  a  loan  agreement  with  the  Economic  Co- 
operation Administration  and  the  Export-Import 
Bank  for  $30  million  to  finance  industrial  and  agri- 
cultural projects. 

Economic  Development  A  new  five  year  over-all 
development  plan  was  formulated  which,  if  put 
into  effect  in  toto,  would  require  more  than  £T2,- 
000  million  excluding  American  aid.  It  was  to  be 
financed  by  taxation,  internal  loans,  profits  from 
state  enterprises,  and  foreign  credits  such  as  the 
loan  requested  from  the  International  Bank.  About 
one-fourth  of  the  expenditures  was  to  be  on  trans- 


TURKEY 


556 


UGANDA 


portation.  Tlie  production  of  marketable  coal  and 
lignite  was  to  be  doubled  and  that  of  iron  raised. 
Three  large  power  stations  were  to  be  established, 
an  American  concern  having  been  awarded  the 
contract  to  build  a  new  dam  north  of  Adana  in 
southeastern  Turkey. 

Relations  with  other  Countries.  In  March  the  1939 
Anglo-Turkish  alliance  was  reaffirmed  and  in  April 
the  Turkish  and  Greek  Foreign  Ministers  re- 
affirmed Greek-Turkish  friendship,  promising  more 
effective  economic  cooperation.  As  an  active  par- 
ticipant in  the  European  Recovery  Program  Turkey 
revised  its  trade  and  payments  agreements  with 
Italy,  Belgium,  and  Denmark  in  order  to  fit  their 
agreements  more  effectively  into  the  ERP  plans. 

Trade  agreements  also  were  signed  with  Swe- 
den, Finland,  and  Poland.  In  November  a  British 
Trade  Mission  started  negotiating  for  a  revival  of 
Turkish-British  trade,  reduced  as  a  result  of  the 
decline  in  Turkey's  sterling  balances  and  restric- 
tions imposed  on  sterling  imports.  In  December  a 
trade  agreement  signed  with  Western  Germany  re- 
stored to  Turkey  part  of  one  of  her  chief  prewar 
markets. 

Relations  with  the  Soviet  Union  and  its  satel- 
lites remained  wary  although  no  major  crisis  de- 
veloped. In  May  Foreign  Minister  Sadak  presented 
the  conditions  under  which  Turkey  and  the  Soviet 
Union  (not  specified  by  name)  could  establish 
friendly  relations:  abandonment  of  aggressive 
threats,  non-interference  in  internal  affairs;  recipro- 
cal understanding  based  on  honor  and  self-respect. 
In  August  trade  ministry  officials  announced  a 
Soviet  offer  to  buy  valonia,  the  first  time  a  Soviet 
offer  had  been  made  since  1939. 

Domestic  Politics.  The  government's  Republican 
People's  Party  and  the  Grand  National  Assembly 
finally  adopted  several  reform  measures  long  sup- 
ported by  the  opposition  Democratic  Party.  On 
Dec.  9,  1947,  President  Inonii  gave  up  the  actual 
leadership  of  the  People's  party,  thus  symbolizing 
the  recognition  that  &  two-party  system  did  exist 
and  that  the  People's  Party  could  not  call  itself 
the  only  "official"  party  any  longer.  On  Dec.  23, 
1947,  the  nine-year  state  of  siege  in  six  provinces 
was  lifted.  Although  imposed  at  the  beginning  of 
World  War  II  it  had  been  criticized  as  a  way  of 
exerting  government  control  by  non-constitutional 
means. 

On  January  13  the  People's  Party  approved  the 
government's  proposal  to  guarantee  secret  balloting 
and  public  counting  at  all  elections;  on  January  21 
the  government  ruled  that  all  recognized  opposi- 
tion parties  could  use  radio  facilities  at  election 
times;  and  on  February  21  an  article  of  the  Police 
Law  involving  a  denial  of  habeas  corpus  was  re- 
voked. In  May  the  People's  Party  adopted  a  reso- 
lution permitting  religious  teaching  in  schools, 
banned  since  1923.  The  undercurrent  of  concern 
over  Turkish-Russian  relations  and  reaction  against 
Communism  was  revealed  in  a  December  demon- 
stration by  right-wing  students  memorializing  the 
wrecking  three  years  previously  of  two  liberal 
newspapers.  The  meeting  was  boycotted  by  liberal 
students. 

Archbishop  Spyrou  Athenagoras  of  New  York, 
primate  of  the  Orthodox  Church  in  North  and 
South  America,  appointed  Patriarch  of  the  Greek 
Orthodox  Church,  returned  to  Istanbul  after  giving 
tip  his  American  citizenship  to  resume  Turkish  citi- 
zenship. 

The  Executive  Council  of  the  United  Nations 
Educational  Social  and  Cultural  Organization  met 
in  Istanbul  in  November  to  draw  up  the  agenda 
for  the  UNESCO  conference  in  Beirut  in  Decem- 


ber. Turkey  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  three- 
country  United  Nations  Palestine  Conciliation 
Commission.  — DOROTHEA  SEELYE  FRANCK 

TWENTIETH  CENTURY  FUND.  A  nonprofit  organization 
for  research  and  public  education  on  economic 
questions.  The  Fund  was  founded  in  1919  and  en- 
dowed by  the  late  Edward  A.  Filene,  Boston  mer- 
chant and  philanthropist.  Its  entire  income, 
administered  as  a  public  trust  by  a  Board  of  Trus- 
tees, is  devoted  to  its  own  research  and  educational 
activities.  For  each  major  investigation  the  Fund 
appoints  a  special  research  staff  and  an  impartial 
committee  of  qualified  persons  who  use  the  factual 
findings  of  the  staff  as  a  basis  for  recommendations 
on  public  policy.  The  Fund  issues  its  reports  in 
book  form  and  supplements  these  with  news  re- 
leases, pamphlets,  magazine  articles,  and  other  ma- 
terial, including  educational  films  and  radio  pro- 
grams. Active  contact  work  is  maintained  with 
national  organizations  and  educational  institutions. 

In  1948  the  Fund  published  Cartels  or  Competi- 
tion?, the  second  volume  in  a  broad  survey  of  the 
economic  effects  of  international  cartels  and  do- 
mestic monopolies.  A  report  on  Electric  Power 
and  Government  Policy  was  also  published  during 
the  year.  In  the  field  of  labor  relations,  the  Fund's 
Labor  Committee  completed  a  special  report  en- 
titled, Partners  in  Production:  A  Basis  for  Labor- 
Management  Understanding.  The  first  of  three 
surveys  of  economic  and  social  conditions  in  for- 
eign countries  was  published  in  1948  under  the 
title,  Report  on  the  Greeks.  Similar  reports  were 
completed  on  investment  and  development  possi- 
bilities in  Turkey  and  Brazil. 

As  part  of  its  program  of  public  education,  the 
Fund  collaborated  in  the  publication  of  a  pamphlet, 
"Power,  Machines,  and  Plenty"  and  the  production 
of  a  forthcoming  motion  picture  based  on  its  1947 
survey  of  America's  Needs  and  Resources.  A 
graphic  presentation  of  this  survey  entitled  USA: 
Measure  of  a  Nation,  was  also  completed  during 
1948,  as  well  as  a  supplementary  report  on  future 
construction  and  capital  requirements  of  the 
United  States. 

Officers:  President,  John  H.  Fahey;  Chairman, 
Executive  Committee,  Henry  S.  Dennison;  Treas- 
urer, A.  A.  Berle,  Jr.;  Executive  Director,  Evans 
Clark;  Economist,  J.  Frederic  Dewhurst.  Address: 
330  West  42  St.,  New  York  18,  N.Y. 

UGANDA.  A  British  protectorate  in  East  Africa,  un- 
der British  administration  since  1894.  Area,  93,981 
square  miles,  including  13,680  square  miles  of 
water.  Population  (1947  estimate),  4,110,370,  in- 
cluding 3,530  Europeans  and  31,840  Asiatics.  Cap- 
ital, Entebbe  (7,321);  trading  center,  Kampala. 

A  government  educational  scheme  has  supple- 
mented the  earlier  mission  schools.  In  1945,  a  total 
of  £-247,843  from  public  funds  was  expended  for 
education.  For  the  same  period  enrollment  in  vari- 
ous schools  totaled  260,903. 

Production  and  Trade.  Agriculture  and  cattle  rais- 
ing are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people.  Cotton, 
the  chief  product,  occupied  1,072,495  acres  in 
1946-47,  yielding  231,678  bales.  Other  products 
are  coffee,  sugar,  oil-seeds,  sisal,  tin,  hides,  ivory 
and  tobacco;  There  are  valuable  forests.  Total  im- 
ports in  1946  amounted  to  £5,157,773;  total  ex- 
ports were  valued  at  £9,657,026.  The  chief  im- 
ports are  manufactured  goods  and  cotton  fabrics. 
There  is  a  uniform  customs  tariff  for  Uganda,  Ken- 
ya, and  Tanganyika. 

Finance.  In  1946  revenue  amounted  to  £3,891,- 
000;  expenditure  (excluding  loans)  £3,566,000. 


UNESCO 


557 


UNESCO 


Public  debt,  Dec.  31,  1946,  amounted  to  £2,850,- 
000. 

Government.  The  whole  protectorate  is  under  ad- 
ministration, but  the  native  kings  or  chiefs,  whose 
rights  are  in  some  cases  regulated  by  treaties,  are 
encouraged  to  conduct  the  government  of  their  own 
subjects.  Buganda  is  recognized  as  a  native  king- 
dom under  a  Kabaka.  He  is  assisted  by  three  na- 
tive ministers  and  a  native  assembly.  In  Buganda 
( and  in  Bunyoro,  Ankole,  and  Toro,  also  ruled  over 
by  native  chiefs,  as  well  as  in  most  other  parts  of 
the  protectorate  more  directly  administered),  pure- 
ly native  matters  are  dealt  with  by  the  various  na- 
tive councils,  but  in  serious  cases  there  is  an  appeal 
to  British  officers  or  courts.  The  chief  representa- 
tive is  the  governor,  who  (with  the  assistance  of 
the  executive  and  legislative  councils)  makes  ordi- 
nances for  the  administration  of  justice,  the  raising 
of  revenue,  and  for  other  purposes.  Governor:  Sir 
John  Hathorn  HalL  ( See  EAST  AFRICA  HIGH  COM- 
MISSION.) 

UNESCO  (United  Nations  Educational,  Scientific,  and 
Cultural  Organization).  A  Conference  for  the  Estab- 
lishment of  an  Educational,  Scientific,  and  Cultural 
Organization  of  the  United  Nations  was  convened 
by  the  Government  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  as- 
sociation with  the  Government  of  France,  and  met 
in  London  Nov.  1-16,  1945. 

It  was  attended  by  representatives  of  44  govern- 
ments and  by  observers  from  a  number  of  interna- 
tional organizations. 

UNESCO  came  into  being  on  Nov.  4,  1946, 
when  the  instruments  of  acceptance  of  20  signa- 
tories of  its  Constitution  had  been  deposited  with 
the  Government  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  first 
session  of  the  General  Conference  met  in  Paris 
from  Nov.  19  to  Dec.  10,  1946. 

The  purpose  of  UNESCO  is  to  ''contribute  to 
peace  and  security  by  promoting  collaboration 
among  the  nations  through  education,  science,  and 
culture  in  order  to  further  universal  respect  for 
justice,  for  the  rule  of  law,  and  ^for  the  human 
rights  and  fundamental  freedoms"  for  all,  which 
is  affirmed  by  the  Charter  of  the  United  Nations. 

To  realize  this  purpose,  UNESCO:  1.  collabo- 
rates in  the  work  of  advancing  mutual  knowledge 
and  understanding  of  peoples  through  all  means 
of  mass  communication;  2.  gives  fresh  impulse  to 
popular  education  and  to  the  spread  of  culture; 
3.  maintains,  increases,  and  diffuses  knowledge.  In 
carrying  out  these  functions,  UNESCO  works  with 
the  United  Nations  and  the  other  specialized  agen- 
cies, with  national  groups  and  individuals,  and 
with  international  non-governmental  agencies 
through  working  agreements  and  grants-in-aid. 

The  program  of  UNESCO  falls  under  six  broad 
headings:  reconstruction,  communication,  educa- 
tion, cultural  interchange,  human  and  social  rela- 
tions, and  natural  sciences. 

Reconstruction.  This  work  is  concerned  with  en- 
couraging and  assisting  the  restoration  of  the  edu- 
cational, scientific,  and  cultural  life  of  countries 
which  were  devastated  by  the  war.  To  carry  out 
this  task  UNESCO  works  through  the  Temporary 
International  Council  for  Educational  Reconstruc- 
tion (TIGER). 

It  is  estimated  that  by  May,  1948,  approximately 
$150  million  worth  of  materials  and  services  were 
supplied  through  voluntary  organizations  in  donor 
countries  for  educational  reconstruction  in  the  war- 
torn  areas, 

Communication.  This  field  includes  those  projects 
intended  to  increase  understanding  across  national 
frontiers  by  various  means,  such  as  the  exchange  of 


persons  and  closer  relations  between  peoples 
through  their  films,  press,  radio,  and  libraries,  and 
through  their  publications. 

An  Office  for  the  Exchange  of  Persons  has  been 
set  up  in  Paris  to  develop  exchange-of-persons  pro- 
grams and  to  relate  them  to  similar  activities  being 
carried  on  by  international,  national,  and  private 
agencies  throughout  the  world.  Reports  from  Mem- 
ber States  will  form  the  basis  of  a  world  handbook 
on  international  fellowships  and  related  opportu- 
nities which,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  issued  annually. 

An  International  Ideas  Bureau  will  be  created  to 
foster  the  spread  of  information  about  cooperation 
in  education,  science,  and  the  arts.  Special  empha- 
sis is  being  given  to  the  encouragement  and  devel- 
opment of  public  libraries.  A  Book  Coupon  Scheme 
is  permitting  the  purchase  in  any  Member  State  of 
the  literature  of  the  other,  despite  existing  currency 
restrictions.  A  further  project  is  to  explore  ways  of 
encouraging  the  inexpensive  production  of  books 
and  periodicals. 

Education.  In  this  field,  UNESCO  is  concerned 
especially  with  the  promotion  of  a  world-wide 
campaign  of  Fundamental  Education,  with  efforts 
to  increase  education  for  a  world  society  and  with 
a  program  to  raise  educational  standards  in  all 
member  states. 

The  Fundamental  Education  program  is  de- 
signed to  bring  a  basic  minimum  of  education  to 
all  under-privileged  peoples.  "Pilot  Projects"  are 
being  undertaken  in  Haiti,  China,  East  Africa,  and 
Peru.  A  large  number  of  national  experiments  in 
Fundamental  Education  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
will  also  be  linked  to  UNESCO  s  program  to  form 
a  network  of  "Associated  Projects."  In  adult  edu- 
cation, UNESCO  will  act  as  a  clearing  house  of 
information,  and  it  is  intended  to  produce  materials 
on  international  affairs  suitable  for  adaptation  and 
extensive  use  by  adult  study  groups. 

During  July  and  August,  1948,  three  seminars 
were  held:  one  in  London  on  the  education  and 
training  of  teachers;  a  second  in  Prague  on  child- 
hood education;  and  the  third  in  New  York  on 
teaching  about  the  United  Nations  and  specialized- 
agencies  in  the  school  systems  of  Member  States. 
A  fourth  seminar  was  held  at  Caracas,  Venezuela, 
in  August-September  in  cooperation  with  the  Pan 
American  Union. 

A  Preparatory  Conference  of  Representatives  of 
Universities  was  organized  by  UNESCO,  in  col- 
laboration with  the  Netherlands  Government.  It 
met  at  the  University  of  Utrecht  in  August.  Repre- 
sentatives from  34  countries  attended.  Action  was 
deferred  on  the  preparation  of  a  Teacher's  Charter 
and  the  Educational  Charter  for  Youth.  In  1947  a 
program  was  begun  for  the  improvement  of  text- 
books and  teaching  materials. 

Cultural  Interchange.  This  covers  UNESCO's  work 
in  the  fields  of  philosophy  and  the  humanities,  mu- 
seums, arts  and  letters,  and  the  translation  and 
wider  exchange  of  classics  and  great  books,  An  In- 
ternational Theatre  Institute  to  facilitate  the  inter- 
change of  representative  theatrical  works  and  to 
aid  the  freer  travel  of  personnel  across  frontiers 
was  established  in  1948.  Preliminary  steps  were 
taken  toward  the  establishment  of  an  International 
Music  Institute.  UNESCO  continued  to  organize 
the  International  Pool  of  Literature,  which  was 
begun  in  1947.  An  ambitious  project  for  the  survey 
of  existing  color  reproductions  of  works  of  art  and 
the  stimulation  of  further  production  was  given 
special  attention  in  1948. 

In  pursuance  of  its  task  of  increasing  interna- 
tional understanding,  UNESCO  hopes,  in  the  next 
few  years,  to  present  to  the  peoples  of  the  world 


UNESCO 


558 


UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 


a  small  bookshelf,  the  titles  of  which  will  read: 
"The  American  Way  of  Life";  "The  Brazilian  Way 
of  Life";  "The  British  Way  of  Life";  "The  Indian 
Way  of  Life";  and  so  on  for  all  the  principal  peo- 
ples of  the  world. 

Human  and  Social  Relations.  In  this  part  of  its  pro- 
gram UNESCO  seeks  to  strengthen  understanding 
among  peoples  by  studying  the  tensions,  the  preju- 
dices, and  ignorances  which  separate  them  and  by 
finding  means  to  overcome  these  barriers  to  inter- 
national cooperation.  UNESCO  has  also  been  au- 
thorized to  prepare  a  Source  Book  describing  the 
work  already  under  way  in  Member  States  in  the 
study  of  tensions  which  arise  from  technological 
improvements  and  the  resulting  shift  in  popula- 
tions. 

Naturol  Sciences.  In  this  field  UNESCO  works  to 
make  possible  greater  collaboration  between  scien- 
tists around  the  world,  to  help  lighten  the  so-called 
"dark  zones"  of  science  and  technology  in  certain 
regions,  and  to  assist  man  better^to  appreciate  and 
make  effective  use  of  his  natural  environment.  Field 
science  cooperation  offices — in  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Cairo,  Nanking,  and  Delhi — have  been  established 
to  serve  as  liaison  centers  for  science  and  technol- 
ogy between  deficiency  regions  and  the  more  high- 
ly developed  areas  of  the  world. 

Member  States.  As  of  Dec.  31,  1948,  there  were 
45  states  which  were  full  members  of  UNESCO: 
Afghanistan,  Argentina,  Australia,  Austria,  Bel- 
gium, Bolivia,  Brazil,  Canada,  China,  Colombia, 
Cuba,  Czechoslovakia,  Denmark,  Dominican  Re- 
public, Ecuador,  Egypt,  El  Salvador,  France, 
Greece,  Haiti,  Honduras,  Hungary,  India,  Iran, 
Iraq,  Italy,  Lebanon,  Liberia,  Luxembourg,  Mex- 
ico, Netherlands,  New  Zealand,  Norway,  Peru, 
Philippines,  Poland,  Saudi  Arabia,  Switzerland, 
Syria,  Turkey,  Union  of  South  Africa,  United  King- 
dom, United  States  of  America,  Uruguay,  and 
Venezuela. 

Officers.  Members  of  the  Executive  Board  for 
1949:  Sir  Sarvepalli  Radhakrishnan  (India),  Chair- 
man; C.  Parra-Perez  (Venezuela),  Vice  Chairman; 
Roger  Seydoux  (France),  Vice  Chairman;  Ronald 
Walker  (Australia);  Alf  Sommerfelt  (Norway); 
Stanislaw  Arnold  (Poland);  Paulo  Carneiro  (Bra- 
zil); Guillernio  Nanetti  (Colombia);  Chen  Yuan 
(China);  Victor  Dore  (Canada);  Shafik  Ghorbal 
Bay  (Egypt);  Resat  Nuri  Guntekin  (Turkey); 
Manuel  Martinez-Baez  (Mexico);  Sir  Jogn  Maud 
(United  Kingdom);  Alex  Photiades  (Greece); 
George  D.  Stoddard  (United  States);  Louis  Ver- 
niers (Belgium);  Count  Stefano  Jacini  (Italy). 
Director  General:  Jaime  Torres-Bodet  (Mexico). 

The  organs  of  UNESCO  include:  a  General  Con- 
ference which  meete  annually;  an  Executive  Board 
of  18  members  which  meet  at  least  twice  a  year; 
a  Secretariat  responsible  for  the  implementation  of 
programs  of  action.  Permanent  Headquarters: 
Unesco  House,  19  Ave.  Kleber,  Paris  16%  France. 

Events.  The  Third  Session  of  UNESCO's  General 
Conference  was  held  in  Beirut,  Lebanon  from  Nov. 
17-Dec.  11,  1948,  with  delegates  from  33  nations 
present.  A  far-reaching  program  in  the  fields  of 
education,  science,  and  culture,  designed  to  pro- 
mote peace  and  international  understanding,  was 
adopted.  Dr.  Julian  Huxley,  whose  term  expired, 
was  succeeded  by  Jaime  Torres-Bodet  of  Mexico. 
The  Conference  adopted  a  1949  budget  of  $7,780,- 
000,  an  increase  of  $97,363  over  the  1948  budget. 
Foremost  among  the  new  schemes  is  the  con- 
tinuation and  extension  of  UNESCO's  work  in 
Germany  and  the  launching  of  an  educational  pro- 
gram in  Japan.  Emphasis  will  also  be  placed  on 
problems  affecting  the  various  trust  territories. 


UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS  (U.S.S.R.).  A 

state  occupying  eastern  Europe  and  northern  and 
central  Asia.  Capital,  Moscow. 

Area  and  Population.  Total  area  of  the  U.S.SJR. 
(1946),  including  territory  acquired  since  1939, 
was  8,708,070  square  miles;  total  population,  193,- 
200,000  (estimated).  The  16  constituent  republics, 
with  their  capitals,  areas,  and  populations,  are  list- 
ed in  the  accompanying  table. 

IT.S.S.R.  CONSTITUENT  REPUBLICS 


Republics 

Capital 

Sq.  mi. 

Population 

Russian  S.F.S.R  

.  Moscow 

6,444,000 

109,279,000 

Ukrainian  S.S.R.     ,  .  , 

Kiev 

223,000 

40,000,000 

Byelorussian  S.S.R.  .  .  . 

.Minsk 

89,000 

10,386,000 

Azerbaijan  S.S.R.  .  .  . 

.Baku 

33,000 

3,210,000 

Georgian  S.S.R  

.Tbilisi 

27,000 

3,542,000 

Armenian  S.S.R  

.  Erivan 

12,000 

1,300,000 

Turkmen  S.S.R  

Ashkhabad 

187,000 

1,254,000 

Uzbek  S.S.R  

Tashkent 

158,000 

6,282,000 

Tajik  S.S.R  

Stalinabad 

55,000 

1,485,000 

Kazakh  S.S.R  

Alma-Ata 

1,056,000 

6,146,000 

Kirghiz  S.S.R  

.  Frunze 

78,000 

1,500,000 

Karelo-Finnifih  S.S.R.  . 

.  Petrozavodsk 

76,000 

500,000 

Moldavian  S.S.R.  .  .  . 

.  Kishinev 

13,000 

2,200,000 

Lithuanian  S.S.R  

.Vilna 

24,000 

2,880,000 

Latvian  S.S.R  

Riga 

25,000 

1,971,000 

Estonian  S.S.R  

.Tallinn 

18,000 

1,131,000 

The  populations  of  the  38  leading  cities,  includ- 
ing the  capitals  of  the  16  constituent  republics,  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES 


City  Population 

Moscow 4,137,018 

Leningrad 3,191,304 

Kiev 846,293 

Kharkov 833,432 

Baku 809,347 

Gorky 644,116 

Odessa 604,223 

Tashkent 585,005 

Tbilisi 519,175 

Rostov-on-Don ....  510,253 

Dnepropetrovsk 500,662 

Staliixo 462,395 

Stalingrad 445,476 

Sverdlovsk 425,544 

Novosibirsk 405,589 

Kazan 401,665 

Kuibyshev 390,267 

Riga 385,000 

Saratov 375,860 


City  Population 

Voronezh 326,836 

Yaroslavl 298,065 

Ivanovo 285,069 

Archangel 281,091 

Omsk 280,716 

Chelyabinsk 273,127 

Tula 272,403 

Vilna 250,000 

Minsk 238,772 

Alma-Ata 230,000 

Vladivostok 206,432 

Erivan 200,000 

Stalinsk 169,538 

Tallinn 147,000 

Ashkhabad 126,600 

Kishinev 110,000 

Frunze 93,000 

Stalinabad 83,000 

Petrozavodsk 70,000 


Education  and  Religion.  Elementary  and  secondary 
education  in  the  ten-year  schools  is  free  and  corn- 

E1  ory.  Small  tuition  charges  have  been  made  in 
er  schools  since  1940.  The  number  of  trade 
ols  and  factory  apprentice  schools  (about 
3,000  of  each  in  1947)  was  appreciably  increased 
in  1948.  Approximately  %  of  a  million  students 
were  enrolled  in  1,000  universities,  professional 
schools,  and  institutes.  Illiteracy  was  reduced  to 
about  15  percent  of  the  adult  population,  for  the 
most  part  in  remote  rural  areas. 

The  1936  Constitution  guarantees  freedom  of 
conscience,  separation  of  church  and  state,  separa- 
tion of  church  and  school,  freedom  of  religious 
worship,  and  freedom  of  anti-religious  propaganda 
(Art.  124).  In  1946,  there  were  22,000  actively 
functioning  Greek  Orthodox  congregations;  one 
Patriarch,  6  Metropolitans,  75  Archbishops  and 
Bishops,  10  seminaries,  3  theological  academies, 
and  87  monasteries  and  convents. 

Production.  The  4th  Five- Year  Plan,  launched  in 
1946,  has  set  205,000  million  rubles  as  the  1950 
goal  for  industrial  output,  with  total  capital  invest- 
ments for  the  period  of  the  Plan  fixed  at  157,500 
million  rubles.  Most  Soviet  statistics,  as  made  pub- 
lic, give  no  figures  on  total  volume  of  production 
in  various  lines  but  merely  record  percentages  of 
increase  over -preceding  years  and  percentages  of 
fulfillment  of  the  Plan.  In  most  lines  production 


UNION  Of  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 


559 


UNION  OF  SOWiET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 


during  1948  was  restored  to  the  1940  level.  The 
following  figures  in  millions  of  metric  tons  (oil  in 
millions  of  barrels )  indicate  probable  total  output 
during  1948,  with  the  production  goals  of  1950  in- 
dicated in  parentheses:  pig  iron,  15.0  (19.5);  steel, 
18.3  (25.4);  coal,  166.0  (250.0);  oil,  226.5 
(257.0). 

On  other  aspects  of  production  and  foreign 
trade,  see  Events  below. 

Finance.  Under  the  terms  of  the  budget  approved 
by  the  federal  Supreme  Soviet  on  Feb.  4,  1948,  es- 
timated 1948  revenue  was  429,150  million  rubles; 
expenditure,  388,041  millions.  Military  expendi- 
ture was  set  at  66,000  million  rubles,  a  reduction 
of  2,500  millions  from  the  1947  level.  According 
to  the  reports  of  Finance  Minister  Zverev,  revenue 
collected  in  1946  (in  millions  of  rubles)  totaled 
325,000,  and  in  1947  totaled  385,200,  while  ex- 
penditure for  the  same  years  was  307,000  and 
361,200. 

Communications.  Of  the  66,000  miles  of  railway 
(1945),  30  percent  is  double-gage.  Highways  ex- 
tended 1,682,000  miles  in  1940.  There  are  68,000 
miles  of  navigable  inland  waterways  and  several 
thousand  miles  of  canals.  In  1946  a  regular  passen- 
ger air  service  between  Moscow  and  Vladivostok 
was  inaugurated.  There  are  daily  flights  between 
Moscow  and  the  capitals  of  the  Union  Republics. 

Government.  Under  the  Constitution  of  Dec.  5, 
1936  (Art.  30),  "the  highest  organ  of  state  au- 
thority of  the  U.S.S.R.  is  the  Supreme  Soviet  of 
the  U.S.S.R.,"  consisting  of  two  chambers,  each 
elected  for  a  term  of  four  years  by  universal,  direct 
suffrage  and  secret  ballot.  The  present  Soviet  of 
Nationalities,  or  upper  chamber,  and  the  Soviet  of 
the  Union  were  elected  on  Feb.  10,  1946  (for  com- 
position, see  YEAR  BOOK,  Events  of  1946,  p.  664). 
The  Presidium  of  the  Supreme  Soviet  consists  of 
a  President  (Nikolai  Shvernik,  elected  Mar.  19, 
1946),  16  Vice  Presidents  (1  for  each  Union  Re- 
public), 24  Members,  and  a  Secretary.  Under  the 
terms  of  the  Constitution,  the  Council  (Soviet)  of 
Ministers  (Cabinet)  is  chosen  by,  and  responsible 
to,  the  Supreme  Soviet. 

Communist  Party.  The  Comunist  Party  of  the  So- 
viet Union  (Bolshevik)— C.P.S.U.  (B.)— is  the 
only  legal  political  party  in  the  U.S.S.R.  Its  highest 
organ,  the  Party  Congress,  has  not  met  since  1939. 
No  Party  Conference  has  been  held  since  1941. 
The  Central  Committee  (71  members,  68  alter- 
nates) elects  the  Politburo,  the  Orgburo,  the  Sec- 
retariat, and  the  Commission  of  Party  Control. 

At  the  close  of  1948  the  Politburo  consisted  of 
Joseph  B,  Stalin,  Vyacheslav  M.  Molotov,  Nikolai 
Shvernik,  Lazar  M.  Kaganovich,  Klimenty  E.  Voro- 
shilov,  Nikita  S.  Krushchev,  Andrei  A.  Andreyev, 
Anastas  I.  Mikoyan,  Lavrenti  P.  Beria,  and  Georgi 
M.  Malenkov,  with  Nikolai  A.  Voznesensky,  Alexei 
N.  Kosygin,  and  Nikolai  Bulganin  as  alternates. 

Events,  1948.  On  New  Years  Day  of  1948  Izvestia 
surveyed  the  old  year  and  contemplated  the  new. 
Its  editors^  opined  that  the  "^consolidation"  of  the 
forces  of  "world  democracy"  during  1947  would 
bring  no  comfort  to  "the  dark  forces  of  reaction 
assembled  under  the  banner  of  Wall  Street.  .  .  . 
The  struggle  between  two  world  outlooks  and  two 
systems — an  ideological  and  diplomatic  struggle — 
will  of  course  continue  in  1948.  .  .  .  (We  shall 
win  because )  peoples  do  not  want  to  serve  the  god 
of  war  and  gold." 

The  "struggle"  became  in  fact  more  extended, 
more  intensified,  and  more  embittered.  Its  impera- 
tives, real  or  imagined,  shaped  all  major  decisions 
in  domestic  and  foreign  policy.  Its  conclusion  was 
brought  no  nearer,  despite  gestures  looking  toward 


a  settlement.  Its  cessation  remained  an  impossi- 
bility, since  neither  protagonist  found  means  of 
compelling  the  other  to  yield,  while  each  feared 
a  fatal  loss  of  prestige  and  power  should  it  break 
off  the  engagement  or  make  serious  proposals  for 
compromise.  The  outcome  remained  uncertain,  de- 
spite heavy  blows  given  and  received.  That  the 
combat  was  waged  in  most  arenas  of  rivalry  with 
words  and  goods  rather  than  with  guns  left  it  none 
the  less  a  "war,"  albeit  frigid  rather  than  torrid. 

Though  all  were  free  to  express  their  doubts, 
few  Americans  doubted  the  official  thesis  that  the 
conflict  was  due  to  Soviet  aggression.  Communist 
conspiracy,  and  a  diabolical  plot,  directed  from 
Moscow,  to  enslave  the  world.  Though  none  was 
free  to  express  his  doubts,  most  Soviet  citizens 
were  apparently  persuaded,  with  equally  firm  con- 
viction, of  the  correctness  of  the  official  thesis  that 
the  conflict  was  due  to  American  aggression,  capi- 
talist conspiracy,  and  a  diabolical  plot,  directed 
from  Washington,  to  enslave  the  world.  The  te- 
nacity with  which  these  views  were  held,  and  the 
ardor  with  which  they  were  documented  and  pub- 
licized, measured  the  chasm  between  the  Super- 
Powers.  Since  the  waging  of  total  war  comports 
ill  with  political  democracy  and  personal  freedom, 
these  values — loudly  praised  by  both  American 
and  Soviet  spokesmen — were  jeopardized  in  the 
U.S.A.  by  the  exigencies  of  battle  and  were  left 
in  the  U.S.S.R.  in  the  realm  of  verbal  abstractions 
unsullied  by  contact  with  everyday  human  experi- 
ence. 

Politics  and  Politicians.  Under  these  circumstances, 
the  long-deferred  19th  Congress  of  the  C.P.  ( origi- 
nally scheduled  for  1942  under  the  rules  adopted 
in  1939)  was  not  held,  nor  were  explanations  of- 
fered of  the  delay  or  of  a  possible  future  convoca- 
tion. Neither  was  any  Party  Conference  summoned, 
despite  the  fact  that  the  last  was  held  in  February, 
1941,  and  that  the  1939  rules  called  for  an  annual 
meeting.  The  C.P.  Central  Committee  continued 
to  meet.  Its  Politburo  continued  to  determine  pol- 
icy in  secret  sessions.  In  the  absence  of  any  evi- 
dence regarding  its  deliberations,  rumors  abroad 
regarding  rivalries  and  schisms  among  its  members 
continued  to  be  speculations  or  fabrications. 

Andrei  A.  Zhdanov — member  of  the  Politburo, 
Party  boss  in  Leningrad,  head  of  the  Cominform, 
and  allegedly  Stalin's  successor-designate  in  the 
Premiership  and  in  the  leadership  of  the  C.P. — 
died  of  heart  disease  on  August  31,  at  the  age  of 
52.  He  was  buried  in  Red  Square  below  the  Krem- 
lin wall  on  September  2  in  an  impressive  State 
funeral  in  which  Molotov  delivered  the  principal 
address.  Zhdanov's  passing  reduced  the  number  of 
full  members  of  the  Politburo  from  10  to  9, 
Whether,  as  some  gossipers  abroad  contended,  the 
influence  of  Malenkov  was  herewith  significantly 
increased  could  not  be  ascertained.  The  Politburo, 
like  the  C.P.  as  a  whole,  continued  to  present  it- 
self to  the  Soviet  public  and  to  the  world  as  a 
monolithic  citadel  of  political  wisdom.  Its  members 
appeared  wholly  united  behind  the  incessantly 
eulogized  leadership  of  Stalin,  whose  69th  birthday 
was  observed  on  December  21. 

During  1948  death  removed  from  the  Soviet 
scene  several  lesser  celebrities:  Sergei  Eisenstein 
(February  10),  most  famous  Soviet  cinema  direc- 
tor; Leonid  K.  Ramzin  (June  29),  scientist  and 
engineer  who  achieved  distinction  despite  his  hav- 
ing been  sentenced  in  1930  to  a  ten-year  jail  term 
for  treason;  Marshal  Pavel  S.  Rybalko  (August  28), 
commander-in-chief  of  armored,  tank,  and  mech- 
anized troops;  Ludwig  K.  Martens  (October  20), 
engineer  and  first  Soviet  Ambassador-designate  to 


UN/ON  OF  SOVIET  SOCIAIIST  REPUBLICS 


560 


UN/ON  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 


the  U.S.A.,  whence  he  was  ordered  deported  in 
1921;  and  Prof.  A.  Vishnevsky  (November  13), 
well-known  neurologist. 

No  Union-wide  elections  were  held  during  1948. 
The  session  of  the  supreme  Soviet  which  adjourned 
on  February  4  voted  the  budget;  ratified  the  1947 
decrees  of  its  Presidium  abolishing  the  death  pen- 
alty in  peace-time  and  forbidding  Soviet  citizens 
to  marry  aliens;  and  approved  the  replacement  of 
Minister  of  Justice  Nikolai  M.  Rychkov  and  Chair- 
man of  the  Cabinet  Committee  on  Arts  Mikhail  B. 
Khrapchenko  by  Konstantine  P.  Gorshenin  and 
Polikarp  I,  Lebedov,  respectively. 

On  February  17,  Finance  Minister  Arseny  Zverev 
was  replaced,  after  a  9-year  term  of  office,  by 
Alexei  N.  Kosygin.  On  August  12,  Ivan  T.  Tevosyan 
was  named  head  of  the  newly  merged  Ministries 
of  Ferrous  and  Non-Ferrous  Metallurgy.  Other 
mergers  of  federal  Ministries  (Food  Reserves  and 
Material  Reserves,  Timber  Industry  and  Paper  and 
Pulp  Industry,  Chemical  Industry  and  Rubber  In- 
dustry) reduced  the  total  number  from  62  to  58. 
Other  changes  of  administrative  personnel  an- 
nounced on  September  2  made  Alexei  D.  Krutikov 
a  Deputy  Chairman  of  the  Council  of  Ministers; 
M.A.  Menshikov  First  Deputy  Minister  of  Foreign 
Trade;  V.P.  Popov  First  Deputy  Minister  of  Fi- 
nance; and  Ivan  I.  Maslennikov  and  A.  Panyukov 
Deputy  Ministers  for  Internal  Affairs.  In  mid-Octo- 
ber Nikolai  I.  Smirnov  succeeded  V.V.  Vorobev 
as  Minister  of  the  Meat  and  Dairy  Industries.  On 
November  12  Marshal  Alexander  M.  Vasilevsky 
was  replaced  as  Chief  of  the  General  Staff  by  Gen. 
S.M.  Shtemenko  to  relieve  him  of  an  excessive 
burden  of  work.  Vasilevsky  retained  his  post  as 
Deputy  Minister  of  the  Armed  Forces. 

Industry  and  Finance.  The  progress  of  Soviet  econ- 
omy^was  hampered  by  the  burdens  of  the  "cold 
war,"  by  the  still  gigantic  tasks  of  reconstruction  in 
the  devastated  areas,  by  industrial  inefficiency  and 
occasional  dishonesty,  and  by  continued  low  stand- 
ards of  living  and  of  labor  productivity.  Despite 
these  and  other  obstacles,  much  progress  was  made 
toward  the  goals  set  in  the  current  Five-Year  Plan. 
The  currency  reform  of  December,  1947  ( see  YEAR 
BOOK,  Events  of  1947,  p.  515),  achieved  its  major 
objectives.  Rationing  was  abolished.  Increased  out- 
put of  consumers'  goods  made  possible  a  progres- 
sive reduction  of  prices.  Since  wages  and  salaries 
were  not  reduced,  the  result  was  a  general  rise  of 
real  incomes,  albeit  still  of  such  modest  propor- 
tions by  American  standards  as  to  make  the  lot 
of  the  ordinary  Soviet  worker  one  of  comparative 
penury. 

On  April  9,  the  Cabinet  followed  up  the  price 
reductions  of  Dec.  14,  1947,  with  new  cuts:  10 
percent  for  motor  cars,  sewing  machines,  radios, 
cameras,  cigarettes,  etc.,  and  20  percent  for  bi- 
cycles and  motorcycles,  vitamins,  vodka,  wines, 
beer,  and  soft  drinks.  The  third  annual  20,000  mil- 
lion ruble  issue  of  lottery  bonds  was  announced  on 
May  3,  with  the  bonds  maturing  in  20  years  and 
affording  prize  money  equivalent  for  the  whole 
issue  to  4  percent  interest.  Consumers*  goods  be- 
came more  abundant  month  by  month.  Distribu- 
tion was  improved  through  the  opening  of  some 
16,000  new  stores^and  restaurants  during  the  year 
by  the  consumers'  cooperatives.  A  decree  of  the 
federal  Presidium  of  August  29,  based  on  Art.  10 
of  the  Constitution,  authorized  all  citizens  to  build 
or  buy  for  their  own  use  private  homes  of  not  more 
than  two  storeys  and  containing  not  more  than  5 
rooms.  Thanks  in  part  to  an  expansion  of  prefabri- 
cated housing,  some  19  million  square  metres  of 
living  space  were  made  available  during  1948, 


representing  a  total  50  percent  above  1947  and 
equal  to  total  construction  and  reconstruction  dur- 
ing 1946  and  1947  combined.  By  year's  end  thou- 
sands of  new  neon  signs  in  Moscow  were  adver- 
tising a  wide  variety  of  products. 

These  improvements  in  living  standards  resulted 
from  a  general  increase  of  production  rather  than 
from  any  shift  of  capital  and  labor  from  producers' 
to  consumers'  goods.  Investment  in  heavy  industry 
in  relationship  to  total  national  income  was  in  fact 
much  larger  than  in  the  prewar  years.  The  State 
Planning  Commission  reported  in  January  that  dur- 
ing the  last  quarter  of  1947  industrial  and  agricul- 
tural output  reached  the  average  quarterly  level 
of  the  last  prewar  year,  1940.  In  considering  the 
budget  for  1948,  the  Budget  Committee  of  the 
Supreme  Soviet  sharply  criticized  inefficiency  and 
excessive  costs  in  industry,  waste  in  local  govern- 
ment, budgetary  deficits  in  several  of  the  Union 
Republics,  and  failures  to  meet  quotas  of  housing 
construction.  Coal  production  during  the  first  quar- 
ter of  the  year  registered  a  20-percent  gain  over 
1947.  A  spring  campaign  to  cut  costs  put  some 
factories  hitherto  "in  the  red"  on  a  profit-making 
basis  by  summer.  The  labor  shortage,  felt  acutely 
in  the  postwar  years  despite  extensive  demobiliza- 
tion, was  alleviated  through  the  currency  reform 
which,  by  reducing  hoarded  savings  and  increas- 
ing the  buying  power  of  the  ruble,  brought  new 
recruits  into  the  labor  market.  The  Komsomol  or- 
ganization directed  the  "mobilization"  of  almost 
three-quarters  of  a  million  young  people  into  "la- 
bor reserves,"  assigned  to  two  years  of  training  in 
industrial  and  trade  schools.  The  Five-Year  Plan 
contemplated  the  training  of  4,500,000  new  skilled 
workers  by  1950. 

A  July  report  of  the  State  Planning  Commission 
asserted  that  during  the  second  quarter  of  1948 
industrial  production  had  exceeded  the  planned 
quota  by  6  percent  and  was  24  percent  higher  than 
in  1947.  New  industrial  construction  was  up  26 
percent  and  home  building  42  percent.  Total  wages 
were  up  8  percent.  Retail  sales  topped  1947  levels 
by  83  percent  for  sugar,  50  percent  for  bread,  38 
percent  for  cotton  fabrics,  34  percent  for  silk  fab- 
rics, 29  percent  for  meat  and  candies,  31  percent 
for  shoes,  and  14  percent  for  vegetables.  Planned 
quotas  were  not  attained  in  fishing,  special  steels, 
combines,  heavy  motors  and  generators,  steam 
turbines,  and  light  motor  cars.  In  October  it  was 
announced  that  total  industrial  production  in  the 
first  9  months  of  1948  exceeded  the  1940  level  by 
14  percent.  These  and  other  indices  of  output  sug- 
gested, even  to  skeptical  foreign  observers,  that  the 
Soviet  objective  of  fulfilling  the  Five-Year  Plan  in 
four  years,  i.e.  by  the  end  of  1949,  would  probably 
be  achieved. 

Agriculture.  In  spite  of  a  late  spring  and  sub- 
normal rainfall  in  the  Volga  area,  the  harvest  of 
1948  was  larger  than  the  excellent  crop  of  1947. 
This  favorable  result,  which  made  possible  a  sub- 
stantial increase  in  Soviet  grain  exports,  was  at- 
tributable to  an  increase  of  the  area  under  culti- 
vation by  27  million  acres  as  compared  wrdi  1947; 
to  more  rapid  and  efficient  sowing,  cultivation,  and 
reaping;  to  improved  equipment  and  service  on 
the  part  of  the  machine-tractor  stations  attached 
to  the  collective  farms;  and  to  the  diffusion  of  im- 
proved farming  methods  and  of  new  high-yield 
varieties  of  grains  and  vegetables,  some  of  which 
were  credited  to  T.V.  Lysenko.  While  All-Union 
production  figures  for  1948  were  not  yet  available 
at  the  time  of  writing,  the  crop  in  the  Ukraine 
yielded  2,500,000  more  tons  of  marketable  grain 
than  in  1947  and  550,000  more  tons  than  in  1940, 


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561 


UNION  OF  SOWfT  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 


Party  and  press  continued  their  drive  against 
"grafters  and  idlers"  among  collective  farmers,  re- 
serving their  sharpest  barbs  for  those  who  spent 
more  time  cultivating  their  household  plots  than 
participating  in  socialized  agriculture.  That  these 
rural  elements  were  hardest  hit  by  the  currency 
reform  didjiot,  seemingly,  modify  their  addiction 
to  "private"  rather  than  collective  enterprise.  In 
June  the  Council  of  Ministers  decreed  incentive 
payments,  based  on  productivity,  to  farm  execu- 
tives; differential  compensation  to  each  group  of 
farm  workers  in  terms  of  crop  yields;  reexamina- 
tion  of  work  norms;  reallocation  of  "labor  days" 
(the  unit  of  agrarian  accounting)  in  the  interests 
of  economy  and  efficiency;  and  a  maximum  use  of 
piece-work  methods  in  fixing  compensation.  A  de- 
cree of  July  13  increased  taxes  (8-11  percent  in 
the  lowest  brackets  to  30-40  percent  in  the  high- 
est) on  farmers'  incomes  derived  from  individual 
peasant  farms  or,  for  members  of  collectives,  from 
cultivation  of  personal  plots. 

On  October  24,  the  Council  of  Ministers  and  the 
Central  Committee  of  the  C.P.  jointly  announced 
a  15-year  reclamation  and  development  project 
covering  300  million  acres,  embracing  80,000  col- 
lective farms  in  the  Volga  basin,  the  North  Cau- 
casus, the  eastern  Ukraine,  and  central  Russia.  The 
plan  was  aimed  at  soil  conservation  through  de- 
fense of  the  black-earth  areas  against  desiccation 
and  erosion  caused  by  the  winds  sweeping  west- 
ward from  the  deserts  of  Central  Asia.  It  contem- 
plated the  planting  of  4  forest  belts  between  the 
Caucasus  and  the  southern  Urals,  totaling  3,000 
miles  in  length,  the  additional  planting  of  15  mil- 
lion acres  of  forest  for  local  protection  of  collective 
farms,  the  construction  of  45,000  reservoirs  and 
ponds  for  irrigation  and  maintenance  of  ground 
water  levels,  and  a  new  program  of  crop  rotation. 
This  ambitious  scheme — glorified  in  the  Soviet 
press  with  the  usual  fanfare,  and  minimized  in  the 
American  press  with  the  usual  contempt — offered 
tangible  promise  of  conserving  and  expanding  the 
productivity  of  the  most  fertile  lands  of  the  Soviet 
Union. 

Tfce  Heresy-Hwnfei-s.  To  most  Western  liberals  the 
image  of  a  Soviet  society  busily  engaged  in  in- 
creasing production,  reducing  prices,  raising  living 
standards,  and  planning  boldly  for  social  welfare 
could  not  be  reconciled  with  the  image  of  a  Soviet 
society  dedicated  to  political  dictatorship,  ideolog- 
ical fanaticism,  and  intolerance  of  all  dissent.  Yet 
both  images  mirrored  reality.  The  latter  was  indeed 
the  prerequisite  of  the  former  rather  than  its  an- 
tithesis under  the  conditions  of  "cold  war"  and  the 
injunctions  of  the  Stalinist  version  of  Marxism- 
Leninism. 

Private  enterprise  moves  mountains  in  America. 
But  in  the  U.S.S.R.  mountains  are  moved  only  by 
faith.  True  fervor  in  the  one  true  faith  is  more  than 
ever  needed  when  the  faithful  are  engaged  in  ex- 
tending the  faith  or  in  defending  it  against  the 
deviltry  of  the  infidels.  Hence  the  assumed  neces- 
sity in  the  Soviet  Union  of  1948  for  rulers  to  in- 
sist more  emphatically  than  ever  upon  undeviating 
loyalty  to  the  prevailing  orthodoxy  on  the  part  of 
the  ruled. 

Since  there  was  no  occasion  for  such  insistence 
in  the  realm  of  politics  as  conventionally  defined, 
the  Inquisitors  directed  their  energies  toward  the 
arts,  the  sciences,  and  the  "private"  lives  of  citi- 
zens. Soviet  nationals  were  forbidden  to  leave  their 
country  unless  sent  abroad  on  public  business. 
Aliens  were  discouraged  from  entering  the  U.S.S.R., 
unless  they  were  diplomats,  journalists,  or  business 
men.  Even  these  were  viewed  with  suspicion  and 


restricted  in  their  activities.  Citizens  who  had 
married  aliens  during  the  war  were  forbidden  to 
join  their  spouses  abroad.  "Bourgeois"  morality, 
art,  and  science  were  all  denounced  anew  as  evil 
fruits  of  decadence. 

In  late  December,  1947,  Alexander  Fadeyev, 
President  of  the  Soviet  Writers'  Union,  Stalin  prize 
winner,  and  author  of  Young  Guard  (which  had 
gone  through  25  editions,  totaling  1,160,000  cop- 
ies) agreed  "attentively  and  lovingly"  to  rewrite 
his  novel  to  meet  complaints  in  Pravaa  and  in  Cut- 
ture  and  Life  that  he  had  glorified  the  Komsomols 
in  their  wartime  role  at  the  expense  of  the  C.P. 
Economist  Eugene  Varga,  already  criticized  and 
demoted  in  1947,  was  again  assailed  by  Prauda  in 
January,  and  by  many  of  his  colleagues  at  a  col- 
loquium in  May,  for  his  "false  Marxist-Leninist 
views" — i.e.  his  contention  that  a  major  capitalist 
crisis  was  remote  and  that  public  planning  against 
depression  was  possible  in  bourgeois  states.  But  he 
remained  an  editor  of  Economic  Questions,  suc- 
cessor to  his  own  Journal  of  World  Economy  and 
Politics.  In  February  the  C.P.  Central  Committee 
accused  the  "big  three"  of  Soviet  music,  Dmitri 
Shostakovich,  Aram  Khatchaturian,  and  Sergei 
Prokofiev,  of  "smelling  strongly  of  the  spirit  of  the 
modern  bourgeois  music  of  Europe  and  America" 
and  indulging  in  "formalistic  distortions"  and  "es- 
thetic individualism."  In  April  Stalin  prizes  of 
100,000  rubles  went  to  Lithuanian  composer  Josef 
Tallat-Kepsha  ("Cantata  About  Stalin")  and  Rein- 
hold  Gliere  ("Red  Poppy  Ballet")  for  their  "classi- 
cism" and  "realism."  Writers  and  artists  were  told 
that  their  patriotic  duty  was  to  produce  works  in- 
telligible to  the  masses,  glorifying  Soviet  socialism, 

In  August  the  old  biological  controversy  be- 
tween Trofim  D.  Lysenko  (President  of  the  All- 
Union  Academy  of  Agricultural  Sciences,  and  a 
disciple  of  the  late  Ivan  V.  Michurin,  the  "Soviet 
Burbank")  and  the  followers  of  Gregor  Mendel 
and  T.H.  Morgan  became  a  matter  for  political 
decision.  The  issue,  vastly  oversimplified,  was  that 
of  the  inheritance  of  acquired  characteristics,  with 
Lysenko  contending  that  heredity  could  be  affected 
by  environment  as  shown  by  his  own  experiments 
in  "vernalizing"  winter  wheat  and  in  grafting  and 
cross-breeding  other  plants.  The  Central  Commit- 
tee decided  in  favor  of  Lysenko.  On  August  27  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  abolished  the  Cytogenetics 
Laboratory  of  Prof.  N.P.  Dubinin  and  "freed  from 
their  duties"  Academician  L.A.  Orbeli,  Secretary 
of  the  Section  on  Biological  Sciences,  and  Prof,  LI. 
Schmalhausen,  Director  of  the  Institute  of  Evolu- 
tionary Morphology.  Biology  teachers  were  warned 
to  shun  "Darwin's  Malthusian  errors"  as^used  by 
"the  ideologists  of  modern  imperialism"  and  to 
embrace  "Bolshevik  partisanship"  as  represented 
by  the  views  of  Michurin  and  Lysenko.  On  Sep- 
tember 30,  Prof.  H.  J.  Muller,  Nobel  prize  winner 
and  geneticist  at  the  University  of  Indiana  resigned 
in  protest  from  the  Soviet  Academy  of  Sciences, 
accusing  Lysenko  of  being  a  "charlatan"  and  of 
indulging  in  "naive  and  archaic  mysticism." 

The  scientific  questions  here  posed  were  not  to 
be  disposed  of  so  readily  as  the  American  press  as- 
sumed. But  their  politicalization  by  the  C.P.  built 
new  barriers  between  East  and  West.  In  November 
The  American  Review  of  Soviet  Medicine,  long 
edited  by  Dr.  Henry  E.  Sigerist,  suspended  publi- 
cation "for  reasons  which  are  so  obvious  that  we 
need  not  elaborate  on  them/'  Shortly  thereafter 
Sir  Robert  Robinson,  President  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, denounced  the  political  suppression  of  the 
classical  school  of  genetics  in  the  U.S.S.R. 

Heretics  and  Hmtgres.  If  the  Communist  leaders  of 


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562 


UNION  OF  SOVIfr  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 


the  U.S.S.R.  were  gratified  over  their  success  in 
regimenting  writers,  artists,  and  scientists  at  home, 
they  could  scarcely  avoid  serious  concern  over  the 
actions  abroad  of  other  Soviet  citizens,  attracted  by 
the  freedom,  or  the  fieshpots,  of  the  West.  Deser- 
tions by  Soviet  officers  and  soldiers  in  Central 
Europe  were  estimated  (by  Western  observers)  to 
have  averaged  1,000  per  month  during  1948.  Anti- 
Soviet  Ukrainians  in  the  U.S.A.  boasted,  perhaps 
with  more  poetry  than  truth,  of  a  "Ukrainian  In- 
surgent Army"  north  of  the  Black  Sea,  supplied  by 
the  "American  Organization  for  the  Defense  of  the 
Four  Freedoms  in  the  Ukraine."  The  "International 
Peasant  Union"  (headed  by  Mikolajczyk,  Matchek, 
Nagy,  Buzesti,  Gavrilovicn,  and  Georgi  M.  Dmi- 
trov)  sought  in  vain  to  promote  a  UN  inquiry  into 
"Soviet  aggression"  in  Eastern  Europe  and  the  Bal- 
kans. Victor  Kravchenko  ("I  Chose  Freedom") 
brought  a  libel  suit  in  April  against  Les  Lettres 
Frangaises  of  Paris  for  calling  him  an  embezzler 
and  a  stool  pigeon. 

More  serious  were  the  desertions  to  the  "enemy" 
of  other  Soviet  citizens,  scarcely  counterbalanced 
by  a  few  counter-desertions  on  the  other  side.  In 
the  latter  category  was  Annabel  Bucar  (February) 
and  Sgt.  James  M,  McMillan  (May),  both  of  die 
U.S.  Embassy  staff  in  Moscow,  who  left  their  posts 
and  refused  to  return  to  the  U.S. A.  Conversely  Col. 
J.D.  Tassoyev  (G.  Takoyev),  originally  alleged 
by  Toss  to  have  been  kidnapped  in  Bremen  by  Brit- 
ish secret  service  agents,  declared  in  London  in 
September  that  Moscow  was  using  "slave  labor" 
to  prepare  a  war  of  "imperialism"  and  "aggres- 
sion." Alexander  Barmine  ("One  Who  Survived"), 
prominent  among  earlier  emigres,  married  as  his 
third  wife  Edith  Hermit  Roosevelt,  granddaughter 
of  T.R.,  on  Sept  8,  1948. 

Meanwhile  the  most  sensational  developments 
of  the  year  centered  around  two  Soviet  teachers  in 
the  U.S.A.,  Mrs.  Oksana  Stepanova  Kosenkina  and 
Mr.  Mikhial  L.  Samarin,  who  defied  orders  to  re- 
turn home.  On  August  7,  Soviet  Consul  General 
Jacob  M.  Lomakin  announced  in  New  York  that 
Mrs.  K.,  scheduled  to  sail  on  July  31,  had  been 
"kidnapped"  by  White  Russians  and  detained  at 
Reed  Farm,  Valley  Cottage,  N.Y.  (operated  by 
the  "Tolstoy  Foundation,  Inc."),  whence  she  had 
been  "rescued,"  in  response  to  a  letter  appealing 
for  help,  and  brought  to  the  Consulate  by  Lomakin. 

On  August  9,  it  became  known  that  Samarin  had 
placed  himself — as  it  later  appeared,  with  the  aid 
of  Victor  Kravchenko  and  Vladimir  Zenzinov — in 
the  custody  of  the  F.B.L  to  avoid  being  sent  back 
to  Russia.  On  the  same  day  Ambassador  Alexander 
S.  Panyushkin  formally  demanded  that  the  State 
Department  release  Samarin  to  Lomakin  and  pro- 
tested that  the  Tolstoy  Foundation  was  an  anti- 
Soviet  "criminal  organization,"  maintained  in  "di- 
rect violation"  of  the  Litvinov-Roosevelt  agreement 
of  1933.  Karl  Mundt,  Acting  Chairman  of  the 
House  Committee  on  Un-American  Activities, 
sought  both  teachers  for  questioning  in  connection 
with  the  "Soviet  spy"  inquiries  initiated  by  the 
"confessions"  of  Elizabeth  T.  Bentley  and  Whitta- 
ker  Chambers  that  they  had  acted  as  Communist 
espionage  agents  in  Washington  prior  to  World 
War  II  On  August  10,  the  Committee  subpoenaed 
Samarin,  who  was  in  hiding  near  New  York. 

On  August  11-12,  as  Miss  Bentley  testified  that 
she  had  received  $2,000  in  October,  1945,  from 
Anatol  Gromov,  First  Secretary  of  the  Soviet  Em- 
bassy, in  payment  for  services  as  a  courier  for  a 
Communist  spy  ring,  Molotov  declared  that  Mrs.  K. 
.had  been  kidnapped  on  July  31  and  taken  to  the 
apartment  of  "White  Guard"  Zenzinov  and  thence 


to  the  farm  maintained  by  the  "White  Guard  gang" 
headed  by  Alexandra  Tolstoy.  He  accused  U.S. 
authorities  of  connivance  in  the  "criminal  actions" 
against  Kosenkina  and  Samarin,  and  demanded  the 
latter's  transfer  to  the  Soviet  Consulate  and  "pun- 
ishment of  all  persons  who  have  taken  part  in  the 
kidnapping  of  Soviet  citizens."  At  the  same  time 
Panyushkin  protested  to  the  State  Department 
against  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  issued  by  Judge 
Samuel  Dickstein  to  Lomakin,  requiring  him  to 
produce  Mrs.  K.  in  the  State  Supreme  Court  on  the 
morning  of  the  12th.  The  writ  had  been  issued 
at  the  request  of  Christopher  Emmet,  Chairman  of 
"Common  Cause,  Inc." 

The  State  Department  asked  Gov.  Dewey  to 
suggest  to  Judge  Dickstein  that  he  take  the  case 
"under  advisement"  as  an  "appropriate  interim 
measure,"  since  "service  of  process  upon  the  Con- 
sul raises  complex  questions  of  serious  legal  and 
policy  nature."  Samarin  told  the  House  Com- 
mittee that  if  he  returned  to  the  U.S.S.R.  he  would 
be  shot  or  sent  to  a  concentration  camp  for  life, 
but  his  testimony,  according  to  J.  Parnefl  Thomas, 
was  "not  of  pertinent  significance"  to  the  investi- 
gation of  spy  rings. 

L' Affaire  Kosenkina;  Rupfure  of  Consular  Relations 
with  the  U.S.A.  Meanwhile,  at  4:00  p.m.,  August  11, 
Mrs.  K.  jumped  out  of  a  third  floor  window  at  the 
Soviet  Consulate  in  New  York;  landed  in  the  court- 
yard with  broken  bones  and  internal  injuries;  was 
carried  back  into  the  Consulate;  was  removed 
therefrom  by  local  police  to  the  Roosevelt  Hospi- 
tal; and  asserted  she  had  been  "held  a  prisoner" 
and  had  been  visited  by  the  Soviet  Ambassador 
who  sought  to  induce  her  to  sign  an  affidavit  that 
she  was  not  being  detained  against  her  will.  On 
August  13,  as  Lauchlin  Currie  and  Harry  D.  White 
(who  dropped  dead  shortly  thereafter)  denied  be- 
fore the  House  Committee  the  Bentley-Chambers 
charges  that  they  had  aided  9"Red  spies,"  the  State 
Department  denied  Molotov's  charges  and  offered 
asylum  to  the  two  Russian  teachers.  A  Toss  state- 
ment accused  the  U.S.  of  violating  the  immunities 
of  the  Consulate.  On  August  14,  Panyushkin  for- 
mally protested  against  the  alleged  violation  of 
consular  extraterritoriality  by  the  N.Y.  police. 

On  August  15,  Pravda  declared  that  Lt  Robert 
Dreher,  U.S.  Assistant  Naval  Attache,  who  left 
Moscow  May  1,  had  been  "caught  in  espionage," 
had  confessed,  and  had  been  recalled  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Foreign  Ministry.  The  State  Depart- 
ment replied  that  the  case  against  Dreher  (arrest- 
ed by  the  M.V.D.  on  April  23 )  was  a  "plant."  Two 
days  later  Lomakin  declared  that  Mrs.  K.  had  been 
terrorized  by  the  "White  Guard  fiends"  headed  by 
Countess  Tolstoy,  had  been  further  unbalanced  by 
hostile  publicity  and  curious  crowds,  and  had  at- 
tempted suicide  by  virtue  of  being  driven  to  a 
"nervous  breakdown"  by  her  kidnappers  and  by 
U.S.  officials.  On  August  19,  Secretary  Marshall, 
in  ajaote  to  Ambassador  Panyushkin,  "categori- 
cally" repudiated  Soviet  protests  and  accusations 
and  demanded  Lomakin's  recall  for  having 
"abused"  his  position  and  "grossly  violated"  proper 
standards  of  official  conduct. 

On  August  25,  Moscow  replied  by  repudiating 
the  American  statements  as  "unfounded  and  con- 
trary to  fact";  repeated  its  charges  and  its  insist- 
ence ^pn  access  to  Mrs.  K.  and  Samarin;  declared 
that  "the  normal  execution  of  their  functions  by 
Soviet  Consulates  in  the  U.S."  had  been  rendered 
"impossible";  and  announced  its  decision  to  close 
immediately  its  two  Consulates  (N.Y.  and  San 
Francisco),  to  terminate  the  U.S.  Consulate  in 
Vladivostok,  and  to  cancel  previous  arrangements 


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563 


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For  the  opening  of  a  U.S.  Consulate  in  Leningrad. 
Vice-Consul  Zot  I.  Chepurnykh  and  his  family 
sailed  for  home  the  preceding  evening.  Lomakin 
followed  suit  on  August  29. 

Mrs.  K.  told  the  press  that  her  husband  had  been 
liquidated  in  the  purge  of  1937,  that  her  son  had 
been  killed  in  the  war,  and  that  she  had  long  ago 
decided  to  leave  the  U.S.S.R.  forever.  "Actually 
they  made  a  big  mistake  in  bringing  me  here  from 
Russia/*  She  was  visited  by  Samarin  and  Countess 
Tolstoy.  "Common  cause"  established  the  "Ko- 
senkina  Fund  for  Victims  of  Communism."  Mrs.  K. 
left  the  hospital  in  November,  after  writing  her  life 
story  with  the  aid  of  Isaac  Don  Levine,  whose  sub- 
sequent mention  of  Laurence  Duggan  was  used 
by  Karl  Mundt  to  implicate  Duggan,  immediately 
after  his  strange  death,  as  a  "Soviet  spy."  Advance 
proceeds  from  the  syndication  of  the  story  enabled 
Mrs.  K.  to  pay  a  hospital  bill  of  $8,000.  Like  Eliza- 
beth Bentley  and  Louis  Budenz,  she  subsequently 
smbraced  the  Catholic  faith.  The  American  market 
For  ex-Communists  continued  to  boom,  despite  a 
constant  increase  in  the  supply. 

Cominform  and  Safe//i*fes*  The  inability  of  the 
Kremlin  to  prevent  the  desertion  of  some  of  its  citi- 
zens abroad  was  matched  on  the  diplomatic  stage 
by  its  inability  to  hold  all  of  its  allies  in  line.  The 
"Soviet  bloc"  was  further  consolidated.  But  the  de- 
fection of  Tito's  Yugoslavia  raised  questions  as  to 
whether  the  Red  Empire  had  not  perhaps  been 
overextended  to  a  point  at  which  centrifugal  forces 
were  proving  more  potent  than  the  attraction  of  the 
central  sun. 

The  Communist  coup  of  February  in  Czechoslo- 
vakia coincided  with  the  signing  in  Moscow  on  the 
18th  of  a  20-year  mutual  aid  treaty  between  the 
CJ.S.S.R.  and  Hungary,  pledging  common  defense 
igainst  future  aggression  by  Germany  "or  any 
Dther  State  which  would  directly  or  in  any  other 
:orm  unite  with  Germany  in  a  policy  of  aggres- 
sion." On  March  18  a  similar  treaty  was  signed 
between  the  U.S.S.R.  and  Bulgaria.  The  treaty  of 
April  6  with  Finland  differed  from  its  counterparts 
in  that  it  ran  for  only  ten  years;  pledged  mutual 
respect  for  sovereignty,  independence,  and  non- 
interference in  internal  affairs;  and  did  not  obligate 
Helsinki  to  come  to  Moscow's  military  aid  in  any 
war  arising  out  of  a  direct  attack  on  the  U.S.S.R. 
Finland  merely  pledged  herself  to  resist,  jointly 
with  the  U.S.S.R.,  any  military  aggression  by  Ger- 
many or  its  allies  against  Finland  or  "against  the 
Soviet  Union  across  the  territory  of  Finland" 
(Art.  1). 

On  June  28,  the  Cominform  issued  a  long  state- 
ment expelling  the  Yugoslav  C.P.  from  member- 
ship and  accepting  the  view  of  the  Central  Com- 
mittee of  the  C.P.  of  the  U.S.S.R.  "which  assumed 
the  initiative  in  unveiling  the  wrong  policy  of  the 
Central  Committee  of  the  C.P.  of  Yugoslavia  and 
sspecially  the  wrong  policy  of  Comrades  Tito, 
Kardelj,  Djilas,  and  Rankovitch."  They  were  ac- 
cused of  "a  hateful  policy  in  relation  to  the  Soviet; 
Union";  discrediting,  and  spying  upon,  Soviet  mili- 
tary specialists;  "identifying  the  foreign  policy  of 
the  Soviet  Union  with  that  of  the  imperialistic 
Powers";  disseminating  "slanderous  propaganda 
borrowed  from  the  arsenals  of  counter-revolution- 
ary Trotskyism";  fostering  "capitalist  elements"  and 
"kulaks"  in  the  villages;  relying  on  the  peasantry 
rather  than  the  proletariat;  subordinating  the  Party 
to  the  People's  Front;  ignoring  the  principles  of 
intra-party  democracy,  elections,  and  self-criticism; 
choosing  members  of  the  Central  Committee  by 
cooptation  instead  pf  election;  displaying  "exag- 
gerated ambition,  megalomania,  and  conceit"  in 


rejecting  earlier  criticisms;  and  indulging  in  "ad- 
venturism," "opportunism,"  "anti-Marxism,"  and 
"nationalism."  Cominform  Headquarters  were  trans- 
ferred from  Belgrade  to  Bucharest.  Pravda  on 
Julv  1,  in  predicting  Tito's  downfall,  accused  him 
of  "Bonapartism"  and  his  followers  of  "idolatry." 

Counter-charges  and  rejoinders  continued  inter- 
mittently, with  no  apparent  weakening  of  Tito's 
position,  no  Yugoslav  shift  to  a  "pro-Western" 
orientation,  and  no  change  in  treaty  relations  be- 
tween Belgrade  and  the  Soviet  bloc.  By  year's  end 
it  appeared  that  Eastern  economic  pressure  against 
Yugoslavia  was  beginning  to  pinch.  Behind  a  se- 
mantic facade,  the  actual  sources  of  the  breach 
were  practical  rather  than  ideological.  Soviet  desire 
to  compromise  with  the  West  regarding  a  treaty 
for  Austria  had  been  frustrated  in  May  by  Tito's 
insistence  on  reparations  and  on  annexation  of  part 
of  Carinthia.  Letters  exchanged  from  March  to 
May  between  Central  Committees,  and  secretly  cir- 
culated within  Yugoslavia  in  August,  indicated  that 
Tito  was  under  attack  for  allegedly  expecting  the 
U.S.S.R.  to  go  to  war,  if  need  be,  to  secure  Trieste 
for  Yugoslavia,  resenting  Soviet  direction  of  Bel- 
grade's diplomacy  and  military  policy,  condemning 
'spheres"  and  "blocs,"  and  championing  "neutral- 
ity" in  any  conflict  between  East  and  West. 

Red  Danube.  The  Moscow-Belgrade  rift  had  no 
outwardly  visible  effects  on  the  diplomatic  con- 
ference which  met  in  the  Yugoslav  capital  on 
July  30  to  discuss  a  new  regime  for  the  Danube. 
The  Western  Powers,  represented  by  Cavendish 
Cannon,  Sir  Charles  Peake,  and  Adrien  Thierry, 
were  outnumbered  by  the  States  in  the  Soviet 
orbit,  represented  by  Vyshinsky,  A.K.  Baranowski 
(Ukraine),  Clementis,  Eric  Molnar,  Anna  Pauker 
(Rumania),  Eugeni  Kamenov  (Bulgaria),  and 
Ales  Bebler  (Yugoslavia).  The  Yugoslav  delegation 
voted  consistently  with  the  Soviet  bloc.  Vyshinsky's 
proposal,  presented  in  a  "take  it  or  leave  it"  spirit, 
contemplated  a  Danube  Commission  limited  to  the 
seven  riparian  States,  with  France  and  Britain  ex- 
cluded from  the  participation  they  enjoyed  under 
the  Convention  of  1921.  Ambassador  Cannon  with- 
drew the  U.S.  draft  proposal  and  vainly  sought  to 
amend  the  Soviet  draft — which,  said  he  on  Au- 
gust 14,  despite  its  lip-service  to  free  and  equal 
navigation  for  all,  would  permit  "the  continuation 
of  exclusion,  discrimination,  yes,  even  imperialism 
on  the  river." 

The  outcome,  when  the  conference  ended  on 
August  18,  was  a  new  convention,  approved  by  un- 
varying votes  of  7  to  3,  which  the  U.S.S.R.  and  its 
satellites  signed  but  which  the  Western  Powers 
refused  either  to  sign  or  to  recognize  as  legally 
valid.  The  State  Department  condemned  "Soviet 
manipulation  of  the  six  votes  of  its  puppet  States 
to  impose  a  convention  which  legalizes  its  monop- 
oly of  Danube  shipping.  .  „  .  The  unhappy  sub- 
servience of  the  Danube  peoples  to  Soviet  imperi- 
alism was  never  more  clearly  manifested."  Except 
for  its  upper  waters  in  Austria  and  Germany  (both 
unrepresented  at  Belgrade),  the  Danube  seemed 
likely  to  remain  under  the  control  of  the  U.S.S.R. 
and  its  allies — at  least  until  such  time  as  America 
and  Britain  might  conceivably  achieve  the  geo- 
political objective  espoused  by  Byrnes,  Bevin, 
Churchill,  and  Marshall,  i.e.  putting  an  end  to 
Communist  rule  and  Soviet  influence  throughout 
Eastern  Europe  and  the  Balkans.  This,  however, 
seemed  likely  to  remain  unattainable  short  of  a 
decisive  Western  victory  in  World  War  III.  See 
DANUBE  CONFERENCE, 

Relations  With  U.S.A.;  War  Guilt,  That  the  two 
Super-Powers  were  moving  steadily  during  1948 


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564 


UN/ON  Of  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 


toward  an  ultimate  trial  by  battle  was  taken  for 
granted  by  the  American  public,  doubted  with  dark 
foreboding  in  the  U.S.S.R.,  and  grimly^ suspected 
in  Western  Europe  and  elsewhere.  Yet  "cold  war" 
or  eliot  peace"  was  preferred  to  open  violence  by 
top  policy-makers  on  both  sides :  in  Washington 
because  "firm  containment"  of  "Communist  im- 
perialism" was  deemed  likely  to  promote  the  con- 
traction and  later  the  disintegration  of  Soviet  pow- 
er; and  in  Moscow  because  an  ^extension  of  the 
anti-Communist  program  of  the  "Wall  Street  im- 
perialists" was  deemed  likely  to  weaken  American 
democracy,  bankrupt  American  capitalism,  and 
foster  the  spread  of  Communism  more  effectively 
than  the  Kremlin  could  ever  hope  to  do.  The 
struggle  of  the  giants  therefore  took  the  form  of 
a  contest  in  invective,  evasion,  and  endurance,  with 
neither  side  prepared  as  yet  to  open  a  war  of  ex- 
termination or  conclude  a  peace  of  compromise. 

The  stage  was  set  for  the  1948  phase  of  the  con- 
flict by  the  deadlock  over  Germany  reached  at  the 
London  meeting  of  the  Council  of  Foreign  Minis- 
ters in  December,  1947.  Molotov  reiterated  Soviet 
demands  for  Four-Power  control  of  the  Ruhr  and 
$10,000  million  in  reparations  from  current  Ger- 
man production.  Marshall  reiterated  his  categorical 
rejection  of  both  proposals  and  urged  a  restoration 
to  the  Reich  of  part  of  the  new  Poland.  The  stale- 
mate caused  Washington  to  move  more  rapidly 
toward  the  establishment  of  a  West  German  gov- 
ernment, and  caused  Moscow  to  maneuver  for  a 
resumption  of  negotiations,  with  the  double  objec- 
tive of  delay  and  of  putting  the  onus  for  refusal  on 
the  U.S.A. 

On  Jan.  22,  1948,  as  tentative  Soviet  overtures 
were  allegedly  made  to  Robert  Murphy  in  Berlin, 
the  State  Department  released  a  357-page  volume 
of  260  documents  on  Nazi-Soviet  Relations,  1939- 
1941  (Washington,  D.C.,  Government  Printing  Of- 
fice), selected  and  translated  from  material  in  the 
archives  of  the  German  Foreign  Office,  captured 
by  U.S.  forces  in  Germany  in  1945.  This  allegedly 
"sensational"  publication  was  presented  in  the 
American  press  as  further  evidence  of  Soviet  "de- 
ceit,'* "perfidy,"  and  "imperialism,"  and  as  a  pow- 
erful reply  by  Marshall  and  Truman  to  Soviet 
charges  of  U.S.  "imperialism."  In  fact  the  "revela- 
tion," albeit  a  fascinating  record  of  German-Soviet 
relations  as  reflected  in  Nazi  documents  (which 
may  or  may  not  be  reliable),  revealed  little  not 
already  known  or  suspected  from  other  sources.  By 
omitting  all  references  to  the  diplomacy  of  1933- 
38,  all  material  bearing  on  Nazi  relations  with  the 
Western  Powers,  and  all  of  the  Wehrmacht  docu- 
ments used  at  Nuremberg,  this  compilation  con- 
veyed a  seriously  distorted  impression  of  the  events 
and  decisions  of  the  period  covered. 

Moscow  replied  with  an  extensive  pamphlet, 
"Falsificators  of  History"  (Embassy  of  U.S.S.R., 
Washington,  February,  1948),  and,  in  May,  with 
a  two-volume  collection  of  captured  German  data, 
Documents  and  Materials  Relating  to  the  Eve  of 
the  Second  World  War,  1937-1939  (International 
Publishers,  New  York,  1948),  selected  to  demon- 
strate that  Anglo-French  appeasement  of  Hitler 
was  motivated  by  the  hope  of  deflecting  Nazi  ag- 
gression against  the  U.S.S.R. 

In  years  to  come  objective  observers,  if  any,  may 
well  conclude  that  the  Kremlin  won  the  1948 
battle  of  the  documents  and  also  scored  more 
points  than  its  opponent  in  the  battles  of  diplomacy 
and  day-to-day  propaganda.  On  Nov.  19,  1947,  the 
Literary  Gazette  of  Moscow  reproduced  a  New 
York  Times  dispatch  of  June  24,  1941,  quoting 
Harry  S.  Truman:  "If  we  see  that  Germany  is 


winning,  we  ought  to  help  Russia,  and  if  Russia 
is  winning  we  ought  to  help  Germany ^and  in  that 
way  let  them  kill  as  many  as  possible."  The  Com- 
munist coup  in  Prague  in  February  was  for  Mos- 
cow a  political  victory  but  a  propaganda  defeat. 

According  to  the  Hoover  Commission  Report 
released  in  December,  faulty  intelligence  regarding 
Soviet  moves,  submitted  by  the  U.S.  armed  forces 
(identity  unspecified),  created  a  "war  panic"  in 
Washington  in  March.  The  signature  of  the  Brus- 
sels Pact  and  President  Truman's  appeal  for  uni- 
versal conscription,  selective  service,  and  E.R.P. 
(both  March  17)  reflected  acute  Western  fears. 

Relations  With  U.S.A.;  Comedy  of  Errors.  On 
April  15,  the  Soviet  Foreign  Ministry  ordered  NBC 
correspondent  Robert  Magidoff  to  leave  the  coun- 
try, on  the  ground  that  his  American  secretary  had 
exposed  his  "espionage"  activities^  He  ascribed  his 
expulsion  to  the  <fhate  campaign"  against  all  for- 
eigners from  the  West.  Such  episodes  were  soon 
overshadowed  by  events  of  graver  import.  On 
May  4,  with  no  publicity  and  no  communication 
of  intent  to  London  or  Paris,  Ambassador  Smith 
presented  a  note  to  Molotov  which  was  apparently 
inspired  by  anxiety  lest  the  Kremlin  overestimate 
Washington's  overestirnation  of  alleged  Soviet  read- 
iness to  risk  war.  The  U.S.A.,  asserted  the  note, 
wishes  to  "make  it  unmistakably  clear  that  (it) 
has  no  hostile  or  aggressive  designs  whatever  with 
respect  to  the  Soviet  Union.  ...  As  far  as  the 
U.S.  is  concerned,  the  door  is  always  wide  open 
for  full  discussion  and  the  composing  of  our  differ- 
ences. My  Government  earnestly  hopes  that  the 
members  of  the  Soviet  Government  will  not  take 
lightly  the  position  of  the  U.S.  Government  as  here 
expressed.  ...  It  is  our  earnest  hope  that  they 
will  take  advantage  (of  their  opportunities  to  al- 
leviate tension).  If  they  do,  they  will  not  find  us 
lacking  in  readiness  and  eagerness  to  make  our 
own  contributions  to  a  stabilization  of  world  con- 
ditions entirely  compatible  with  the  security  of 
the  Soviet  peoples," 

Ambassador  Smith  at  once  left  Moscow  to  go 
fishing  in  Normandy.  On  May  11,  Toss  released 
his  statement,  along  with  Molotov's  reply  which 
repeated  familiar  denials  and  countercharges.  But 
"the  Soviet  Government  views  favorably  the  desire 
of  the  U.S.A.  to  improve  relations  .  .  .  and  agrees 
to"  the  proposal  to  proceed,  with  this  end  in  view, 
to  a  discussion  ana  settlement  of  differences." 

As  millions  of  peoples  throughout  the  world 
breathed  a  brief  sigh  of  relief,  Truman  and  Mar- 
shall felt  obliged  to  deny  that  any  negotiations 
were  intended  or  any  change  of  policy  contem- 
plated. On  May  10,  Henry  A.  Wallace  had  released 
an  "Open  Letter  to  Premier  Stalin,"  calling  for  a 
peace  settlement  based  on  disarmament,  non-export 
of  weapons,  resumption  of  unrestricted  trade,  free 
movement  of  tourists,  students,  journalists,  and 
scientists  between  the  two  countries,  peace  treaties 
with  Germany  and  Japan,  withdrawal  of  troops 
from  China  and  Korea,  and  mutual  respect  for 
sovereignty  and  the  principle  of  nonintervention. 
"There  is  no  misunderstanding  or  difficulty  be- 
tween the  U.S.A.  and  the  U.S.S.R.  which  can  be 
settled  by  force  or  fear,  and  there  is  no  difference 
which  cannot  be  settled  by  peaceful,  hopeful  ne- 
gotiations. There  is  no  American  principle  or  pub- 
lic interest,  and  there  is  no  Russian  principle  or 
public  interest,  which  would  have  to  be  sacrificed 
to  end  the  cold  war." 

In  a  public  reply  of  May  17  Stalin  gave  guarded 
praise  to  the  Wallace  statement  as  "an  open  and 
honest  attempt  to  give  a  concrete  program  for  a 
peaceful  settlement  ...  As  far  as  the  Govern- 


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565 


UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 


ment  of  the  U.S.S.R.  is  concerned,  it  considers  that 
Mr.  Wallace's  program  could  serve  as  a  good  and 
fruitful  basis  for  such  an  agreement  and  for  the 
development  of  international  cooperation."  The 
State  Department  on  May  18  declared  this  opinion 
"encouraging,"  but  asserted  that  the  issues  men- 
tioned by  Stalin  "are  not  bilateral  issues"  but  "are 
of  intimate  and  compelling  interest  to  many  coun- 
tries"— e.g.  as  shown  by  the  200  meetings  of  the 
UN  Atomic  Energy  Commission  where  agreement 
was  blocked  "because  of  the  adamant  opposition  of 
two  of  its  members,  the  Soviet  Union  and  the 
Ukraine,  to  proposals  which  were  acceptable  to 
the  other  nine  nations  represented."  On  May  26, 
Marshall,  in  a  letter  to  the  Senate  Foreign  Rela- 
tions Committee,  listed  37  Soviet  "violations  of 
agreements/* 

In  June  the  Soviet  press  resumed  its  attack  on 
American  "war-mongers."  On  June  9,  Moscow  pro- 
tested at  a  Newsweek  report  of  May  17  recounting 
General  Kenney's  plan  for  the  atomic  annihilation 
of  the  U.S.S.R.  in  the  event  of  an  attack  on  the 
U.S.A.  Marshall  rejected  the  protest  in  the  name 
of  freedom  of  the  press.  The  summer  crises  are 
dealt  with  above  and  below.  On  October  8,  it 
became  known  that  President  Truman  had  con- 
sidered sending  Chief  Justice  Fred  M.  Vinson  to 
Moscow  on  a  special  diplomatic  mission  and  had 

Elanned  a  radio  broadcast  on  the  subject,  only  to 
e  dissuaded  by  Marshall  and  Lovett.  If  Henry 
Wallace's  meager  electoral  support  on  November  2 
was  disappointing  to  Moscow,  Truman's  victory 
over  Dewey  was  none  the  less  described  by  Molo- 
tov  as  a  defeat  for  a  program  of  reaction  and  ag- 
gression. Post-electoral  hints  from  Moscow  regard- 
ing the  desirability  of  resuming  negotiations  evoked 
no  response  from  the  President-elect  save  general 
denials  and  expressions  of  devotion  to  peace. 

Meanwhile  U.S.  exports  to  the  U.S.S.R.  declined 
from  a  monthly  average  of  $7  million  early  in  the 
year  to  $23,000  for  June  (as  compared  with  $4,- 
262,000  in  June  of  1947),  thanks  to  Washington's 
refusal  to  license  the  sale  of  goods  of  potential  mili- 
tary value  to  Eastern  Europe.  Moscow  protested 
but  did  not  retaliate,  preferring  on  the  contrary 
to  increase  its  sales  to  the  U.S.A.,  including  man- 
ganese and  chrome.  In  July  American  sales  to  the 
U.S.S.R.  totaled  $400,000  and  purchases  $5,700,- 
000.  The  corresponding  figures  for  August  were 
$1,200,000  and  $8,500,000,  and  for  September 
$100,000  and  $9,800,000.  At  the  end  of  the  year, 
for  the  first  time  since  1912,  Russia  had  a  "favor- 
able balance  of  trade"  with  the  U.S.A. 

This  result  suggested  to  the  Kremlin  that  Wash- 
ington was  unwilling  to  subordinate  its  crusade 
against  Communism  to  the  quest  for  markets,  ex- 
•  cept  when  the  latter  could  be  made  the  instrument 
o£  the  former.  Another  event  indicated  that  the 
U.S.A.  continued  to  place  moral  principles  above 
political  expediency.  On  July  26,  Dr.  Alfred  Bil- 
manis,  Latvian  Minister,  died.  His  country,  along 
with  Estonia  and  Lithuania,  had  been  incorporated 
into  the  U.S.S.R.  in  July,  1940.  His  death  offered 
the  State  Department  an  opportunity,  if  it  de- 
sired one,  to  acknowledge  (as  Washington  had 
contended  between  1917  and  1922)  that  the  three 
Baltic  States  were  properly  part  of  Russia.  But  on 
August  12,  Marshall  greeted  Anatol  Dinsbergs  as 
Latvian  Charg6  d' Affaires,  and  on  September-  23, 
the  Department  officially  acknowledged  him  as 
Acting  Consul.  He  declared  that  his  chief  task 
would  be  to  acquaint  America  with  the  progress 
of  Latvia's  struggle  to  "regain  freedom"  from  the 
"illegal  and  ruthless"  Soviet  occupation.  Estonian 
and  Lithuanian  "diplomats"  also  continued  to  be 


accredited  in  Washington,  presumably  as  symbols 
of  the  happy  day  to  come  when  their  lands  should 
be  liberated  from  Communism. 

Baffle  for  Berlin.  In  the  interim,  Soviet-American 
relations  were  dominated  by  the  struggle  over  Ger- 
many. As  early  as  Nov.  28,  1947,  Molotov  had 
vainly  sought  to  commit  Marshall  and  Bevin 
against  a  separate  regime  for  the  Western  zones 
in  the  event  that  no  agreement  could  be  reached 
for  a  national  government.  On  Jan.  20,  1948,  Soko- 
lovsky  demanded,  also  in  vain,  the  dissolution  of 
the  new  German  agencies  in  "Bizonia."  Early  in 
March  the  Soviet  press  condemned  emerging  plans 
for  a  West  German  regime  as  "hypocritical"  and 
and  an  "outrageous  violation"  of  Potsdam.  Moscow 
formally  protested  to  Paris,  London,  and  Washing- 
ton. On  May  28,  Maj.  Gen.  Alexander  G.  Kotikov, 
Soviet  spokesman  on  the  Allied  Kommandatura, 
twice  referred  to  Berlin  as  part  of  the  Soviet  zone, 
thus  hinting  at  things  to  come  should  the  Western 
Powers  persist  in  their  project. 

The  project  was  finally  agreed  upon  in  June,  to 
the  accompaniment  of  a  currency  reform  in  the 
Western  zone.  Moscow  had  already  imposed  a 
series  of  restrictions  on  trade  and  travel  between 
the  Western  zone  and  the  Western  sectors  of  Ber- 
lin. On  June  23—24,  Molotov  met  in  Warsaw  with 
the  Foreign  Ministers  of  the  satellites.  Their  com- 
munique asked  for  a  German  peace  treaty,  based 
on  a  provisional  all-German  regime,  withdrawal  of 
all  occupation  troops  within  a  year,  demilitariza- 
tion, reparations,  and  Four-Power  control  of  the 
Ruhr.  When  this  overture  was  ignored,  Moscow 
instituted  a  full  "blockade"  of  the  Western  sectors 
of  Berlin — on  the  pretext  of  preventing  the  intro- 
duction of  the  new  Western  marks  and  on  the 
apparent  premise  that  the  Western  Powers  would 
thereby  be  compelled  either  to  negotiate  a  settle- 
ment for  all  of  Germany  on  terms  -acceptable  to  the 
U.S.S.R.  or  to  quit  the  former  German  capital  and 
partition  the  Reich  between  East  and  West  at  the 
Elbe.  Thanks  to  General  Clay's  initiation  of  the 
"airlift"  in  late  June,  the  Western  Powers  refused 
to  accept  either  alternative. 

A  complete  stalemate  presently  developed  be- 
cause of  the  inflexible  refusal  of  the  Kremlin  to 
acquiesce  in  a  Western-sponsored  German  regime 
in  Trizonia  and  the  equally  inflexible  refusal  of 
Washington,  followed  doubtfully  by  London  and 
Paris,  to  abandon  the  enterprise  or  to  quit  Berlin. 
The  U.S.  protest  to  Moscow  of  July  9  expressed 
willingness  to  resume  Four-Power  negotiations,  but 
only  on  condition  that  the  Berlin  blockade  first  be 
lifted.  The  Soviet  reply  of  July  14  contended  that 
Western  rights  in  Berlin  were  contingent  upon 
quadripartite  control  of  Germany  as  a  whole,  that 
they  had  been  invalidated  by  Western  action,  and 
that  the  U.S.S.R.  would  neither  lift  the  blockade 
nor  negotiate  regarding  Berlin  per  se.  On  July  26, 
the  Western  Powers  reiterated  their  determination 
to  establish  a  West  German  government  and  im- 
posed a  counter-blockade  against  the  Soviet  zone 
of  Germany  by  stopping  all  railroad  traffic. 

In  the  complex  negotiations  which  ensued  in 
Moscow  (July  31-August  30)  among  Molotov, 
Stalin,  Bedell  Smith,  Frank  Roberts,  and  Yves  Cha- 
taigneau — despite  Western  "refusal"  to  negotiate 
under  "coercion" — a  "compromise"  was  seemingly 
reached  in  the  "directive"  of  August  30  to  the 
Military  Governors  in  Berlin:  the  West  agreed  to 
the  introduction  of  Soviet-zone  currency  through- 
out Berlin,  subject  to  Four-Power  supervision;  the 
Kremlin  agreed  to  a  Berlin  settlement  without  ref- 
erence to  the  whole  Reich.  But  by  September  8, 
the  Governors  were  deadlocked.  Following  further 


UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS 


566 


UNHARIANS 


inconclusive  discussions,  the  three  Western  Pow- 
ers on  September  29  referred  the  issue  to  the  UN, 
charging  that  the  Soviet  blockade  was  a  threat  to 
international  peace  and  security.  Vyshinsky  de- 
nied the  competence  of  the  Security  Council  to 
consider  the  issue,  but  informed  Juan  Bramuglia 
on  October  13  that  the  U.S.S.R.  would  lift  the 
blockade  if  the  Western  Powers  would  withdraw 
their  complaints  and  recognize  the  validity  of  the 
accord  of  August  SO. 

The  six  "neutral"  members  of  the  Council,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Western  Powers,  finally  pro- 
posed a  "compromise"  resolution  calling  for  im- 
mediate lifting  of  the  blockade,  resumption  of 
negotiations  among  the  Military  Governors  on  the 
basis  of  the  August  30  directive,  and  a  meeting  of 
the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  on  the  whole 
German  question.  In  the  Soviet  view,  this  formula 
required  the  U.S.S.R.  to  abandon  its  major  bar- 
gaining weapon  in  exchange  for  nothing  save  fur- 
uier  discussion  of  a  problematical  settlement.  On 
October  25,  the  Security  Council  voted  on  the  reso- 
lution, 9  to  2,  with  the  U.S.S.R.  and  the  Ukraine 
in  the  negative.  This  Soviet  "veto"  killed  the  pro- 
posal. 

Trygve  Lie  and  Herbert  Evatt  nevertheless  per- 
sisted in  an  effort  at  settlement  by  proposing  anew 
a  meeting  of  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  and 
a  Berlin  currency  settlement  based  on  the  directive 
of  August  30.  At  the  close  of  the  year  a  commission 
of  financial  experts  was  scheduled  to  make  recom- 
mendations early  in  1949.  But  no  settlement  was 
in  sight.  Moscow  had  evidently  lost  the  battle  for 
the  German  public  mind,  and  was  experiencing 
economic  difficulties  in  its  zone  because  of  the 
counter-blockade.  The  West  had  demonstrated  its 
capacity  via  air  power  to  feed  Western  Berliners  on 
a  low  level,  if  not  to  keep  them  warm  or  provide 
full  employment.  But  the  airlift  was  costing  almost  • 
$1  million  per  day  and  taking  an  increasing  toll  of 
lives.  Each  side  had  long  since  made  the  issue  one 
of  prestige.  Therefore  neither  could  yield  to  the 
other.  Neither  side  was  prepared  to  risk  an  open 
test  of  force.  The  costly  stalemate  therefore  con- 
tinued. 

U.S.S.R.  and  UN.  With  Washington  committed  to 
using  the  UN  as  a  diplomatic  weapon  against  Mos- 
cow, the  role  of  Soviet  representatives  was  that  of 
obstructionists  and  propagandists  against  "Ameri- 
can imperialism."  Chile's  proposals  in  mid-March 
to  indict  the  U.S.S.R.  before  the  Security  Council 
as  responsible  for  the  Communist  coup  in  Czecho- 
slovakia led  to  a  Soviet  double  veto  in  late  May.  On 
April  25,  the  U.S.S.R.  joined  the  Trusteeship  Coun- 
cil On  May  13,  it  was  announced  that  Gromyko 
would  be  replaced  by  Jacob  A.  Malik  as  the  chief 
Soviet  spokesman  at  UN.  On  May  17,  Moscow 
granted  de  jure  recognition  to  the  new  state  of 
Israel. 

At  the  third  session  of  the  General  Assembly  in 
Paris,  Vyshinsky  on  September  25  accused  the 
U.S.A.  of  plotting  war  and  proposed  a  general  one- 
third  cut  in  armaments  during  the  next  year.  On 
October  2  he  departed  from  the  previous  Soviet 
position  to  propose  the  simultaneous  signing  of  two 
conventions  on  atomic  energy,  one  to  prohibit 
atomic  weapons  and  the  other  to  provide  interna- 
tional control.  Warren  Austin  questioned  his  sin- 
cerity, called  his  formula  a  "skin-deep  Oriental  de- 
vice/* and,  on  October  12,  rejected  the  Soviet 
disarmament  proposals  on  the  ground  that  the 
U.S.A.  could  never  disarm  so  long  as  the  U.S.S.R. 
recognized  "aggressive  war"  as  a  means  of  extend- 
ing Communism  over  the  world. 

Here,  as  in  other  fields,  the  UN  did  not,  be- 


cause it  could  not,  bring  the  Soviet-American 
"war"  to  an  end.  Moscow  continued  to  boycott  the 
Little  Assembly,  the  Balkan  Commission,  and  the 
UN  Commission  for  Korea — from  which  Soviet 
troops  were  withdrawn  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Since  the  premise  of  the  Charter  was  the  unity 
of  the  Great  Powers,  and  since  this  premise  was 
denied  in  Moscow  and  Washington  alike,  the  UN 
could  make  no  peace.  Its  role  was  to  register  dis- 
cord, to  furnish  a  forum  for  invective,  and  to  dem- 
onstrate that  the  lofty  ideals  of  law,  order,  and  jus- 
tice in  the  community  of  nations  could  not  be 
realized  so  long  as  the  Super-Powers  were  fighting 
one  another  for  mastery  of  the  globe. 

Box  Score.  The  verdict  of  events  at  the  close  of 
the  year  was  much  more  favorable  to  the  U.S.S.R. 
than  seemed  likely  in  mid-summer,  given  the 
course  of  politics  in  France,  Italy,  and  Germany, 
the  "success*'  of  the  Marshall  Plan,  and  the  steadily 
rising  tide  of  anti-Soviet  sentiment  in  the  Atlantic 
communities.  This  reversal  of  probabilities  was  due 
to  the  failure  of  the  U.S.A.  to  weaken  Soviet  power 
in  Eastern  Europe  (despite  the  Moscow-Belgrade 
schism),  to  wipe  out  the  Communist  guerrillas  in 
Greece,  or  to  save  Chiang  Kai-shek  from  crushing 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Chinese  Communists. 
French  inability  to  suppress  the  rebels  in  Indo- 
china, British  difficulties  with  colonial  revolt  in 
Malaya,  and  Dutch  aggression  against  the  Republic 
of  Indonesia  in  late  December  all  furnished  fuel 
for  the  fires  of  Communism  and  thereby  strength- 
ened the  international  position  of  the  U.S.S.R. 
These  developments  in  turn  were  partially  attrib- 
utable to  the  essentially  negative  character  of  the 
American-led  campaign  against  Moscow  and  to 
Western  reliance  in  many  areas  upon  anti-Commu- 
nist groups  which  had  no  popular  support.  The 
men  of  the  Kremlin  were  thus  encouraged  in  their 
belief  that  time  was  on  their  side  and  that  Ameri- 
can capitalism  might  yet  break  down  under  the 
strains  imposed  upon  it  by  a  global  crusade  against 
Communist  sin. 

In  a  Pravda  interview  of  October  28,  Stalin  ac- 
cused the  Western  Powers  of  repudiating  the 
''agreement"  of  August  30  on  Berlin  and  the 
"agreed  draft  decision"  of  Dr.  Bramuglia  because 
of  their  rejection  of  all  cooperation.  'Those  gen- 
tlemen are  obviously  lending  their  support  to  a 
policy  of  aggression,  to  a  policy  of  unleashing  a 
new  war.  .  .  .  (But  this)  can  only  end  in  an  ig- 
nominious failure.  .  .  .  The  horrors  of  the  recent 
war  are  still  too  fresh  in  the  memories  of  peoples 
and  the  public  forces  favoring  peace  are  too  strong 
for  Churchill's  pupils  in  aggression  to  overpower 
them  and  to  set  the  course  for  a  new  war." 

See  COMMUNISM,  UNITED  NATIONS,  and  names 
of  all  States  allied  with,  or  hostile  toward,  the 
U.S.S.R. 

See  also,  among  the  more  notable  books  on  the 
U.S.S.R.  published  in  1947-48,  Edward  Crank- 
shaw,  Russia  and  the  Russians  (Viking);  Vera  M. 
Dean,  The  United  States  and  Russia  (Harvard); 
Sir  John  Maynard,  Russia  in  Flux.  (Macmillan); 
Rudolf  Schlesinger,  The  Spirit  of  Post-war  Russia 
(London);  Harry  Schwartz,  Russia's  Post-war 
Economy  (Syracuse  U.);  David  Shub,  Lenin 
(Doubleday);  Julian  Towster,  Political  Power  in 
the  U.S.S.R.,  1917-1947  (Oxford);  A.  Y.  Vyshin- 
sky, The  Law  of  the  Soviet  State  (Macmillan); 
Bertram  D.  Wolfe,  Three  Who  Made  a  Revolution 
(Dial).  — FREDERICK  L.  SCHUMAN 

UNITARIANS.  A  movement  in  Congregationalism  at 
the  close  of  the  18th  century,  which  confesses  be- 
lief in  one  God  in  one  person  as  opposed  to 


UNITED  BRETHREN 


567 


UNITED  NATIONS 


the  Trinity.  Total  world  membership:  2,100,000. 
American  Unitarian  Association.  Established  in 
1825,  its  National  Conference  was  organized  in 
1865.  The  denomination  has  365  churches,  460 
ministers,  and  75,000  members  in  the  United 
States.  Its  Sunday  or  Bible  schools  have  a  mem- 
bership of  20,000.  Seven  educational,  and  12  be- 
nevolent institutions  are  maintained  by  the  Church, 
which  also  has  150  workers  engaged  in  humani- 
tarian work  in  Europe.  President,  Rev.  Frederick 
May  Elliot;  Treasurer,  Frank  B.  Frederick;  Secre- 
tary, Rev.  Dana  McL.  Greeley.  Headquarters:  25 
Beacon  St.,  Boston  8,  Mass. 

UNITED  BRETHREN,  Evangelical.  This  communion  is 
a  result  of  the  organic  union  in  1946  of  the  former 
Evangelical  Church  and  the  former  Church  of  the 
United  Brethren  in  Christ.  Both  stem  from  the 
evangelistic  movement  in  Pennsylvania  in  the  early 
19th  century.  Arminian  in  doctrine,  the  church  is 
Methodistic  in  government.  As  of  Jan.  1,  1948,  the 
group  had  4,654  churches,  3,452  ministers,  and 
712,616  members  in  the  United  States.  There  are 
89  foreign  missionaries  serving  30,984  members. 
The  church  maintains  11  educational  institutions 
and  9  homes  for  the  care  of  children  and  the  aged. 
Church  property  is  valued  at  $77,800,653  while 
income  from  contributions  totals  $21,436,029.  Gen- 
eral Conference  is  held  quadrennially,  the  next 
being  in  1950.  Headquarters,  U.  B.  Building,  Day- 
ton, Ohio. 

UNITED  CHURCH  OF  CANADA,  The.  The  designation 
applied  to  the  single  body  formed  by  the  union,  in 
1925,  of  the  Congregational,  Methodist,  and  Pres- 
byterian churches  in  Canada;  the  Methodist 
churches  of  Newfoundland  and  Bermuda  also  are 
included.  In  1947  there  were  in  Canada,  New- 
foundland, Bermuda,  6,580  preaching  places  (in- 
cluding home  missions)  in  2,708  pastoral  charges; 
780,234  communicant  members;  and  1,839,895 
persons  under  pastoral  care.  A  total  of  $18,787,719 
was  raised  for  all  purposes.  At  the  Thirteenth  Gen- 
eral Council  held  in  Montreal,  Quebec,  in  Septem- 
ber, 1948,  the  Rev.  Willard  Brewing,  D.D.,  was 
chosen  Moderator  for  the  ensuing  bienniuxn.  The 
Rev.  Gordon  A.  Sisco,  D.D.,  is  General  Secretary. 
Headquarters:  421  Wesley  Building,  Toronto  2B, 
Ont,  Canada. 

UNITED  NATIONS  (UN).  The  United  Nations  is  an 
organization  of  States  which  have  accepted  the 
obligations  contained  in  the  Charter  of  the  United 
Nations,  drafted  at  the  United  Nations  Conference 
on  International  Organization  held  at  San  Fran- 
cisco from  April  25  to  June  26,  1945.  The  Charter 
was  signed  by  representatives  of  50  nations  on 
June  26,  1945,  and  came  into  force  on  Oct.  24, 
1945,  according  to  its  terms,  after  having  been 
ratified  by  China,  France,  the  U.S.S.R.,  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  United  States,  and  by  a  majority  of 
the  other  signatory  States. 

The  Charter  established  six  principal  organs  of 
the  United  Nations:  a  General  Assembly,  a  Secu- 
rity Council,  an  Economic  and  Social  Council,  a 
Trusteeship  Council,  an  International  Court  of  Jus- 
tice, and  a  Secretariat. 

United  Nations  Structure   (as  of  January,   1949): 

THE  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY 

PRESIDENT 
Dr.  Herbert  Vere  Evatt,  Australia 

VICE  PRESIDENTS 

Dr.  Wang  Shih-chieh,  China;  Robert  Schuman, 
France;  Luis  Padilla  Nervo,  Mexico;  Zygmunt 


Modzelewski,  Poland;  Andrei  Y.  Vyshinsky, 
U.S.S.R.;  Ernest  Bevin,  United  Kingdom;  and 
George  C.  Marshall,  United  States. 


MEMBER 


Afghanistan 

Argentina 

Australia 

Belgium 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Burma 

Byelorussian  S.S.R. 

Canada 

Chile 

China 

Colombia 

Costa  Rica 

Cuba 

Czechoslovakia 

Denmark 

Dominican  Republic 

Ecuador 

Egypt 

El  Salvador 

Ethiopia 

France 

Greece 

Guatemala 

Haiti 

Honduras 

Iceland 

India 

Iran 


NATIONS 

Iraq 

Lebanon 

Liberia 

Luxembourg 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

New  Zealand 

Nicaragua 

Norway 

Pakistan 

Panama 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Philippines 

Poland 

Saudi  Arabia 

Siam 

Sweden 

Syria 

Turkey 

Ukrainian  S.S.R. 

Union  of  South  Africa 

U.S.S.R. 

United  Kingdom 

United  States 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Yemen 

Yugoslavia 


COMMITTEES 

General  (Steering) — Composed  of  14  members, 
namely  the  President  of  the  Assembly,  the  7  Vice 
Presidents,  and  the  Committee  chairmen  listed 
below: 

1.  Political  and  Security. 

Paul-Henri  Spaak,  Belgium 

2.  Economic  and  Financial, 

Heraan  Santa  Cruz,  Chile 

3.  Social,  Humanitarian  and  Cultural, 

Dr.  Charles  Malik,  Lebanon 

4.  Trusteeship, 

Nasrollah  Entezam,  Iran 

5.  Administrative  and  Budgetary. 

L.  Dana  Wilgress,  Canada 

6.  Legal, 

Dr.  Ricardo  Alfaro,  Panama 
(These  6  committees  are  composed  of  representa- 
tives of  all  Member  nations.) 

THE  SECURITY  COUNCIL 

PRESIDENT 

The  Presidency  of  the  Security  Council  is  held  in 
turn  by  the  members  of  the  Security  Council  in 
the  English  alphabetical  order  of  their  names.  Each 
President  holds  office  for  one  calendar  month. 


Argentina 

(Until  Jan.  1, 
China 

(Permanent) 
Egypt 

(Until  Jan.  1, 
Norway 

(Until  Jan.  1, 
U.S.S.R. 

( Permanent ) 


MEMBERS 

Canada 

1950)  (Until  Jan.  1,  1950) 
Cuba 

(Until  Jan.  1,1951) 
France 

1951)  (Permanent) 
Ukrainian  S.S.R. 

1951)  (Until  Jan.  1,  1950) 

United  Kingdom 

(Permanent) 
United  States 
(Permanent) 


WJ/T£0  NATIONS 


568 


UNITED  NATIONS 


MILITARY  STAFF   COMMITTEE 

The  Chiefs  of  Staff  (or  their  representatives)  of 
China,  France,  the  U.S.S.R.,  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  the  United  States. 

ATOMIC   ENERGY  COMMISSION 

The  members  of  the  Security  Council  and  Can- 
ada when  it  is  not  a  member  of  the  Security  Coun- 
cil 

COMMISSION  FOR  CONVENTIONAL  ARMAMENTS 

The  members  of  the  Security  Council. 
THE  ECONOMIC  AND  SOCIAL  COUNCIL 


PRESIDENT 

Dr.  Charles  Malik,  Lebanon 

MEMBERS 

Australia 

Belgium 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1951) 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1952) 

Brazil 

Byelorussian  S.S.R. 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1951) 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1950) 

Chile 

China 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1952) 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1952) 

Denmark 

France 

(Until  Jan.  1,1951) 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1952) 

India 

Lebanon 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1952) 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1950) 

New  Zealand 

Peru 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1950) 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1952) 

Poland 

Turkey 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1951) 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1950) 

U.S.S.R. 

United  Kingdom 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1951) 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1951) 

United  States 

Venezuela 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1950) 

(Until  Jan.  1,  1950) 

COMMISSIONS  OF  THE  ECONOMIC  AND 
SOCIAL  COUNCIL 

1.  Economic  and  Employment  Commission  (15 
members ) 

(a)  Sub-Commission    on    Employment    and 
Economic  Stability  (7  members) 

(b)  Sub-Commission  on  Economic  Develop- 
ment (7  members) 

2.  Transport   and   Communications    Commission 
(15  members) 

3.  Fiscal  Commission  (15  members) 

4.  Statistical  Commission  ( 12  members ) 

(a)  Sub-Commission  on  Statistical  Sampling 
(5  members) 

(b)  Committee  on  Industrial  Classification  (6 
members ) 

5.  Population  Commission  (12  members) 

6.  Social  Commission  (18  members) 

7.  Commission  on  Human  Rights  (18  members) 

(a)  Sub-Commission  on  Freedom  of  Informa- 
tion and  of  the  Press  (12  members) 

(b)  Sub-Commission  on  Prevention  of  Dis- 
crimination and  Protection  of  Minorities 
(12  members) 

8.  Commission  on  the  Status   of  Women    (15 
members ) 

9.  Commission  on  Narcotic  Drugs  ( 15  members ) 

10.  Economic  Commission  for  Europe  (18  mem- 
bers) 

11.  Economic  Commission  for  Asia  and  the  Far 
East  ( 13  members  and  6  associate  members ) 

12.  Economic  Commission  for  Latin  America  (24 
members ) 


THE  TRUSTEESHIP  COUNCIL 

PRESIDENT 

Liu  Chieh,  China 

MEMBERS 

Australia    ^ 

Belgium   

£rranC7    \"j ^Administering  Trust  - 

New  Zealand f         Tv^^Jlo 

United  Kingdom,.  Territories 

United  States >> 

China  "|  Permanent   members    of   the 

U.S.S.R ^Security  Council  not  adminis- 

J  tering  Trust  Territories 

Iraq    "|  Elected  by  the   General  As- 

Mexico   fsembly  to  serve  until  Jan.  1, 

J1950 

Costa  Rica "|  Elected  by  the   General  As- 

Philippines >sembly  to  serve  until  Jan.  1, 

J1951 

THE  INTERNATIONAL  COURT  OF  JUSTICE 

PRESIDENT 
Jose  Gustavo  Guerrero  (El  Salvador) 

VICE   PRESIDENT 

Jules  Basdevant  (France) 

JUDGES 

Nine- Year  Term  of  Office,  terminating  on  Feb.  5, 
1955; 

Alejandro  Alvarez  ( Chile ) 

Jose  Philadelpho  de  Barros  e  Azevedo  (Brazil) 

Jules  Basdevant  (France) 

Jose  Gustavo  Guerrero  ( El  Salvador ) 

Sir  Arnold  Duncan  McNair  (United  Kingdom) 
Six- Year  Term  of  Office,  terminating  on  Feb.  5, 
1952: 

Isidro  Fabela  Alfaro  (Mexico) 

Green  Haywood  Hackworth  (United  States) 

Helge  Klaestad  (Norway) 

Sergei  Borisovitch  Krylov  (U.S.S.R.) 

Charles  De  Visscher  (Belgium) 
Three- Year  Term  of  Office,  terminating  on  Feb.  5, 
1949: a 

Abdel  Hamid  Badawi  Pasha  (Egypt) 

Hsu  Mo  (China) 

John  Erskine  Read  (Canada) 

Bohdan  Winiarski  (Poland) 

Milovan  Zoricic  (Yugoslavia) 

THE  SECRETARIAT 

SECRETARY  GENERAL 
Trygve  Halvdan  Lie  (Norway) 

ASSISTANT  SECRETARIES   GENERAL 

Arkady  Alexandrovitch  Sobolev  (U.S.S.R.)— As- 
sistant Secretary  General  in  charge  of  Security 
Council  Affairs 

Arthur  David  Kemp  Owen  (United  Kingdom) — 
Assistant  Secretary  General  in  charge  of  Eco- 
nomic Affairs 

Henri  Laugier  (France) — Assistant  Secretary  Gen- 
eral for  Social  Affairs 

Victor  Chi-Tsai  Hoo  (China) — Assistant  Secretary 
General  in  charge  of  the  Department  of  Trustee- 
ship and  Information  from  Non-Self-Governing 
Territories 

"The  General  Assembly  and  the  Security  Council  at 
simultaneous  but  independent  elections  on  Oct.  22,  1948, 
reflected  these  Judges  to  a  Nine-Year  Term  of  Office,  ter- 
minating on  Feb.  5,  1958. 


UNITED  NATIONS 


569 


UNITED  NATIONS 


Benjamin  A.  Cohen  (Chile) — Assistant  Secretary 
General,  Department  of  Public  Information 

Ivan  Kerno  (Czechoslovakia) — Assistant  Secretary 
General  for  Legal  Affairs 

Adrian  Pelt  (The  Netherlands )-— Assistant  Secre- 
tary General  for  Conference  and  General  Serv- 
ices 

Byron  Price  (United  States) — Assistant  Secretary 
General  for  Administrative  and  Financial  Serv- 


SPECIAJLIZED  AGENCIES 

The  formally  constituted  agencies  are:  Interna- 
tional Labour  Organization  ( ILO ) ;  Food  and  Agri- 
culture Organization  of  the  United  Nations  (FAO); 
United  Nations  Educational,  Scientific  and  Cul- 
tural Organization  (UNESCO);  International  Civil 
Aviation  Organization  ( 1C AO ) ;  International  Bank 
for  Reconstruction  and  Development;  International 
Monetary  Fund;  Universal  Postal  Union  (UPU); 
International  Telecommunications  Union  (ITU); 
World  Health  Organization  (WHO);  and  Interna- 
tional Refugee  Organization  (IRO). 

Two  other  agencies  exist  in  preparatory  form: 
International  Trade  Organization  (ITO)3  which  is 
working  through  an  Interim  Commission;  and  In- 
tergovernmental Maritime  Consultative  Organiza- 
tion ( IMCO )  5  which  is  working  through  a  Prepara- 
tory Committee.  The  World  Meteorological  Organ- 
ization (WMO),  which  is  in  the  process  of  forma- 
tion, will  take  the  place  of  the  International  Mete- 
orological Organization  (IMO),  now  functioning. 

Events,  1948.  During  the  year  1948,  the  United 
Nations  continued  growing  and  taking  on  new 
functions,  and  its  organs  and  subsidiary  bodies 
were  able  to  devote  more  time  to  substantive  rather 
than  organizational  matters.  During  the  year 
Burma  became  the  58th  member  of  the  organiza- 
tion. The  General  Assembly  held  its  second  special 
session  in  New  York  from  April  16  to  May  14.  The 
first  part  of  its  third  session  was  held  in  Paris  from 
September  21  to  December  12. 

The  Security  Council  held  168  meetings  in  1948 
(11  of  which  were  private).  Of  these  meetings 
128  were  held  at  the  headquarters  of  the  United 
Nations  at  Lake  Success,  and  40  in  Paris  where  the 
Council  moved  for  the  duration  of  the  first  part  of 
the  third  session  of  the  General  Assembly.  After 
the  Assembly  adjourned  on  December  12,  the 
Council  continued  to  meet  in  Paris  until  the  end  of 
the  year.  It  resumed  its  work  at  Lake  Success  on 
Jan.  7,  1949,  The  Economic  and  Social  Council 
held  its  sixth  session  at  Lake  Success  from  Febru- 
ary 2  to  March  11,  and  its  seventh  session  at  Ge- 
neva from  July  19  to  August  29.  The  Trusteeship 
Council  held  the  second  part  of  its  second  session 
from  February  18  to  March  10,  the  third  part  of 
its  second  session  from  April  20  to  May  5,  and  its 
third  session  from  June  16  to  August  5.  All  meet- 
ings of  the  Council  were  held  at  Lake  Success.  The 
International  Court  of  Justice  delivered  its  first  ad- 
visory opinion  and  continued  its  study  of  the  Corfu 
Channel  case. 

THE  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY 
The  General  Assembly  consists  of  all  of  the 
Members  of  the  United  Nations.  It  may  discuss  any 
matters  within  the  scope  of  the  Charter  or  relating 
to  the  functions  and  powers  of  any  organ  of  the 
United  Nations,  and  may  make  recommendations 
on  any  such  questions  or  matters  excepting  those 
of  which  the  Security  Council  is  seized. 

Second  Special  Session.  The  Security  Council  on 
April  1  (see  Security  Council  below)  adopted  a 


resolution  requesting  the  Secretary  General  to  con- 
voke a  special  session  of  the  General  Assembly 
(the  Assembly's  second)  to  consider  further  the 
question  of  the  future  government  of  Palestine. 

The  Assembly  convened  on  April  16.  On 
April  19,  it  referred  the  further  consideration  of 
Palestine's  future  government  to  its  First  (Political 
and  Security)  Committee,  which  debated  at  length 
a  United  States  draft  trusteeship  agreement,  cir- 
culated as  a  working  paper.  The  First  Committee's 
debates  showed  conclusively  that  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  muster  a  two-thirds  vote  in  favor  of  the 
United  States  proposals  for  trusteeship.  On  May  3, 
the  United  Kingdom  representative  proposed  a 
temporary  provisional  regime  to  hold  assets,  to 
further  mediation,  and  to  work  toward  a  solution. 

On  May  4,  the  Committee  established  a  sub-com- 
mittee and  charged  it  with  formulating  a  proposal 
for  a  provisional  regime  in  Palestine.  The  sub-com- 
mittee was  also  to  take  into  account  whether  such 
a  proposal  was  likely  to  commend  itself  to  the  Jew- 
ish and  Arab  communities,  whether  it  could  be 
implemented  and  made  workable,  and  its  approxi- 
mate cost.  Another  sub-committee  was  established 
on  May  11  to  deal  with  the  question  of  further 
measures  for  the  protection  of  the  City  of  Jerusalem 
and  its  inhabitants.  It  consulted  with  the  Arab 
Higher  Committee  and  the  Jewish  Agency. 

While  the  Assembly  was  discussing  the  propos- 
als of  the  First  Committee  and  its  subsidiary  bod- 
ies, the  British  mandatory  administration  over  Pal- 
estine came  to  an  end  (12:01  a.m.,  May  15  in 
Palestine;  6:01  p.m.,  May  14  in  New  York).  Short- 
ly afterwards,  the  United  States  delegation  con- 
firmed its  Government's  de  facto  recognition  of  the 
new  Jewish  State  of  Israel,  proclaimed  by  Jewish 
authorities  immediately  after  the  termination  of 
the  British  mandate  over  Palestine. 

Two  and  a  half  hours  after  the  British  mandatory 
administration  in  Palestine  came  to  an  end,  the 
second  special  session  of  the  General  Assembly  ad- 
journed. During  its  final  hours,  the  Assembly  au- 
thorized the  appointment  of  a  United  Nations  Me- 
diator, who  was  to  offer  his  good  offices  to  arrange 
for  the  operation  of  common  services  in  Palestine, 
to  protect  the  Holy  Places,  and  to  promote  a  peace- 
ful adjustment  of  the  future  situation.  (See  Secu- 
rity Council  below. ) 

The  Assembly  failed,  however,  to  obtain  the  nec- 
essary majority  vote  to  establish  a  temporary  re- 
gime for  Jerusalem.  The  Palestine  Commission,  re- 
lieved by  the  Assembly  at  its  second  special  session 
from  the  further  exercise  of  responsibilitiesa  on 
May  17  adjourned  sine  die. 

On  May  20,  a  committee  of  the  Assembly,  com- 
posed of  representatives  of  China,  France,  the 
U.S.S.R.,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  United 
States,  chose  Count  Folke  Bernadotte  (Sweden), 
the  Vice  President  of  the  International  Red  Cross, 
as  United  Nations  Mediator  in  Palestine. 

First  Part  of  Third  Regular  Session.  The  Advisory 
Committee  on  the  Site  of  the  third  session  of  the 
General  Assembly — established  at  the  Assembly's 
second  session — agreed  unanimously,  on  the  basis 
of  data  submitted,  that  Paris  was  the  most  suitable 
location  for  the  site  of  the  third  regular  session. 
Accordingly,  the  Assembly  held  the  first  part  of  its 
third  session  there.  The  French  Government  offered 
the  use  of  the  Palais  de  Chaillot,  generally  referred 
to  as  the  Trocadero.  At  its  Paris  session,  the  Assem- 
bly worked  for  nearly  3  months  qn  a  great  number 
and  variety  of  world  problems.  It  could  not,  how- 
ever, dispose  of  all  the  items  on  its  agenda,  and  it 
therefore  decided  to  hold  a  second  part  of  this  ses- 
sion in  New  York  beginning  Apr.  5,  1949, 


UN/TED  NATIONS 


570 


UNITED  NATIONS 


The  Assembly  elected  Cuba,  Norway,  and  Egypt 
to  the  Security  Council  in  succession  to  Belgium, 
Colombia,  and  Syria.  China,  France,  India,  Peru, 
Belgium,  and  Chile  were  elected  to  the  6  vacancies 
on  the  Economic  and  Social  Council.  The  Assem- 
bly also  approved  recommendations  of  the  Fifth 
Committee  concerning  vacancies  on  a  number  of 
subsidiary  bodies,  including  the  Advisory  Com- 
mittee on  Administrative  and  Budgetary  Questions, 
the  Committee  on  Contributions,  the  Board  of  Au- 
ditors, and  the  Investments  Committee.  The  As- 
sembly approved  the  1949  budget  of  the  United 
Nations  at  U.S.$43,487,128. 

The  main  subjects  deferred  to  the  second  part 
of  its  third  session  were  the  question  of  the  former 
Italian  colonies,  Freedom  of  Information,  the  Re- 
port of  the  Security  Council,  establishment  of  a 
United  Nations  Guard  Force,  Treatment  of  Indians 
in  South  Africa,  the  question  of  repatriation,  re- 
settlement, and  immigration  of  refugees  and  dis- 
placed persons. 

The  following  were  among  the  main  decisions 
taken  by  the  General  Assembly: 

Political  and  Security  Questions.  The  General  As- 
sembly, deeply  concerned  over  the  impasse  which 
had  been  reached  in  the  work  of  the  Atomic  En- 
ergy Commission,  by  a  vote  of  40  to  6,  with  4  ab- 
stentions, adopted  a  resolution  on  November  4 
approving  the  general  findings,  recommendations, 
and  specific  proposals  of  the  Commission  as  con- 
stituting the  necessary  basis  for  establishing  an 
effective  system  of  international  control. 

The  Assembly  also  asked  the  6  permanent  mem- 
bers of  the  Commission — the  permanent  members 
of  the  Security  Council  and  Canada — to  consult 
together  in  order  to  determine  whether  there  exists 
a  basis  for  agreement  on  international  control,  and 
to  report  to  the  Assembly  the  results  of  their  con- 
sultation not  later  than  its  next  regular  session. 

It  called  upon  the  Atomic  Energy  Commission 
to  resume  its  sessions,  to  survey  its  program  of 
work,  and  to  proceed  to  the  further  study  of  those 
subjects  in  its  program  which  it  considers  to  be 
practicable  and  useful.  By  a  vote  of  40  to  6,  with 
5  abstentions,  the  Assembly  rejected  a  U.S.S.R. 
proposal  for  simultaneously  prohibiting  atomic 
weapons  and  establishing  international  control. 

Recognizing  the  fact  that  3  years  after  victory 
the  Great  Powers  have  not  yet  concluded  the  peace 
treaties,  and  that  the  disagreement  in  this  matter 
is  of  vital  importance  to  all  of  the  United  Nations, 
the  Assembly  on  November  3  made  a  unanimous 
appeal  to  the  Great  Powers.  The  Assembly  appeal, 
which  had  been  sponsored  by  Mexico,  cafled  upon 
the  Great  Powers  to  compose  their  differences  and 
establish  a  lasting  peace.  Specifically,  the  appeal 
endorsed  the  Yalta  declarations  of  February,  1945; 
recommended  the  Powers  signatories  to  the  Mos- 
cow agreements  of  December,  1945,  and  the  Pow- 
ers which  subsequently  acceded  to  the  agreements 
to  redouble  their  efforts  to  secure  peace;  and  rec- 
ommended the  Great  Powers  to  associate  with 
them,  in  the  effort  to  secure  peace,  the  States  which 
had  subscribed  and  adhered  to  the  Washington 
Declaration  of  January,  1942. 

Lengthy  discussions  on  reduction  of  armaments 
and  armed  forces  were  touched  off  by  a  U.S.S.R. 
proposal  calling  for  a  one-third  reduction  of  arma- 
ments and  armed  forces  by  the  5  permanent  mem- 
bers of  the  Security  Council  within  one  year,  and 
for  prohibition  of  atomic  weapons  and  for  estab- 
lishment of  a  control  organ  to  supervise  implemen- 
tation of  both  measures.  This  proposal,  however, 
was  rejected  by  the  Assembly  by  a  vote  of  6  in 
favor,  33  against,  and  5  abstentions. 


A  Polish  resolution  similar  to  the  Soviet  resolu- 
tion but  specifying  that  the  basis  for  arms  reduc- 
tion should  be  the  Powers'  strength  as  of  Jan.  1, 
1948,  was  likewise  rejected  by  a  vote  of  6  in  favor, 
33  against,  with  5  abstentions. 

A  composite  resolution  was  finally  adopted  on 
November  19.  This  declares  that  the  aim  of  the 
reduction  of  conventional  armaments  and  armed 
forces  can  be  attained  only  in  an  atmosphere  of 
real  and  lasting  improvements  in  international  re- 
lations, which  implies  in  particular  the  application 
of  control  of  atomic  energy  involving  the  prohibi- 
tion of  the  atomic  weapon. 

It  recommends  that  the  Security  Council  should 
pursue  the  study  of  such  regulation  and  reduction 
through  the  Commission  for  Conventional  Arma- 
ments in  order  to  obtain  concrete  results  as  soon 
as  possible.  It  also  proposed  that  the  Commission 
should  devote  first  attention  to  formulating  pro- 
posals for  the  receipt,  checking,  and  publication, 
by  an  international  organ  of  control  within  the 
framework  of  the  Security  Council,  of  full  infor- 
mation to  be  supplied  by  all  Member  States  on 
their  effective  armed  forces  and  armaments.  The 
resolution  was  adopted  by  a  vote  of  43  to  6,  with 
1  abstention. 

On  November  27,  the  General  Assembly  adopted 
a  resolution  on  the  Balkan  situation  which  called 
on  Albania,  Bulgaria,  and  Yugoslavia  to  cease  forth- 
with rendering  support  or  assistance  in  any  form 
to  the  Greek  guerrilla  forces.  The  3  northern  neigh- 
bors of  Greece  were  warned  that  continued  aid  to 
the  guerrillas  endangers  peace  in  the  Balkans, 
threatens  the  political  independence  and  territorial 
integrity  of  Greece,  and  is  inconsistent  with  the 
purposes  and  principles  of  the  Charter.  All  Mem- 
bers of  the  United  Nations  were  asked  to  refrain 
from  any  action  designed  to  assist,  directly  or 
through  other  governments,  any  armed  group  fight- 
ing against  the  Greek  Government. 

The  Assembly  resolved  to  maintain  for  a  further 
year  the  United  Nations  Special  Committee  on  the 
Balkans.  It  decided  that  the  Special  Committee 
should  have  its  principal  headquarters  in  Greece. 
With  the  cooperation  of  the  government  or  gov- 
ernments concerned,  the  Committee  may  perform 
its  functions  in  such  places  as  it  may  deem  appro- 
priate for  the  fulfilment  of  its  mission.  The  Com- 
mittee was  authorized  to  consult,  in  its  discretion, 
with  the  Interim  Committee. 

In  another  resolution  the  Assembly  called  on 
Greece,  on  the  one  hand,  and  Albania  and  Bul- 
garia, on  the  other,  to  renew  diplomatic  relations. 
The  Assembly  recommended  that  Greece,  Albania, 
Bulgaria,  and  Yugoslavia  renew  the  previously  op- 
erative conventions  for  the  settlement  of  frontier 
questions  or  conclude  new  ones,  and  that  they  set- 
tle the  question  of  refugees  in  the  spirit  of  mutual 
understanding. 

On  the  same  day,  the  Assembly  adopted  with- 
out objection  a  resolution  dealing  with  the  fate  of 
Greek  children  who  are  at  present  outside  their 
own  country.  It  asked  for  the  immediate  return  to 
their  homeland  of  all  such  children  who  themselves 
ask  to  be  returned,  or  whose  parents  or  close  rela- 
tives request  their  return.  The  International  Red 
Cross,  the  Red  Crescent,  and  National  Red  Cross 
organizations  were  asked  to  assist  in  this  repatria- 
tion. 

Another  unanimous  action  taken  by  the  Assem- 
bly called  for  conciliation  talks  to  be  held  in  Paris, 
between  the  representatives  of  Albania,  Bulgaria, 
Yugoslavia,  and  Greece,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
United  Nations  and  in  the  immediate  presence  of 
the  President  of  the  Assembly,  the  Secretary  Gen- 


UNITED  NATIONS 


571 


UNITED  NATIONS 


eral,  and  the  Chairman,  and  the  Rapporteur  of  the 
First  Committee. 

In  a  statement  issued  on  December  4,  Dr.  Evatt, 
the  President  of  the  Assembly,  said  the  talks  had 
made  very  substantial  progress  and  that  a  draft 
agreement  had  been  prepared  after  the  acceptance 
of  many  points  by  all  parties  concerned.  Dr.  Evatt 
expressed  the  hope  that  the  work  of  conciliation 
begun  so  successfully  would  be  completed  at  the 
Assembly's  resumed  session  in  New  York  in  April. 
Meanwhile,  the  good  offices  of  the  President  and 
the  Secretary  General  were  to  be  available  to  all  4 
parties  concerned  in  the  question. 

By  a  vote  of  40  in  favor,  6  against,  with  1  ab- 
stention, the  General  Assembly  on  December  3 
decided  to  reestablish  its  Interim  Committee.  In 
taking  this  action  despite  the  strenuous  opposition 
of  the  U.S.S.R.  and  5  other  Members,  the  Assembly 
declared  that  effective  performance  of  its  duties 
under  the  Charter  for  promoting  and  adjusting  sit- 
uations likely  to  impair  general  welfare  and  friend- 
ly relations  between  nations  made  such  a  body 
necessary.  At  the  same  time,  the  Assembly  recog- 
nized fully  that  primary  responsibility  for  prompt 
and  effective  action  for  the  maintenance  of  inter- 
national peace  and  security  rests  with  the  Security 
Council.  As  in  the  last  year,  the  Interim  Com- 
mittee, now  reestablished  until  the  1949  regular 
session,  is  to  be  composed  of  one  representative 
from  each  Member  State.  It  is  to  be  a  subsidiary 
organ  of  the  Assembly. 

Opposition  to  this  resolution  was  on  the  grounds, 
broadly,  that  it  was  unconstitutional,  unnecessary, 
and  a  device  to  by-pass  the  Security  Council.  The 
prevailing  opinion,  however,  was  that  the  record 
of  last  year  had  justified  the  proposal,  that  the 
Committee  could  provide  continuous  contact  and 
be  a  means  of  harmonizing  conflicting  views  and 
interests,  and  that  it  could,  by  its  preliminary  stud- 
ies, save  the  time  of  the  Assembly  and  improve  the 
value  of  the  Assembly's  decisions. 

The  Assembly  approved  a  number  of  resolutions 
on  the  admission  of  new  Members.  One  resolution 
recommended  that  members  of  the  Security  Coun- 
cil should  act  in  accordance  with  the  opinion  on 
membership  as  given  by  the  International  Court  of 
Justice  (see  section  on  the  Court  below). 

In  another  resolution,  the  Assembly  noted  a  gen- 
eral sentiment  in  favor  of  the  universality  of  the 
United  Nations  and  asked  the  Security  Council  to 
reconsider  individually  the  hitherto  unsuccessful 
applications  of  12  States — Albania,  Austria,  Bul- 
garia, Ceylon,  Finland,  Hungary,  Ireland,  Italy, 
Portugal,  the  People's  Republic  of  Mongolia,  Ru- 
mania, and  Transjordan. 

The  Assembly  itself  then  dealt  with  individual 
applications.  It  determined  that  Finland,  Ireland, 
Italy,  Portugal,  and  Transjordan,  whom  9  Council 
members  had  supported,  fulfill  the  requirements  of 
Article  4,  and  should  therefore  be  admitted  to 
Membership.  It  requested  the  Council  to  reconsider 
these  applications,  in  the  light  of  this  determina- 
tion and  of  the  Court's  advisory  opinion.  It  also 
reaffirmed  the  view  that  opposition  to  these  appli- 
cations was  based  on  grounds  not  included- in  Ar- 
ticle 4  of  the  Charter. 

In  another  resolution,  the  Assembly,  pointing  out 
that  9  members  of  the  Security  Council  supported 
Ceylon's  application  for  membership,  and  consid- 
ering that  the  records  of  the  discussions  in  the  ad 
hoc  Political  Committee  revealed  a  unanimous 
opinion  that  Ceylon  is  a  peace-loving  State  and 
should  therefore  be  admitted  to  membership  in  the 
United  Nations,  requested  die  Security  Council  to 
reconsider  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  the  ap- 


plication of  Ceylon.  The  Assembly  also  requested 
reconsideration  of  Austria's  application,  which  had 
been  favored  by  8  Security  Council  members. 

The  General  Assembly  on  December  11  adopted 
a  resolution  on  Palestine.  It  created  a  three-member 
Conciliation  Commission  and  instructed  it  to  take 
steps  to  assist  the  governments  and  authorities  con- 
cerned to  achieve  a  final  settlement  of  all  questions 
outstanding  between  them.  The  Commission  was 
to  assume  any  necessary  functions  of  the  United 
Nations  Mediator;  was  to  carry  out  specific  func- 
tions and  directives,  which  may  be  given  by  the 
Assembly  or  by  the  Security  Council;  and  was  to 
undertake,  upon  the  request  of  the  Security  Coun- 
cil, any  functions  now  assigned  by  the  Council  to 
the  Mediator  or  the  United  Nations  Truce  Com- 
mission. The  Assembly  called  upon  the  Govern- 
ments and  authorities  concerned  to  seek  agree- 
ment by  negotiations  conducted  either  with  the 
Conciliation  Commission — which  was  requested  by 
the  Assembly  to  begin  its  functions  at  once — or  di- 
rectly, with  a  view  to  final  settlement  of  all  ques- 
tions. 

In  another  part  of  the  resolution,  the  Assembly 
resolved  that  the  Holy  places  in  Palestine,  includ- 
ing Nazareth,  should  be  protected  and  free  access 
to  them  assured,  and  that  arrangements  to  this  end 
should  be  under  effective  United  Nations  supervi- 
sion. The  Commission  was  to  present  to  the  next 
regular  session  recommendations  concerning  Holy 
places  in  Jerusalem,  and  was,  in  addition,  to  call 
on  the  political  authorities  to  give  formal  guaran- 
tees regarding  the  protection  of  Holy  places  in  the 
rest  of  Palestine. 

The  same  resolution  declared  that,  in  view  of 
its  association  with  three  world  religions,  the  Je- 
rusalem area  should  be  accorded  special  and  sepa- 
rate treatment  from  the  rest  of  Palestine  and  should 
be  placed  under  effective  United  Nations  control. 
The  Security  Council  was  requested  to  take  further 
steps  to  ensure  the  demilitarization  of  the  area  at 
the  earliest  possible  date,  and  the  Conciliation 
Commission  was  instructed  to  present  at  the  next 
session  detailed  proposals  for  a  permanent  inter- 
national regime — providing  for  the  maximum  local 
autonomy  for  distinctive  groups  consistent  with  the 
special  international  status  of  the  Jerusalem  area. 
The  Assembly  also  called  for  the  freest  possible 
access  to  Jerusalem  by  road,  rail,  or  air,  pending 
agreement  on  more  detailed  arrangements,  and 
instructed  the  Commission  to  report  to  the  Security 
Council  any  attempt  to  impede  such  access.  The 
Commission  was  also  instructed  to  seek  arrange- 
ments to  facilitate  the  economic  development  of 
this  area. 

The  Assembly  resolved  that  the  refugees  wishing 
to  return  to  their  homes  and  live  at  peace  with 
their  neighbors  should  be  permitted  to  do  so  at  the 
earliest  practicable  date.  Compensation  is  to  be 
paid  for  the  property  of  those  choosing  not  to  re- 
turn and  for  damage  to  property.  The  Commission 
was  instructed  to  facilitate  the  repatriation,  reset- 
tlement, and  economic  and  social  rehabilitation  of 
the  refugees  and  the  payment  of  such  compensa- 
tion. 

The  Assembly  resolution  authorized  the  Com- 
mission to  have  its  official  headquarters  at  Jeru- 
salem, and  instructed  it  to  render  progress  reports 
periodically  to  the  Secretary  General  for  transmis- 
sion to  the  Security  Council  and  Member  States. 
Later  the  Assembly  accepted  the  proposal  submit- 
ted by  4  of  the  5  permanent  members  of  the  Se- 
curity Council  that  the  Conciliation  Commission 
should  be  composed  of  France,  Turkey,  and  the 
United  States.  The  U.S.S.R.  had  opposed  this 


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choice,  wishing  to  see  a  Commission  of  5  members, 
one  of  which  should  be  Poland. 

On  December  12,  the  General  Assembly,  by  a 
vote  of  48  in  favor,  6  against,  and  with  1  absten- 
tion, adopted  a  resolution  on  Korea.  The  Assembly 
endorsed  the  Government  elected  in  Southern  Ko- 
rea under  the  observation  of  the  United  Nations 
Temporary  Commission  on  Korea. 

It  set  up  a  new  Commission  on  Korea,  consisting 
of  Australia,  China,  El  Salvador,  France,  India,  the 
Philippines,  and  Syria,  for  the  purpose  of  good  offi- 
ces and  observation.  The  resolution  further  recom- 
mended that  Member  States  and  other  nations,  in 
establishing  their  relations  with  the  Government  of 
Korea,  take  into  consideration  the  Assembly's  dec- 
laration that  a  lawful  government  had  been  estab- 
lished in  Korea.  It  also  recommended  that  the  oc- 
cupying Powers  withdraw  their  occupation  forces 
from  Korea  as  early  as  practicable. 

Economic  and  Social  Questions.  A  significant  action 
taken  by  the  Assembly  at  its  Paris  session  was  the 
adoption  of  a  Universal  Declaration  of  Human 
Rights.  Forty-eight  Members  voted  for  the  Decla- 
ration, 9  abstained,  and  none  voted  against  it. 
Among  those  who  abstained  was  the  U.S.S.R., 
whose  chief  representative,  Andrei  Vyshinsky,  de- 
clared that  many  improvements  were  essential  and 
the  U.S.S.R,  thought  it  necessary  to  give  the  sub- 
ject more  time  and  effort.  The  Declaration,  adopted 
on  December  10,  defines  on  an  international  basis 
the  inherent  freedoms  and  rights  of  all  men. 

The  General  Assembly,  considering  the  adoption 
of  the  Declaration  an  historic  act  destined  to  con- 
solidate world  peace,  and  considering  that  the  text 
of  the  Declaration  should  be  disseminated  among 
all  peoples  of  the  world,  adopted  a  resolution  re- 
questing the  Secretary  General  to  publish  and  dis- 
tribute texts  in  all  possible  languages  ano1  by  every 
means  at  his  disposal.  Specialized  agencies  and 
non-governmental  organizations  were  invited  to  do 
their  utmost  to  bring  the  Declaration  to  the  atten- 
tion of  their  members. 

Articles  dealing  with  the  rights  of  petition  and 
the  rights  of  minorities  were  not  included  in  the 
Declaration.  To  meet  this  omission  the  Assembly 
passed  two  further  resolutions,  asking  the  Eco- 
nomic and  Social  Council,  through  the  Commission 
on  Human  Rights,  to  give  further  examination  to 
the  problem  of  petitions  and  of  minorities  when 
studying  a  draft  Convention  on  Human  Rights. 

On  October  8,  the  General  Assembly  unanimous- 
ly approved  a  Protocol  to  bring  new  synthetic  nar- 
cotic drugs  within  the  scope  of  the  1931  Limitation 
Convention  and  thus  strengthened  international 
control  of  narcotic  drugs.  The  Protocol  supplements 
the  1931  Convention  for  Limiting  the  Manufacture 
and  Regulating  the  Distribution  of  Narcotic  Drugs 
by  placing  under  international  control  drugs,  par- 
ticularly synthetic  drugs,  capable  of  producing  ad- 
diction, but  not  covered  by  the  1931  Convention. 
The  Protocol  limits  by  international  agreement  the 
manufacture  of  such  new  drugs  to  the  world's  le- 
gitimate requirements  for  medical  and  scientific 
purposes,  and  regulates  their  distribution.  On  No- 
vember 19,  representatives  of  41  Members  of  the 
United  Nations  and  6  non-Members  signed  the 
Protocol  at  the  Palais  de  Chaillot;  since  then  5 
more  countries  have  signed. 

On  December  8,  the  General  Assembly  voted  to 
continue  the  United  Nations  Appeal  for  Children 
(see  below)  during  1949,  but  on  a  new  basis.  By 
the  action  of  the  Assembly,  the  Appeal's  adminis- 
trative organization  will  be  placed  under  the  Unit- 
ed Nations  International  Children's  Emergency 
Fund  and  all  future  proceeds  of  collections  will  go 


entirely  to  this  agency.  UNICEF  -will  become  re- 
sponsible for  the  coordination  of  all  national  cam- 
paigns conducted  by  governmental  and  non-gov- 
ernmental appeals  for  children.  The  Children's 
Fund,  in  addition,  will  be  designated  as  the  agency 
with  special  responsibility  for  the  emergency  needs 
of  children  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Also  on  December  8,  the  Assembly  adopted  a 
resolution,  which,  inter  dm,  drew  the  attention  of 
Members  to  the  necessity  for  prompt  contributions 
from  governments  to  enable  procurement  of  sup- 
plies and,  generally,  to  meet  the  objectives  for 
which  the  Fund  was  established. 

The  Assembly  on  December  4  adopted  a  num- 
ber of  resolutions  regarding  the  needs  of  under- 
developed countries.  In  one  resolution,  the  Assem- 
bly recommended  that  the  Economic  and  Social 
Council  and  the  specialized  agencies  give  further 
and  urgent  attention  to  all  aspects  of  the  economic 
development  of  underdeveloped  countries.  It  asked 
the  Council  to  report  to  the  next  session  on  meas- 
ures already  taken  and  proposals  for  further  meas- 
ures. The  resolution  added,  in  particular,  the  hope 
that  the  International  Bank  will  take  immediate 
steps  for  the  early  realization  of  development  loans, 
especially  in  the  underdeveloped  areas. 

In  another  resolution  the  Assembly  authorized 
the  Secretary  General  to  give,  at  the  request  of 
Member  Governments,  several  kinds  of  assistance. 
Where  appropriate,  this  will  be  done  through  the 
related  specialized  agencies.  Broadly,  the  scheme 
comprises:  arranging  for  international  teams  of  ex- 
perts; arranging  facilities  for  training  experts 
abroad;  and  obtaining  technical  personnel,  equip- 
ment and  supplies.  Organization  of  seminars  on 
special  problems  of  economic  development  and  ex- 
change of  technical  information  are  included  with- 
in the  scope  of  the  scheme.  The  resolution  laid 
down  the  basis  on  which  the  costs  of  these  services 
are  to  be  borne.  It  also  provided  that  such  assist- 
ance should  not  be  a  means  of  foreign  economic  or 
political  interference.  The  Secretary  General  was 
requested  to  report  to  the  Economic  and  Social 
Council  on  measures  taken  under  this  scheme. 

In  a  third  resolution  to  aid  underdeveloped 
countries,  the  Assembly  requested  the  International 
Labour  Office  to  consider  now  best  to  facilitate  the 
admission  to  world  training  centers  of  technical 
workers  and  other  qualified  personnel  from  these 
countries. 

Turning  to  the  needs  of  one  particular  under- 
developed region,  the  Assembly  in  a  further  reso- 
lution asked  the  Economic  and  Social  Council  to 
expedite  consideration  of  the  Establishment  of  an 
Economic  Commission  for  the  Middle  East 

A  resolution  on  wastage  of  food  was  adopted  by 
the  Assembly  on  December  8.  The  resolution  put 
the  blame  for  the  present  undernourishment  of 
large  numbers  of  people  on  insufficient  production, 
wastage,  war-devastation,  underdevelopment  of 
large  areas,  lack  of  purchasing  power,  and  fear  of 
unstable  prices.  To  remedy  this  situation,  the  As- 
sembly declared  that  steps  should  be  taken,  espe- 
cially in  underdeveloped  and  war-devastated  coun- 
tries, to  raise  productivity,  avoid  losses,  and  im- 
prove marketing  and  distribution.  Second,  burden- 
some taxes  which  hamper  sale  and  consumption  of 
foodstuffs  must  be  reduced  appreciably,  Further, 
the  resolution  pointed  out,  profiteering  in  the  mar- 
keting of  essential  foodstuffs  is  an  obstacle  to  equi- 
table distribution. 

The  Assembly  invited  Member  States  to  give 
high  priority  to  measures  to  remove  these  (Difficul- 
ties. It  called  on  the  Economic  and  Social  Council, 
in  consultation  with  the  FAO  and  other  specialized 


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agencies,  to  continue  efforts  to  improve  world  food 
production  and  trade.  In  doing  so,  the  Assembly 
resolution  urged  that  special  consideration  should 
be  given  to  the  technical,  financial,  and  supply 
problems  of  underdeveloped  and  war-devastated 
countries.  Other  measures  to  raise  the  nutrition 
levels  of  undernourished  population  groups  should 
also  be  studied. 

On  November  19,  the  Assembly  unanimously 
adopted  plans  for  a  $29.5  million  voluntary  relief 
program  for  over  half  a  million  Palestinian  refu- 
gees, made  homeless  by  the  fighting  in  the  Holy 
Land.  The  Secretary  General  was  authorized  to 
advance  up  to  $5  million  from  the  United  Nations 
working  capital  fund,  in  order  to  launch  as  soon  as 
possible  a  campaign  for  voluntary  contributions, 
either  in  money  or  in  kind.  Contributions  will  also 
be  accepted  from  non-Member  States. 

The  Assembly  appealed  further  for  active  co- 
operation from  such  specialized  agencies  as  the 
World  Health  Organization,  the  International  Ref- 
ugee Organization,  the  Food  and  Agriculture  Or- 
ganization, and  other  appropriate  international 
agencies.  To  plan  and  administer  the  program,  the 
Assembly  created  the  new  post  of  Director  for  the 
United  Nations  Palestine  Refugee  Relief.  To  this 
position  the  Secretary  General  appointed  on  De- 
cember 4,  Stanton  Griffis,  United  States  Ambassa- 
dor to  Egypt,  who  assumed  his  duties  immediately. 

The  subject  of  a  Declaration  of  Old  Age  Rights 
came  briefly  before  the  Assembly  on  a  resolution 
from  its  Third  Committee.  The  representative  of 
Argentina  had  introduced  the  matter  by  proposing 
a  draft  resolution.  The  Committee  decided  to  com- 
municate the  draft  to  the  Economic  and  Social 
Council  for  study  and  report.  This  was  agreed  to  by 
the  Assembly  on  December  4. 

The  General  Assembly  on  November  18  recom- 
mended that  the  Economic  and  Social  Council  con- 
tinue its  examination  of  the  activities  of  the  organs 
having  responsibilities  in  the  field  of  coordination, 
with  a  view  to  suggesting  further  improvements 
and  the  possibility  of  restricting  to  a  minimum 
consistent  with  efficiency  the  number  of  specialized 
agencies  in  the  framework  of  the  United  Nations. 

The  Assembly  at  the  same  time  requested  the 
Secretary  General,  in  consultation  with  the  Adviso- 
ry Committee  on  Administrative  and  Budgetary 
Questions  and  the  Administrative  Committee  on 
Coordination,  to  continue  the  efforts  further  to 
improve  administrative  and  budgetary  coordination 
between  the  United  Nations  and  the  specialized 
agencies,  including  consideration  of  the  possibility 
of  developing  a  joint  system  of  external  audit  and 
for  common  collection  of  contributions, 

Trusteeship  Questions  and  Matters  Affecting  Non-Self- 
Governing  Territories.  On  November  18,  the  General 
Assembly  approved  4  resolutions  dealing  with 
trusteeship  questions.  In  the  first  resolution,  the 
Assembly  took  note  of  the  Trusteeship  Council's 
report,  and  recommended  that  the  Council  consider 
at  its  next  session  the  comments  and  suggestions 
made  during  the  Assembly's  discussion  of  this  re- 
port. 

The  second  resolution  dealt  with  administrative 
unions  affecting  Trust  Territories.  The  resolution 
noted  that  the  Trusteeship  Agreements  for  some 
Trust  Territories  authorize  the  Administering  Au- 
thority concerned  to  constitute  the  Territory  into  a 
customs,  fiscal,  or  administrative  union  or  federa- 
tion with  adjacent  territories  under  its  sovereignty 
or  control.  The  resolution  recalled,  however,  that 
the  Assembly  approved  these  Agreements  on  the 
assurance  of  the  Administering  Authorities  that 
the  unions  would  not  involve  annexation  of  the 


Trust  Territories  in  any  sense  or  have  the  effect  of 
extinguishing  their  status.  The  resolution  then  rec- 
ommended five  measures  for  the  Trusteeship  Coun- 
cil to  undertake.  The  Council  is  to  investigate  in 
all  its  aspects  the  question  of  administrative  unions 
with  special  reference  to  unions  already  constituted 
or  proposed,  and  in  the  light  of  the  terms  of  Trus- 
teeship Agreements  and  the  assurances  given  by 
the  Administering  Authorities  in  this  connection. 

In  the  light  of  this  investigation,  the  Council  is 
to  recommend  such  safeguards  as  it  may  deem  nec- 
essary to  preserve  the  distinct  political  status  of  the 
Trust  Territories.  Whenever  appropriate,  an  adviso- 
ry opinion  may  be  requested  of  the  International 
Court  of  Justice  as  to  whether  such  unions  accord 
with  the  Charter  and  the  Trusteeship  Agreements. 
The  Council  is  to  invite  the  Administering  Authori- 
ties to  make  available  to  the  Council  such  infor- 
mation relating  to  administrative  unions  as  will 
facilitate  the  investigation  by  the  Council.  Finally, 
the  Council  is  to  report  to  the  next  regular  Assem- 
bly session  on  the  result  of  its  investigations  and  on 
action  taken. 

The  third  resolution  dealt  with  educational  ad- 
vancement in  Trust  Territories.  The  resolution  took 
note  of  the  plans  of  the  Administering  Authorities 
to  extend  educational  facilities  in  their  respective 
Territories.  The  Assembly  recommended  that  the 
Trusteeship  Council  propose  to  the  Administering 
Authorities  that  primary  education  should  be  free 
and  that  access  to  higher  education  should  not  be 
dependent  on  means.  Among  other  things,  the 
Council  was  requested  to  study  a  further  expan- 
sion of  existing  facilities  for  higher  education  in 
Africa,  including  the  possibility  of  establishing  a 
university  in  1952  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Trust  Territories  in  Africa. 

In  the  fourth  resolution,  the  Assembly  recom- 
mended that  the  Administering  Authorities  take 
all  measures  to  improve  and  promote  the  political, 
economic,  social,  and  educational  advancement  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Trust  Territories.  It  also  recom- 
mended that  they  take  all  possible  steps  to  acceler- 
ate progressive  development  towards  self-govern- 
ment or  independence. 

On  November  3,  the  Assembly  adopted  a  num- 
ber of  resolutions  dealing  with  information  from* 
non-self-governing  territories.  The  Assembly  recon- 
stituted the  Special  Committee  to  examine  infor- 
mation transmitted  under  Article  73  (e)  of  the 
Charter.  Such  a  committee  functioned  in  1948. 
The  Assembly  decided  that  a  similar  body  should 
meet  in  1949 — not  later  than  three  weeks  from  the 
opening  of  the  next  regular  session — and  charged 
it  with  examining  and  reporting  on  the  information 
received.  The  Special  Committee  is  composed  of 
the  following  elected  members:  Brazil,  China,  the 
Dominican  Republic,  Egypt,  India,  Sweden,  the 
U.S.S.R.,  and  Venezuela;  and  the  following  Mem- 
bers transmitting  information:  Australia,  Belgium, 
Denmark,  France,  the  Netherlands,  New  Zealand, 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  United  States. 

Another  resolution,  initiated  by  India,  noted  that 
in  respect  of  certain  non-self-governing  territories, 
the  Member  States  concerned  did  not  transmit  in- 
formation in  1947  or  1948  and  have  not  furnished 
any  explanation  of  the  omission.  The  resolution 
welcomed  any  development  of  self-governmept 
which  might  have  taken  place  but  added  that  it 
was  essential  that  the  United  Nations  should  be 
informed  of  any  change  in  constitutional  position 
and  status  as  a  result  of  which  the  government  re- 
sponsible thought  it  unnecessary  to  transmit  in- 
formation. The  Members  concerned  were  therefore 
requested  by  the  resolution  to  give  the  Secretary 


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General  full  information  on  such  constitutional 
changes. 

Another  resolution  adapted  and  amplified  earlier 
resolutions  in  order  to  secure  the  most  up-to-date 
information  and  avoid  duplication.  It^also  set  up 
a  new  system  for  the  Secretary  GeneraTs  summaries 
and  analyses  of  the  information.  In  two  other  reso- 
lutions the  Assembly  adopted  recommendations 
for  closer  liaison  between  the  Special  Committee 
and  the  Economic  and  Social  Council,  and  for  the 
counsel  and  assistance  of  the  specialized  agencies. 

The  future  of  South- West  Africa  was  discussed 
in  the  Assembly  for  the  third  year  in  succession.  In 
a  resolution  adopted  on  November  26  by  43  votes 
to  1,  with  5  abstentions,  the  Assembly  maintained 
its  earlier  position  that  South- West  Africa  should 
be  brought  within  the  Trusteeship  System.  It  noted 
with  regret  that  the  Union  of  South  Africa  had  not 
complied  with  the  recommendation  to  this  effect 
first  made  in  1946  and  reaffirmed  in  1947. 

The  resolution  further  took  note  of  the  Union 
Government's  statement  that  it  would  continue  to 
administer  the  Territory  in  the  spirit  of  the  League 
of  Nations  mandate.  It  also  noted  the  Union  Gov- 
ernments assurances  that  its  proposals  for  closer 
association  between  South-West  Africa  and  South 
Africa  did  not  mean  incorporation  and  would  not 
mean  absorption  of  the  Territory  by  the  adminis- 
tering authority.  The  resolution  recommended,  too, 
that  until  it  reaches  an  agreement  with  the  United 
Nations  on  the  future  of  South-West  Africa,  the 
Union  Government  should  continue  to  furnish  in- 
formation about  the  Territory  annually.  The  Trus- 
teeship Council  was  requested  to  continue  to  ex- 
amine such  information  and  to  submit  its  observa- 
tions on  it  to  the  General  Assembly. 

Administrative  Questions.  The  General  Assembly 
adopted  the  annual  budget  and  scale  of  contribu- 
tions for  1949,  approved  supplementary  estimates 
for  1948,  and  maintained  the  Working  Capital 
Fund  at  $20  million.  It  accepted  the  financial  re- 
port and  accounts  for  the  financial  period  ended 
Dec.  31,  1947,  for  the  United  Nations  and  for  the 
International  Children's  Emergency  Fund,  and  it 
took  note  of  the  second  annual  report  of  the  Staff 
Benefit  Committee  to  the  Assembly. 

It  requested  the  Secretary  General  to  pursue  the 
inquiries  and  negotiations  which  he  had  already 
initiated  with  respect  to  the  idea  of  establishing  a 
United  Nations  postal  administration — which  the 
Assembly  approved  in  principle — and  requested 
him  to  present  a  report  to  the  next  regular  session 
of  the  Assembly.  It  noted  with  approval  the  prog- 
ress made  by  the  Secretary  General  in  the  field  of 
geographical  distribution  of  the  staff,  and  adopted 
— beginning  Jan.  1,  1949 — a  staff  assessment  plan. 

The  Assembly  approved  in  principle  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  United  Nations  telecommunications 
system  and  authorized  the  Secretary  General  to 
present  to  the  Assembly  at  its  regular  session  of 
1950  such  recommendations  as  he  deems  necessary 
to  establish  such  a  system. 

It  approved  the  Agreement  between  the  Secre- 
tary General  and  the  Director  General  of  the  Unit- 
ed Nations  Relief  and  Rehabilitation  Administra- 
tion relating  to  the  transfer  to  the  United  Nations 
of  the  residual  assets  and  activities  of  UNRRA, 
entered  into  on  Sept.  27,  1948.  It  also  resolved  that 
the  credits  in  the  amount  of  $10,809,529  arising 
from  the  transfer  of  the  assets  of  the  League  of 
Nations  to  the  United  Nations  should  be  made 
available  to  the  Member  States  designated  by  the 
League  of  Nations  in  the  percentages  determined 
by  the  League  of  Nations. 

The  Assembly  noted  with  satisfaction  the  con- 


clusions of  the  Loan  Agreement  (approved  by  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States  and  signed  by  the 
President  in  August)  for  $65  million  between  the 
United  Nations  and  the  United  States,  and  ex- 
pressed its  appreciation  of  the  cooperation  extend- 
ed by  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  the  City  of  New  York.  The 
Secretary  General  was  requested  to  report  to  the 
fourth  regular  session  on  the  progress  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  headquarters. 

The  Assembly  resolved  that  an  International 
Center  for  Training  in  Public  Administration  should 
be  established  under  the  direction  of  the  United 
Nations.  It  requested  the  Secretary  General  to  re- 
port detailed  arrangements  for  such  a  center  to 
the  Economic  and  Social  Council  for  consideration, 
and  requested  him  to  include  in  his  budget  esti- 
mates for  the  financial  year  1950  a  program  imple- 
menting the  objectives  of  the  resolution. 

Finally,  the  Assembly  resolved  that  Spanish  be 
included  as  a  working  language  of  the  Assembly. 

Legal  Questions.  What  Dr.  Evatt,  President  of  the 
Assembly,  described  as  "a  significant  advance  in 
the  development  of  international  criminal  law"  was 
made  on  December  9,  when,  at  a  plenary  meeting, 
the  Assembly  gave  unanimous  approval  to  the  Con- 
vention on  Genocide.  The  vote  was  55  to  0,  with 
no  abstentions. 

The  Convention  outlaws  genocide  as  a  crime 
under  international  law,  whether  it  is  committed 
in  time  of  peace  or  in  war.  It  binds  the  Contracting 
Parties  to  enact  the  necessary  legislation  both  to 
prevent  and  punish  the  crime;  defines  genocide 
(destruction,  in  whole  or  in  part,  of  a  national, 
ethnical,  racial,  or  religious  group),  and  makes 
the  crime  itself  as  well  as  conspiracy,  incitement  or 
the  attempt  to  commit  it,  or  complicity  in  the  act, 
punishable.  The  Contracting  Parties  further  pledge 
themselves  to  grant  extradition,  if  necessary,  in 
accordance  with  their  laws  and  treaties  in  force. 
This  Convention  was  signed  by  20  States,  subject 
to  ratification,  on  December  12. 

The  Assembly  further  approved  a  resolution  in- 
viting the  International  Law  Commission  (see  be- 
low )  to  study  the  question  of  establishing  an  inter- 
national judicial  organ  for  the  trial  of  those  charged 
with  genocide,  giving  particular  attention  to  the 
suggestion  of  establishing  a  Criminal  Chamber  of 
the  International  Court  of  Justice. 

In  a  second  resolution,  the  Assembly  recom- 
mended Parties  to  the  Convention  which  adminis- 
ter dependent  territories  to  take  measures  to  ex- 
tend the  provisions  to  those  territories  as  soon  as 
possible. 

The  Assembly  on  November  18  voted  to  trans- 
fer to  the  United  Nations  the  functions  and  powers 
exercised  by  the  League  of  Nations  under  the  in- 
ternational convention  relating  to  economic  statis- 
tics. The  resolution  approved  the  Protocol,  and 
urged  Member  States  who  were  parties  to  the 
1928  League  Convention  to  sign  the  Protocol  and 
give  effect  to  its  provisions.  The  draft  resolution 
contained  a  paragraph  which  directed  that  no  ac- 
tion on  this  subject  should  be  taken  relating  to 
Spain  so  long  as  the  Franco  Government  is  in  pow- 
er. This  provision  was  deleted,  however,  on  an 
amendment  by  Argentina,  the  voting  being  21  to 
14,  with  13  abstentions.  Many  representatives  who 
voted  for  the  amendment  explained  that  they  had 
done  so  on  technical  grounds,  Spain  not  having 
been  a  signatory  of  tie  League  Convention  of 
1928. 

On  December  3,  the  Assembly,  by  unanimous 
decision,  transferred  to  the  United  Nations  certain 
functions  in  regard  to  the  suppression  of  traffic  in 


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women  and  children  and  in  obscene  literature. 
Previously,  these  functions  of  a  secretarial  charac- 
ter were  exercised  by  the  French  Government  in 
accordance  with  international  agreements  and  con- 
ventions devised  in  1904  and  1910. 

Under  the  Charter,  all  Member  States  are  obli- 
gated to  register  with  the  Secretariat  every  treaty 
and  international  agreement  entered  into  by  them 
after  the  coming  into  force  of  the  Charter.  At  the 
last  regular  session,  the  Assembly  drew  attention 
to  the  Members  of  this  obligation.  Six  hundred  and 
fourteen  treaties  or  international  agreements,  sub- 
mitted by  22  Governments,  and  two  specialized 
agencies,  had  been  received,  the  Secretary  General 
reported,  as  of  July  1,  1948. 

On  November  3,  the  Assembly  unanimously 
noted  that  relatively  few  treaties  and  other  inter- 
national agreements  had  been  registered  to  date, 
and  that  less  than  half  of  the  Members  had  regis- 
tered any  treaties  or  agreements.  It  requested  each 
Member  to  take  immediate  steps  to  fulfil  its  obliga- 
tion under  the  Charter.  In  a  second  resolution,  the 
Assembly  instructed  the  Secretary  General  to  take 
all  necessary  steps  to  ensure  that  registered  treaties 
or  agreements  be  published  with  the  least  possible 
delay,  and  that  the  translations  reach  the  highest 
possible  level  of  accuracy  and  precision. 

On  October  16  the  Assembly  passed  a  resolution 
initiated  by  Argentina,  inviting  the  Secretary  Gen- 
eral of  the  Organization  of  American  States  to  at- 
tend all  future  sessions  of  the  General  Assembly  as 
an  observer. 

The  General  Assembly  on  December  3  adopted 
two  resolutions  regarding  permanent  missions  to 
the  United  Nations.  The  first  of  these  noted  that 
since  the  creation  of  the  United  Nations  the  prac- 
tice developed  of  establishing  at  the  seat  of  the 
organization  permanent  missions  of  Member  States. 
In  order  to  regulate  the  submission  of  credentials 
of  permanent  representatives,  the  Assembly  recom- 
mended that  the  credentials  of  the  permanent  rep- 
resentatives should  be  issued  either  by  the  head  of 
the  State,  or  by  the  head  of  the  Government,  or  by 
the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  should  be 
transmitted  to  the  Secretary  General. 

The  second  resolution  instructed  the  Secretary 
General  to  study  all  questions  relating  to  perma- 
nent missions,  including  those  to  the  European  Of- 
fice, and,  if  necessary,  to  report  on  this  subject  to 
the  next  regular  Assembly  session. 

The  General  Assembly  on  December  3,  taking 
into  consideration  the  series  of  tragic  events  which 
had  lately  befallen  agents  of  the  United  Nations 
in  the  performance  of  their  duties,  decided  to  sub- 
mit the  following  two  questions  to  the  International 
Court  of  Justice  for  an  advisory  opinion:  (1)  Does 
the  United  Nations  have  the  legal  capacity  to  bring 
an  international  claim  against  a  State  for  damages 
caused  to  the  United  Nations,  and  to  the  victim  or 
to  persons  entitled  through  him?  and  (2)  If  the 
United  Nations  can  claim  for  damages  to  the  vic- 
tim, how  is  its  claim  to  be  reconciled  with  the 
rights  of  the  State  of  which  the  victim  is  a  national? 
The  Assembly  asked  the  Secretary  General  to  re- 
port to  the  next  session  with  proposals  prepared  in 
the  light  of  the  Court's  opinion. 

Twenty-four  countries,  the  Secretary  General  re- 
ported at  the  beginning  of  the  session,  had  acceded 
to  the  Convention  on  Privileges  and  Immunities  of 
the  United  Nations.  The  Assembly  on  December  8, 
again  urged  Member  States  to  approve  the  provi- 
sions of  the  Convention.  Unanimous  approval  is 
essential,  the  resolution  declared,  if  the  United  Na- 
tions is  to  achieve  its  purpose  and  perform  its  func- 
tions effectively.  The  Assembly  also  noted  with 


satisfaction  the  Secretary  General's  account  of  steps 
taken  to  bring  into  force  the  agreement  between 
the  United  Nations  and  the  United  States  on  the 
Permanent  Headquarters. 

On  December  11,  the  Assembly  approved  agree- 
ments to  enable  officials  of  three  specialized  agen- 
cies— ICAO,  UNESCO,  and  FAO— to  use  the 
United  Nations  laissez-passer  for  official  travel. 

On  November  3,  the  Assembly  elected  the  fol- 
lowing persons  to  serve  a  three-year  term  on  the 
International  Law  Commission:  Gilberto  Amado 
(Brazil);  Shuhsi  Hsu  (China);  Jesus  Maria  Yepes 
(Colombia);  Jaroslav  Zourek  (Czechoslovakia); 
Georges  Scelle  (France);  Jean  Spiropoulos 
(Greece);  Sir  Benegal  Rau  (India);  Roberto  Cor- 
doba (Mexico);  J.  P.  A.  Francois  (Netherlands); 
Ricardo  Alfaro  (Panama);  A.  E.  F.  Sandstrom 
(Sweden);  Fans  Bey  el-Khouri  (Syria);  Vladimir 
Kpretsky  (U.S.S.R.);  James  Leslie  Brierly  (United 
Kingdom);  and  Manley  Hudson  (United  States). 

THE  SECURITY  COTJNCIL 

The  Security  Council  is  charged  with  the  pri- 
mary responsibility  for  the  maintenance  of  inter- 
national peace  and  security.  According  to  the  Char- 
ter, the  Council  may  investigate  any  disputes  which 
might  threaten  the  maintenance  of  international 
peace  and  security  and  may  make  recommenda- 
tions on  appropriate  procedures  or  actual  terms  of 
pacific  settlement  of  such  disputes.  It  is  to  deter- 
mine the  existence  of  any  threat  to  the  peace, 
breach  of  the  peace,  or  act  of  aggression,  and  may 
take  enforcement  measures  such  as  interruption  of 
economic  relations  and  severance  of  diplomatic  re- 
lations or  action  by  land,  air  or  sea  forces.  The 
Council  consists  of  5  permanent  members  and  6 
non-permanent  members. 

Each  member  of  the  Security  Council  has  one 
vote.  Decisions  of  the  Security  Council  on  proce- 
dural matters  are  made  by  an  affirmative  vote  of 
7  members.  Decisions  on  all  other  matters  are  made 
by  an  affirmative  vote  of  7  members  including  the 
concurring  votes  of  the  permanent  members;  pro- 
vided that  a  party  to  a  dispute  shall  abstain  from 
voting  in  decisions  on  pacific  settlement  of  the  dis- 
putes. 

During  1948  the  Security  Council  considered 
the  following  major  questions: 

Palestine  Question.  Following  the  General  Assem- 
bly's approval,  in  November,  1947,  of  the  plan  to 
partition  the  Holy  Land  into  Jewish  and  Arab 
States  with  an  international  regime  for  Jerusalem, 
the  three  units  to  be  linked  in  economic  union, 
tension  between  Arabs  and  Jews  mounted  in  Pales- 
tine. The  five-member  Palestine  Commission  set 
up  by  the  Assembly  encountered  increasing  diffi- 
culties. Appearing  before  the  Security  Council  on 
February  18,  the  Chairman  of  the  Commission  de- 
clared that  unless  an  international  force  in  effective 
strength  could  be  provided,  Palestine  would,  when 
the  British  left  on  May  15,  become  a  scene  of  wide- 
spread strife  and  bloodshed. 

On  March  19  the  United  States  submitted  to  the 
Security  Council  a  proposal  for  a  temporary  trus- 
teeship for  Palestine  under  the  Trusteeship  Coun- 
cil, and  a  suspension  of  the  efforts  by  the  United 
Nations  Palestine  Commission  to  implement  par- 
tition. A  special  session  of  the  General  Assembly 
was  to  be  called  to  consider  the  Trusteeship  pro- 
posal. The  proposal  to  call  a  special  session  of  the 
Assembly  was  adopted  by  the  Council  on  April  1 
(see  above). 

Shortly  after  the  new  State  of  Israel  was  pro- 
claimed, a  war  which  threatened  to  spread  through- 


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out  the  Middle  East  engulfed  that  area.  The  Se- 
curity Council  intervened  and  ordered  a  truce  in 
Palestine  for  a  month.  The  truce  became  effective 
on  June  11.  Following  the  expiration  of  this  first 
truce,  there  was  a  resumption  of  active  hostilities 
in  Palestine,  which,  however  was  brought  to  a  halt 
by  a  Security  Council  order  on  July  15  of  a  second 
truce  of  indefinite  duration.  The  Council,  in  order- 
ing its  second  truce,  invoked,  for  the  first  time, 
Chapter  VII  of  the  Charter,  declaring  that  failure 
by  any  of  the  governments  or  authorities  concerned 
to  comply  with  the  truce  would  demonstrate  the 
existence  of  a  breach  of  the  peace.  It  thus  implied 
the  use  of  sanctions  or  of  military  force  against  any 
violator  of  the  truce. 

In  the  attempt  to  preserve  peace  in  Palestine, 
various  United  Nations  officials  lost  their  lives,  in- 
cluding the  Mediator  Count  Bernadotte,  who  was 
assassinated  in  Jerusalem  on  September  17.  The 
General  Assembly  at  its  Paris  session  established  in 
December  a  Conciliation  Commission  for  Palestine 
(see  above). 

Hostilities  broke  out  anew  in  southern  Palestine 
on  December  22.  The  Security  Council  on  Decem- 
ber 29  adopted  a  United  Kingdom  resolution  or- 
dering an  immediate  cease-fire  in  the  Negeb  area 
of  southern  Palestine.  At  the  same  time,  the  Coun- 
cil instructed  its  Committee  on  Palestine,  which  it 
had  appointed  in  November,  to  meet  at  Lake  Suc- 
cess on  January  7  to  consider  the  situation  in  south- 
ern Palestine  and  report  to  the  Council  on  the  ex- 
tent to  which  the  governments  concerned  had  by 
that  date  complied  with  the  Council's  resolutions. 

Berlin  Question.  tti  separate,  but  similar  notes,  the 
Governments  of  France,  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
the  United  States  in  October  asked  the  Security 
Council  to  consider  what  they  described  as  the 
blockade  of  Berlin  by  the  U.S.S.R.  and  to  bring 
about  an  ending  of  this  situation.  The  matter  was 
placed  on  the  agenda  in  spite  of  the  protest  of  the 
U.S.S.R.  that  the  Berlin  Question  was  beyond  the 
competence  of  the  United  Nations  and  that  it  re- 
sulted from  the  non-observance  of  certain  interna- 
tional obligations  of  the  Western  Powers. 

A  draft  resolution  was  presented  to  the  Council 
by  the  "neutral"  members  (Argentina,  Belgium, 
Canada,  China,  Colombia,  and  Syria).  It  called 
upon  France,  the  United  Kingdom,  the  United 
States,  and  the  U.S.S.R.  to  put  into  effect  simulta- 
neously the  steps  required  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
following  measures:  an  immediate  removal  by  all 
parties  of  all  restrictions  on  communications,  trans- 
port, and  commerce  between  Berlin  and  the  West- 
ern zones  of  Germany,  and  the  restrictions  on  trans-  A 
port  and  commerce  to  and  from  the  Soviet  zones 
of  Germany,  an  immediate  meeting  of  the  four  Mil- 
itary Governors  to  arrange  for  the  unification  of 
currency  in  Berlin  on  the  basis  of  the  German  mark 
of  the  Soviet  zone;  and  a  reopening  of  the  negotia- 
tions in  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  on  all  out- 
standing problems  concerning  Germany  as  a  whole. 
This  draft  resolution,  however,  did  not  receive  the 
support  of  the  U.S.S.R.,  and  was  therefore  not 
adopted. 

From  this  it  appeared  that  the  main  stumbling 
block  to  a  settlement  of  the  Berlin  question  was 
the  currency  problem.  In  an  effort  to  solve  the 
problem,  Dr.  Juan  Brarnuglia,  President  of  the 
Security  Council  in  ^December,  acting  in  behalf 
of  the  "Six  Neutrals,'*  submitted  to  the  four  gov- 
ernments involved  a  proposal  to  solve  the  currency 
problem.  The  four  governments  on  December  1, 
announced  their  acceptance  of  the  proposal,  that 
called  for  the  creation  of  a  committee  of  six  finan- 
cial experts — composed  of  representatives  of  the 


"Six  Neutrals" — which  would  meet  in  Paris  during 
December  to  consider  ways  and  means  of  estab- 
lishing a  single  currency  for  Berlin.  The  committee 
was  authorized  to  consult  financial  experts  of  the 
four  occupation  authorities  of  Germany,  and  was 
to  submit  its  recommendations  to  the  Security 
Council  within  30  days. 

Indonesian  Question.  As  a  result  ^of  negotiations 
carried  on  by  the  Security  Council's  Committee  of 
Good  Offices  in  Indonesia,  a  truce  agreement  be- 
tween the  Netherlands  and  the  Republic  of  Indo- 
nesia was  signed  on  January  17  Aboard  the  U.S.S. 
Renuille.  Immediate  and  simultaneous  cease-fire 
and  stand-fast  orders  were  issued  to  the  forces  of 
the  two  parties.  At  the  same  time  both  parties 
agreed  to  12  political  principles  and,  two  days 
later,  to  6  additional  principles.  These  18  princi- 
ples were  to  form  the  basis  for  an  attempt  to  settle 
the  dispute  in  the  islands  of  Java,  Madura,  and 
Sumatra.  Agreement  by  both  parties  concerned  to 
settle  their  differences  peacefully,  however,  was 
not  reached,  and  hostilities  broke  out  anew  toward 
the  end  of  the  year. 

The  resumption  of  hostilities  in  the  latter  part 
of  December  led  to  an  emergency  meeting  of  the 
Security  Council  in  Paris.  After  several  motions  for 
stronger  Council  measures,  including  a  resolution 
calling  upon  the  parties  concerned  to  withdraw 
their  armed  forces  behind  the  demilitarized  zones 
established  by  the  truce  agreement,  were  defeated, 
the  Security  Council  on  December  24  voted  to  call 
upon  the  Netherlands  and  the  Indonesian  Republic 
to  cease  hostilities  immediately  and  asked  for  the 
immediate  release  of  the  president  of  the  republic 
and  other  political  leaders  arrested  by  the  Dutch. 

At  another  meeting  of  the  Council  on  Decem- 
ber 29,  the  Dutch  spokesman  declared  that  the 
Netherlands  Government,  although  it  challenged 
the  Council's  competence  in  what  it  regarded  as  a 
domestic  affair,  promised  to  order  a  cease-fire  in 
Java  as  of  midnight,  December  31,  and  in  Sumatra 
a  few  days  thereafter.  He  also  declared  that  the 
detention  of  Republican  leaders  was  a  logical  con- 
sequence of  the  military  operations.  He  stated  that 
since  hostilities  would  shortly  come  to  an  end,  the 
Netherlands  Government  would  thereupon  lift  re- 
strictions on  the  movements  of  the  Republican 
leaders  on  the  understanding  that  the  persons  con- 
cerned would  refrain  from  activities  endangering 
public  security.  He  further  declared  that  in  order 
to  rebuild  cooperation  in  all  of  Indonesia,  the 
Dutch  Prime  Minister  would  leave  for  Indonesia 
in  a  few  days. 

India-Pakistan  Question.  A  dispute  between  India 
and  Pakistan,  involving  in  its  most  serious  aspect 
the  State  of  Jammu  and  Kashmir,  was  brought  to 
the  attention  of  the  Security  Council  in  January, 
1948,  by  India.  India  charged  that  hostile  tribes 
from  outside  the  State  were  receiving  aid  from 
Pakistan  in  their  invasion  of  Jammu  and  Kashmir, 
creating  a  situation  fraught  with  the  utmost  dan- 
ger. The  main  point  at  issue,  it  developed,  was 
whether  the  State,  whose  princely  ruler  had  opted 
for  accession  to  India,  should  accede  to  that  State 
or  to  Pakistan. 

The  Security  Council,  after  first  calling  upon 
India  and  Pakistan  to  take  all  measures  within  their 
power  to  improve  the  situation  and  to  refrain  from 
making  statements  or  from  permitting  acts  which 
might  aggravate  the  situation,  on  January  20  estab- 
lished a  Commission  for  India  and  Pakistan  com- 
posed of  representatives  of  Argentina,  Belgium, 
Colombia,  Czechoslovakia,  and  the  United  States 
to  bring  about  a  cessation  of  hostilities  in  the  area 
and  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  plebiscite  to  determine 


PALAIS  DE  CHAILLOT  in  Paris,  the  meeting   place  of  the  United  Nations,  is  shown  in  a  high  view  from  the  Eiffel 
Tower.  Representatives  of  58  nations  met  here  in  1948  for  the  Third  Session  of  the  United  Nations  General  Assembly. 


Official  United  Nations  Photos 


UN  FLAG  UNFURLED  IN  PARIS.  Two  symbols  face 
each  other  as  the  official  flag  of  the  United  Nations 
is  unfurled  from  the  PalaisPde  Chaillot,  opposite  the 
giffel  Tower  in  Pqris,  Frgnce,  during  September  194$. 


BURMA  JOINS  THE  UNITED  NATIONS.  The  flag  of  Burma  is 
raised  for  the  first  time  in  the  circle  outside  the  United  Nations 
headquarters.  Following  its  admission  by  a  unanimous  vote, 
Burma  became  the  58th  country  to  enter  the  United  Nations. 


-I  ff| 


A  UNITED  NATIONS  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY,  meeting  in  France  for  its  Third  Regular  Session,  is  welcomed  by  M.  Auriol, 
President  of  the  French   Republic.  The  delegates  met  in   the   Palais  de  Chaillot,  in   Paris,  on  September  21,   1948. 

T  COUNT  FOLKE  BERNADOTTE  reports  to  the  United   Nations  Security  Council.    Immediately   behind   the   Mediator 
(speaking)    is    seated    Dr.    Ralph    J.    Bunche,    principal    secretary    to    the    United     Nations    Palestine    Commission. 


Official  United  Nations  Photos 


KASHMIR:  VOTES  INSTEAD  OF  GUNS.  Pakistan  simultaneously  receives  UN  cease-fire  proposals  from  another  UN 
group  which  proceeded  to  the  Muslim  capital  of  Karachi  and  submitted  them  to  Sir  Mohammed  Zafrullah  Khan,  Paki- 
stan's Foreign  Minister.  Pakistani  representatives  in  conference  with  members  of  UN  Commission  on  India  and  Pakistan 
are,  (shown  left  to  right  on  far  side  of  table}:  Mohammed  Ali;  Sir  Zafrullah  Khan,  and  H.  Ayub.  August  1948. 


GENOCIDE    CONVENTION. 

Prof.  Raphael  Lemkin  (left) 
and  Ricardo  Alfaro  of  Pan- 
ama in  conversation  before 
the  plenary  meeting  of  the 
UN  General  Assembly  at 
which  the  Genocide  Conven- 
tion was  approved.  Palais 
de  Chaillot,  Paris,  France. 


BURMA  APPLIES  for  mem- 
bership in  the  United  Na- 
tions. Ambassador  U  So  Nyun 
(left)  talks  with  UN  Secre- 
tary General,  Trygve  Lie, 
after  submitting  Burma's  ap- 
plication for  membership  in 
the  family  of  Unitec!  Nations^ 


WORLD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION  on  June  21,  1948,  held  a  plenary  meeting  of  first  World  Health  Assembly,  in 
Geneva,  Switzerland/  for  the  purpose  of  creating  the  World  Health  Organization  as  a  permanent  Specialized  Agency 
of  the  United  Nations.  At  rostrum  (left  to  right}:  Dr.  Brock  Chisholm,  Executive  Director  of  Interim  Commission;  Profes- 
sor Andrija  Stamper,  of  Yugoslavia,  Assembly  President;  and  Henri  Laugier,  Assistant  Secretary  General  of  the  UN. 


Official  United  Nations  Photos 


INTERNATIONAL  COURT  HEARS  FIRST  CASE— General  view  of  the  International  Court  of  Justice,  as  the  British  rep- 
resentative, Sir   Hartley  Shawcross,   presents  the   case  of  Great   Britain    dealing    with    the    Corfu    Channel    dispute, 


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whether  the  people  of  Jammu  and  Kashmir  wished 
to  join  India  or  Pakistan. 

The  Commission  on  August  13  resolved  to  sub- 
mit simultaneously  to  India  and  Pakistan  proposals 
for  a  cease-fire  order  and  a  trace  agreement  As 
1949  dawned,  India  and  Pakistan  reported  agree- 
ment on  the  mechanics  of  a  plebiscite  to  be  held 
in  Jammu  and  Kashmir  under  United  Nations  aus- 
pices and  ordered  an  immediate  cease-fire.  War  on 
the  subcontinent  was  thus  averted. 

Czechoslovak  Question.  The  representative  of  Chile 
on  March  12  asked  the  Security  Council  to  examine 
the  charges  leveled  against  the  Government  of  the 
U.S.S.R.  two  days  previously  by  the  then  perma- 
nent representative  of  Czechoslovakia,  Mr.  Jan 
Papanek.  Mr.  Papanek,  subsequently  replaced  as 
permanent  representative  of  Czechoslovakia,  had 
charged  the  U.S.S.R.  with  gross  interference  in  the 
internal  aiEairs  of  his  country,  and  had  asked  the 
Council  to  consider  the  matter. 

The  Chilean  request  was  admitted  to  the  Coun- 
cil's agenda  on  March  17,  by  a  vote  of  9  to  2,  the 
representative  of  the  U.S.S.R.  calling  the  charges 
a  gross  libel  on  his  government  and  a  pure  product 
of  the  imagination,  and  consequently  voting  against 
admitting  the  matter  to  the  agenda.  The  charges 
were  repeated  and  elaborated  by  Mr.  Papanek, 
who  had  been  invited  to  the  Council  table  over  the 
objections  of  the  Soviet  and  Ukrainian  representa- 
tives. They  were  denied  once  more  by  the  U.S.S.R, 
representative.  The  Czechoslovak  Government  later 
declined  to  accept  an  invitation,  adopted  by  the 
Council,  to  attend  Council  meetings  in  connection 
with  the  matter. 

A  draft  resolution,  calling  for  the  establishment 
of  a  Council  Committee  to  gather  evidence  and 
receive  testimony,  was  vetoed  by  the  representa- 
tive of  the  U.S.S.R.  when  it  was  put  to  the  vote  on 
May  24.  The  representatives  of  France,  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  the  United  States,  characterizing 
the  Soviet  vote  as  an  abuse  of  the  veto  privilege, 
announced  to  the  Council  that  they  would  be  pre- 
pared to  obtain  statements  from  Czechoslovak  ref- 
ugees who  had  relevant  information  and  that  they 
would  make  such  statements  available  to  the  Coun- 
cil at  a  later  time.  No  further  action  was  taken,  but 
the  matter  remains  on  the  Council's  agenda. 

Hyderabad  Question.  Among  the  unfinished  items 
on  the  Security  Council's  agenda  is  the  question 
of  Hyderabad.  In  placing  the  matter  on  its  agenda 
in  September,  at  the  request  of  Hyderabad,  the 
Council  expressly  declared  that  in  so  doing  it  was 
not  deciding  the  question  of  its  own  competence 
to  deal  with  the  issue.  Indian  troops  crossed  the 
frontiers  of  the  princely  State  of  Hyderabad  to  put 
an  end,  according  to  the  Indian  Government's  an- 
nouncement, to  a  reign  of  terrorism  and  to  reestab- 
lish law  and  order. 

The  Nizam  of  Hyderabad  subsequently  surren- 
dered, dismissed  the  Cabinet  which  had  filed  the 
complaint  against  India  with  the  Security  Council, 
and  asked  that  the  case  be  withdrawn.  This  request 
for  withdrawal  of  the  case  was  supported  by  India, 
which- had,  from  the  beginning,  denied  the  compe- 
tence of  the  Council  to  deal  with  the  matter,  on  the 
grounds  that  it  was  a  domestic  Indian  issue.  The 
Council,  however,  decided  to  retain  the  matter  on 
its  agenda  for  the  time  being. 

Appointment  of  a  Governor  of  the  Free  Territory  of 
Trieste.  The  Security  Council  on  Jan.  10,  1947, 
approved  the  annexes  to  the  Peace  Treaty  with 
Italy,  relating  to  the  creation  and  government  of 
the  Free  Territory  of  Trieste,  including  an  arrange- 
ment for  a  free  port.  The  Council  thus  accepted  the 
responsibility  of  insuring  the  independence  and 


integrity  of  the  Free  Territory  of  Trieste,  including 
the  responsibility  of  appointing  the  Governor.  The 
Council  members,  however,  were  unable  in  1948 
as  in  1947,  to  agree  on  a  candidate  for  the  gover- 
norship, so  that  the  post  remained  vacant. 

The  Question  of  the  Free  Territory  of  Trieste.  The 
representative  of  Yugoslavia  in  August  charged 
that  the  Anglo-American  agreements  with  Italy  re- 
garding the  Free  Territory  of  Trieste  were  viola- 
tions of  the  Italian  Peace  Treaty  since  they  aimed 
at  incorporation  of  the  Anglo-American  Zone  of  the 
Territory  into  the  Republic  of  Italy.  He  submitted 
a  draft  resolution  to  the  Council,  supported  by  the 
representative  of  the  Ukrainian  S.S.R.,  calling  for 
those  agreements  to  be  declared  null  and  void. 

The  representative  of  the  Ukrainian  S.S.R.  sub- 
mitted a  draft  resolution  to  the  Council  under 
which  the  Council  would  have  declared  it  urgently 
necessary  to  solve  the  problem  of  the  appointment 
of  a  governor  for  the  Free  Territory.  The  repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  and  the  United 
Kingdom  called  the  Yugoslav  charges  flimsy  and 
unwarranted,  and  the  Council  on  August  19  re- 
jected both  the  Yugoslav  and  the  Ukrainian  reso- 
lutions. 

Admission  of  New  Members.  The  Union  of  Burma 
on  Feb.  27,  1948,  applied  for  membership  in  the 
United  Nations.  The  Security  Council  on  April  10 
and  the  General  Assembly  on  Apr.  19,  1948,  de- 
cided in  favor  of  Burma's  admission,  which  became 
effective  on  the  latter  date. 

Also  on  April  10,  the  Security  Council  reconsid- 
ered the  applications  of  all  States  it  had  previously 
failed  to  recommend  for  membership  (Albania, 
Austria,  Bulgaria,  Finland,  Hungary,  Ireland,  Italy, 
Mongolia,  ^Portugal,  Roumania,  and  Transjordan). 
Only  Italy's  application  was  voted  on.  It  received 
9  affirmative  votes,  but  because  of  the  negative 
vote  of  a  permanent  member  (U.S.S.R.),  it  was 
not  approved.  The  consideration  of  the  remaining 
applications  was  postponed. 

The  Security  Council  on  August  18  rejected, 
because  of  the  adverse  vote  of  a  permanent  mem- 
ber, a  Chinese  proposal  to  recommend  the  admis- 
sion of  Ceylon  to  the  United  Nations.  The  vote  was 
9  in  favor  to  2  against  (Ukrainian  S.S.R.  and 
U.S.S.R.). 

By  a  letter  dated  November  29  from  the  Minister 
for  Foreign  Affairs,  the  Provisional  Government  of 
Israel  applied  for  membership  in  the  United  Na- 
tions. Israel's  application  was  rejected  by  the  Secu- 
rity Council  on  December  17,  when  only  5  votes 
were  produced  in  favor,  with  one  country  (Syria) 
voting  against  and  5  abstentions.  According  to  the 
Charter,  adoption  of  such  a  resolution  needs  7  af- 
firmative votes,  including  the  concurring  votes  of 
the  permanent  members. 

Acting  on  the  resolution  of  the  General  Assembly 
regarding  Ceylon's  application  for  membership  to 
the  United  Nations  (see  General  Assembly  above), 
the  Security  Council  in  December  again  considered 
the  matter.  Ceylon's  application  was  again  rejected 
by  the  Council  on  December  15,  however,  because 
of  the  negative  votes  of  the  U.S.S.R.  and  the 
Ukrainian  S.S.R.  The  vote  was  9  in  favor  and  2 
against. 

Military  Staff  Committee.  Under  Article  43  of  the 
United  Nations  Charter  all  Members  of  the  United 
Nations  undertake  to  make  available  to  the  Secu- 
rity Council,  on  its  call  and  in  accordance  with  a 
special  agreement  or  agreements,  armed  forces,  as- 
sistance, and  facilities  necessary  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  international  peace  and  security.  Arti- 
cle 47  of  the  Charter  provides  that  a  Military  Staff 
Committee,  composed  of  the  Chiefs  of  Staff  of  the 


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578 


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permanent  members  of  the  Security  Council  or 
their  representatives,  be  established  to  assist  the 
Security  Council  on  all  questions  related  to  the 
Security  Council's  military  requirements,  and  the 
employment,  command,  and  strategic  direction  of 
armed  forces  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Security 
Council. 

During  the  year  1948  the  Military  Staff  Commit- 
tee, in  accordance  with  directives  issued  by  the  Se- 
curity Council,  continued  its  examination  of  the 
provisions  of  Article  43  of  the  United  Nations 
Charter  from  the  military  point  of  view.  The  ques- 
tion of  the  over-all  strength  and  composition  of  the 
armed  forces  to  be  made  available  to  the  Security 
Council  was  also  under  consideration  by  the  Mili- 
tary Staff  Committee. 

Atomic  Energy  Commission.  On  Jan.  24,  1946,  the 
General  Assembly  unanimously  resolved  to  estab- 
lish a  commission  to  deal  with  the  problems  raised 
by  the  discovery  of  atomic  energy.  This  body  is 
composed  of  one  representative  from  each  of  the 
States  represented  on  the  Security  Council  and 
Canada,  when  Canada  is  not  a  member  of  the  Se- 
curity Council. 

On  May  17,  1948,  the  Atomic  Energy  Commis- 
sion adopted  a  joint  statement  by  France,  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  the  United  States  indicating 
that  it  had  reached  an  impasse  in  its  work,  and 
therefore  could  not  prepare  a  draft  treaty  on  the 
control  of  atomic  energy.  This  statement  said  that 
the  difficulties  which  confronted  the  Commission 
were  first  evidenced  when  the  plan  for  the  control 
of  atomic  energy,  under  consideration  by  most  of 
the  members,  was  rejected  by  the  U.S.S.R.,  either 
as  a  whole  or  in  its  separate  parts,  on  the  ground 
that  such  a  plan  constituted  an  unwarranted  in- 
fringement on  national  sovereignty. 

For  its  part,  the  U.S.S.R.  insisted  that  a  conven- 
tion outlawing  atomic  weapons  and  providing  for 
the  destruction  of  existing  weapons  must  precede 
any  control  agreement.  The  majority  of  the  Com- 
mission considered  that  such  a  convention,  without 
safeguards,  would  offer  no  protection  against  non- 
compliance. 

Because  of  the  failure  to  achieve  agreement  on 
the  international  control  of  atomic  energy,  the  joint 
statement  went  on  to  say,  the  Commission  con- 
cluded that  no  useful  purpose  could  be  served  by 
carrying  on  negotiations  at  the  Commission  level. 
It  recommended  that  such  negotiations  should  be 
suspended  until  such  time  as  the  permanent  mem- 
bers of  the  Commission  (Canada,  China,  France, 
the  U.S.S.R.,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  United 
States)  found,  through  prior  consultation,  that 
there  existed  a  basis  for  agreement  on  international 
control. 

In  view  of  the  nature  of  the  impasse  in  the 
Atomic  Energy  Commission,  the  representative  of 
the  United  States  submitted  a  draft  resolution  to 
the  Security  Council  on  June  11,  which  among 
other  things,  called  on  the  Security  Council  to  ac- 
cept the  first  three  reports  of  the  Atomic  Energy 
Commission  and  to  approve  certain  of  its  findings 
and  recommendations. 

This  draft  resolution  was  put  to  the  vote  on 
June  22.  The  result  was  9  in  favor  and  2  against,  but 
since  one  of  the  two  opposing  members  (U.S.S.R.) 
was  a  permanent  member  of  the  Security  Council, 
the  resolution  was  not  adopted.  The  Council  then 
adopted  a  Canadian  draft  resolution  which  directed 
the  Secretary  General  to  transmit  to  the  General 
Assembly  and  to  the  Member  nations  of  the  United 
Nations,  the  first  three  reports  of  the  Commission, 
together  with  the  record  of  the  deliberations  of  the 
Security  Council  on  this  subject,  as  a  matter  of 


special  concern   (see  General  Assembly  above). 
Commission  for  Conventional  Armaments.  On  Dec. 

14,  1946,  the  General  Assembly  adopted  a  resolu- 
tion recommending  that  "the  Security  Council  give 
prompt  consideration  to  formulating  the  practical 
measures,  according  to  their  priority,  which  are  es- 
sential to  provide  for  the  general  regulation  and 
reduction  of  armaments  and  armed  forces  and  to 
assure  that  such  regulation  and  reduction  of  arma- 
ments and  armed  forces  will  be  generally  observed 
by  all  participants  and^not  unilaterally  by  only 
some  of  the  participants."  In  order  to  work  out  the 
practical  measures  for  giving  effect  to  this  resolu- 
tion and  in  accordance  with  Article  26  of  the  Char- 
ter, which  places  upon  it  the  responsibility  for  the 
establishment  of  a  system  for  the  regulation  of  ar- 
maments, the  Security  Council  on  Feb.  13,  1947, 
established  a  Commission  for  Conventional  Arma- 
ments. The  Commission  was  instructed  to  submit 
proposals  to  the  Council  within  three  months. 

The  Commission  for  Conventional  Armaments 
on  Aug.  12,  1948,  approved  two  resolutions  previ- 
ously adopted  by  its  Working  Committee.  The  first 
resolution  stated  that  it  considered  all  armaments 
and  armed  forces,  except  atomic  weapons  and 
weapons  of  mass  destruction,  as  falling  within  its 
jurisdiction.  Weapons  of  mass  destruction  were  de- 
fined in  the  resolution  to  include  atomic  explosive 
weapons,  radioactive  material  weapons,  lethal 
chemical  and  biological  weapons,  and  any  weapons 
developed  in  the  future  which  have  characteristics 
comparable  in  destructive  effect  to  those  of  the 
atomic  bomb  or  other  weapons  mentioned  above. 
The  Commission  proposed  to  proceed  with  its  work 
on  the  basis  of  the  above  definition. 

The  second  resolution  embodied  a  number  of 
general  principles  which  should  govern  the  regula- 
tion and  reduction  of  armaments  and  armed  forces. 
The  resolution  stated  that  a  system  for  such  a  regu- 
lation and  reduction  should  provide  for  the  adher- 
ence of  all  States,  and  that  initially  it  must  include 
at  least  all  States  having  substantial  military  re- 
sources. It  went  on  to  state  that  such  a  system 
could  only  be  put  into  effect  in  an  atmosphere  of 
international  confidence  and  security.  It  listed  the 
following  examples  of  conditions  essential  to  inter- 
national confidence  and  security:  the  establishment 
of  an  adequate  system  of  agreements  under  Article 
43  of  the  Charter;  the  establishment  of  interna- 
tional control  of  atomic  energy;  and  the  conclusion 
of  the  peace  settlements  with  Germany  and  Japan. 

The  second  resolution  further  stated  that  to  con- 
form with  Article  26  of  the  Charter,  armaments 
and  armed  forces,  under  an  effective  system  for 
their  regulation  and  reduction,  must -be  limited  to 
those  consistent  with  and  indispensable  to  the 
maintenance  of  international  peace  and  security, 
and  must  not  exceed  those  necessary  for  the  im- 
plementation of  Members'  obligations  and  the  pro- 
tection of  their  rights  under  the  Charter.  To  ensure 
observance,  such  a  system,  it  was  stated,  must  in- 
clude adequate  safeguards,  including  an  agreed 
system  of  international  supervision.  Finally,  the 
resolution  stated  that  provision  should  be  made  for 
effective  enforcement  in  the  event  of  violation. 

The  Commission,  on  Aug.  17,  1948,  completed 
a  paragraph-by-paragraph  study  of  its  second  re- 
port to  the  Security  Council,  in  the  course  of  which 
some*  amendments  were  made.  No  vote  was  taken 
on  the  report  but  the  Commission  was  agreed  that 
if  no  delegation  requested  a  final  reading  before 
September  15,  the  report  would  be  considered  as 
approved.  On  September  14,  however,  the  U.S.S.R. 
informed  the  Commission  that  it  could  not  agree 
with  the  draft  of  the  Commission's  report.  (For 


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further    developments,    see    General    Assembly, 
above. ) 

ECONOMIC  AND-  SOCIAL  COUNCIL 

The  Economic  and  Social  Council,  operating  un- 
der the  authority  of  the  General  Assembly,  initiates 
studies  and  makes  recommendations  with  respect 
to  international  economic  and  social  matters;  pro- 
motes respect  for,  and  observance  of,  human  rights 
and  fundamental  freedoms;  prepares  draft  conven- 
tions and  calls  international  conferences  with  re- 
spect to  matters  falling  within  its  competence.  It 
enters  into  agreements  with  specialized  agencies 
and  coordinates  the  policies  and  activities  of  such 
agencies.  The  Council  consists  of  18  members 
elected  by  the  General  Assembly  for  three-year 
terms,  During  the  year  the  Council  held  two  ses- 
sions— its  sixth  and  seventh.  Some  of  the  major 
economic  and  social  problems  tackled  by  the  Eco- 
nomic and  Social  Council  and  its  subsidiary  bodies 
are  summarized  below. 

One  of  the  essential  activities  of  the  United  Na- 
tions in  the  economic  field  is  the  preparation  of 
surveys  and  reports  on  the  basis  of  which  action 
can  be  taken  or  recommended.  Among  the  eco- 
nomic reports  prepared  by  the  Secretariat  during 
1948  were  a  report  on  the  salient  features  of  the 
world  economic  situation  from  1945  to  1947,  a 
survey  of  the  economic  situation  and  prospects  of 
Europe,  and  an  economic  survey  of  Asia  and  the 
Far  East  in  1947. 

The  work  of  the  regional  economic  commissions 
has  been  outstanding.  The  Economic  Commission 
for  Europe,  established  in  March,  1947,  has  now 
built  up  its  organizational  structure  so  as  to  deal 
with  many  problems  of  shortages  which  hamper 
the  recovery  of  European  trade.  Although  much  of 
its  work  has  been  concentrated  on  the  collection 
and  exchange  of  information,  its  work  has  in  some 
fields  resulted  in  increased  production.  As  an  exam- 
ple, the  Commission,  late  in  the  year,  reported  that 
one  of  the  major  bottlenecks  in  steel  production — 
the  shortage  of  coke — had  been  virtually  elimi- 
nated. 

Increases  of  production  have  also  been  noted  in 
the  case  of  fertilizers  and  silica  bricks.  The  Com- 
mission through  its  various  subsidiary  bodies  has 
also  considered  housing  needs  and  programs,  re- 
quirements for  building  materials  and  measures  to 
economize  the  use  of  scarce  materials;  has  made 
recommendations  concerning  the  allocation  of  coal 
and  has  dealt  with  questions  concerning  mining 
equipment  and  pitwood.  It  has  carried  out  studies 
on  the  coordinated  development  of  European  pow- 
er resources  and  facilitated  the  negotiation  of  inter- 
national agreements  for  the  supply  and  exchange 
of  electrical  energy. 

With  the  FAO,  it  is  considering  the  problems  of 
the  European  timber  situation  and,  with  the  ILO, 
problems  concerning  manpower.  It  has  also  taken 
a  number  of  measures  to  restore  European  inland 
transport  facilities  and  to  ensure  their  most  effec- 
tive use — for  example,  through  securing  a  large 
measure  of  agreement  on  regulations  governing  the 
exchange  of  railway-wagons  in  international  traf- 
fic and  through  securing  the  lifting  of  some  of  the 
restrictions  on  the  freedom  of  the  road. 

The  Economic  Commission  for  Asia,  established 
at  the  same  time  as  the  Economic  Commission  for 
Europe,  has  considered,  inter  alia,  the  problem  of 
flood  control,  which  is  vital  to  the  economy  of  the 
area  in  which  it  operates.  A  Bureau  of  Flood  Con- 
trol is  being  established  which  is  to  contain  flood 
control  experts,  to  provide  technical  advice  to  the 
Commission. 


A  working  party  of  the  Commission  is  preparing, 
in  collaboration  with  the  governments  concerned, 
a  survey  of  the  economic  and  industrial  develop- 
ment of  the  region,  studying,  in  the  first  place: 
fuel  and  power,  transport  and  transport  equipment 
in  relation  to  industry,  fertilizers  and  agricultural 
requisites,  basic  materials  including  ores  and  met- 
als, textiles,  and  heavy  engineering  industries.  The 
Commission  appealed  to  advanced  industrial  na- 
tions for  capital  goods  and  basic  materials  needed 
for  rehabilitation  and  recovery  and  asked  the  coun- 
tries of  its  region  to  specify  their  short-term  needs 
and  their  long-term  plans  for  industrial  develop- 
ment. 

During  its  sixth  session,  the  Economic  and  Social 
Council  on  February  25  established  an  Economic 
Commission  for  Latin  America.  The  principal  tasks 
of  this  Commission  are  to  assist  concerted  action 
for  dealing  with  economic  problems  arising  out  of 
the  war,  for  raising  the  level  of  economic  activities 
of  the  countries  of  Latin  America,  and  for  main- 
taining and  strengthening  the  economic  relations 
of  Latin  American  countries,  both  among  them- 
selves and  with  other  countries  of  the  world.  The 
Commission  held  its  first  session  in  Santiago  de 
Chile  in  June.  Among  other  things,  it  requested 
its  Executive  Secretary  to  present  to  its  next  session 
an  economic  survey  of  Latin  America  and  to  make 
a  preliminary  study  of  the  needs  of  Latin  American 
countries  for  technical  and  administrative  person- 
nel, means  and  facilities,  and  their  present  avail- 
ability. 

As  part  of  its  statistical  activities,  the  Statistical 
Commission,  in  order  to  meet  the  most  pressing 
needs  and  especially  those  which  national  govern- 
ments will  face  in  their  plans  for  the  censuses  of 
agriculture  and  population  in  1950  census  pro- 
grams, is  studying  means  whereby  technical  advice  • 
and  assistance  may  be  rendered  to  national  govern- 
ments with  a  view  to  developing  more  adequate 
statistics  and  improving  the  comparability  of  data 
available  to  international  organizations. 

Three  types  of  statistical  publications  arise  out  of 
the  work  of  the  Statistical  Office  of  the  United  Na- 
tions as  part  of  its  program  in  the  collection  and 
publication  of  statistics  and  the  development  of 
statistical  standards.  The  first  consists  of  economic 
and  social  statistics  of  current  interest  of  interna- 
tional organizations  and  Members  of  the  United 
Nations  published  in  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  Sta- 
tistics. A  second  type  of  statistics  covering  a  much 
wider  field  of  statistics  is  collected  by  the  United 
Nations  and  published  in  the  Statistical  Yearbook 
and  title  Demographic  Yearbook.  The  third  type 
arises  out  of  the  specific  projects  of  research  or 
special  studies.  Such  studies  include  a  report  on 
National  Income  Statistics  of  Various  Countries 
1938-1947. 

Following  a  recommendation  of  the  Transport 
and  Communications  Commission,  a  United  Na- 
tions Maritime  Conference  met  in  Geneva  from 
February  19  to  March  6.  The  Conference  prepared 
and  opened  for  signature  and  acceptance  a  Con- 
vention, providing  for  the  establishment  of  the 
Intergovernmental  Maritime  Consultative  Organi- 
zation. 

Another  conference  held  in  1948  was  the  United 
Nations  Conference  on  Freedom  of  Information 
which  met  at  Geneva  from  March  23  to  April  21. 
The  Conference  prepared  the  following  three  Draft 
Conventions:  ( 1 )  Draft  Convention  on  the  Gather- 
ing and  International  Transmission  of  News;  (2) 
Draft  Convention  concerning  the  Institution  of  an 
International  Right  of  Correction;  and  (3)  Draft 
Convention  on  Freedom  of  Information.  The  Con- 


ON/TED  NATIONS 


580 


UNITED  NATIONS 


ference  also  adopted  a  number  of  resolutions 
grouped  under  the  following  headings:  (1)  general 
principles;  (2)  measures  to  facilitate  the  gathering 
and  international  transmission  of  information;  (3; 
measures  concerning  the  free  publication  and  re- 
ception of  information;  (4)  continuing  machinery 
to  promote  the  free  flood  of  information;  ( 5 )  mis- 
cellaneous, and  (6)  possible  modes  of  action  by 
means  of  which  recommendations  of  the  Economic 
and  Social  Council  can  best  be  put  into  effect. 

Still  another  conference  held  was  the  United 
Nations  Conference  on  Trade  and  Employment 
which  met  at  Havana,  Cuba,  from  Nov.  21,  1947, 
to  Mar.  24,  1948,  The  Conference  drew  up  the 
Havana  Charter  for  an  International  Trade  Organi- 
zation. 

The  International  Children's  Emergency  Fund, 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Economic  and  Social 
Council,  is  now  bringing  a  supplementary  meal  to 
over  4  million  children  and  nursing  or  pregnant 
mothers  in  various  European  countries.  It  has  em- 
barked, in  collaboration  with  the  WHO  and  the 
Danish  Red  Cross  and  its  Scandinavian  associates, 
upon  an  antituberculosis  vaccination  program 
which  will  cover  more  than  50  million  children  in 
Europe  alone.  The  Fund  is  also  starting  an  anti- 
venereal  disease  project  and  a  regional  malaria-con- 
trol project  for  children  and  mothers.  The  Fund's 
feeding  program  in  Asia  is  well  under  way,  and  it 
has  sent  supplies  for  Arab  and  Jewish  refugee 
children  in  the  Near  East. 

A  United  Nations  Appeal  for  Children  was 
launched  in  1948.  This  Appeal,  which  is  a  world- 
wide appeal  for  funds  for  children,  adolescents, 
and  nursing  and  expectant  mothers,  by  the  begin- 
ning of  December  passed  the  $30  million  mark  in 
worldwide  contributions.  Fifty  countries  and  28 
Non-Sel£-Governing  Territories  participated  in  the 
Appeal  during  1948.  Through  its  Advisory  Social 
Welfare  Program  the  United  Nations  continued  to 
provide  consultants,  fellowships,  prosthetic  ap- 
pliances, literature,  and  films;  it  also  held  special 
welfare  seminars  at  the  request  of  Member  Gov- 
ernments. 

At  its  second  session,  held  at  the  headquarters 
of  the  United  Nations  in  January,  1948,  the  Com- 
mission on  the  Status  of  Women  noted  with  satis- 
faction that,  since  its  first  session,  Argentina  and 
Venezuela  had  granted  women  full  political  rights, 
and  it  expressed  the  hope  that  plans  for  similar 
action  by  Costa  Rica,  Colombia,  Peru,  and  Chile 
might  be  completed  as  soon  as  possible. 

Other  actions  initiated  by  the  Economic  and 
Social  Council  or  its  subsidiary  bodies  were  suc- 
cessfully brought  to  an  end  by  the  General  Assem- 
bly. Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Universal 
Declaration  of  Human  Rights,  the  Convention  on 
Genocide,  and  the  protocol  extending  existing  con- 
ventions for  the  control  of  traffic  in  narcotic  drugs 
to  include  new  synthetic  products, 

TRUSTEESHIP  AND  NON-SELF-GOVERNING 
TERM-TORIES. 

Under  Chapters  XI,  XII,  and  XIII  of  the  Charter, 
the  work  of  the  United  Nations  in  the  field  of  Non- 
Self-Governing  Territories  falls  into  two  categories : 
(1)  the  duties  and  functions  of  the  Trusteeship 
Council  with  respect  to  those  territories  placed 
under  the  Trusteeship  System;  and  (2)  the  re- 
sponsibility of  the  Secretary  General  in  connection 
with  information  on  all  Non-Self-Governing  Ter- 
ritories other  than  Trust  Territories. 

Trusteeship  Council.  In  pursuance  of  a  resolution 
adopted  by  the  General  Assembly  on  Dec.  14, 
1946,  the  Trusteeship  Council  was  constituted  as  a 


principal  organ  of  the  United  Nations.  The  last 
such  organ  to  come  into  existence,  it  convened  for 
its  first  session  at  Lake  Success  on  Mar.  26,  1947. 

The  administration  of  Trust  Territories  is  subject 
to  the  supervision  of  the  United  Nations.  Admin- 
istering Authorities  are  required  to  render,  from 
year  to  year,  an  account  of  their  stewardship  to  the 
Trusteeship  Council,  and  the  latter,  after  examining 
these  accounts,  may  make  suggestions  for  improve- 
ments. In  addition,  the  Council  may  entertain  peti- 
tions from  private  persons  or  organizations  regard- 
ing conditions  in  the  Trust  Territories  and  may 
dispatch  regular  or  special  visiting  missions  to  these 
regions  for  studying  conditions  at  first  hand. 

As  at  present  constituted,  the  Council  consists 
of  12  members.  Australia,  Belgium,  France,  New 
Zealand,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  United 
States  are  members  by  virtue  of  their  being  Admin- 
istering Authorities.  Two  countries,  namely  China 
and  the  U.S.S.R.,  hold  membership  by  virtue  of 
being  permanent  members  of  the  Security  Council 
but  not  administering  Trust  Territories.  The  other 
4  members — Costa  Rica,  Iraq,  the  Philippines,  and 
Mexico — were  elected  for  three-year  terms  by  the 
General  Assembly  in  accordance  with  Article  86, 
paragraph  l(c)  of  the  Charter. 

During  1948  the  Trusteeship  Council  examined 
in  detail  reports  on  conditions  in  the  Trust  Terri- 
tories of  New  Guinea,  administered  by  Australia; 
Ruanda-Urundi,  administered  by  Belgium;  and 
Tanganyika,  administered  by  the  United  Kingdom. 
Measures  for  the  improvement  of  various  aspects 
of  life  in  those  territories,  whose  total  population  is 
close  to  9  million  people,  were  proposed  by  the 
Trusteeship  Council. 

Among  the  many  petitions  considered  by  the 
Council  was  one  from  the  Ewe  people,  a  tribe 
whose  members  now  are  divided  by  the  boundary 
lines  of  Togoland  under  French  administration, 
Togoland  under  British  administration,  and  the 
British  Gold  Coast.  The  Ewe,  who  were  repre- 
sented before  the  Council  by  one  of  their  members 
to  support  their  written  petition,  asked  that  the 
division  of  their  tribe  be  brought  to  an  end  and 
that  they  be  permitted  to  live  under  a  single  ad- 
ministration. The  Council  took  note  of  a  program 
worked  out  jointly  by  France  and  the  United  King- 
dom to  improve  the  position  of  the  Ewe.  At  the 
same  time  the  Council  decided  to  take  up  the  ques- 
tion again  after  hearing  from  a  regular  visiting 
mission  of  its  own  which  would  study  the  Togoland 
region  in  1949. 

Two  special  questions  had  been  referred  to  the 
Council  by  the  General  Assembly:  the  problem  of 
South- West  Africa  and  that  of  Jerusalem.  South- 
West  Africa  is  a  former  German  colony  whose  ad- 
ministration as  a  Mandated  Territory  had  been  en- 
trusted to  the  Union  of  South  Africa  by  the  League 
of  Nations.  The  Assembly  had  repeatedly  requested 
the  Union*  Government  to  place  South- West  Africa 
under  the  International  Trusteeship  System.  The 
Union  Government,  however,  declared  itself  un- 
able to  comply  with  this  request.  The  Assembly 
had  further  decided  that  the  report  submitted 
on  South- West  Africa  by  the  Union  Government 
should  be  examined  by  the  Trusteeship  Council. 
This  duty  the  Council  discharged  in  1948  (see  also 
General  Assembly  above ) . 

Under  the  original  partition  resolution  on  Pales- 
tine, the  Assembly  in  November,  1947,  had,  among 
other  things,  asked  the  Trusteeship  Council  to  pre- 
pare a  Statute  for  the  City  of  Jerusalem  which  was 
to  have  been  placed  under  an  international  regime. 
When  the  Assembly  held  its  second  special  session, 
the  Trusteeship  Council  notified  it  that  it  had  pre- 


UNITED  NATIONS 


581 


UNITED  STATES 


pared  such  a  Statute,  and  asked  the  Assembly  for 
further  instructions.  As  no  such  instructions  were 
given,  and  because  o£  the  changed  conditions  in 
the  area,  the  Trusteeship  Council  did  not  formally 
adopt  the  Statute,  nor  did  it  take  any  further  action 
on  it. 

The  Council  sent  out  its  first  Visiting  Mission  to 
inspect  conditions  in  Ruanda-Urundi,  Belgian 
Trust  Territory  in  East  Africa;  and  in  Tanganyika, 
British  Trust  Territory,  Reports  of  this  Mission 
will  be  considered  by  the  Council  in  1949.  The 
dispatch  of  a  previous  Visiting  Mission  to  Western 
Samoa  which  had  been  sent  in  1947  in  response 
to  a  petition  from  the  indigenous  population  led, 
with  the  cooperation  of  the  Administering  Au- 
thority of  New  Zealand,  to  a  substantially  increased 
measure  of  self-government  for  the  inhabitants  of 
that  area. 

Non-Se!f-Governing  Territories.  The  role  of  the 
United  Nations  with  respect  to  non-self-governing 
territories  not  placed  under  Trusteeship  is  much 
more  limited.  Those  responsible  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  such  territories  have  pledged  themselves 
in  the  Charter  to  recognize  the  principle  that  the 
interests  of  the  inhabitants  of  such  areas  are  para- 
mount and  to  accept,  as  a  sacred  trust,  the  obliga- 
tions to  promote  to  the  largest  possible  extent  the 
welfare  of  such  peoples.  Futhermore,  the  Metro- 
politan Powers  are  bound  by  the  Charter  to  submit 
reports  on  all  but  political  aspects  of  developments 
in  such  non-self-governing  territories.  While  no 
machinery  is  provided  in  the  Charter  for  the  pur- 
pose of  examining  these  reports,  the  Assembly  de- 
cided in  1946  to  establish  a  special  committee  for 
that  purpose.  The  Special  Committee  met  in  1947 
and  again  in  1948,  examining  in  the  course  of  the 
latter  year  reports  covering  more  than  60  non-self- 
governing  territories.  The  Committee  formulated 
a  number  of  proposals  and  recommended  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Special  Committee  in  1949. 
These  recommendations  were  endorsed  by  the  As- 
sembly (see  above). 

THE  INTERNATIONAL  COURT  OF  JUSTICE 

The  International  Court  of  Justice  is  the  princi- 
pal judicial  organ  of  the  United  Nations.  It  func- 
tions in  accordance  with  its  Statute,  which  is  based 
upon  the  Statute  of  the  Permanent  Court  of  Inter- 
national Justice,  and  forms  an  integral  part  of  the 
Charter.  All  Members  of  the  United  Nations  are 
ipso  facto  parties  to  the  Statute  of  the  International 
Court  of  Justice. 

The  International  Court  of  Justice  in  1948  con- 
tinued its  study  of  the  Corfu  Channel  incident.  The 
Security  Council  on  Apr.  9,  1947,  had  recommend- 
ed that  the  dispute,  which  concerned  an  incident 
in  which  two  British  warships  were  damaged  in 
the  Corfu  Channel  on  Oct.  22,  1946,  be  referred 
to  the  Court.  On  Mar.  25,  1948,  the  Court  deliv- 
ered a  judgment  rejecting  the  Albanian  objection 
( that  the  United  Kingdom  was  not  entitled  to  refer 
this  dispute  to  the  Court  by  unilateral  application) 
on  the  grounds,  inter  alia,  that  the  Albanian  Gov- 
ernments letter  of  July  2,  1947,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  Court,  constituted  a  voluntary  and  indisputable 
acceptance  of  the  Court's  jurisdiction. 

The  Court  held  that  there  was  nothing  to  pre- 
vent the  acceptance  of  jurisdiction,  as  in  the  pres- 
ent case,  from  being  effected  by  two  separate  and 
successive  acts,  instead  of  jointly  and  beforehand 
by  a  special  agreement.  The  Court  also  held  that 
the  reservations  stated  in  the  Albanian  Govern- 
ment's letter  were  intended  only  to  maintain  a 
principle  and  to  prevent  the  establishment  of  a 
precedent  for  the  future.  The  Court  maintained 


that  the  reservation  of  Albania  therefore  did  not 
enable  Albania  to  raise  a  preliminary  objection 
based  on  an  irregularity  of  procedure,  or  to  dispute 
thereafter  the  Court's  jurisdiction  on  the  merits. 

Immediately  after  the  delivery  of  judgment,  the 
agents  for  the  Albanian  and  United  Kingdom  Gov- 
ernments announced  to  the  Court  the  conclusion 
between  their  respective  governments  of  a  Special 
Agreement,  drawn  up  as  a  result  of  the  resolution 
of  the  Security  Council  of  Apr,  9,  1947,  for  the 
purpose  of  submitting  to  the  Court  for  decision  the 
following  questions: 

"1.  Is  Albania  responsible  under  international 
law  for  the  explosions  which  occurred  on  October 
22,  1946,  in  Albanian  waters  and  for  the  damage 
and  loss  of  human  life  which  resulted  from  them, 
and  is  there  any  duty  to  pay  compensation? 

"2.  Has  the  United  Kingdom  under  international 
law  violated  the  sovereignty  of  the  Albanian  Peo- 
ple's Republic  by  reason  of  the  acts  of  the  Royal 
Navy  in  Albanian  waters  on  October  22  and  on' 
November  12  and  13,  1946,  and  is  there  any  duty 
to  give  satisfaction?" 

Proceedings  on  the  case  are  continuing. 

The  Court  on  May  28,  1948,  delivered  its  first 
advisory  opinion  on  the  question  of  the  admission 
of  Members  to  the  United  Nations.  By  a  vote  of 
9  to  6  the  Court  declared  that  it  was  of  the  opinion 
that  a  Member  is  not  juridically  entitled  to  make  its 
consent  to  the  admission  of  a  state  dependent  on 
conditions  not  expressly  provided  in  Article  4,  para- 
graph 1  of  the  Charter,  and  that,  in  particular,  a 
Member  may  not  make  its  affirmative  vote  for  the 
admission  of  any  State  subject  to  the  admission  of 
other  States, 

On  July  28,  Switzerland  became  the  first  non- 
Member  of  the  United  Nations  to  become  a  party 
to  the  Statute  of  the  International  Court  of  Jus- 
tice. 

UN!TED  STATES.  The  area  of  the  United  States  prop- 
er, or  the  48  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia, 
is  3,022,387  square  miles,  excluding  inland  waters 
having  an  area  of  45,259  square  miles.  The  non- 
contiguous lands  subject  to  the  authority  of  the 
United  States  (Alaska,  American  Samoa,  Guam, 
Hawaii,  Panama  Canal  Zone,  Puerto  Rico,  Trust 
Territory  of  the  Pacific  Islands,  and  Virgin  Islands ) 
comprise  696,721  square  miles. 

The  population  of  continental  United  States 
(Sixteenth  Census)  April,  1940,  was  131,669,275. 
On  July  1,  1947,  the  population  was  estimated  by 
the  Bureau  of  the  Census  to  be  143,382,000,  and 
on  Jan.  1,  1949,  it  was  estimated  to  be  147,946,000. 

On  Nov,  2,  1948,  the  date  of  the  national  elec- 
tion, the  population  of  the  United  States  21  years 
old  and  over,  including  persons  in  the  armed  forces 
overseas,  was  estimated  at  94,641,000.  In  all  States 
except  Georgia  the  population  21  years  old  and 
over  is  the  population  of  voting  age.  Women  of 
voting  age  were  estimated  to  outnumber  men  by 
about  1,670,000.  The  increase  in  the  population  of 
voting  age,  including  persons  in  the  armed  forces 
overseas,  between  1940  and  1948  is  estimated  at 
about  10,644,000,  or  about  13  percent.  It  repre- 
sents a  male  increase  of  about  4,481,000,  or  nearly 
11  percent,  and  a  female  increase  of  about  6?163,- 
000,  or  almost  15  percent. 

In  addition  to  the  above  divisions  listed  in  the 
table  the  United  States  also  possesses,  or  claims 
possession  of  die  following  Pacific  Islands:  Baker, 
Howland,  and  Jarvis  Islands,  fringing  the  equator 
in  mid-Pacific  about  1,000  miles  S.S.W.  from  Hon- 
olulu; Johnston  Island  (q.v.),  Midway  Islands 
(q.v,)i  Palmyra  Island  (q.v.),  and  Wake  Island 


UNITED  STATES 


582 


UNITED  STATES 


(q.v.).  Canton  Island  (q.v.)  and  Enderbury  Island 
are  under  joint  Anglo-American  administration. 
The  Security  Council  of  the  United  Nations  on 
Apr.  2,  1947,  adopted  the  Trusteeship  Agreement 
for  the  former  Japanese  Mandated  Islands  (ap- 
proved by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  July 
18,  1947)  by  which  the  United  States  of  America 
was  designated  as  the  administering  authority  of 
the  Trust  Territory  of  the  Pacific  Islands  (land 
area:  715  sq.  mi.;  population,  July  1,  1947:  50,537; 
seat  of  government:  Guam).  (See  PACIFIC  IS- 
LANDS.) 

AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  UNITED  STATES,  ITS 
TERRITORIES  AND  INSULAR  POSSESSIONS 


Division  (Capital) 
"United  States  (Washington)  
Alaska  °  (Juneau) 

Sq.  miles 
.  3,022,387 
586  400 

Pop.  (1940) 
131,669,275 
6  72  524 

Hawaii  °  (Honolulu)  

6,419 

423,330 

Puerto  Rico  (San  Juan)  

3,435 

1,869,255 

Guam  (Agana,)  

206 

22,290 

Samoa,  American  (Pago  Pago)  .  . 
Canal  Zone  c  (Balboa  Heights  d)  . 
Virgin  Is.  (Charlotte  Amalie)  .  .  . 

76 
553 
133 

12,908 
51,887 
24,889 

Total 

3,622  795 

134  265  231 

"Territory.  b Census  taken  Oct.  1,  1939.  c Panama  Canal 
Zone  leased  from  the  Republic  of  Panama  in  perpetuity. 
P  Office  of  the  Governor. 

The  population  21  years  old  and  over  is  gener- 
ally regarded  as  the  maximum  population  eligible 
to  vote.  This  maximum  has  never  been  attained  be- 
cause it  includes  a  large  number  of  persons  who, 
though  old  enough  to  vote,  may  not  do  so  because 
,  they  have  not  satisfied  the  requirements  of  citizen- 
ship, .  residence,  registration,  or  payment  of  poll 
taxes.  Although  the  alien  population  21  years  old 
and  over  has  declined  considerably  from  the  3,- 
335,932  enumerated  in  1940,  there  were  still  in 
the  neighborhood  of  2  million  aliens  of  voting  age 
in  the  United  States  on  Nov.  2,  1948.  Among  the 
persons  of  voting  age  there  are  persons  not  quali- 
fied to  vote  because  of  confinement  to  penitentia- 
ries, mental  hospitals,  and  the  like,  and  still  others 
who  reside  elsewhere  than  in  the  State  in  which 
they  have  voting  privileges.  This  group  includes 
persons  in  the  armed  forces  away  from  their  place 
of  voting  residence,  either  in  this  country  or 
abroad.  Furthermore,  there  is  an  unascertainable 
number  of  persons  in  the  District  of  Columbia  who 
lack  voting  residence  in  any  State. 

See  VITAL  STATISTICS;  POPULATION,  For  aliens, 
see  IMMIGRATION.  For  populations  of  individual 
States,  see  the  separate  State  articles,  as:  ALA- 
BAMA; AJRIZONA;  etc. 

Agriculture.     See    AGRICULTURAL     COOPERATION; 

AGRICULTURE;  AGRICULTURE,  U.S.  DEPARTMENT 
OF.  Chief  crops,  as  CORN;  COTTON;  HAY;  OATS; 
POTATOES;  TOBACCO;  WHEAT;  etc. 

Commerce.  See  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  CUSTOMS,  Bu- 
REAU  OF;  TRADE,  FOREIGN. 

Communciations.  See  COMMUNICATIONS,  ELECTRI- 
CAL; FEDERAL  COMMUNICATIONS  COMMISSION;  RA- 
DIO BROADCASTING;  TELEVISION. 

Defense.  See  AVIATION,  MILITARY;  MILITARY 
PROGRESS;  NAVAL  PROGRESS;  COAST  GUARD,  U.S. 

Education.  See  EDUCATION;  SCHOOLS;  UNIVERSI- 
TIES AND  COLLEGES. 

Finance.  See  PUBLIC  FINANCE;  TAXATION. 

Judiciary.  See  LAW;  SUPREME  COURT. 

legislature.  See  CONGRESS,  UNITED  STATES. 

Manufacturing.  See  BUSINESS  REVIEW. 

Mineral  Production.  See  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  MIN- 
ERALS AND  METALS;  MINES,  BUREAU  OF;  articles  on 
leading  minerals. 

States  and  Territories.  See  ALASKA;  ALABAMA;  etc. 

Transportation.   See  AVIATION,   ClVlL;   MARITIME 


COMMISSION;  MOTOR  VEHICLES;  RAILWAYS;  ROADS 
AND  STREETS;  WATERWAYS. 

Events,  1948.  The  election  overshadowed  every- 
thing else  and  was  a  part  of  everything  else  in 
1948.  Otherwise,  in  its  domestic  aspects,  1948  dif- 
fered only  incidentally  from  other  prosperous 
peacetime  years.  The  election  set  the  year  apart, 
not  only  in  its  impact  on  the  many  months  from 
January  to  Election  Day  but  in  its  significance  for 
the  full  year  in  both  national  and  international 
affairs.  In  addition  the  election  symbolized  a  facet 
of  this  country's  way  of  life  so  ^ cherished  by  ? Amer- 
icans— the  victory  of  the  "little  fellow/'  and 
through  him  all  the  little  people,  and  the  triumph 
of  the  underdog. 

No  one,  months  after  the  election,  was  able  to 
assert  with  certainty  that  the  decisive  votes  had 
been  cast  for  Harry  S.  Truman  or  against  the  Re- 
publican candidate,  Governor  Thomas  E.  Dewey 
of  New  York.  In  terms  of  issues,  however,  it  was 
clear  that  the  voters  rejected  what  the  Republicans 
offered  and  endorsed  the  stands  on  international 
matters  and  domestic  affairs  espoused  by  President 
Truman.  The  people  manifestly  favored  the  foreign 
policy  followed  by  the  Government.  They  also 
made  it  clear  that  it  was  not  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt 
alone,  as  a  vote-getting  magnet,  who  drew  the  pop- 
ulace, but  that  the  general  philosophy  of  the  New 
Deal,  instead  of  having  been  weakened,  was  still 
a  vital  force  on  the  American  political  scene.  Con- 
trary to  the  embarrassed  poll-takers,  who  suffered 
a  devastating  blow  by  the  wide  inaccuracies  of 
their  predictions,  the  almost  unparalleled  upset  of 
the  election  definitely  marked  a  return  to  the  po- 
litical ideas  that  had  swayed  the  nation  for  a  dec- 
ade and  a  half. 

The  cross-currents  of  the  election  process,  in  a 
free  nation,  pervaded  all  aspects  of  life  in  the 
United  States  as  well  as  life  beyond  the  United 
States.  In  1948  this  country  reached  a  milestone 
toward  which  it  had  been  moving  for  years,  slowly 
and  hesitantly.  The  nation  gave  evidence,  through 
action  and  resolve,  that  its  commitment  to  a  world 
role  was  complete.  The  United  States  shouldered 
the  responsibilities  of  a  divided  world,  of  the 
schism  between  the  West  and  the  East  that  was 
reflected  in  the  continuing  "cold  war/*  On  the  con- 
tinents of  Europe  and  Asia  and  in  the  forum  of 
the  United  Nations,  American  representatives  spoke 
out,  and  their  words  were  backed  by  deeds  and 
dollars.  The  Economic  Cooperation  Act  came  into 
being  and  the  economic  aid  of  the  Marshall  Plan 
absorbed  billions  of  United  States  dollars  and 
proved  itself  a  potent  weapon  in  democracy's  coun- 
terattack against  the  push  of  totalitarianism. 

In  foreign  affairs  an  atmosphere  of  tension,  en- 
gendered by  the  struggle  between  the  Soviet  bloc 
and  the  democracies,  had  pervaded  the  nation  and 
"war  jitters"  seemed  to  pop  up  every  time  an 
American  cast  his  troubled  glance  beyond  the  bor- 
ders, toward  both  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific.  Yet, 
perhaps  with  repeated  shock,  the  anxiety  appeared 
to  be  dulled.  The  East- West  conflict  came  to  be 
regarded  as  almost  an  inseparable  element  of  the 
international  way  of  life — a  manageable  conflict 
that  would  not  lead  to  war. 

The  people  of  the  United  States,  in  1948,  sought 
peace,  and  sought  it  as  fervently  as  ever.  Yet  with 
the  desire  for  peace  the  people  unflinchingly  sup- 
ported calculated  risks  that  might  have  brought 
on  war.  The  decision  was  made  and  widely  en- 
dorsed not  to  abandon  the  shattered  nations  of 
Europe  to  the  onslaught  of  surging  totalitarianism. 
The  course,  manifested  without  fanfare  in  the  day- 
to-day  operations  of  the  Marshall  Plan,  was  drama- 


UNITED  STATES 


583 


STATES 


tized  by  the  Berlin  airlift,  predominantly  an  Amer- 
ican answer  to  the  Russian  blockade  of  Berlin.  In 
other  words,  during  the  year,  there  grew  up  a  we- 
mean-business  approach  to  peace.  After  an  internal 
struggle  of  necessity  versus  conscience  and  tradi- 
tion, the  country  put  its  stamp  of  approval  on  the 
first  peacetime  draft  in  its  history,  a  burgeoning 
Army,  Navy,  and  Air  Force,  a  record  rearmament 
burden.  Although,  in  an  election  year,  partisan 
politics  held  the  stage,  party  differences  were  sub- 
ordinated in  international  affairs  and  a  bipartisan 
foreign  policy  functioned  with  a  remarkable  degree 
Df  success. 9 

America's  role  in  the  affairs  of  the  world  hinged 
on  the  strength  of  the  United  States  economy.  The 
state  of  the  union  was  good.  Statistically,  at  least, 
the  country  was  riding  on  the  crest  of  a  wave  of 
unprecedented  prosperity.  National  income  hit  a 
peak  of  about  $211,000  million.  National  produc- 
tivity, goods  and  services,  was  $252,700  million. 
Mew  records  were  set  for  production  and  employ- 
ment. In  terms  of  graphs  and  curves  of  statistical 
tables,  the  economic  welfare  of  the  country  was  as 
sound  as  a  dollar. 

But  the  dollar,  or  rather  what  the  dollar  was 
worth,  was  one  of  the  big  constants  in  the  chang- 
ing 1948  scene.  Inflation  on  the  spiral  caused  dis- 
tress to  millions.  Wages  went  up  and  living  costs 
bounded  after  them  as  prices  went  up  in  the  ever- 
circling  ascent.  Housing  was  expensive  and  scarce; 
rents,  although  under  control,  crept  up.  Only  at  the 
2nd  of  the  year  were  there  signs  that  inflation 
night  have  spent  its  force,  and  that  the  brow- 
beaten consumer  might  again  be  coming  into  the 
biappy  state  of  a  sellers7  market. 

The  domestic  economy  was  a  study  of  superla- 
ives.  Unemployment  was  virtually  unknown,  Dur- 
ing the  year  an  all-time  employment  peak  of  63,- 
342,000  persons  was  attained,  in  July.  Corporation 
profits  after  taxes  set  a  new  record  of  $21,700  mil- 
ion.  Labor  wrangled  with  industry  over  the  cost 
)f  living,  but  strikes  were  at  a  postwar  low.  The 
fear  produced  the  biggest  harvest  in  history,  and 
:he  crop  of  about  3  million  babies  pushed  the  popu- 
.ation  of  the  United  States  to  a  new  high  of  148 
nillion.  The  country  had  nearly  35  million  married 
couples,  but  more  than  3  million  families  were  liv- 
ing "doubled  up"  with  other  families. 

The  year  had  its  quota  of  tragedy  and  lightness, 
>olemnity  and  gaiety — it  was  a  characteristically 
*ood  American  peacetime  year.  In  one  of  the  worst 
Disasters  in  aviation  chronicles  a  four-engined, 
ipeedy,  luxurious  airliner  crashed  suddenly  on  a 
ridge  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  killing  43.  The  city 
)f  Vanport,  Ore.,  was  wiped  off  by  a  great  North- 
west flood.  Death  took  General  John  J.  Pershing, 
commander  of  all  American  land  forces  in  Europe 
n  World  War  I;  Charles  Evans  Hughes,  retired 
3hief  Justice  of  tie  United  States;  and  Babe  Ruth. 

The  nation's  laboratories,  meanwhile,  produced 
wo  new  antibiotic  medicines — chloromycitin  and 
mreomycin,  to  be  added  to  the  fight  against  dis- 
ease along  with  streptomycin  and  penicillin.  Ve- 
lereal  disease  finally  ceased  to  be  a  tabooed  word 
ind  the  campaign  against  VD  was  actively  pushed. 
The  most  talked-of  book  was  a  treatise  on  the  Sex- 
mi  Behavior  of  the  Human  Male. 

The  headlines  told  of  a  Rockefeller  heir  marry- 
ng  a  daughter  of  immigrants,  giving  actuality  to 
in  American  fable,  while  the  Utopian  Shmoo 
soomed  from  the  comics  into  a  national  fancy.  The 
XFew  York  subway,  traditionally  the  greatest  nickel 
Dargain  in  the  country,  went  up  to  a  dime.  Man 
lew  faster  than  sound,  without  meeting  himself 
Doming  back  or  suffering  disastrous  effects.  The 


old  country  store  appeared  in  a  1948  garb,  when 
women  took  to  bearing  the  laundry,  or,  better  still, 
sending  their  husbands,  to  community  clusters  of 
automatic  washing  machines  and  "Launderettes" 
became  the  rage.  The  "give-away"  quiz  programs 
on  the  radio  dominated  the  networks,  while  tele- 
vision passed  from  the  experimental  category  to 
an  accepted  place  in  American  life. 

The  Presidency.  For  three  quarters  of  the  year  the 
man  who  sat  in  the  White  House  was  a  thoroughly 
discredited  individual,  the  butt  of  wisecracks  from 
all  directions.  No  one  questioned  the  foregone  con- 
clusion that  he  was  doomed  to  defeat,  so  all  the 
heat  and  controversy  was  generated  about  his  pos- 
sible successor  and  the  policies  to  be  pursued  by 
the  new  man.  The  Republican-dominated  Congress 
ignored  him;  even  his  own  Democratic  party  sought 
to  jettison  him  for  another  candidate.  Throughout 
these  nine  months  of  1948  the  President  adhered 
steadfastly,  despite  mounting  rebuffs  from  all  sides, 
to  the  advocacy  of  his  program,  moving  gradually 
from  what  was  fundamentally  a  holding  operation 
to  continue  generally  the  New  Deal  doctrine  to  the 
espousal  of  advances  beyond  the  course  of  Frank- 
lin D.  Roosevelt.  The  day  after  Election  Day  Mr. 
Truman,  winner  in  a  race  nobody  but  himself  was 
sure  he  could  win,  found  himself  vindicated  not 
only  in  a  personal  triumph  but  in  the  acceptance 
of  the  policies  he  put  forth. 

Many  of  these  policies  were  contained  in  his 
annual  State  of  the  Union  Message  of  January  7, 
before  a  joint  session  of  Congress.  The  President 
called  for  swift  action  to  check  "the  spiral  of  in- 
flation," prompt  enactment  of  the  European  Re- 
covery Program,  an  alleviation  of  a  tax  burden  by 
a  cut  of  $40  a  year  a  person,  and  the  implementa- 
tion of  these  five  major  goals  during  the  next  dec- 
ade: 

1.  Human  Rights — "Secure  ?  fully  the  essential 
human  rights  of  our  citizens,"  an  attack  against 
continued  racial  and  religious  discrimination  sup- 
plemented by  a  subsequent  special  message.  He 
renewed  his  request  for  statehood  for  Hawaii  and 
Alaska. 

2.  Human  Resources — "Protect  and  develop  our 
human  resources."  He  advocated  the  extension  of 
unemployment  compensation  and  old-age  and  sur- 
vivors* benefits  "to  millions  who  are  not  now  pro- 
tected." He  stressed  the  need  of  a  national  health 
program  and  a  comprehensive  insurance  program 
against  ill-health  and  insecurity.  He  called  for  the 
provision  of  "adequate  education  for  every  person," 
and  the  establishment  of  a  new  Cabinet  post  for 
health,  security  and  education.  The  President  asked 
for  the  immediate  enactment  of  a  long-range  hous- 
ing program,  to  reduce  housing  costs  and  provide 
low-cost  public  housing,  for  "in  the  next  decade 
we  must  see  that  every  American  family  has  a 
decent  home/'  On  rents,  he  said  that  "until  we  can 
overcome  the  present  drastic  housing  shortage  we 
must  extend  and  strengthen  rent  control." 

3.  National  Resources — "Conserve  and  use  our 
national  resources  by  the  most  effective  means  pos- 
sible"— through  the  stockpiling  of  scarce  materials, 
battling  against  erosion,  the  expansion  of  reclama- 
tion, the  protection  and  restoration  of  forests  and 
the  construction  of  more  "multiple  purpose"  dams. 

4.  Living  Standards — "Lift  the  standard  of  liv- 
ing for  all  our  people/*  Although  the  average  in- 
dividual income  had  advanced  more  than  50  per- 
cent in  the  last  ten  years  the  country's  objective 
should  be  a  doubling  of  the  living  standard  in  the 
next  decade.  Price  support  for  farm  commodities 
should  be  maintained.  Cooperatives  should  be  en- 
couraged. Extension  of  the  school  lunch  and  rural 


UNI7ED  STATES 


584 


UNITED  STATES 


electrification  programs  should  be  fostered.  Over 
the  next  few  years  industry  should  invest  "at  least" 
$50,000  million  in  expanded  production.  The  mini- 
mum wage  should  be  raised  from  40  cents  to  75 
cents  an  hour.  The  President  maintained  his  criti- 
cism of  the  Taft-Hartiey  Labor  Relations  Act 

5.  Peace — "Achieve  world  peace  based  on  prin- 
ciples of  freedom  and  justice  and  the  equality  of 
all  nations."  He  asserted  that  "we  are  giving  and 
will  continue  to  give,  our  full  support  to  the  United 
Nations."  Inasmuch  as  the  United  States  could  be 
"an  effective  force  for  world  peace  only  if  it  is 
strong,"  universal  military  training  was  urged.  The 
country's  assistance  to  Greece  and  Turkey  was  en- 
abling them  to  combat  "foreign  pressures."  The 
United  States  should  lead  the  way  and  allow  the 
entry  of  "many  thousands  of  displaced  persons." 
By  the  nurturing  of  world  reconstruction,  by  the 
easing  of  tariff  barriers,  and,  most  important,  by 
the  global  assistance  program,  JVe  are  moving  to- 
ward our  goal  of  world  peace." 

Taking  cognizance  of  the  third  party  movement, 
led  by  Henry  A.  Wallace,  that  denounced  the  na- 
tion's international  policies  as  "war  mongering," 
the^  President  said: 

"We  are  fighting  poverty,  hunger  and  suffering. 
This  leads  to  peace — not  war.  We  are  building  to- 
ward a  world  where  all  nations,  large  and  small 
alike,  may  live  free  from  the  fear  of  aggression. 
This  leads  to  peace — not  war.  Above  all  else,  we 
are  striving  to  achieve  a  concord  among  the  peo- 
ples of  the  world  based  on  the  dignity  of  the  in- 
dividual and  the  brotherhood  of  man.  This  leads 
to  peace — not  war." 

The  Chief  Executive  warned  that  inflation  con- 
tained the  seeds  of  "another  depression,"  as  both 
wholesale  and  retail  prices  were  mounting,  and 
requested  again  his  anti-inflation  program,  includ- 
ing stand-by  wage  and  price  and  rationing  con- 
trols. His  $40  tax-cut  proposal  was  designed  to 
relieve  taxpayers  in  the  lower  brackets,  but  would 
be  compensated  for  by  an  increase  in  corporation 
taxes. 

Cabinet.  The  Executive  team,  carrying  out  the 
laws  of  the  land  under  the  direction  of  the  Presi- 
dent, consisted  of  the  following  members  of  the 
Cabinet: 

Secretary  of  State — George  C.  Marshall 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury — John  W.  Snyder 
Secretary  of  Defense — James  Forrestal 
Postmaster  General — Jesse  M.  Donaldson 
Attorney  General — Tom  C.  Clark 
Secretary  of  Agriculture — Charles  F.  Brannan 
Secretary  of  Labor — Maurice  J.  Tobin 
Secretary  of  Interior — J.  A.  Krug 
Secretary  of  Commerce — Charles  Sawyer 
Two  of  the  Cabinet  members  were  newcomers, 
Messrs.  Brannan  and  Tobin.  Mr.  Brannan,  Assist- 
ant Secretary  since  1944  and  before  that  an  official 
of  the  department,  succeeded  Clinton  P.  Anderson, 
who  resigned  to  run  for  the  Senate  from  New  Mex- 
ico. Mr.  Tobin,  former  Mayor  of  Boston  and  Gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts,  replaced  Lewis  Schwellen- 
bach,  who  died. 

Directly  behind  the  Cabinet  officers  was  a  corps 
of  officials  that  approached  Cabinet  status.  In  this 
group  were  the  three  armed  services  chiefs  under 
the  Defense  Secretary — Kenneth  C.  Royall,  Army; 
John  Sullivan,  Navy;  and  W.  Stuart  Symington, 
Air — and  Robert  A.  Lovett,  Under  Secretary  of 
State,  who  ran  the  department  during  Mr.  Mar- 
shall's absences  abroad  on  United  Nations  business 
and  during  his  operation  at  the  year's  closing.  In 
addition  to  these  men  there  was  still  another  group, 
such  as  Clark  Clifford  and  John  Steelman,  who 


were  Presidential  assistants  and  advisers  and  held 
high  rank  and  influence  in  Administration  circles. 

The  two  Presidential  appointments  during  the 
year  that  attracted  the  most  attention  were  those 
of  Paul  G.  Hoffman  and  Thomas  B.  McCabe.  Mr. 
Hoffman,  president  of  ^the  Studebaker  Corporation 
and  one  of  the  nation's  leading  industrialists,  was 
named  as  chief  of  the  Economic  Cooperation  Ad- 
ministration, handling  the  European  Recovery  Pro- 
gram. Mr.  McCabe  was  appointed  chairman  of 
3ie  Federal  Reserve  Board;  while  Marriner  S.  Ec- 
cles,  one  of  the  last  holdovers  from  the  New  Deal 
era,  whose  financial  policies  were  at  odds  with  the 
President's  advisers,  was  demoted  to  vice  chair- 
man. 

Tfie  White  House.  During  the  year  the  White 
House  was  very  much  in  the  news,  in  more  ways 
than  one.  A  furor  was  stirred  by  President  Tru- 
man's plan  to  construct  a  $15,000  second-story 
porch  or  balcony  inside  the  pillars  of  the  south 
portico  for  the  use  of  the  Presidential  family.  The 
move  was  deplored  by  many  on  aesthetic  grounds. 
Banknotes  bearing  a  picture  of  the  structure  would 
have  to  be  changed,  and  the  President's  use  of  the 
balcony  would  be  very  limited.  The  tempest  sub- 
sided, the  balcony  was  built  and  it  made  virtually 
no  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  White 
House.  More  important,  however,  was  the  closing 
of  the  White  House  after  the  election  because  the 
150-year-old  mansion  was  unsafe.  The  grand  stair- 
case was  sagging,  the  original  second-hand  bricks 
were  disintegrating  and  the  "second  floor  is  stay- 
ing up  there  purely  from  habit."  It  was  estimated 
that  it  would  cost  $1,000,000  to  make  the  mansion 
fireproof  and  secure. 

Congress.  The  President  made  the  record  of  the 
Republican  Congress,  selected  by  the  voters  in 
1946,  the  predominant  issue^  of  the  year,  charac- 
terizing it  as  a  "do  nothing"  body  and  the  worst 
or  almost  the  worst  group  of  legislators  in  the 
nation's  history.  The  Congress  countered  by  as- 
sailing the  stewardship  of  the  President,  die  poli- 
cies he  had  followed  and  advocated,  and  his  ad- 
ministration of  the  Federal  structure,  and  indig- 
nantly retaliated  by  describing  Mr.  Truman  as  the 
worst  President  in  history. 

Yet,  despite  the  repeated  clashes  between  the 
Executive  and  Legislative  branches,  there  was  not 
a  complete  deadlock  legislatively.  Under  the  aegis 
of  Senator  Arthur  H.  Vandenberg,  Republican, 
of  Michigan,  the  chairman  of  the  Foreign  Rela- 
tions Committee,  bipartisan  support  was  molded 
for  the  containment  of  Communist  totalitarianism. 
On  the  other  hand,  on  the  domestic  side,  aside 
from  moves  to  strengthen  defense,  few  measures 
pushed  by  the  Administration  were  enacted.  The 
desire  to  get  out  to  the  hustings  and  campaign  and 
the  conviction  of  a  certain  Republican  victory  led 
to  the  postponement  of  a  number  of  social  meas- 
ures that  had  bipartisan  support  and  might  have 
been  passed  otherwise. 

Legislation  Enacted.  The  measures  enacted  by  the 
second  session  of  the  80th  Congress  principally 
served  to  maintain  and  strengthen  the  United 
States  role  in  world  affairs.  Only  a  few  of  the 
President's  economic  or  civil  rights  proposals  were 
enacted,  either  in  the  regular  session  or  the 
July  25-August  7  sitting  of  Congress,  after  its 
recall  by  the  President.  Taxes  led  the  roster  of 
domestic  measures.  The  major  legislation  enacted 
by  the  1948  session  of  Congress  was  as  follows: 

The  Economic  Cooperation  Act 

Military  Aid  for  China 

Peacetime  Selective  Service 

Authorization  of  a  Seventy-Group  Air  Force 


UNITED  STATES 


585 


UNITED  STATES 


Voice  of  America  Act 

A  restricted  extension  of  the  Trade  Agreements 
Act 

A  foreign  policy  resolution  voicing  support  for  a 
united  Western  Europe 

Limited,  compromise  relaxation  of  immigration 
quotas  for  displaced  persons 

A  $4,800  million  tax  reduction 

A  limited  long  range  farm  program 

A  compromise  extension  of  the  terms  of  the 
Atomic  Energy  Commission 

A  modified  extension  of  rent  control 

A  $65  million  loan  for  the  United  Nations  head- 
quarters 

Of  the  vetoes  of  general  legislation,  as  apart 
from  private  relief  bills,  made  by  the  President  five 
were  overridden  by  the  Republican  Congressional 
majority,  abetted  by  a  substantial  number  of  Dem- 
ocrats, and  one  was  sustained.  Vetoes  overridden 
were  the  income  tax  reduction,  the  exemption  of 
news  vendors  from  social  security  coverage,  legis- 
lation limiting  old-age  insurance,  an  appropriation 
measure  carrying  a  rider  transferring  the  United 
States  Employment  Service  from  Labor  Depart- 
ment to  the  Federal  Security  Agency  and  a  meas- 
ure exempting  railroad  rate  agreements  from  anti- 
trust statutes.  The  veto  sustained  was  of  a  bill  for 
investigation  by  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Investiga- 
tion of  appointees  to  the  Atomic  Energy  Commis- 
sion. Six  of  President  Truman's  vetoes  altogether 
were  overridden  by  both  sessions  of  the  Eightieth 
Congress,  the  most  in  one  Congressional  term  since 
Andrew  Johnson's  day.  A  record  was  set  when 
Congress  overrode  three — social  security,  Labor- 
Federal  Security,  and  rail  rates — all  in  one  week. 

During  the  recalled  session  after  the  conventions 
Congress  passed  a  limited  bank  and  consumer 
credit  control  bill  and  a  bill  to  stimulate  housing, 
both  of  which  were  a  far  cry  from  the  President's 
stipulations.  None  ^of  the  rest  of  the  program  he 
submitted  to  the  "special"  session  was  touched, 
save  the  loan  for  the  United  Nations  headquarters 
in  New  York  City. 

Legislation  Unpassed*  Although  the  President 
sought,  through  public  pressure  and  special  mes- 
sages, to  spur  enactment  of  various  measures,  there 
is  a  long  list  of  legislation  that  failed  to  be  enacted, 
as  follows: 

Inflation  Controls 

A  long-range  housing  program 

Expanded  social  security 

Health  insurance 

Aid  to  education 

Increased  minimum  wage 

Control  of  tideland  oil  reserves 

Revision  of  the  tax  structure 

Proposed  outlawry  of  the  Communist  party 

Legislation  tightening  Government  loyalty  tests 

Legislation  against  lynching  and  against  the  poll 
tax 

A  proposed  equal  rights  amendment 

Universal  military  training 

Statehood  for  Hawaii 

Elimination  of  restrictions  on  oleomargarine 

Foreign  Legislation.  An  historic  program  to  main- 
tain a  free  world  and  contain  the  sweep  of  Com- 
munist Russia  was  embodied  in  the  Foreign  Eco- 
nomic Cooperation  Act,  enacted  by  Congress  with 
unparalleled  swiftness  as  Czechoslovakia  was 
swept  under,  Scandinavia  was  threatened  and  the 
fate  of  Italy  and  France  hung  in  the  balance.  Un- 
der the  program,  dedicated  to  European  stability 
as  an  integral  element  of  world  peace,  the  follow- 
ing were  authorized:  $5,300  million  for  the  nations 
participating  in  the  ERP;  $275  million  for  military 


aid  to  Greece  and  Turkey;  $463  million  for  aid 
to  China;  $20  million  for  rehabilitation  in  Trieste; 
$60  million  for  the  UN  Children's  Emergency 
Fund.  A  House  Republican  clique,  using  what 
Senator  Vandenberg  called  "meat-axe  techniques," 
sought  to  trim  the  program.  Finally  $6,031  million 
was  appropriated. 

The  Information  and  Educational  Exchange  Act 
of  1948  granted  legislative  sanction  to  the  Voice 
of  America  overseas  broadcasts  and  authority  to 
the  State  Department  to  disseminate  information 
through  various  media  and  to  exchange  education- 
al data  and  students. 

The  extension  of  the  Reciprocal  Trade  Agree- 
ment measure,  for  only  one  year,  with  modifica- 
tions and  impairments,  instead  of  three  years,  was 
denounced  by  the  Administration  as  a  drastic  blow 
against  "the  cornerstone  and  keystone  of  our  for- 
eign economic  policy." 

The  foreign  policy  resolution  adopted  by  Con- 
gress condemned  the  unrestrained  use  of  the  Unit- 
ed Nations  veto,  but  principally  endorsed  "the  as- 
sociation of  the  United  States'*  with  collective  ar- 
rangements by  other  nations,  affecting  its  national 
security.  Participation  in  a  number  of  UN  agencies 
was  approved  by  Congress.  The  Senate  ratified 
peace  treaties  with  Italy,  Rumania,  Hungary,  and 
Bulgaria,  The  demands  of  the  cold  war  on  the 
American  taxpayer  for  1948  in  recovery,  relief,  and 
defense  activities  amounted  roughly  to  $20,000 
million. 

Inflation  Legislation.  Congressional  committees 
held  innumerable  hearings  on  the  problems  of  in- 
flation but  the  mountain  of  labor  produced  what 
might  by  courtesy  be  called  a  mouse.  The  Presi- 
dent wanted  stand-by  powers  to  ration  and  impose 
ceilings  on  commodities  in  limited  supply,  wage 
ceilings  when  necessary,  certain  inventory  controls, 
and  a  number  of  other  powers.  Congress  passed 
only  the  credit  controls. 

Rent.  The  Housing  and  Rent  Act  of  1948  was 
accepted  by  the  President  with  the  observation  "I 
had  no  choice  but  to  sign/'  Between  April,  1942, 
when  Federal  rent  control  was  set  up,  and  June, 
1946,  rents  rose  slightly  more  than  one  percent 
Since  then  rents  went  up  about  six  percent,  funda- 
mentally because  of  the  relaxations  in  last  year's 
act.  The  new  act  continued  the  policy  of  relaxation, 
while  generally  holding  the  line  for  the  rentals  or 
50  million  persons  in  13  million  controlled  housing 
units.  The  act  did  the  following:  extended  the  15 
percent  voluntary  increase  provision  though  it 
barred  pyramiding,  decontrolled  non-housekeeping 
rooms  in  private  dwellings,  provided  for  the  relief 
of  landlords  able  to  show  operating  losses  because 
of  controls  and  permitted  evictions,  on  60  days' 
notice,  for  remodeling  or  occupancy  by  the  land- 
lord's family.  The  Emergency  Court  of  Appeals 
was  authorized  to  review  differences  between  local 
rent  advisory  boards  and  the  Federal  Housing  Ex- 
pediter, administering  rent  control. 

Housing.  Congress  had  before  it,  with  the  backing 
of  the  President,  the  Taft-Ellender-Wagner  long- 
ranging  housing  bill.  What  Congress  enacted  was 
a  much  weaker  measure.  It  provided  government 
guarantees  up  to  90  percent  of  loans  to  builders 
of  apartment  houses  costing  no  more  than  $8,100 
per  unit;  guarantees  up  to  80  percent  for  construc- 
tion of  houses  $6,000  or  less;  guarantees  to  insur- 
ance companies  for  large  rental  projects;  and  guar- 
antees for  houses  in  the  $6,000-$!  1,000  bracket. 
The  pressing  need — low-cost  housing  in  volume — 
was  passed  over.  It  was  estimated  that  the  con- 
struction of  new  units  in  1948  would  be  about 
800,000,  less  than  194Ts  figure  of  849,000  and 


UN/TED  STATES 


586 


UNITED  STATES 


1925*s  record  of  937,000.  Continued  high  costs 
coupled  with  growing  buying  resistance  had  a 
definite  impact  on  housing. 

Defense  Legislation.  The  United  States  military  es- 
tablishment— land,  sea,  and  air — cost  about  $11,- 
750  million  this  fiscal  year.  In  a  special  rearma- 
ment message,  the  President  advocated  quick  adop- 
tion of  universal  military  training  and  temporary 
restoration  of  selective  service  to  show  that  the 
United  States  would  "remain  strong  enough  to  sup- 
port those  countries  of  Europe  which  are  threat- 
ened with  Communist  control  and  police-state 
rule/'  Over  Administration  protests  against  mili- 
tary unbalance  Congress  overwhelmingly  approved 
legislation  for  a  70-group  Air  Force.  The  Navy  bill 
provided  for  an  aircraft  carrier  for  jet-propelled 
long-range  planes  and  new  anti-submarine  craft. 

Women's  reserve  units  in  the  armed  services  re- 
ceived regular  status.  Legislation  reforming  courts- 
martial  procedure  was  adopted.  The  Army  s  organ- 
ized reserve  components  were  strengthened,  and 
a  number  of  minor  actions  were  taken  to  benefit 
veterans  of  World  War  II 

Draff.  While  universal  military  training  was  left 
up  in  the  air,  Congress  pushed  through,  over  for- 
midable opposition,  the  Selective  Service  Act  of 
1948.  The  measure's  main  provisions  provided: 
registration  by  all  men  18  through  25  years  of  age 
at  local  draft  boards;  the  drafting  of  men  19 
through  25  by  age  and  birth  dates  rather  than  by  a 
lottery;  service  for  21  months;  voluntary  one-year 
enlistments  by  18-year-olds  that  would  free  them 
from  subsequent  service;  deferments  for  married 
men,  men  with  dependents,  men  with  essential 
jobs,  students  of  certain  classes;  exemption  for  vet- 
erans of  at  least  90  days'  service  or  members  of 
National  Guard  or  reserve  units. 

The  stroke  of  the  President's  pen  signing  the 
measure  set  in  motion  a  wide  expansion  of  the 
armed  forces,  designed  to  bring  the  Army,  needing 
the  bulk  of  the  draftees,  from  548,000  to  790,000; 
the  Navy  from  389,086  to  434,675;  the  Marine 
Corps  from  81,723  to  89,225;  and  the  Air  Force 
from  382,000  to  444,500.  With  other  legislation, 
the  total  authorized  strength  of  the  armed  services 
was  set  at  2,160,200. 

At  the  closing  of  the  year  Secretary  Forrestal  is- 
sued his  first  annual  report,  in  which  he  found  still 
a  number  of  kinks  in  the  unification  of  the  armed 
services  and  urged  strengthened  authority  for  the 
head  of  the  National  Defense  Establishment  and 
for  authority  to  aid  allies  of  the  United  States 
militarily  without  Congressional  sanction. 

The  report  also  revealed  bizarre  advances  in 
military  science  as  it  told  how  the  armed  forces 
were  studying  rocket  space-ships  in  the  light  of  a 
possible  military  outpost,  an  'earth  satellite  ve- 
hicle," that  would  revolve  around  the  earth  like  a 
little  moon. 

Atomic  Energy.  The  veil  of  secrecy  hung  over  the 
world's  most  potent  force  both  for  peace  and  war, 
the  development  of  atomic  energy.  Control  of  the 
force  was  a  major  issue  in  international  forums, 
without  a  satisfactory  conclusion.  At  home  the 
continuing  struggle  for  atomic  control  between  the 
military  and  civilian  scientists  found  the  civilians 
still  on  top,  though  controversy  was  aroused  at  a 
Republican  political  "compromise;*7  in  response  to 
the  President's  renomination  of  the  five  Atomic 
Energy  Commissioners  for  staggered  terms  as  re- 
quired by  the  Atomic  Energy  Act.  The  Republi- 
cans did  not  want  the  AEC's  membership — partic- 
ularly Chairman  David  E.  Lilienthal — frozen  when 
they  were  expecting  a  GOP  victory.  As  a  result  the 
terms  of  all  the  commissioners,  amidst  cries  of 


"politics,"  were  extended  to  June  30,  1950.  United 
States  laboratories  applied  atomic  energy  for  peace 
as  well,  shipping  radioactive  isotopes,  principally 
radio-active  phosphorus,  for  the  treatment  of  leu- 
kemia and  other  blood  diseases,  to  21  countries 
during  the  year. 

Fiscal  Legislation.  Expenditure  during  the  current 
fiscal  year  was  estimated  at  slightly  more  than 
$42,000  million  and  revenue,  as  a  result  of  in- 
creased national  income,  was  estimated  at  least  at 
a  par  to  bring  about  a  balanced  fiscal  picture.  De- 
fense took  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  national 
budget,  international  affairs  took  a  little  more  than 
one-eighth,  so  did  veterans*  affairs,  the  interest  on 
the  public  debt  represented  slightly  less  than  one- 
eighth,  and  all  other  expenditures  consumed  more 
than  one-quarter. 

Excise  taxes  were  continued  at  their  wartime 
rates.  Increases  in  certain  postal  rates  were  en- 
acted, effective  Jan.  1,  1949.  The  lending  authority 
of  the  Reconstruction  Finance  Corporation  was 
limited. 

Taxes.  In  1948,  after  having  been  set  back  twice 
in  1947,  the  Republican  Congress  finally  got 
through,  over  another  Presidential  veto,  tne  tax 
reduction  measure  it  had  pledged  in  the  last  cam- 
paign. Although  castigated  by  the  President  as  a 
measure  that  would  "undermine  the  soundness  of 
our  Government  finances  at  a  time  when  world 
peace  ^depends  on  the  strength  of  the  United 
States,"  the  bill  was  carried  by  substantial  margins 
in  short  order.  It  provided  the  following:  increases 
for  each  taxpayer  and  dependent  in  personal 
exemptions  from  $500  to  $600;  nation-wide  appli- 
cation of  the  "community-property"  pooled  return 
provisions  for  married  couples;  rate  cuts  of  12.6 
percent  on  taxable  income  up  to  $2,000,  7.4  per- 
cent from  $2,000  to  $136,719,  and  5  percent  on 
incomes  above  the  latter  figure.  It  was  estimated 
that  the  cuts  entailed  a  revenue  loss  of  close  to 
$5,000  million. 

Displaced  Persons.  In  1948,  many,  many  months 
after  the  ending  of  the  war  and  after  initial  action 
had  been  proposed,  the  United  States  finally  lived 
up  to  its  great  tradition  as  a  haven  for  the  op- 
pressed and  the  homeless.  Almost  three  and  a  half 
years  after  the  end  of  hostilities  a  boatload  of  800 
of  Europe's  displaced  persons  reached  our  shores, 
the  vanguard  of  the  205,000  DP's  to  be  admitted 
under  immigration  quota  relaxation  adopted  by 
Congress.  The  President,  who  had  repeatedly  asked 
Congress  for  legislation  to  allow  a  substantial  num- 
ber of  DP's  to  come  in  accepted  the  measure  as 
better  than  nothing  but  assailed  it  as  discriminatory. 
The  legislation,  which  charged  up  DP's  against 
future  immigration  quotas  and  stipulated  exhaus- 
tive investigation  to  weed  out  Communists,  im- 
posed severe  limitations  and  classifications  and  was 
criticized  as  operating  against  Jews  and  Catholics, 
many  of  whom  had  been  the  prime  victims  of 
Hitler's  persecutions.  Nevertheless,  the  first  trickle 
did  toward  the  close  of  the  year  pass  by  the  statue 
of  Liberty,  a  harbinger  of  more  to  come  and  of 
new  strength  for  the  nation. 

Farm  and  Economic  Legislation.  There  was  little  ac- 
tivity, with  farmers  riding  on  a  crest  of  prosperity, 
in  the  agricultural  field.  In  a  special  message  to 
Congress  the  President  submitted  a  consolidated 
long-range  farm  program  covering  a  wide  range  of 
agricultural  economics  and  agronomy.  In  Congress 
preliminaries  advanced  for  the  development  of  a 
permanent  long-range  farm  program,  but  there 
was  disagreement  between  the  two  Houses  and 
there  was  finally  enacted  a  continuation  of  the 
existing  price  support  program  until  June  30,  1950, 


UNITED  STATES 


587 


UNITiD  STATES 


under  which  cotton,  wheat,  com,  rice,  peanuts, 
tobacco,  hogs,  poultry,  eggs,  dairy  products,  and 
potatoes  would  be  supported  at  90  percent  of  the 
parity  price,  while  the  supports  for  certain  other 
commodities,  including  soybeans  and  flaxseed, 
could  be  cut  from  90  percent  to  a  60  percent  mini- 
mum at  the  discretion  of  the  Agriculture  Secretary. 
The  joint  United  States-Mexico  program  to  eradi- 
cate the  foot-and-mouth  disease  south  of  the  bor- 
der was,  after  much  tribulation  and  dubious  success 
because  of  peon  opposition,  finally  abandoned  (lur- 
ing the  year. 

The  most  outstanding  development  in  the  agri- 
cultural field  was  the  legislation  that  almost  passed. 
For  60  years,  since  oleomargarine  first  was  pro- 
duced, the  butter  substitute  had  been  surrounded 
by  state  and  Federal  restrictions.  The  sale  of  col- 
ored margarine  is  banned  or  taxed;  margarine  pro- 
ducers and  retailers  are  required  to  pay  Federal 
license  fees.  With  butter  prices  soaring  there  was 
increasing  consumer  pressure  to  end  the  restric- 
tions on  the  less  expensive  substitute.  Cottonseed 
and  soybean  interests  supported  the  move,  dairy 
interests  opposed  it.  It  was  a  fight  of  long  standing, 
and  in  1948  the  margarine  forces  broke  through 
the  barricaded  pigeonholes  of  part  of  Congress 
when  a  repealer  passed  the  House,  only  to  lose  out 
in  the  Senate  where  small  dairy  states  carry  as 
much  weight  as  large  urban  states  and  where  the 
measure  was  tabled  under  the  pressure  of  time.  It 
was  the  most  notable  advance  by  the  margarine 
forces  in  years. 

Congress  in  1948  scrutinized  its  work  in*  the 
labor  field  during  the  previous  session — the  Taft- 
Hartley  Labor-Management  Relations  Act  and  the 
anti-Portal-to-Portal  Pay  Act — and  found  them 
good.  As  a  result  no  important  legislative  activity 
in  the  labor  field  took  place.  There  were  a  number 
of  investigations  of  the  influence  of  Communists 
in  certain  unions. 

Social  Legislation.  There  was  substantial  support 
in  both  Houses  of  Congress  for  a  rise  in  the  40-cent 
minimum  wage  of  the  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act. 
But  this  measure,  equally  important  in  the  labor 
field,  made  no  progress,  and  neither  did  any  other 
social  legislation  despite  promptings  by  the  Presi- 
dent. The  various  proposals  for  aid  to  education, 
increased  social  security,  and  health  insurance 
made  little  headway,  though  a  fractional  part  of 
the  Chief  Executive  s  program  made  some  progress 
through  the  House.  It  would  have  extended  old- 
age  insurance  to  only  3,500,000  persons  employed 
by  tax-exempt  institutions  and  state  and:  local 
governments.  The  Republican  confidence  in  a  No- 
vember election  victory  was  to  a  great  degree  re- 
sponsible for  the  feeling  that  social  legislation 
could  be  shelved  safely  for  at  least  a  year. 

Civil  Rights.  The  implementation  of  the  civil 
rights  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution  received 
much  attention  in  the  country.  It  was  a  factor  in 
the  elections,  when  southern  Democrats,  upholding 
the  traditional  mores,  rebelled  against  their  party's 
stand  and  formed  another  party,  the  Dixiecrats.  In 
Congress  problems  of  race  received  probably  more 
attention  than  at  any  time  since  the  days  of  Re- 
construction after  the  Civil  War.  Although  the  re- 
sults were  negligible,  the  effect  was  salutory.  A 
number  of  aspects  of  racial  segregation  also  were 
pricked  by  Supreme  Court  rulings. 

Twenty  states  still  have  laws  making  obligatory 
racial  segregation  in  public  places.  In  17  states 
compulsory  segregation  is  applied  in  public  schools. 
Poll-tax  requirements  hamper  the  right  to  vote  in 
7  states.  There  have  been  at  least  44  lynchings  in 
the  United  States  since  1936.  Latent  prejudice — 


and  some  of  it  not  very  sub  rosa — against  minority 
groups  manifested  inself  in  many  aspects  of  eco- 
nomic and  social  life.  The  Ku  Klux  Klan  showed 
signs  of  regained  strength  and  was  on  the  march 
in  some  southern  areas,  particularly  Georgia. 
Crosses  were  burned  in  front  of  Negro  and  Jewish 
dwellings. 

Against  this  background  President  Truman  sub- 
mitted to  Congress  a  special  civil-rights  message, 
calling  for  the  enactment  of  the  following  10-point 
program: 

Establishment  of  a  permanent  commission  on 
civil  rights,  a  joint  Congressional  committee  on 
civil  rights  and  a  civil  rights  division  in  the  De- 
partment of  Justice. 

The  strengthening  of  existing  civil  rights  stat- 
utes. 

The  classification  of  lynching  as  a  Federal  of- 
fense, taking  its  prosecution  out  of  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  local  and  state  governments. 

More  adequate  protection  of  the  right  to  vote, 
accompanied  by  the^abolition  of  the  poll  tax  and 
the  "white  primary." 

Establishment  of  a  Fair  Employment  Practice 
Commission  to  prevent  unfair  employment  dis- 
crimination. 

The  outlawry  of  "Jim  Crow"  restrictions  in 

transportation  facilities,  restaurants  and  schools. 

The  provision  of  home  rule  and  suffrage  in 

Presidential  elections  for  the  voteless  residents 

of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

The  granting  of  statehood  for  Hawaii  and 
Alaska  and  a  greater  degree  of  self-government 
for  United  States  territorial  possessions. 

Equalization  of  the  opportunities  of  residents 
to  become  United  States  citizens. 

Settlement  of  the  evacuation  claims  of  Japa- 
nese-Americans. 

In  Congress  an  anti-poll  tax  bill  sailed  by  the 
House,  but  was  relegated  to  a  secondary  place  on 
the  theory  that  an  anti-lynchin^  bill  would  com- 
mand more  Senate  support.  In  the  closing  days  of 
the  session  an  anti-lynching  bill  was  produced  by 
a  Senate  committee  but  it  was  lost  in  the  legislative 
jam  of  adjournment.  Civil  rights  also  came  up  as 
riders  to  various  appropriations  and  other  measures 
to  keep  the  pot  boiling  through  the  session,  but  the 
only  step  to  get  by  Congress  was  an  amendment  to 
the  draft  law  exempting  from  poll  taxes  members 
of  the  armed  forces,  which  had  been  in  effect 
during  the  war  and  even  this  was  beset  by  strong 
opposition  from  southern  legislators. 

After  six  years  of  social  and  economic  upheaval 
some  60,000  Japanese-Americans  were  back  on  the 
West  Coast  and  were  encountering  first  hostility, 
then,  acceptance  with  public  enthusiasm  and  pri- 
vate reserve.  These  wartime  victims  also  encoun- 
tered much  economic  loss;  many  who  had  leased 
their  lands  were  unable  to  regain  control  and  the 
dominant  position  of  the  Japanese  in  West  Coast 
agriculture  disappeared.  Half  of  the  evacuees  nev- 
er returned  and  spread  instead  over  the  rest  of  the 
country.  But  there  was  progress  to  report  in  this 
civil  rights  sector,  too. 

Communism.  The  conflict  between  Eastern  com- 
munism and  Western  democracy  on  the  interna- 
tional scene  was  transmuted  on  the  domestic  scene. 
It  was  translated  into  a  drive  against  domestic 
communism  before  a  background  of  national  se- 
curity, on  the  one  hand,  and  concern  over  the 
rights  laid  down  by  the  Constitution,  on  the  other. 
Allegations  of  subversive  activities  and  Communist 
espionage,  featuring  episodes  that  appeared  bizarre 
to  most  Americans,  filled  the  air  and  the  headlines 
for  a  good  part  of  the  year  and  the  unresolved  is- 


UNITED  STATES 


588 


UNITED  STATES 


sue  of  who  was  the  liar — Hiss  or  Chambers — -be- 
came a  cause  celebre. 

In  Congress  the  Mundt-Nixon  bill  to  curb  the 
Communist  party,  that  had  been  established  in  the 
United  States  in  1919  with  seventy-six  members 
and  in  1948  claimed  a  membership  of  75,000,  was 
overwhelmingly  approved  by  the  House.  Without 
specifically  naming  the  Communists  the  measure 
sought  to  make  illegal  efforts  "to  establish  in  the 
United  States  a  totalitarian  dictatorship"  under 
foreign  control  and  to  require  registration  of  Com- 
munist party  members.  One  of  the  most  controver- 
sial bills  to  come  before  Congress,  it  was  assailed 
as  to  its  constitutionality  and  its  effectiveness  on  the 
ground  that  its  objectives  would  be  nullified  by- 
driving  the  Communists  even  more  underground. 
The  measure  was  left  locked  in  a  Senate  committee. 
The  Government's  investigation  of  the  loyalty 
of  employes  in  the  Federal  establishment  contin- 
ued apace,  with  only  a  tiny  fraction  of  a  percent 
found  even  questionable.  "Sensitive*7  agencies,  such 
as  the  military,  the  State  Department,  the  Atomic 
Energy  Commission,  received  absolute  authority 
to  discharge  "indiscreet  or  disloyal  employes/*  One 
new  anti-subversion  measure  was  added  to  the 
statute  books  when  the  immigration  laws  were 
amended  to  deny  admission  to  persons  deemed  by 
the  Attorney  General  to  be  seeking  entry  "for  the 
purpose  of  engaging  in  activities  which  will  en- 
danger the  public  safety/' 

After  13  months  of  investigation  a  continuing 
blue  ribbon  Federal  grand  jury  in  New  York 
brought  in  indictments  against  the  12  ranking  fig- 
ures of  the  American  Communist  party  on  charges 
of  having  violated  the  Alien  Registration  Act  by 
having  conspired  to  overthrow  the  Government 
through  violent  and  seditious  means  and  through 
the  issuance  of  printed  material  and  other  actions 
for  this  purpose*  Best  known  of  the  12  indicted 
were  William  Z>  Foster,  thrice  the  party's  candi- 
date for  President;  Eugene  Dennis,  general  secre- 
tary; and  Benjamin  J.  Davis,  Communist  member 
of  the  New  York  City  Council 

New  York  was  also  the  scene  of  another  phase  of 
the  East- West  clash — the  case  of  the  Russian  school 
teacher's  fight  and  flight  for  freedom,  including  a 
suicide  leap.  Mrs.  Oksana  Stepanova  Kasenkina 
was  scheduled  to  return  to  Russia,  along  with  other 
teachers,  upon  the  completion  of  their  services  at 
a  Soviet  private  school  here.  The  teachers,  Mrs, 
Kasenkina  and  Mr,  and  Mrs.  Mikhail  Ivanovitch 
Samarm,  stayed  asliore.  Mrs.  Kasenkina  took  sanc- 
tuary at  a  white  Russian  refuge,  a  farm  run  by 
Countess  Tolstoy,  From  this  she  was  "rescued" 
by  members  of  the  Russian  consular  staff  in  New 
York  and  held  incommunicado  within  the  Con- 
sulate. Then  she  leaped  from  the  third  story  build- 
ing of  the  Consulate,  either  in  an  attempt  at  suicide 
or  escape.  The  Russians  continued  to  seek  posses- 
sion of  Mrs.  Kasenkina  and  the  United  States  re- 
jected the  moves.  Stiff  notes  were  exchanged  and 
the  United  States  requested  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Soviet  Consul  General,  Jacob  M.  Lomakin, 

Un- American  Activities,  Moving  into  action  in  the 
wake  of  the  Justice  Department  and  its  grand  jury, 
the  House  Committee  on  Un-American  Activities 
acted  as  usual,  with  a  blaze  of  publicity,  to  develop 
publicly  the  findings  in  camera.  The  result  was  a 
series  of  spectacular  and  dramatic  hearings,  though 
inconclusive.  The  committee  during  the  whole 
year  failed  to  press  its  unsubstantiated  allegations 
against  Dr.  Edward  U.  Condon,  as  one  of  the 
"weakest  links"  in  atomic  security*  It  also  provided 
a  dramatic  twist  of  its  own.  Its  chairman.  Repre- 
sentative J.  Parnell  Thomas,  Republican,  of  New 


Jersey,  was  indicted  by  a  Federal  grand  fury  in 
Washington  on  charges  of  having  misused  fraudu- 
lently funds  for  his  office  and  committee  staffs. 
Mr.  Thomas,  who  has  deprecated  the  attitude  of 
witnesses  before  his  group  for  the  disinclination 
to  answer  questions,  especially  on  constitutional 
grounds,  himself  refused  to  answer  questions — on 
the  constitutional  ground  of  seK-incrimination. 

Two  repentant  Communists  filled  the  commit- 
tee's hearing  room  with  a  plethora  of  charges  and 
accusations,  which  the  accused  almost  simultane- 
ously denied.  None  of  the  charges,  of  deep  signif- 
icance to  national  security  if  valid,  was  proved  to 
any  degree  of  definity,  though  the  fanfare  of  pub- 
licity was  overwhelming.  Tne  hearings,  at  year's 
end,  were  still  "in  medias  res." 

The  first  outpouring  of  extravagant  and  unsup- 
ported charges  came  from  Elizabeth  T.  Bentley, 
lortyish  Vassar  alumna,  a  Communist  party  mem,- 
ber  during  1935-44,  during  which  time  she  said 
she  transmitted  much  secret  data  from  Washington 
to  Soviet  agents.  The  information  was  allegedly 
received  from  Government  officials.  Whittaker 
Chambers,  a  Communist  during  1924-37,  after- 
ward an  editor  of  Time,  said  he  had  been  a  "cour- 
ier" for  an  "apparatus"  engaged  in  infiltration  work. 
A  parade  of  former  Government  officials  ap- 
peared before  the  committee  to  deny  the  allega- 
tions by  the  two — Lauchlin  Currie,  former  admin- 
istrative assistant  to  President  Roosevelt;  William 
W.  Remington,  high  official  in  the  Commerce  De- 
partment; Harry  Dexter  White,  former  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  progenitor  of  the 
Bretton  Woods  agreement;  and  secondary  execu- 
tives. Some  few  of  the  latter  parried  interrogation 
or  declined  to  answer  on  constitutional  grounds. 
To  the  drama  of  die  hearing,  thronged  with  specta- 
tors, ablaze  with  the  glare  of  television  lights,  was 
added  the  drama  of  Mr.  White's  death,  shortly 
after  questioning  by  the  committee  while  suffering 
from  a  heart  condition. 

Hiss-Chambers.  The  whole  pattern  of  contradic- 
tion, of  charge  and  denial,  became  personified  in 
the  figures  of  two  men — Mr.  Chambers,  senior 
editor  of  a  responsible  publication,  and  one  of  the 
chief  targets  of  his  accusations,  Alger  Hiss,  execu- 
tive secretary  of  the  Dumbarton  Oaks  Conference, 
general  secretary  of ,  the  United  Nations  Charter 
Conference  in  San  Francisco,  adviser  to  President 
Roosevelt  at  Yalta,  and  currently  president  of  the 
Carnegie  Foundation  for  International  Peace.  Mr. 
Chambers  alleged  that  an  important  official  in  the 
Roosevelt  Administration,  Mr.  Hiss,  former  chief 
of  the  State  Department's  Office  of  Special  Affairs, 
had  been  a  dues-paying  Communist  and  a  valuable 
source  of  information.  Mr.  Hiss  denied  he  was  or 
had  ever  been  a  Communist,  at  first  was  unable  to 
place  his  accuser,  then  identified  him  by  another 
name  as  a  man  to  whom  he  had  sublet  his  apart- 
ment. 

Pumpkins.  The  committee  staged  a  public  "con- 
frontation" of  the  two  men.  Each  labeled  the 
other's  story  fabrication.  When  Mr.  Chambers 
repeated  his  allegations  on  the  radio  outside  the 
privileged  committee  room,  Mr.  Hiss  brought  suit 
for  libel  In  the  course  of  pre-trial  examination  on 
this  suit,  Mr.  Chambers  drew  forth  documents  al- 
legedly stolen  from  the  State  Department.  Later 
he  led  agents  of  the  Un-American  Activities  Com- 
mittee to  his  Maryland  farm  and  there,  from  a 
scooped-out  pumpkin,  produced  rolls  of  microfilms 
of  state  papers  that  he  had  had  for  ten  years.  He 
laid  to  Mr.  Hiss  the  procurement  of  the  papers — 
some  200  secret  documents  stolen  from  the  State 
Department  and  copied  for  transmission  to  a  for- 


UNITED  STATES 


589  UNITED  STATES 


eign  power,  Soviet  Russia.  Mr.  Hiss  denied  the 
Chambers  accusations  that  he  had  taken  and 
copied  the  papers.  Toward  the  closing  weeks  of 
the  year  the  New  York  grand  jury  brought  in  an 
indictment  against  Alger  Hiss,  charging  him  with 
perjury.  Thus,  in  1949,  when  the  perjury  charges 
come  before  the  courts,  it  may  be  determined 
which  of  the  two  men  was  lying — the  crucial  ques- 
tion the  committee  never  was  able  to  decide. 

Cosf  of  living.  Although  they  were  concerned  with 
many  things,  foreign  and  domestic,  the  American 
people  chiefly  were  concerned  with  the  high  cost 
of  living.  This  was  undoubtedly  the  chief  issue  in 
the  election  campaign,  as  the  President  assailed 
the  lack  of  activity  by  Congress  against  die  in- 
flationary spiral  and  the  Republican  legislators 
pinned  their  faith  on  the  operation  of  traditional 
economic  laws,  Certain  labor  groups  got  wage  in- 
creases but  still  were  squeezeo?,  while  unorganized 
labor,  white  collar  workers,  pensioners,  and  people 
living  on  fixed-incomes  generally  were  hard  put 
to  make  ends  meet.  Consumer  resistance,  although 
unmarshalled  and  not  vociferous,  was  exercised  by 
many  segments  of  the  population. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  year  there  was  a  sharp 
break  in  the  commodity  market.  Wheat,  corn,  and 
other  grain  commodities  tumbled,  and  there  was 
a  slight  decline  in  the  non-food  categories.  But  in 
a  few  short  weeks  the  visions  of  hard-pressed  con- 
sumers of  lowered  food  prices  and  the  fears  of 
some  economists  that  a  "bust"  had  set  in  had  all 
been  dissipated.  By  the  end  of  March  fiie  flurry  of 
the  commodity  exchanges  was  over,  and  living 
costs  were  up  again  to  their  January  peaks.  Spark- 
ing the  inflationary  flame,  aside  from  the  specula- 
tive character  of  the  commodity  flurry,  were  the 
third  round  of  wage  rises  and  the  purchasing  of 
goods  for  the  European  Recovery  Program.  Along 
the  middle  of  the  year  prices  advanced  in  many 
fields.  Automobiles  went  up  again.  So  did  house- 
hold and  electrical  appliances  and  industrial  equip- 
ment. Primary  market  prices  edged  up  with  ad- 
vances for  foods,  chemicals,  and  allied  products. 

The  "creeping"  inflation,  in  which  prices  go  up 
— not  with  the  explosiveness  of  a  *l>oom-and-bust" 
rampage — but  gently  enough  not  to  arouse  the  cit- 
izenry to  demonstrations  or  large-scale  buying 
strikes,  continued  as  Congress  quit  and  the  political 
conventions  began.  With  1935-9  as  100,  food 
prices,  according  to  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics, 
stood  around  215.  The  worth  of  the  dollar  in  pur- 
chasing power,  68.2^  in  1947,  was  60.6$. 

Market-basket  items  carried  these  prices:  a 
pound  of  round  steak,  91$;  chuck  roast,  64$;  a  No. 
2  can  of  corn,  20$;  a  No.  2%  can  of  peaches,  31$; 
a  pound  of  butter,  94$;  a  pound  of  coffee,  53$;  a 
dozen  eggs,  65$;  and  a  delivered  quart  of  milk, 
21$.  In  many  communities,  moreover,  these  aver- 
age prices  would  have  seemed  low. 

The  state  of  the  economy  just  around  election 
time,  as  there  occurred  a  fractional  drop  in  the 
cost  of  living  index,  stood  something  like  this  in 
its  course  since  the  war: 


Year 
1945     

Prices 
,  100 

Wages 
100 

Profits 
100 

1946   

,  .    .       108.5 

98.5 

147,1 

1947  

124  0 

1109 

2080 

1948  

.    ...  135  2 

123  1 

234,5 

In  the  early  fall,  for  the  first  time  in  a  year, 
retail  meat  prices  declined,  and  for  the  remainder 
of  the  year  the  inching-d.own  process  continued 
but  in  such  tiny  degrees  that  it  was  almost  imper- 
ceptible. With  the  average  family  spending  about 
12  percent  of  its  income  on  meat,  this  is  the  most 


important  food  item  in  the  outlay  for  the  family 
larder.  The  following  shows  the  course  of  meat 
prices  over  the  last  two  years: 


(OPA) 

Oct.  7  Aug.  15  Oct.  7 

Meat                             1948  1948  1946 

Pork  roast $0.73  $0.83  $0.43 

Lamb  shoulder 0.81  0.93  0.56 

Sirloin  steak 0.99  1.05  0.55 

Chicken  broilers 0.53  0.57  0.50 


Toward  the  end  of  the  year  thei'e  were  signs  that 
the  economic  boom  had  lost  its  ruddy  flush  though 
the  picture  was  one  of  continuing  health  rather 
than  of  sudden  collapse.  In  some  areas  there 
was  spotty  unemployment  and  downward  business 
trends,  but  prices  were  still  way  up,  production 
rolling,  and  employment  at  high  levels. 

The  whole  year  had  been  spent  on  a  lofty  eco- 
nomic plateau  as  far  as  most  of  the  American 
people  were  concerned,  and  toward  the  end  of 
1948  there  began  to  be  discovered  some  valleys  in 
the  plateau.  Prices  of  farm  commodities  were  down; 
in  some  cases  farm  products  were  approximately 
at  the  Government  price  support  level.  Farm  pro- 
duction, on  the  other  hand,  was  up  an  estimated 
8  percent  above  that  of  1947. 

Weak  spots  in  the  economy  developed  in  textiles 
in  particular  among  the  soft  goods,  and  sales  of 
men's  clothing  and  furnishings  were  reported  lag- 
ging. Small  durable  goods,  such  as  radios,  vacuum 
cleaners,  refrigerators,  and  electric  toasters,  also 
were  encountering  sales'  difficulties. 

Labor,  The  impact  of  labor  unrest  was  felt  less 
in  1948  than  in  1947,  though  the  two  years  were 
closely  similar  in  being  far  below  the  record  num- 
ber of  strikes  in  1946.  Strikes  during  the  year  cost 
the  nation  33  million  man-days  in  contrast  to  the 
34,560,000  man-days  of  last  year. 

Labor  began  the  year  nursing  its  wounds.  The 
"slave  labor"  Taft-Hartley  Act  had  been  imposed 
over  its  last-ditch  opposition,  and  all  that  remained, 
aside  from  continued  agitation  for  its  repeal,  was 
to  growl  at  the  "vested  interests"  that  were  back 
in  the  saddle.  While  supporters  of  the  Taft-Hartley 
Act  held  that  it  had  been  effective  in  curbing  cer- 
tain types  of  strikes,  such  as  secondary  boycotts 
and  juris dictional  disputes,  opponents  contended 
that  the  law  had  failed  to  reduce  strikes  and  in 
some  instances  actually  had  fomented  them,  Labor 
also  was  faced  with  three  crucial  decisions:  its 
attitude  toward  the  third  political  party  under  the 
aegis  of  former  Vice  President  Henry  Wallace,  its 
stand  on  the  Marshall  Plan  to  aid  global  recovery; 
and  its  position  toward  adjustments  in  the  strato- 
spheric cost  of  living  picture.  Particularly  in  the 
Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations  there  was 
internecine  strife  between  the  Right  and  scattered 
unions  dominated  by  Communists  and  fellow-trav- 
elers. Furthermore,  the  1946  debacle,  from  labor's 
viewpoint,  which  had  brought  a  changeover  of 
Congress  from  Democratic  to  Republican  control 
and  the  Taft-Hartley  law,  had  left  labor  scared 
and  determined  to  galvanize  its  cohorts  into  more 
spirited  political  activity. 

The  largest  of  all  the  strikes  during  the  year  was 
that  of  the  soft-coal  miners  over  pensions,  involv- 
ing some  350,000  miners.  In  March  and  April  the 
United  Mine  Workers  were  out  of  their  pits  as  a 
result  of  a  dispute  resulting  from  a  proposal  by 
their  leader,  John  L.  Lewis,  of  pensions  of  $100 
a  month  for  those  of  age  60  and  with  20  years' 
service— a  proposal  that  the  operators  opposed 
because  the  inclusion  of  miners  already  retired 
would  exhaust  the  union-industry  pension  fund. 


UN/TED  STATES 


590 


UNIVERSAL  DECLARATION  OF  HUMAN  RIGHTS 


Finally  the  pension  deadlock  was  broken  as  Repub- 
lican House  Speaker  Joseph  W.  Martin,  Jr.  inter- 
vened* The  result  was  a  notable  triumph  for  the 
Republican  labor  leader  and  his  miners.  Mr.  Lewis, 
who  with  the  UMW,  had  only  13  months  earlier 
suffered  a  crushing  defeat  by  the  Government  and 
die  courts  and  a  $710,000  fine,  tilted  again  with  the 
Government  when  Federal  attorneys  sought  a  con- 
tempt finding  by  the  courts  for  his  alleged  defiance 
of  a  Government  injunction  against  the  strike. 

Another  major  dispute  along  the  same  period 
was  that  of  the  CIO  packing-house  workers,  in 
which  85,000  were  idle  and  3  were  killed  in  picket 
line  violence.  The  strike,  called  to  obtain  an  in- 
crease of  29$  an  hour,  was  unsuccessful  after  one 
of  the  longest  work  stoppages  of  the  year. 

Third  round  wage  differences  mounted  in  in- 
tensity toward  midyear,  as  labor  contended  that 
increases  were  due  in  view  of  the  resumed  climb 
in  prices  and  the  advance  in  corporate  profits,  250 
percent  above  1939  and  roughly  40  percent  above 
1946.  Management,  in  turn,  held  that  wages  had  to 
be  held  down  to  avoid  further  stimulus  of  the 
inflationary  spiral.  The  principal  areas  of  intensity 
were  the  railroad  brotherhoods,  the  UMW  and  the 
CIO's  United  Automobile  Workers.  The  Govern- 
ment seized  the  railroads  before  any  work  stoppage 
developed,  but  45,000  auto  workers  went  out  at 
Chrysler.  The  miners  won  $1  a  day  and  other 
gains.  John  R.  Steehnan,  Presidential  labor  ad- 
viser, after  lengthy  mediation,  brought  about  a 
rail  settlement.  Chrysler  workers  won  an  increase 
of  13$  an  hour. 

Without  a  strike  a  major  settlement,  likely  to 
have  an  important  influence  on  labor  agreements, 
was  achieved  between  the  UAW  and  the  General 
Motors  Corporation.  Although  the  principle  of  an 
"escalator"  was  in  vogue  in  many  contracts,  the 
size  of  the  bargaining  parties  gave  it  stature.  Un- 
der the  terms  of  the  11$  increase  part  was  allowed 
as  a  permanent  bolster  to  living  standards  and 
part  as  a  variable  moving  up  or  down  in  accordance 
with  cost  of  living  indices. 

The  other  major  strikes  occurred  on  the  mari- 
time front—the  three-month  tie-up  of  28,000  CIO 
longshoremen  and  seamen  on  the  West  Coast  and 
the  strike  on  the  East  Coast  of  longshoremen  be- 
longing to  the  American  Federation  of  Labor.  In 
the  latter  case  the  issue  was  wages;  in  the  former 
the  primary  issue  was  the  union  hiring  hall,  which 
was  opposed  by  employers  as  illegal  under  the 
Taft-Hartley  Act.  For  a  time,  toward  the  latter 
part  of  the  year,  America's  export-import  trade 
and  essential  Marshall  Plan  aid  shipments  were 
at  a  standstill  as  both  the  East  and  West  Coasts 
were  paralyzed. 

The  West  Coast  strike  was  one  directly  involv- 
ing the  Taft-Hartley  law,  but  it  was  an  issue  in 
labor  management  relations  throughout  the  year. 
Most  of  the  tests,  however,  were  through  the 
lengthy  course  of  the  judicial  process,  where  the 
real  meaning  of  its  process  was  being  determined. 
One  of  the  principal  points  at  issue,  the  law's  ban 
against  political  expenditures  by  unions,  was  put 
to  the  test  by  Philip  Murray,  CIO  president.'  The 
ban  was  ruled  invalid  by  the  courts.  The  law  fos- 
tered some  strikes — principally  that  by  the  print- 
ers. On  the  other  hand,  it  reduced  union  jurisdic- 
tional  disputes  and  made  some  headway  in  cur- 
tailing "featherbedding"  practices.  The  real  tests 
were  still  ahead — in  the  legal  opinions  of  the  court- 
rooms— when  the  reelection  of  President  Truman 
became  a  harbinger  of  the  repeal  of  many  sections 
of  the  act 

The  CIO  lashed  out  against  its  leftists  in  its 


annual  convention  in  November,  defeating  their 
moves  of  sympathy  with  the  Soviet  Union  and  op- 
position to  the  Marshall  Plan.  The  organization 
also  rebuked  its  left-wing  unions  and  took  steps 
to  trim  the  power  of  some. 

Both  the  AFL  and  the  CIO  were  highly  active 
in  the  political  campaign,  and  most  observers  cred- 
ited their  activities  with  a  large  share  of  responsi- 
bility for  Mr.  Truman's  victory  and  the  defeat  of 
many  Congressmen  regarded  as  foes  by  labor. 

— SAMUEL  A.  TOWER 

UNIVERSAL   DECLARATION    OF    HUMAN   RIGHTS.   The 

Universal  Declaration  of  Human  Rights,  nearly 
three  years  in  preparation,  was  adopted  and  pro- 
claimed by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  United 
Nations  on  Dec.  10,  1948,  in  Paris.  The  vote  was 
48  to  0  ( nine  members  abstained  from  voting — the 
U.S.S.R.  bloc,  Saudi  Arabia,  and  the  Union  of 
South  Africa).  This  Universal  Declaration  of  Hu- 
man Rights  is  the  first  part  of  an  International  Bill 
of  Human  Rights,  the  two  other  parts  being  a  Con- 
vention on  Human  Rights  and  measures  for  imple- 
mentation, on  both  of  which  work  is  going  ahead. 
The  complete  text  of  the  Universal  Declaration  of 
Human  Rights,  as  approved  by  the  General  As- 
sembly of  the  United  Nations,  follows: 

International  Bill  of  Human  Rights 

Universal  Declaration  of  Human  Rights 

Preamble 

WHEREAS  the  recognition  of  the  inherent  dignity 
and  of  the  equal  and  inalienable  rights  of  all  mem- 
bers of  the  human  family  is  the  foundation  of  free- 
dom, justice  and  peace  in  the  world, 

WHERJEAS,  disregard  and  contempt  for  human 
rights  have  resulted  in  barbarous  acts  which  have 
outraged  the  conscience  of  mankind,  and  the  ad- 
vent of  a  world  in  which  human  beings  shall  enjoy 
freedom  of  speech  and  belief  and  freedom  from 
fear  and  want  has  been  proclaimed  as  the  highest 
aspiration  of  the  common  people, 

WHEREAS  it  is  essential,  S  man  is  not  to  be  com- 
pelled to  have  recourse,  as  a  last  resort,  to  rebellion 
against  tyranny  and  oppression,  that  human  rights 
should  be  protected  by  the  rule  of  law, 

WHEREAS  it  is  essential  to  promote  the  develop- 
ment of  friendly  relations  between  nations, 

WHEREAS  the  peoples  of  the  United  Nations  have 
in  the  Charter  reaffirmed  their  faith  in  fundamental 
human  rights,  in  the  dignity  and  worth  of  the  hu- 
man person  and  in  the  equal  rights  of  men  and 
women  and  have  determined  to  promote  social 
progress  and  better  standards  of  life  in  a  larger 
freedom, 

WHEREAS  Member  states  have  pledged  them- 
selves to  achieve,  in  co-operation  with  the  United 
Nations,  the  promotion  of  universal  respect  for  and 
observance  of  human  rights  and  fundamental  free- 
doms, 

WHEREAS  a  common  understanding  of  these 
rights  and  freedoms  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
for  full  realization  of  this  pledge, 

NOW  THEREFORE  THE  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY 

PROCLAIMS  this  universal  declaration  of  human 
rights  as  a  common  standard  of  achievement  for 
all  peoples  and  all  nations,  to  the  end  that  every 
individual  and  every  organ  of  society  keeping  this 
declaration  constantly  in  mind  shall  strive  by  teach- 
ing and  education  to  promote  respect  for  these 
rights  and  freedoms  and  by  progressive  measures, 
national  and  international,  to  secure  their  universal 
and  effective  recognition  and  observance,  both 
among  the  peoples  of  the  Member  states  themselves 
and  among  the  peoples  of  territories  under  their 
jurisdiction. 


UNIVERSAL  DECLARATION  OF  HUMAN  RIGHTS 


ARTICLE    1 

All  human  beings  are  born  free  and  equal  in 
dignity  and  rights.  They,  endowed  with  reason 
and  conscience,  should  act  toward  one  another  in 
a  spirit  of  brotherhood. 

ARTICLE  2 

Everyone  is  entitled  to  all  tihie  rights  and  free- 
doms set  forth  in  this  declaration  without  distinc- 
tion of  any  kind  such  as  race,  color,  sex,  language, 
religion,  political  or  other  opinion,  national  or  so- 
cial origin,  property,  birth,  or  other  status. 

Furthermore,  no  distinction  shall  be  made  on  the 
basis  of  the  political,  jurisdictional  or  international 
status  of  the  country  or  territory  to  which  the  per- 
son belongs,  whether  it  be  an  independent,  Trust, 
or  Non- Self -Governing  territory,  or  under  any 
other  limitation  of  sovereignty. 

ARTICLE  3 

Everyone  has  the  right  to  Me,  liberty  and  the 
security  of  person. 

ARTICLE  4 

No  one  shall  be  held  in  slavery  or  servitude; 
slavery  and  the  slave  trade  shall  be  prohibited  in 
all  their  forms. 

ARTICLE  5 

No  one  shall  be  subjected  to  torture  or  to  cruel, 
inhuman  or  degrading  treatment  or  punishment. 

ARTICLE  6 

Everyone  has  the  right  to  recognition  everywhere 
as  a  person  before  the  law. 

ARTICLE  7 

All  are  equal  before  the  law  and  are  entitled 
without  any  discrimination  to  equal  protection  of 
the  law.  All  are  entitled  to  equal  protection  against 
any  discrimination  in  violation  of  this  Declaration 
and  against  any  incitement  to  such  discrimination. 

ARTICLE  8 

Everyone  has  the  right  to  effective  remedy  by 
the  competent  national  tribunals  for  acts  violating 
the  fundamental  rights  granted  him  by  the  consti- 
tution or  by  law, 

ARTICLE  9 

No  one  shall  be  subjected  to  arbitrary  arrest,  de- 
tention or  exile. 

ARTICLE  10 

Everyone  is  entitled  in  full  equality  to  a  fair  and 
public  hearing  by  an  independent  and  impartial 
tribunal,  in  the  determination  of  his  rights  and  obli- 
gations and  of  any  criminal  charge  against  him. 

ARTICLE  11 

1.  Everyone  charged  with  a  penal  offense  has 
the  right  to  be  presumed  innocent  until  proved 
guilty  according  to  law  in  a  public  trial  at  which 
he  has  had  all  guaranties  necessary  for  his  defense. 

2.  No  one  shall  be  held  guilty  of  any  penal 
offense  on  account  of  any  act  or  omission  which 
did  not  constitute  a  penal  offense,  under  national 
or  international  law,  at  the  time  when  it  was  com- 
mitted. Nor  shall  a  heavier  penalty  be  imposed  than 
one  that  was  applicable  at  the  time  the  penal  of- 
fense was  committed. 

ARTICLE    12 

No  one  shall  be  subjected  to  arbitrary  inter- 
ference with  his  privacy,  family,  home  or  corre- 


591  UNIVERSAL  DECLARATION  OF  HUMAN  RIGHTS 

spondence,  nor  to  attacks  upon  his  honor  and  repu- 
tation. Everyone  has  the  right  to  the  protection  of 
the  law  against  such  interference  or  attacks. 

ARTICLE  13 

1.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  freedom  of  move- 
ment and  residence  within  the  borders  of  each 
state. 

2.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  leave  any  country, 
including  his  own,  and  to  return  to  his  country, 

ARTICLE  14 

1.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  seek  and  to  enjoy 
in  other  countries  asylum  from  persecution. 

2.  This  right  may  not  be  invoked  in  the  case  of 
prosecutions  genuinely  arising  from  non-political 
crimes  or  from  acts  contrary  to  the  purposes  and 
principles  of  the  United  Nations. 

ARTICLE  15 

1.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  a  nationality. 

2.  No  one  shall  be  arbitrarily  deprived  of  his 
nationality  nor  denied  the  right  to  change  his  na- 
tionality. 

ARTICLE  16 

1.  Men  and  women  of  full  age,  without  any 
limitation  due  to  race,  nationality  or  religion,  have 
the  right  to  marry  and  to  found  a  family.  They  are 
entitled  to  equal  rights  as  to  marriage,  during  mar- 
riage and  at  its  dissolution. 

2.  Marriage  shall  be  entered  into  only  with  the 
free  and  full  consent  of  the  intending  spouses. 

3.  The  family  is  the  natural  and  fundamental 
group  unit  of  society  and  is  entitled  to  protection 
by  society  and  the  state. 

ARTICLE  17 , 

1.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  own  property  alone 
as  well  as  in  association  with  others. 

2.  No  one  shall  be  arbitrarily  deprived  of  his 
property. 

ARTICLE  18 

Everyone  has  the  right  to  freedom  of  thought, 
conscience  and  religion;  this  right  includes  free- 
dom to  change  his  religion  or  belief,  and  freedom, 
either  alone  or  in  community  with  others  and  in 
public  or  private,  to  manifest  his  religion  or  be- 
liefs in  teaching,  practice,  worship  and  observance. 

ARTICLE  19 

Everyone  has  the  right  to  freedom  of  opinion 
and  expression;  this  right  includes  freedom  to  hold 
opinions  without  interference  and  to  seek,  receive 
and  impart  information  and  ideas  through  any 
media  and  regardless  of  frontiers. 

ARTICLE  20 

1.  Everyone  has  tiie  right  to  freedom  of  peaceful 
assembly  and  association. 

2.  No  one  may  be  compelled  to  belong  to  an  as- 
sociation. 

ARTICLE  21 

1.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  take  part  in  the 
government  of  his   country,   directly  or  through 
freely  chosen  representatives. 

2.  Everyone  has  the  right  of  equal  access  to  the 
public  service  in  his  country. 

3.  The  will  of  the  people  shall  be  the  basis  of 
the  authority  of  government;  this  will  shall  be 
expressed  in  periodic  and  genuine  elections  which 
shall  be  by  universal  and  equal  suffrage  and  shall 
be  held  by  secret  vote  or  by  equivalent  free  voting 
procedures. 


UNIVERSAL  DECLARATION  Of  HUMAN  RIGHTS 


592 


UNIVERSAL  POSTAL  UNION 


ARTICLE  22 

Everyone,  as  a  member  of  society,  has  the  right 
to  social  security  and  is  entitled  to  the  realization 
through  national  effort  and  international  co-opera- 
tion and  in  accordance  with  the  organization  and 
resources  o£  each  state,  of  the  economic,  social 
and  cultural  rights  indispensable  for  his  dignity 
and  the  free  development  of  his  personality. 

ARTICLE  23 

1.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  work,  to  the  free 
choice  of  employment,  to  just  and  favorable  condi- 
tions of  work  and  to  protection  against  unemploy- 
ment. 

2.  Everyone,   without   any   discrimination,   has 
the  right  to  equal  pay  for  equal  work. 

3.  Everyone  who  works  has  the  right  to  Just  and 
favorable  remuneration  insuring  for  himself  and 
his  family  an  existence  worthy  of  human  dignity, 
and  supplemented,  if  necessary,  by  other  means  of 
social  protection. 

4.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  form  and  to  join 
trade  unions  for  the  protection  of  his  interests. 

ARTICLE  24 

Everyone  has  the  right  to  rest  and  leisure,  in- 
cluding reasonable  limitation  of  working  hours  and 
periodic  holidays  with- pay. 

ARTICLE  25 

1.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  a  standard  of  living 
adequate  for  the  health  and  well-being  of  himself 
and  his  family,  including  food,  clothing,  housing 
and  medical  care  and  necessary  social  services,  and 
the  right  to  security  in  the  event  of  unemployment, 
sickness,  disability,  widowhood,  old  age  or  other 
lack  of  livelihood  in  circumstances  beyond  his  con- 
trol 

2.  Motherhood  and  childhood  are  entitled  to 
special  care  and  assistance.  All  children,  whether 
born  in  or  out  of  wedlock,  shall  enjoy  the  same 
social  protection. 

ARTICLE  26 

1.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  education.  Educa- 
tion shall  be  free,  at  least  in  the  elementary  and 
fundamental  stages.  Elementary  education  shall  be 
compulsory.  Technical  and  professional  education 
shall  be  made  generally  available  and  higher  edu- 
cation shall  be  equally  accessible  to  all  on  the  basis 
of  merit. 

2.  Education  shall  be  directed  to  the  full  de- 
velopment   of    human    personality    and    to    the 
strengthening  of  respect  for  human  rights  and  fun- 
damental freedoms.  It  shaU  promote  understanding, 
tolerance  and  friendship  among  all  nations,  racial 
or  religious  groups  and  shall  further  the  activities 
of  the   United   Nations  for  the  maintenance   of 
peace. 

3.  Parents  have  the  prior  right  to  choose  the 
kind  of  education  that  shall  be  given  to  their  chil- 
dren. 

ARTICLE  27 

1.  Everyone  has  the  right  freely  to  participate  in 
the  cultural  life  of  the  community,  to  enjoy  the 
arts  and  to  share  in  scientific  advancement  and  its 
benefits, 

2.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  the  protection  of 
the  moral  and  material  interests  resulting  from 
any  scientific,  literary,   or  artistic  production  of 
which  he  is  the  author. 

ARTICLE  28 

Everyone  is  entitled  to  a  social  and  international 
order  in  which  the  rights  and  freedoms  set  forth 
in  this  declaration  can  be  fully  realized. 


ARTICLE  29 

1.  Everyone  has  duties  to  the  community,  in 
which  alone  the  free,  full  development  of  his  per- 
sonality is  possible. 

2.  In  the  exercise  of  his  rights  and  freedoms, 
everyone  shall  be  subject  only  to  such  limitations 
as  are  determined  by  law  solely  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  due  recognition  and  respect  for  the  rights 
and  freedoms  of  others  and  of  meeting  the  just 
requirements  of  morality,   public   order  and  the 
general  welfare  in  a  democratic  society. 

3.  These  rights  and  freedoms  may  in  no  case  be 
exercised  contrary  to  the  purposes  and  principles 
of  the  United  Nations. 

ARTICLE  30 

Nothing  in  this  declaration  may  be  interpreted 
as  implying  for  any  state,  group  or  person  any  right 
to  engage  in  any  activity  or  to  perform  any  act 
aimed  at  the  destruction  of  any  of  the  rights  and 
freedoms  set  forth  herein. 

UNIVER5ALIST  CHURCH.  A  religious  group  which  orig- 
inated in  the  United  States  about  1785.  The  bond 
of  fellowship  in  this  Church  "shall  be  a  common 
purpose  to  do  the  will  of  God  as  Jesus  revealed  it 
and  to  cooperate  in  establishing  the  kingdom  for 
which  he  Hved  and  died." 

The  Universalisf  Church  of  America.  Originally  in- 
corporated in  1866  as  The  Universalist  General 
Convention,  it  changed  to  its  present  name  in 
1942.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada  the  group 
has  436  churches,  497  ministers,  and  a  total  of  44,- 
599  members.  Income  from  contributions  amounted 
to  $50,241  in  1947.  Total  assets  amounted  to  $1,- 
659,976.  President  and  chairman  of  the  Board: 
Harold  S.  Latham;  General  Superintendent,  Dr. 
Robert  Cummins;  Secretary,  Esther  A.  Richardson; 
Treasurer,  A,  Ingham  Bicknell.  Headquarters,  16 
Beacon  St.,  Boston  8,  Mass. 

UNIVERSAL  POSTAL  UNION  (UPU).  This  organization 
was  founded  as  a  result  of  conferences  held  in  Paris 
in  1863  and  in  Berne  in  1874,  and  became  a  formal 
body  when  the  International  Postal  Convention 
came  into  force  in  1875.  An  agreement  with  the 
United  Nations,  designed  to  give  the  Union  status 
of  a  specialized  agency,  was  adopted  by  the  Con- 
gress, and  approved  by  the  General  Assembly  of 
the  United  Nations,  Nov.  15,  1947. 

"The  aim  of  the  Universal  Postal  Union  is  to 
assure  the  organization  and  perfection  of  the  vari- 
ous postal  services  and  to  promote,  in  this  field,  the 
development  of  international  collaboration.  To  this 
end  the  Members  of  UPU  are  united  in  a  single 
postal  territory  for  the  reciprocal  exchange  of  cor- 
respondence." The  agreement  making  the  Univer- 
sal Postal  Union  a  specialized  agency  of  the  United 
Nations  became  formally  effective  July  1,  1948. 
UPU  has  88  members. 

UPU  held  its  12th  Congress  in  Paris  from  May  7 
to  July  5,  1947.  Since  the  Union  had  hitherto  been 
without  a  body  to  act  in  the  interim  between  con- 
gresses, an  Executive  and  Liaison  Committee  of 
"19  members  was  created.  It  held  its  first  formal  ses- 
sion in  Berne  in  October,  1948. 

Changes  in  regulations  governing  membership 
were  also  made;  new  members  will  henceforth  be 
admitted  by  a  %  vote  of  the  members  of  the  Union. 
Applications  from  Latvia,  Estonia,  and  Lithuania 
for  separate  membership  were  rejected.  The  mem- 
bership of  Spain  was  "temporarily  suspended."  It 
was  decided  that  Germany,  Japan,  and  Korea 
should  be  named  as  members  of  the  Union,  with  a 
special  paragraph  stating  that  they  were  tempo- 
rarily prevented  from  adhering  to  the  Convention. 


UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES 


593 


UNRRA 


Technical  changes  in  international  postal  regu- 
lations made  by  the  Congress  included  lowering 
of  certain  postal  rates,  widened  franking  privileges, 
and  changes  to  ensure  better  service  for  many  types 
of  international  mail.  A  temporary  Technical  Tran- 
sit Committee  was  established  to  find  the  most 
equitable  basis  for  the  computation  of  transit  rates; 
it  is  to  report  to  members  of  the  UPU  in  1950.  The 
next  meeting  of  the  Universal  Postal  Congress  is 
scheduled  to  convene  in  Brussels  in  1952. 

The  President  of  the  Executive  and  Liaison 
Committee  is  J.  J.  Le  Moiiel,  Director  General  of 
the  Posts  in  France.  The  Secretary  General  is  Dr. 
A,  Muri  of  Switzerland.  Headquarters:  Interna- 
tional Bureau,  Universal  Postal  Union,  Case  Berne 
14,  Switzerland. 

UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES.  The  1,788  universities, 
colleges,  and  professional  schools  of  the  United 
States  had  a  total  of  2,408,249  students  (full-time, 
part-time,  graduate,  and  undergraduate  students, 
but  excluding  extension  and  correspondence  stu- 
dents )  of  college  grade  enrolled  in  the  fall  term  of 
1948,  an  increase  of  70,023,  or  3  percent,  over  the 
number  (2,338,226)  enrolled  in  the  fall  term  of 
1947,  according  to  the  survey  made  by  the  U.S. 
Office  of  Education.  In  the  accompanying  table 
are  listed  the  enrollment  totals,  by  type  of  institu- 
tion, for  the  fall  terms  of  1947  and  1948. 

ENROLLMENT   IN  HIGHER  EDUCATIONAL  INSTI- 
TUTIONS, 1947-1948 


Type  of  institution 
All  institutions  ,  .       ... 

Fall  1947 
.  .  2,338,226 

Fall  1948 
2,408,249 

% 
Change 
3.0 

Universities              ........ 

.  .  1,155  180 

1,208  504 

4.6 

Technical  schools 

97  760 

107  878 

10.3 

Theological  seminaries 

16213 

18,193 

12.2 

Other  professional  schools  .  . 
Liberal  arts  colleges 

.  .       83,288 
.     530  064 

71,078 
553,418 

-14.7 
4.4 

Teachers  colleges 

162  199 

170  205 

4.9 

Junior  colleges  

.  .     219,349 

208,329 

-5.0 

Negro  institutions  ° 

74  173 

70644 

—4.8 

a  All  types  of  institutions  of  higher  learning. 

The  enrollment  of  veterans  in  institutions  of 
higher  learning  in  the  fall  of  1948  totaled  1,021,- 
038,  a  decrease  of  101,700,  or  9.1  percent,  from 
the  total  of  1,122,738  for  the  fall  of  1947.  Of  the 
1948  total,  575,930  were  enrolled  in  universities, 
58,078  in  technical  schools,  4,921  in  theological 
seminaries,  41,578  in  other  professional  schools, 
207,563  in  liberal  arts  colleges,  56,543  in  teachers 
colleges,  53,899  in  junior  colleges,  and  22,526  in 
Negro  colleges  of  all  types. 

The  1948  fall  enrollment  of  first-time  students  in 
higher  educational  institutions  decreased  to  568,- 
768  from  592,846  in  1947,  a  decrease  of  24,078, 
or  4.1  percent.  Universities  had  204,490  first-time 
students  enrolled  in  1948,  technical  schools  23,625, 
theological  seminaries  2,399,  other  professional 
schools  15,263,  liberal  arts  colleges  150,333,  teach- 
ers colleges  50,475,  junior  colleges  102,961,  and 
Negro  institutions  of  all  types  18,952  first-time  stu- 
dents enrolled. 

There  were  1,712,283  men  and  695,966  women 
enrolled  in  higher  educational  institutions  in  the 
fall  of  1948.  Of  the  total  enrolled  for  the  first  time 
in  any  college,  369,924  were  men  and  198,844 
were  women.  Veterans  enrolled  in  the  fall  of  1948 
included  1,000,942  men  and  20,096  women. 

In  the  fall  of  1948  there  were  1,190,441  students 
enrolled  in  publicly  controlled  institutions  of  high- 
er learning  and  1,217,808  in  privately  controlled 
institutions  of  higher  learning. 

According  to  the  survey  of  the  U.S.  Office  of 
Education,  12  institutions  of  higher  learning  had 
20,000  or  more  enrollments  each  in  the  fall  of  1948. 


They  were:  New  York  University,  University  of 
California,  City  College  of  New  York,  Columbia 
University,  University  of  Minnesota,  University  of 
Illinois,  Ohio  State  University,  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity, University  of  ^Indiana,  University  of  South- 
ern California,  University  of  Wisconsin,  and  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan. 

States  of  the  United  States  with  total  enrollments 
over  100,000  for  the  fall  of  1948  in  institutions  of 
higher  learning  were:  New  York  308,436,  Califor- 
nia 190,650,  Illinois  152,521,  Pennsylvania  148,- 
949,  Ohio  140,253,  Texas  126,228,  and  Michigan 
101,229. 

The  statistics  reported  to  this  YEAR  BOOK  by 
each  of  the  institutions  of  higher  learning  for  the 
fall  of  1948,  or  for  the  latest  available  period,  are 
recorded  in  the  table  entitled  Universities  and  Col- 
leges in  the  United  States  and  Canada  on  pages 
594-624. 

UNRRA.  While  shipments  continued  during  1948, 
the  United  Nations  Relief  and  Rehabilitation  Ad- 
ministration (UNRRA)  was  occupied  chiefly  in 
arranging  its  liquidation.  Created  on  Nov.  9,  1943, 
to  aid  the  victims  of  war  in  liberated  areas,  and 
beginning  operations  immediately  on  the  cessation 
of  hostilities,  the  Administration  devoted  approxi- 
mately $3,800  million  of  resources  to  providing  to 
the  governments  of  liberated  countries  for  tie  dis- 
tribution by  them  to  their  nationals  not  only  re- 
lief supplies  in  the  form  of  food,  clothing,  and 
medicine,  but  also  rehabilitation  supplies  and  serv- 
ices designed  to  restore  transport,  light,  water, 
power,  and  other  essential  services;  and  to  the 
repatriation,  tracing,  and  care  of  persons  found 
in  any  areas  under  control  of  the  UN  who  by  rea- 
son of  war  were  displaced  from  their  homes.  Sup- 
plies UNRRA  sent  to  countries  lacking  adequate 
foreign  exchange  were  as  listed  in  the  accompa- 
nying table. 

Estimated  Value  Estimated 
Countries  aided               of  Program  *      Gross  Long  Tons 

Albania $  26,250,900  130,048 

Austria 135,513,200  1,114,461 

Byelorussian  S.S.R 60,820,000  141,853 

China 517,846,700  2,360,915 

Czechoslovakia 261,337,400  1,619,627 

Dodecanese  Islands 3,900,400  33,122 

Ethiopia 884,900  1,551 

Finland 2,441,200  5,623 

Greece 347,162,000  2,830,138 

Hungary 4,386,500  19,127 

Italy 418,222,100  10,225,450 

Korea 943,900  6,424 

Philippines 9,880,200  47,160 

Poland 477,927,000  2,241,889 

San  Marino 30,000  260 

Ukrainian  S.S.R 188,199,300  467,049 

Yugoslavia 415,642,000  2,693,796 

*  Equivalent  in  U.S.  dollars.  For  conversion  rates  used  see 
final  financial  report,  (Ninth  Financial  Report  of  UNRRA) . 

More  than  7,200,000  persons  had  been  repatri- 
ated by  30  June  1947  when  the  displaced  persons 
operation  was  turned  over  to  the  Preparatory  Com- 
mission of  the  International  Refugee  Organization. 

The  task  of  liquidating  the  numerous  UNRRA 
offices,  begun  in  July,  1947,  was  completed  in  1948 
with  the  closure  of  the  Southwest  Pacific  Area  Of- 
fice in  Sydney  at  the  end  of  June  and  the  European 
Regional  Office  in  London  at  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber. On  the  latter  date,  an  Administrator  for  Liq- 
uidation, Harry  E.  Howell,  Controller  since  1946, 
was  appointed  at  Headquarters  in  Washington 
and  the  Director  General,  Lowell  W.  Rooks,  left 
the  Administration.  Like  his  predecessors,  Herbert 
H.  Lehmam,  and  the  late  Fiorello  H.  LaGuardia, 
and  his  successor,  Harry  E.  Ho  well,  Rooks  was  a 
(continued  on  page  624) 


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citizen  of  the  United  States,  the  largest  single  con- 
tributor of  UNRRA's  resources  under  a  formula 
which  recommended  to  non-invaded  member  na- 
tions that  they  contribute  in  effect  2  percent  o£ 
their  national  income  computed  for  the  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1943. 

The  governing  bodies  of  the  Administration  con- 
sisted of  the  Council,  composed  of  representatives 
of  the  48  member  nations,  which  held  six  sessions, 
the  last  in  December,  1946;  and  the  Central  Com- 
mittee, composed  of  representatives  of  nine  mem- 
ber nations  (Australia,  Brazil,  Canada,  China, 
France,  U.K.,  U.S.,  U.S.S.R.  and  Yugoslavia)  which 
acted  for  the  Council  in  making  policy  decisions 
during  the  liquidation  period.  By  the  end  of  1948, 
UNRRA  had  made  substantial  progress  on  its  main 
remaining  task  of  obtaining  the  necessary  docu- 
mentation to  support  the  contributions  of  supplies 
and  to  complete  accounts.  Moreover,  by  an  agree- 
ment of  September  27,  1948,  with  the  United  Na- 
tions, which  was  approved  by  the  General 
Assembly  on  November  18,  it  arranged  for  the 
transfer  of  its  records  to  the  United  Nations,  the 
completion  of  a  three-volume  history  of  UNRRA 
operations,  and  absorption  of  all  residual  functions 
by  March  31,  1949, 

Despite  postwar  dislocations,  shortages  of  goods, 
strikes,  and  the  fact  that  much  of  the  contribution 
was  non-convertible  or  could  be  utilized  only  in 
indigenous  surpluses,  UNRRA  was  able  to  utilize 
more  than  98  percent  of  its  resources  and  the  mem- 
ber nations  decided  that  residual  funds  of  approx- 
imately $45  million  should  be  turned  over  to 
successor  international  agencies,  especially  the  In- 
ternational Children's  Emergency  Fund,  which 
received  upwards  of  $30  million  in  various  curren- 
cies, chiefly  dollars.  Other  international  agencies 
which  shared  in  residual  UNRRA  funds  include 
the  Food  and  Agriculture  Organization  and  the 
World  Health  Organization,  which  carry  forward 
activities  once  performed  by  UNRRA.  The  long 
range  rehabilitation  projects  initiated  by  UNRRA 
in  China  have  been  continued  under  the  admin- 
istration of  the  Board  of  Trustees  for  Rehabilitation 
Affairs  of  the  Republic  of  China  to  which  $5  mil- 
lion of  UNRRA  funds*  have  been  transferred.  It  is 
expected  that  the  final  financial  report  covering 
the  entire  period  of  the  operation  together  with  the 
report  of  Council's  auditors,  Messrs.  Deloitte,  Plen- 
der,  Griffiths  &  Company,  will  be  published  in 
February, -1949.  — THOMAS  J.  MAYOCK 

URUGUAY.  A  republic  of  South  America.  Lowland 
plains  border  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts,  but 
most  of  the  country  is  a  land  of  hills  and  undulat- 
ing plains.  The  climate  is  temperate. 

Area  and  Population.  Area,  72,153  square  miles. 
Population,  2,300,000  (1947),  of  which  about  90 
percent  are  of  European  descent  and  the  rest  are 
mestizos.  The  largest  cities  are  Montevideo  (capi- 
tal), Paysandu,  and  Salto. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the 
predominant  religion.  Spanish  is  the  official  lan- 

fuage.  Over  65  percent  of  the  total  population  is 
terate.  The  most  recent  statistics  show  245,129 
students  enrolled  in  1,800  primary  schools,  and 
27,000  students  in  90  public  secondary  schools  and 
37  private  ones.  Higher  education  is  provided  by 
the  National  University. 

Production.  The  country's  economy  is  based  on 
stock-raising  and  agriculture,  with  some  industries 
devoted  to  the  processing  of  meat,  wool,  hides,  and 
bristles,  and  manufacturing  of  consumer  goods. 
The  wheat  crop  in  1947  was  of  an  unusual  size, 


URUGUAY 


625 


U.S.  ELECTIONS 


amounting  to  450,000  metric  tons.  Wool  exports  in 
the  same  year  totalled  135,312  bales.  Other  lines 
of  agricultural  production  in  1946  were  (in  tons): 
corn,  139,882;  flaxseed,  83,227;  rice,  29?048;  and 
barley,  10,502.  Exports  of  meat  and  meat  products 
in  1946  were  valued  at  44,205,000  pesos  (con- 
trolled  selling  rate,  November,  1948:  $U.S.  =  1.899 
pesos ) .  Consumer  goods  include  beverages,  chemi- 
cals, clothing,  paper,  rubber  products,  textiles,  to- 
bacco, vehicles,  and  transportation  equipment. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  in  1947  amounted  to 
$162,500,000  and  imports  to  $215,300,000.  The 
principal  buyers  were  the  U.S.,  Great  Britain, 
France,  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  Brazil.,  and  the 
chief  exporters  to  Uruguay  were  the  U.S.,  Brazil., 
Great  Britain,  Argentina,  and  Peru. 

Transportation.  The  railway  system  has  a  total  of 
3,000  kilometers  of  track,  and  carries  an  annual 
average  of  2,500,000  tons  of  freight  and  6  million 

Eassengers.  Highways  and  roads  have  a  combined 
mgth  of  8,514tfmles.  La  Plata  River  provides  good 
inland  transportation  as  far  as  the  port  of  Salto.  Air 
service  is  rendered  by  two  Uruguayan  companies 
as  well  as  important  international  airlines.  Recent 
statistics  place  motor  vehicle  registration  at  65,121. 
There  were  125,000  radio  sets,  and  46,656  tele- 
phones. On  Mar.  2,  1948,  the  government  pur- 
chased the  British-owned  railroad  for  £7,150,000. 

Finance.  The  1946  budget  was  liquidated  with  a 
deficit  of  25,221,000  pesos,  as  expenditure  mount- 
ed to  208,853,000  pesos  and  revenue  was  only 
183,632,000.  Currency  in  circulation  in  Septem- 
ber, 1948  was  200,100,000  pesos.  Bank  deposits 
were  333,500,000  pesos  and  gold  reserves  $181,- 
000,000.  The  cost  of  living  in  July,  1948,  was  177 
(1937  =  100). 

Government.  The  constitution  of  1934  (amended 
in  1942)  establishes  a  semi-parliamentary  type  of 
government  with  proportionate  representation  both 
in  Congress  and  in  the  Cabinet.  Legislative  power 
is  exercised  by  the  General  Assembly,  composed  of 
two  Chambers,  one  of  Representatives  and  the 
other  of  Senators.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  the 
President,  acting  with  a  Council  of  Ministers.  Pres- 
ident Luis  Batlle  Berres  took  office  in  August, 
1947,  replacing  President  Tomas  Berreta,  who  died 
in  office. 

Events,.  1948.  Small  and  democratic  Uruguay,  in 
contrast  with  most  of  her  sister  republics,  had  a 
peaceful  year. 

Domestic  Front.  President  Batlle  Berres'  adminis- 
tration had  no  important  political  issues  to  face  , 
during  the  year.  The  shortage  of  dollar  exchange 
affected  Uruguay,  as  it  did  the  rest  of  the  conti- 
nent, and  the  Bank  of  the  Republic  closed  its  op- 
erations on  the  open  market  on  August  10  but 
opened  again  on  September  7  with  the  announce- 
ment of  a  devaluation  of  the  peso,  and  established 
the  price  of  the  dollar  at  2.20  Uruguayan  pesos 
(the  previous  quotation  was  1.90).  The  measure 
was  aimed  at  preventing  the  export  of  dollars 
from  the  country. 

In  September,  Uruguay,  the  only  country  in  the 
western  hemisphere  where  all  schools,  including 
college  and  post-graduate  work,  are  free,  intro- 
duced another  innovation  in  the  educational  system 
by  organizing  two  important  associations  of  teach- 
ers and  professors.  These  institutions  were  grouped 
in  the  Uruguayan  Federation  of  Teachers,  keeping 
close  contact  with  the  government  through  the  Na- 
tional Educational  Council.  It  was  agreed  that  two 
annual  congresses  would  be  held,  one  in  the  capital 
and  one  in  the  interior,  in  order  to  consider  educa- 
tional problems  of  all  natures  and  report  to  the 
government  for  action. 


International  Feont.  The  Uruguayan  delegation  was 
active  in  the  meetings  of  the  United  Nations,  es- 
pecially in  the  General  Assembly  held  in  Paris  in 
the  fall.  Uruguay  also  took  an  active  part  in  the 
Ninth  Inter- American  Congress  held  at  Bogota  in 
April  (see  PAN  AMERICAN  ACTIVITIES),  and  signed 
the  Charter  of  the  Americas. 

One  of  the  characteristics  of  Uruguayan  foreign 
policy  during  the  year  was  the  firm  position  taken 
against  the  admission  of  Franco  Spain  to  the  Unit- 
ed Nations.  Delegate  Carlos  Martini  Rios  stated 
that  there  have  been  no  changes  in  Spain  that  call 
for  a  reconsideration  of  his  country's  policy  toward 
Franco.  The  publication  of  this  statement  by  news- 
paper Action  of  Montevideo  caused  a  diplomatic 
protest  by  Franco's  Charge  d'Affairs  Marques  de 
Orellana,  but  the  attitude  of  the  Uruguayan  gov- 
ernment remained  unchanged. — MIGUEL  JOKRIN 

U.S.  ELECTIONS.  On  Nov.  2,  1948,  Harry  S.  Truman, 
Democratic  candidate  to  succeed  himself,  was 
elected  President  of  the  United  States.  In  the 
closest  contest  since  the  Wilson-Hughes  race  in 
1916,  President  Truman  received  49.58  percent  of 
the  popular  vote,  a  plurality  of  2,148,125,  and  304 
electoral  votes,  to  189  for  the  Republican  standard- 
bearer,  Governor  Thomas  E.  Dewey  of  New  York, 
and  38  electoral  votes  for  Governor  J.  Strom  Thur- 
mond of  South  Carolina,  candidate  of  the  States* 
Rights  Democrats.  Truman's  popular  vote  was  24,- 
045,052;  Dewey  s  21,896,927;  Thurmond^,  1,168,- 
687;  Wallaces  (Progressive),  1,137,957;  Thomas' 
(Socialist),  95,908;  Watson's  (Prohibition),  95,- 
075;  Teichert's  (Socialist  Labor),  24,653;  Dobbs* 
(Socialist  Workers),  9,005;  other,  15,953. 

The  total  vote  cast  in  the  presidential  race  was 
48,489,217 — less  than  one  percent  more  than  the 
48,025,684  cast  in  the  1944  wartime  election.  Gov- 
ernor Dewey  carried  16  States:  Connecticut,  Dela- 
ware, Indiana,  Kansas,  Maine,  Maryland,  Michi- 
gan, Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New 
York,  North  Dakota,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  South 
Dakota,  and  Vermont.  Governor  Thurmond  carried 
Alabama,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  South  Caro- 
lina. Truman  won  the  electoral  vote  of  the  re- 
maining 28  States. 

The  Democrats  regained  control  of  both  houses 
of  Congress,  lost  to  the  Republicans  in  the  1946 
election.  In  the  House  of  Representatives,  263 
of  the  435  seats  went  to  Democrats,  to  give  the 
party  its  largest  majority  in  the  lower  house  since 
1938.  Of  these,  75  were  held  previously  by  Re- 
publicans and  one  by  the  American  Labor  Party. 
Republicans  won  171  seats  and  the  American  Labor 
Party,  one.  In  the  Senate,  die  Democrats  won  9 
seats  previously  held  by  Republicans  and  won  15 
other  contests,  while  the  Republicans  retained  9 
contested  seats.  The  Democrats  now  have  54  Sena- 
tors; the  Republicans  42. 

State  Elections.  During  1948,  Democrats  elected 
21  governors  to  13  elected  by  Republicans  (includ- 
ing one  Democrat  elected  in  Louisiana  on  April 
20th,  and  one  Republican  in  Maine,  elected  Sep- 
tember 13th).  The  Republicans  also  picked  up  the 
Wyoming  governorship  when  the  incumbent  Dem- 
ocratic governor  was  elected  to  the  Senate  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  Republican  Secretary  of  State, 
As  a  result  of  these  changes,  the  previous  even  divi- 
sion of  governorships  among  Democrats  and  Re- 
publicans was  broken.  At  present  there  are  29 
Democratic  governors  and  19  Republicans,  the 
largest  majority  for  the  Democrats  since  before  the 
1940  elections.  In  8  States — Connecticut,  Dela- 
ware, Illinois,  Indiana,  Massachusetts,  Michigan, 
Montana,  and  Ohio — the  voters  replaced  Repub- 


U.$.  ELECTIONS 


626 


(/.$.  RADIO  BROADCASTING 


Bean  governors  with  Democrats.  Only  Utah  and 
Washington  bucked  the  trend  and  elected  Repub- 
licans to  posts  previously  held  by  Democrats.  An 
unusual  feature  of  the  1948  election  was  the  large 
number  of  States  which  elected  a  governor  of  one 
party  while  casting  its  electoral  vote  for  the  candi- 
date of  an  opposing  party.  Democrats  elected 
governors  in  Connecticut,  Delaware,  Indiana,  and 
Michigan,  but  the  electoral  vote  went  to  Dewey; 
and  they  elected  a  governor  in  Louisiana,  the  elec- 
toral vote  of  which  went  to  Thurmond.  Republi- 
can governors  were  elected  in  Iowa,  Minnesota, 
Utah, ,  Washington,  and  Wisconsin,  but  the  elec- 
toral vote  went  to  Truman  in  these  States. 

Significant  changes  occurred  in  the  control  of 
the  State  legislatures.  Prior  to  the  November  elec- 
tion, Republicans  controlled  the  lower  house  in  27 
States  and  the  senate  in  27  States,  while  Democrats 
were  in  the  majority  in  19  lower  houses  and  18 
senates — the  Washington  Senate  having  an  equal 
number  of  each  party.  (The  legislatures  of  Minne- 
sota and  Nebraska  are  non-partisan.)  In  the  1948 
election,  Republicans  lost  control  of  the  lower 
house  to  Democrats  in  Colorado,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Massachusetts,  Missouri,  Montana,  Ohio,  Utah, 
and  Washington;  and  the  Wyoming  lower  house 
was  evenly  divided.  Democrats  now  control  28  to 
17  for  the  Republicans,  and  one  tie.  Control  of  the 
State  senates  now  is  evenly  divided,  each  party 
organizing  22  of  them,  with  2 — Massachusetts  and 
Rhode  Island — tied.  The  Republicans  lost  senate 
control  in  these  two  States  and  Connecticut,  Idaho, 
Missouri,  and  Ohio,  while  gaining  control  in  Wash- 
ington, previously  tied.  As  frequently  happens  when 
a  major  shift  in  voter  sentiment  is  registered,  con- 
trol of  the  legislatures  in  a  large  number  of  States 
became  divided.  In  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Idaho, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Montana,  Nevada,  and  Washing- 
ton, Republicans  control  one  house  and  Democrats 
the  other.  This  divided  control  is  a  result  of  two 
major  factors:  (1)  variable  bases  of  representation; 
and  (2)  staggered  terms  for  the  members  of  one 
house. 

Unusual  Aspects.  The  1948  election  presented 
several  unusual  aspects. 

First,  the  Democrats  won  the  presidency,  con- 
trol of  Congress,  and  predominance  in  more  than 
half  of  the  State  governments  in  spite  of  public 
opinion  polls  which  indicated  a  Republican  victory. 

Second,  Truman's  victory  was  won  in  spite  of — 
some  commentators  have  said  because  of — elec- 
toral vote  losses  to  the  States  Rights  Democrats 
in  four  southern  States,  and  sizeable  defections  to 
the  Wallace  Progressive  ticket  in  a  number  of 
northern  States,  notably  New  York  and  California. 

Third,  the  electoral  vote  pattern,  without  prece- 
dent in  American  history,  revealed  unexpected 
strength  for  the  Democratic  ticket,  particularly  in 
the  agricultural  Middle  West  and  Plains  States 
where  Dewey  lost  the  votes  of  Colorado,  Iowa, 
Ohio,  Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming  which  were  his  in 
1944. 

The  heavily  urbanized  and  industrialized  States 
of  the  Northeast,  from  Maryland  to  the  Canadian 
border  with  the  exception  only  of  Massachusetts 
and  Rhode  Island  cast  their  electoral  votes  for 
Dewey.  In  only  one  of  these — New  York — was  the 
Wallace  vote  apparently  decisive  in  swinging  the 
State  to  Dewey.  Congressional  and  State  candi- 
dates on  the  Democratic  ticket  were  more  success- 
ful in  these  States. 

The  States  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kentucky, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Ohio,  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  Wisconsin — in  the  Great  Lakes-Ohio 
River-Upper  Mississippi  River  region — appear  to 


have  given  the  decisive  margin  of  victory  to  the 
Democratic  Party.  Collectively,  these  States  gave 
Truman  120  electoral  votes  to  32  for  Dewey;  they 
gave  the  Democrats  5  of  their  9  new  Senate  seats; 
they  elected  39  of  the  75  Democrats  who  replaced 
Republicans;  and  they  exactly  reversed  the  number 
of  governors,  from  7  Republicans  and  3  Democrats 
to  7  Democrats  and  3  Republicans. 

— HERBERT  L.  WILTSEE 

U.S.  RADIO  BROADCASTING.  During  the  year  1948 
the  numbers  of  broadcast  stations  and  radio  fami- 
lies continued  to  rise.  In  the  station  field,  including 
AM,  FM,  and  TV,  authorizations  made  by  the  Fed- 
eral Communications  Commission  increased  to  3,- 
215  from  3,024  for  the  previous  year.  Of  this 
number,  there  was  an  increase  of  165  for  AM  sta- 
tions, an  increase  of  51  for  TV,  and  a  decrease  of 
46  for  FM  stations. 

Of  39,950,000  families  in  the  United  States,  37,- 
623,000  were  said  to  be  radio  famjjies,  owning  at 
least  one  set.  More  than  10  million  automobile 
radios  were  in  use,  as  well  as  about  5  million  sets 
in  stores,  hotels,  offices,  and  institutions.  A  total 
of  more  than  75  million  radio  sets  was  in  use, 
and  radio  families  had  increased  by  12,500,000 
during  the  previous  ten  years. 

It  was  a  year  of  growth  for  broadcasting,  espe- 
cially in  television.  With  a  total  of  50  television 
stations  actually  in  operation  and  over  a  million 
television  sets  produced  since  the  end  of  the  war, 
great  events  were  ^brought  to  the  public  by  tele- 
vision-— the  World's  Series,  the  political  conven- 
tions, the  football  games,  the  opening  night  of  the 
Metropolitan  Opera,  and  greatly  improved  dra- 
matic and  variety  programs. 

Standard  radio  also  continued  to  grow  and  im- 
prove, its  numbers  exceeding  the  total  number  of 
newspapers  in  the  United  States.  A  noteworthy 
event  of  the  year  was  the  adoption  at  the  26th 
Annual  Convention  of^the  National  Association  of 
Broadcasters  of  the  "Standards  of  Practice**  as 
a  guide  to  good  taste  in  programming,  effective 
July  1,  1948,  with  due  regard  to  contracts  in  effect 
May  19,  1948,  but  no  later  than  May  19,  1949. 

American  broadcasters  contributed  to  the  na- 
tional public  interest  in  such  programs  as  the  first 
annual  Voice  of  Democracy  contest  for  the  best 
five-minute  broadcast  scripts  on  the  subject,  I 
Speak  jor  Democracy.  High  school  students  from 
all  over  the  country  entered  and  the  four  national 
winners  were  brought  to  Washington  for  a  week 
to  receive  their  awards  of  college  scholarships  and 
for  visits  with  President  Truman,  the  cabinet,  and 
members  of  Congress. 

Radio  programming  during  the  year  produced 
continued  experiments  in  documentaries,  such  as 
the  continuing  NBC  series,  "Living — 1948,"  the 
ABC  "Communism"  program,  the  CBS  and  ABC 
venereal  disease  documentaries,  and  the  MBS  civil 
rights  program.  On  the  whole,  news  and  comedy 
and  variety  programs  continued  most  popular,  with 
music  of  all  types  claiming  its  usual  40  to  50  per- 
cent of  all  broadcasting  time. 

Other  electronic  developments  in  radio  broad- 
casting demanded  attention  during  the  year,  such 
as  facsimile  broadcasting,  ultrafax  and  transit  radio. 
Facsimile,  while  as  yet  available  in  only  a  few 
cities,  makes  possible  having  your  newspaper 
produced  right  in  your  home  or  office.  An  ultrafax, 
the  new  RCA  development,  by  a  combination  of 
radio,  television  and  highspeed  photography, 
makes  possible  the  transmission  of  enormous  vol- 
umes of  written  or  printed  material.  It  has  been 
said  that  ultrafax  can  send  a  milHon  words  a  minute. 


UTAH 


627 


VATICAN  CITY 


In  the  case  of  transit  radio,  by  a  contractural  re- 
lationship between  one  FM  station  in  a  community 
and  the  local  transportation  company,  FM  re- 
ceivers, locked  to  the  frequency  of  the  contract- 
ing station,  are  placed  in  the  buses  or  street  cars 
of  the  system,  and  music,  news  and  advertise- 
ments are  broadcast  by  the  station  for  the  transit 
riders.  Successful  operation  began  in  several  cities 
last  year  and  indications  are  that  the  service  wiU 
expand.  Extensive  surveys,  conducted  in  a  number 
of  metropolitan  areas,  indicate  that  about  92  per- 
cent of  the  users  of  transportation  systems  would 
like  to  listen  to  transit  radio  while  they  ride. 

There  was  substantial  evidence  that  all  phases 
of  broadcasting,  AM,  FM,  facsimile,  and  television 
continued  to  hold  the  high  regard  of  the  American 
people.  A  new  edition  of  the  National  Opinion 
Research  Center's  national  survey,  conducted  by 
the  NORC  at  the  request  of  NAB,  was  published 
by  Prentice-Hall  at  the  year's  end,  under  the  title 
Radio  Listening  in  America.  The  survey  found  78 
percent  of  the  American  people  were  found  to  be 
opposed  to  Federal  regulation  of  radio  advertising; 
65  percent  opposed  government  control  of  pro- 
gramming on  controversial  issues;  59  percent  op- 
posed Federal  control  of  accuracy  of  radio  news, 
and  52  percent  were  against  control  of  radio  sta- 
tion profits.  A  total  of  76  percent  said  they  would 
prefer  radio  as  it  is  now,  with  advertising,  to  com- 
mercial-less radio  for  which  they  would  pay  a  $5 
annual  license  fee. 

The  entire  radio  industry's  gross  billings  for  sales 
of  time  in  1948,  according  to  NAB  estimates,  in- ' 
creased  6.5  percent  from  $374,086,686  in  1947  to 
A~~ 5,560,000  in  1948.  This  rise  in  revenue  was 


Type  of  revenue 
National  Networks  .  . 
Regional  Networks  °  . 
National  Spot.  . 

1947 
(FCC  figures) 
.$127,713,942 
.       7,012,689 
91,581  241 

1048 

(Estimates} 
$133,461,000 
7,714,000 
100,739,000 
156,646,000 

% 
Gain 
4.5 
10.0 
10.0 
6.0 

6.5 

Local  Retail  

.   147,778,814 

$374,086,686 

$398,560,000 

a  Includes  "miscellaneous  networks  and  stations." 

more  than  offset  by  an  increase  in  operating  ex- 
penses which  raised  station  expenses  about  10  per- 
cent, from  $121,200,000  in  1947  to  $233,200,000 
in  1948.  Broken  down  by  types  of  advertising  rev- 
enue, the  figures  were  as  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing table. 

UTAH.  A  mountain  State,  Area:  84,990  sq,  mi. 
Population:  (July  1,  1948)  655,000,  compared 
with  ( 1940  census )  550,310.  Chief  city:  Salt  Lake 
City  (capital),  149,934  inhabitants  in  1940.  See 
AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND  METALS, 
SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STA- 
TISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $54,802,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $53,449,000. 

Elections.  Truman  won  the  4  electoral  votes  with 
a  popular  majority  over  Dewey  and  Wallace  about 
half  as  large  as  Roosevelt's  52,000  in  1944.  There 
was  no  Senate  race.  Democrats  won  -the  2  House 
seats  for  a  gain  of  1.  Incumbent  Democratic  Gov- 
ernor Herbert  B.  Maw  was  defeated  for  reelection 
by  J.  Bracken  Lee,  Republican.  Other  state  races 
were  won  by:  Secretary  of  State — Heber  Bennion, 
Jr.;  Attorney  General — Clinton  D.  Vernon;  Treas- 
urer— Ferrell  H.  Adams;  Auditor — Reese  M.  Reese; 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction — E.  Allen 
Bateman. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Herbert  B.  Maw;  Lieut. 
Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  Heber  Ben- 


nion, Jr.;  Attorney  General,  Grover  A.  Giles;  State 
Treasurer,  Reese  M.  Reese;  State  Auditor,  Ferrell 
H.  Adams. 

VATICAN  CITY.  A  sovereign  state  of  44  hectares 
(108.7  acres)  in  northwest  Rome  created  by  the 
Lateran  Treaty  of  Feb.  11,  1929.  The  population 
is  not  given  in  the  1948  Annuario  Pontificio  but  it 
is  close  to  1,000  for  the  state  proper,  exclusive  of 
the  12  extraterritorial  areas  in  and  about  Rome. 
The  sovereign  is  His  Holiness,  Pope  Pius  XII  (Eu- 
genio  Paceln),  born  in  Rome  on  Mar.  2,  1876,  and 
elected  to  the  Papacy  on  Mar.  2,  1939. 

The  state  is  regulated  by  a  Legge  jondamentale 
of  June  7,  1929.  Its  Governor,  Marchese  Camillo 
Serafini,  has  held  office  since  1929.  He  is  assisted 
by  a  General  Counselor  and  a  Technical  Consult- 
ant. The  state  has  its  own  flag,  import  duties,  po- 
lice, coinage  (which  did  not  circulate  in  1948  due 
to  the  disappearance  of  metallic  money  in  Italy), 
newspaper,  radio  station,  railway,  telegraph,  and 
postal  systems. 

Vatican  City  serves  as  the  "territorial  basis"  for 
the  Holy  See  in  its  government  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  This  government  functions  through  11 
congregations,  3  tribunals,  and  4  offices,  which  to- 
gether constitute  the  Roman  Curia.  The  Secretariat 
of  State,  most  important  of  the  4  offices,  is  nor- 
mally headed  by  a  Cardinal  Secretary.  However, 
the  post  has  been  vacant  since  the  death  of  Cardi- 
nal Maglione  in  1944.  Two  substitutes  (Msgrs. 
Tardini  and  Montini)  handled  the  affairs  of  the 
office  during  1948.  Through  this  Secretariat,  the 
Holy  See  maintains  diplomatic  relations  with  for- 
eign states. 

The  President  of  the  United  States  and  38  gov- 
ernments were  represented  at  the  Vatican  in  1948. 
In  turn,  the  Holy  See  had  37  nunciatures  or  inter- 
nunciatures  and  21  apostolic  delegations  (these 
latter  without  diplomatic  status)  in  foreign  capi- 
tals. June,  1948,  saw  the  establishment  of  diplo- 
matic relations  with  India. 

Events,  1948.  Three  tendencies  have  marked  Vat- 
ican policy  during  this  year:  a  growing  emphasis 
upon  the  positive  nature  of  the  Christian  pro- 
gramme, an  intensification  of  the  struggle  with 
Communism,  and  a  deep  interest  maintained  in 
world  problems. 

At  an  audience  for  the  Catholic  Avanguardia 
Movement  on  January  4,  Pius  XII  asserted  that  it 
is  the  duty  of  every  Christian  to  work  towards  the 
establishment  of  a  sound  social  order  and  he  ob- 
served that  the  place  of  the  Church  is  with  the 
advance  guard  where  the  decisions  are  made. 

Speaking  to  the  College  of  Cardinals  on  June  2, 
His  Holiness  noted  a  reawakening  of  the  Christian 
spirit  and  urged  that  it  extend  to  all  fields,  national 
and  international,  which  involve  moral  issues.  He 
appealed  to  the  Catholics  of  the  world  not  to  rest 
upon  good  intentions  but  to  work  steadfastly  at 
putting  them  into  practice.  He  warned  that  where 
such  efforts  coincide  with  those  of  political  groups 
they  must  be  "parallel,  but  no  more,  without  iden- 
tification and  without  subordination."  In  the  ad- 
dress of  June  29  to  60,000  members  of  ACLI 
(Christian  Association  of  Italian  Laborers),  the 
Pope  maintained  that  the  growth  ^pf  the  organiza- 
tion was  significant  if  it  meant  "that  Christ  has 
grown  with  each  of  you  in  the  world  of  labor." 

The  contest  with  Communism  was  highlighted 
in  connection  with  the  Italian  elections.  On  Febru- 
ary 22,  during  an  audience  with  1,600  transpor- 
tation workers,  Pius  XII  stressed  that  irrespective 
of  what  a  Catholic  is  told  by  propagandists,  he 
cannot  reconcile  materialistic  maxims  with  the 


VENEZUELA 


628 


VENEZUELA 


teaching  of  his  Church.  Addressing  300,000  Ro- 
mans in  St.  Peter's  Square  on  Easter  Sunday,  the 
Pope  warned  that  "the  hour  of  the  Christian  con- 
science has  struck"  and  urged  his  hearers  to  fol- 
low that  conscience. 

The  struggle  took  a  bitter  turn  on  April  3  with 
the  publication  by  the  Italian  leftist  press^  of  "Se- 
cret Documents  of  Vatican  Diplomacy"  which 
scored  the  Church's  leaders.  In  long  articles,  the 
Vatican's  Osservatore  Romano  assailed  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  "Documents"  until  on  April  11  one 
Virgilio  Scattolirii  confessed  that  he  had  fabricated 
the  pieces.  This  sudden  collapse  of  the  leftist  cam- 
paign was  not  without  effect  upon  the  elections  of 
April  18-19  which  registered  a  distinct  set-back 
for  the  Marxist  Popular  Front.  Some  months  later 
the  contest  flared  again  when  the  Communist  press 
interpreted  the  visit  on  October  19  of  the  then 
United  States  Secretary  of  State  Marshall  to  the 
Pope  as  an  effort  to  line  up  Vatican  support  behind 
the  Marshall  Plan. 

At  the  close  of  the  year,  the  December  27  arrest 
of  Cardinal  Mindszenty  in  Budapest  on  charges  of 
plotting  the  overthrow  of  the  Hungarian  Commu- 
nist government  and  the  Vatican's  immediate  ex- 
communication of  all  Catholics  involved  in  the 
seizure  pointed  toward  a  violent  phase  to  the  strug- 
gle in  1949. 

The  Pontiff  continued  to  interest  himself  deeply 
with  international  affairs.  In  his  March  7  address 
to  the  Congress  on  International  Exchange  meeting 
in  Rome,  Pius  XII  laid  down  Christian  principles 
for  world  trade.  On  November  11,  he  assured  dele- 
gates of  the  European  Union  of  Federalists  of  his 
sympathy  with  their  program  but  he  pointed  out 
the  need  of  first  achieving  economic  peace  in  Eu- 
rope before  attempting  political  union.  The  papal 
encyclical  of  October  24  condemned  violence  as  a 
solution  to  the  Palestinian  problem  and  called  for 
the  granting  of  international  status  to  the  holy 
places  of  Jerusalem. 

In  the  ecclesiastical  sphere,  His  Holiness  pro- 
claimed on  June^2  that  1950  would  be  kept  as  a 
Holy  Year.  His  "Motu  proprio"  of  August  15,  re- 
quiring a  Church  ceremony  for  all  baptized  Catho- 
lics entering  marriage,  introduced  one  of  the  few 
changes  in  the  Church's  Code  of  Canon  Law  since 
its  adoption  in  1918.  The  death  of  5  cardinals 
brought  the  membership  of  the  Sacred  College  to 
56  at  the  close  of  the  year. — HENRY  G.  J.  BECK 

VENEZUELA.  A  republic  of  South  America,  The 
country  is  divided  into  four  natural  regions,  the 
Venezuelan  highlands,  the  Maracaibo  lowlands, 
the  Orinoco  plains  and  the  Guiana  highlands. 

Area  and  Population.  Area:  352,143  square  miles. 
Population;  4,398,000  (1947).  Census  enumera- 
tion in  Venezuela  does  not  include  classification  by 
race,  with  the  exception  of  the  nomadic  Indianss 
composing  about  3  percent  of  the  population. 
Principal  cities;  Caracas  (capital),  269,030  inhab- 
itants (1941);  Maracaibo,  112,519:  and  Valencia, 
85,000. 

Education  and  Religion.  Freedom  of  worship  is 
guaranteed  by  the  constitution;  Catholicism  is 
predominant  and  Spanish  is  the  official  language. 
It  is  estimated  that  nearly  40  percent  of  the  popu- 
lation is  literate.  In  the  school  year  of  1947-48 
there  were  5,805  elementary  schools  with  an  en- 
rollment of  360,531  pupils;  132  secondary  schools 
of  various  sorts  with  an  approximate  enrollment 
of  19,000,  and  41  special  schools  with  5,118  stu- 
dents. The  three  universities  in  Venezuela  had 
3,366  students  in  1945-46. 

Production.  Venezuela's  economy  depends  chiefly 


on  agriculture  and  petroleum.  The  production  of 
petroleum  in  1947  totaled  62,364,000  metric  tons, 
and  accounts  for  approximately  90  percent  by 
value  of  total  exports.  The  principal  agricultural 
products  include  coifee,  cacao,  sugar,  tobacco,  cot- 
ton, corn,  wheat  and  tropical  fruits.  Coffee  exports 
in  1947  consisted  of  508,200  bags  of  60  kilograms 
each,  of  which  412,865  were  purchased  by  the 
United  States.  Stock  raising  is  another  important 
industry.  The  diamond  output  in  1947  amounted 
to  60,045.34  carats,  more  than  three  times  that  of 
the  previous  year.  Other  minerals  produced  in- 
cluded coal,  gold,  silver  and  platinum.  Manufac- 
turing is  not  highly  developed,  although  consumer 
goods  production  has  recently  increased. 

Foreign  Trade.  Venezuelan  imports  during  1946 
were  valued  at  98,760,000  bolivares  and  imports 
at  1,626,000,000  bolivares.  (The  controlled  value 
of  the  bolivar,  1942-1948  was  U,S.$0.2985.)  Ex- 
ports went  principally  to  the  United  States,  Cu- 
rasao, Aruba,  Brazil,  Colombia  and  Argentina. 
Venezuela's  imports  were  mainly  from  the  United 
States,  Brazil,  Argentina,  Mexico  and  the  United 
Kingdom. 

Transportation.  The  railway  system  which  com- 
prises about  685  miles,  carried  1,826,680  passen- 
gers and  530,545  tons  of  .freight  in  1946.  There 
are  7,955  miles  of  highways  of  all  kinds.  Venezuela 
is  connected  by  air  with  other  countries  by  inter- 
national airlines,  and  travel  within  the  territory  is 
provided  by  national  companies,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  is  the  Linea  Aeropostal  Venezolana. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  the  fiscal  year  of  1947- 
48  estimated  revenue  at  $409,142,260  and  expendi- 
ture at  $364,217,343.  Currency  in  circulation  at 
the  end  of  October,  1948,  totaled  660  million  bo- 
livares; bank  deposits  amounted  to  571  million 
bolivares;  gold  reserves,  including  treasury  hold- 
ings, totaled  305  million  bolivares,  and  the  public 
debt  on  Jan.  31,  1948,  was  $6,933,717.  Cost  of 
living  in  December,  1947,  was  185  (1937  =  100). 

Government.  Under  the  constitution  of  1947,  Ven- 
ezuela is  a  Federal  Union  of  20  States,  a  Federal 
District,  2  territories,  and  Federal  dependencies. 
Legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  Congress  consist- 
ing of  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  of  160  members, 
and  a  Chamber  of  Senators  of  40  members.  Exec- 
utive power  is  exercised  by  a  president  elected  for 
a  five-year  term.  On  November  24,  an  army  revolt 
overthrew  President  Romulo  Gallegos,  and  formed 
a  provisional  government  headed  by  Lieut.  Col. 
Carlos  Delgado  Chalbaud. 

Events,  1948.  R6mulo  Gallegos,  one  of  the  out- 
standing authors  of  the  continent  and  victor  in  the 
elections  of  Dec.  15,  1947,  took  office  on  February 
15.  Special  missions  from  many  countries  attended 
the  inauguration,  and  the  new  government  out- 
lined a  policy,  of  which  the  salient  points  were 
political  liberty  to  be  preserved,  as  well  as  good 
relations  with  the  Catholic  Church;  friendliness  to- 
ward foreign  capital;  mediation  between  capital 
and  labor,  with  protection  for  both;  friendship  to- 
ward all  countries,  and  elimination  of  excessive 
bureaucracy. 

The  government  party,  Accion  Democrdtica, 
was  fully  behind  the  President's  program.  In  his 
first  message  to  Congress,  President  Gallegos  pre- 
sented in  detail  the  above-mentioned  aspects  of 
his  program,  and  then  took  a  trip  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  was  enthusiastically  received,  and 
was  granted  an  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws 
by  Columbia  University. 

Domesfic  Politics.  After  the  return  of  President 
Gallegos  to  Venezuela,  the  general  opinion  was 
that  he  would  have  a  peaceful  year  ahead  of  him. 


VERMONT 


629 


VETERANS  ADMINISTRATION 


In  a  survey  made  in  April  by  the  New  York  Times, 
Venezuela,  Argentina  and  Uruguay  were  the  only 
three  South  American  countries  whose  govern- 
ments were  considered  stable.  Communism  was 
not  powerful  in  Venezuela,  and  the  government 
party  expelled  Communist  members  from  the  Ex- 
ecutive Council  of  the  strong  oil  workers*  federa- 
tion. Opposition  to  the  Gallegos  government  came 
from  the  COPEI  party  (Concentration  de  Organi- 
zaciones  Politicas  Electorates  Independientes ) , 
composed  of  the  wealthy  upper  classes  and  backed 
by  the  Catholic  Church.  The  army,  that  had  sup- 
ported the  provisional  government  under  Betan- 
court,  was  thought  to  be  solidly  behind  Gallegos. 

Army  Revolt.  On  November  24,  the  government 
was  overthrown  by  an  army  revolt,  the  leaders  of 
which  immediately  formed  a  provisional  military 
Junta,  headed  by  Lt.  Coi  Carlos  Delgado  Chal- 
baud.  The  event  caused  general  consternation. 
President  Gallegos  was  kept  under  arrest  for  sev- 
eral days,  and  then  permitted  to  leave  the  coun- 
try for  Cuba.  On  his  arrival,  he  issued  a  statement 
accusing  the  foreign-owned  oil  companies  of  back- 
ing the  plot,  as  they  were  dissatisfied  with  the  gov- 
ernment's increase  in  taxes.  He  also  stated  that  the 
United  States  Military  Attache,  Colonel  Edward 
R.  Adams,  was  not  only  cognizant  of  the  move- 
ment but  actually  gave  advice  to  the  rebels.  He 
explained  that  the  army's  sudden  change  was 
caused  by  his  refusal  of  their  request  for  him  to 
exile  ex-President  Betancourt. 

The  new  government  immediately  dissolved  the 
Congress,  State  Legislatures,  and  Muncipal  Coun- 
cils, whose  members  had  been  elected  the  previ- 
ous year,  and  dismissed^ the  Supreme  Court  as 
well.  The  Acci6n  Democratica  party  was  outlawed 
and  numerous  members  arrested;  strict  censor- 
ship was  established,  and  many  newspapers  closed. 
The  United  States  State  Department,  as  well  as  the 
oil  companies,  vehemently  denied  the  Gallegos  ac- 
cusations, and  the  State  Department  later  con- 
demned the  use  of  force  to  overthrow  the  legiti- 
mate government.  In  Mexico,  a  large  number  of 
well-known  intellectuals  protested  against  the  coup 
d'etat,  and  that  government  promptly  recalled  the 
Mexican  Ambassador  from  Caracas. 

Representatives  of  Venezuela  attended  the  Ninth 
Inter-American  Conference  of  American  States 
held  at  Bogota  in  April  (see  PAN  AMERICAN  AC- 
TIVITIES), — MIGUEL  JOKRIN 

VERMONT.  A  New  England  State.  Area:  9,564  sq. 
mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  374,000,  compared 
with  (1940  census)  359,231.  Chief  cities:  Mont- 
pelier  (capital),  8,006  inhabitants  in  1940;  Bur- 
lington, 27,686.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EoucAtiON, 
MINERALS  ANI>  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES 
AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $21,772,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $22,353,000. 

Elections.  Dewey,  as  in  1944,  won  the  3  electoral 
votes,  with  75,926  votes  to  Truman's  45,557  and 
Wallace's  1,279.  There  was  no  Senate  contest.  The 
Republicans  retained  the  1  House  seat.  Incumbent 
Republican  Governor  Ernest  W.  Gibson  was  re- 
elected.  Other  State  officers  elected  were:  Lieuten- 
ant Governor — Harold  J.  Arthur;  Secretary  of  State 
— Howard  L.  Armstrong;  Treasurer — Levi  Kelley; 
Auditor — David  V.  Anderson. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Ernest  W.  Gibson;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Lee  E.  Emerson;  Secretary  of  State, 
Rawson  C.  Myrick;  Attorney  General,  Clifton  G. 
Parker;  State  Treasurer,  Levi  R.  Kelley;  State  Au- 
ditor, David  V.  Anderson. 


VETERANS  ADMINISTRATION.  An  independent  estab- 
lishment of  the  United  States  Government, 
charged  with  administrating  benefits  provided  by 
law  for  a  potential  one-third  of  the  nations's  pop- 
ulation— veterans  of  all  wars  and  their  families. 
VA  operates  a  network  of  126  hospitals  for  the 
treatment  of  ill  and  disabled  veterans.  In  addition, 
beds  in  civil,  state,  and  other  federal  hospitals  are 
being  used  on  a  contract  or  agreement  basis. 

Veterans  of  all  wars,  discharged  under  condi- 
tions other  than  dishonorable,  are  entitled  to  hos- 
pital treatment  under  the  following  priority 
system-:  first,  emergency  cases;  second,  those  with 
injuries  or  diseases  incurred  in  or  aggravated  by 
military  service,  and  third,  those  who  state  under 
oath  that  they  are  unable  to  pay  hospital  charges 
for  treatment  for  nonservice-connected  ailments. 
Veterans  in  the  third  category,  if  not  emergency 
cases,  must  wait  until  beds  become  available. 

On  Nov.  1,  1948,  a  total  of  93,541  beds  were 
occupied  in  VA  hospitals.  An  additional  12,221 
beds  were  used  by  VA  in  other-than-VA  hospitals 
for  the  care  of  eligible  veterans. 

VA  provides  education  and  training  at  Govern- 
ment expense  to  eligible  veterans. 

Those  training  under  the  G.I.  Bill  may  choose 
their  place  of  study  or  their  job  training  establish- 
ment, if  the  institution  or  establishment  has  been 
approved  by  an  appropriate  State  approving 
agency.  They  may  train  for  one  year  plus  a  period 
equal  to  the  time  served  in  the  armed  forces  be- 
tween Sept  16,  1940,  and  July  25,  1947,  Maximum 
period  of  training  allowed  is  48  months. 

Veterans  with  service-connected  disabilities,  in 
training  under  Public  Law  16,  receive  extensive 
guidance  from  VA  in  selecting  their  courses  and 
throughout  their  training.  They  may  remain  in 
training  for  as  long  as  is  necessary  to  restore  their 
ability  to  work,  up  to  a  maximum  of  four  years. 
In  extraordinary  cases,  VA  may  authorize  training 
for  more  than  four  years. 

Veteran-students  and  job  trainees  under  the  G.I. 
Bill  and  Public  Law  16  may  be  eligible  to  receive 
subsistence  allowances.  Monthly  maximums  for 
those  studying  full-time  in  schools  are  $75  without 
dependents;  $105  with  one  dependent,  and  $120 
with  more  than  one  dependent  Maximums  for  job 
trainees  are  $65  a  month  for  those  without  de- 
pendents and  $90  for  those  with  more  than  one  de- 
pendent. 

Additional  allowances  may  be  provided  to  Pub- 
lic Law  16  trainees,  depending  on  their  degree  of 
disability  and  the  number  of  additional  dependents 
they  have. 

On  Nov.  1,  1948,  there  were  2,186,092  veterans 
in  schools  and  job-training  establishments  under 
the  G.I.  Bill.  At  the  same  time,  231,854  were  in 
training  under  Public  Law  16. 

VA  guarantees  and  insures  loans  for  homes, 
farms,  and  businesses,  up  to  a  maximum  of  $4,000 
on  real  estate  and  $2,000  on  non-real  estate  loans. 
GJ.  farm  realty  loans  may  be  made  repayable  in 
up  to  40  years;  other  realty  loans,  in  up  to  25  years, 
and  non-realty  loans,  in  up  to  10  years. 

By  Oct.  25,  1948,  a  total  of  1,486,080  G.I.  loans 
of  all  types,  amounting  to  more  than  $8,000  mil- 
lion, had  been  made  by  private  lenders  with  VA 
approval  for  guaranty  or  insurance.  Ninety  per- 
cent of  the  loans — or  1,337,548 — were  for  homes; 
48,034  were  farm  loans,  and  100,498  were  business 
loans. 

VA  administers  a  readjustment  allowance  pro- 
gram which  provides  financial  assistance  for  job- 
less veterans,  those  partially  employed,  and  those 
self-employed  netting  less  than  $100  a  month.  A 


VETERINARY  MED/C/NE 


630 


VETERINARY  MEDICINE 


totally  unemployed  veteran  may  receive  $20  a 
week;  a,  partially  employed  veteran  may  receive 
up  to  $20  a  week  less  earnings  above  $3.  A  self- 
employed  veteran  may  receive  $100  a  month,  mi- 
nus any  net  earnings  during  the  month. 

During  the  week  ending  Nov.  6,  1948,  a  total 
of  229,831  veterans  claimed  readjustment  allow- 
ances for  unemployment.  During  the  week,  State 
unemployment  compensation  offices  paid  out 
$4,131,779  in  VA  readjustment  allowances. 

Claims  for  self-employment  allowances  totaled 
46,204  during  October,  1948.  That  month,  unem- 
ployment compensation  offices  disbursed  $4,471,- 
906  in  self-employment  claims. 

VA  conducts  one  of  the  largest  mutual  life  in- 
surance systems  in  the  nation.  Within  the  past 
eight  years,  the  agency  wrote  nearly  19,600,000 
National  Service  Life  Insurance  policies  having  a 
face  value  of  $152,500  million.  On  Oct.  1,  1948, 
about  one-third,  or  6,913,600,  still  were  in  force. 
Of  these,  5,342,000  were  term  policies.  The  re- 
mainder had  been  converted  to  the  half-dozen 
available  permanent  forms  of  insurance:  ordinary 
life,  30-payment  life,  20-payment  life,  20-year  en- 
dowment, endowment  at  age  60  and  endowment 
at  age  65. 

VA,  on  Nov.  1,  1948,  was  paying  monthly  com- 
pensation and  pensions  to  2,263,296  disabled  vet- 
erans and  to  955,313  dependents  of  deceased  vet- 
erans. Payments  for  disabilities  range  from  $13.80 
to  $360  a  month. 

On  that  date,  the  following  cases  (living  vet- 
erans) were  on  VA's  rolls:  Civil  War,  42;  Indian 
Wars,  674;  Spanish  American  War,  104,660; 
World  War  I,  452,815;  Regular  Establishments, 
44,389,  and  World  War  II,  1,660,716. 

In  addition  to  these  functions,  VA  is  charged 
with  administering  other  benefits  to  veterans. 
Among  them  are  a  guardianship  service;  a  program 
to  provide  homes  for  paraplegic  veterans;  convey- 
ances at  Government  expense  to  amputees;  burial 
benefits;  and  a  contact  service  to  advise  veterans, 
their  dependents,  and  beneficiaries  on  their  rights 
and  benefits. 

Deadlines  have  been  established  for  most  World 
War  II  veterans  benefits.  For  most  veterans,  G.L 
Bill  training  must  begin  before  July  26,  1951, 
and  must  end  July  25,  1956.  Disabled  veterans 
may  apply  for  Public  Law  16  training  at  any  time 
after  their  discharge,  but  in  time  to  complete 
training  by  July  25,  1956.  The  deadline  for  apply- 
ing for  G.I.  loans  is  July  24,  1957.  Readjustment 
allowances  may  be  claimed  for  any  week  ending  on 
or  before  July  24,  1949,  or  two  years  after  date  of 
discharge,  whichever  is  later,  but  not  later  than 
July  24,  1952. 

An  exception  to  these  deadlines  has  been  made 
for  persons  who  enlisted  or  reenlisted  under  the 
Voluntary  Recruitment  Act  Those  persons  may 
count  the  entire  period  of  their  enlistment  as  war 
service  for  purposes  of  G.I.  Bill  benefits,  regard- 
less of  the  date  the  war  was  declared  officially 
ended.  — CAUL  R.  GRAY,  JR. 

VETERINARY  MEDICINE.  Foot-and-Mouth  Disease  in 
Mexico.  A  project  of  international  interest  in  vet- 
erinary medicine,  during  1948,  was  the  program 
administered  jointly  by  Mexican  and  United  States 
officials  to  suppress  an  outbreak  of  foot-and-mouth 
disease  in  central  Mexico.  This  highly  infectious 
plague  that  attacks  cloven-hoofed  animals  with 
devastating  effects  had  appeared  in  the  State  of 
Veracruz  late  in  1946 — the  first  time  in  many- 
years  that  it  had  invaded  North  America,  though 
it  exists  in  over  50  countries  of  other  continents. 


The  infection  spread  to  18  Mexican  States  dur- 
ing 1947  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  a  well-organized 
staff  of  several  hundred  veterinarians  and  technical 
assistants  to  stamp  it  out  by  the  slaughter  and 
burial  of  infected  and  exposed  herds.  This  method 
is  eminently  successful  when  applied  early  in  an 
outbreak  but  good  results  are  less  certain  if  the 
disease  has  spread  extensively,  as  was  the  case  in 
the  current  instance  before  vigorous  eradication 
measures  could  be  put  into  effect. 

During  1948  the  joint  Mexican-United  States 
Commission  in  charge  of  operations  developed  a 
program  embodying  large-scale  vaccination  of 
healthy  animals  to  confer  resistance  against  the 
disease.  Other  elements  of  the  program,  carried 
over  from  the  previous  year,  were  constant  in- 
spections, disinfection,  and  quarantine.  In  addi- 
tion the  1948  operations  included  the  slaughter 
and  burial  of  infected  and  exposed  herds  when 
found  near  quarantine  lines  and  in  other  areas  be- 
ing "worked."  Lacking  vaccine  of  its  own  the  Com- 
mission first  contracted  for  supplies  from  labora- 
tories in  Europe  and  South  America.  When  it 
became  clear  that  the  quantity  from  those  sources 
would  be  insufficient  for  the  program,  involv- 
ing the  vaccination  of  millions  of  animals,  the 
Commission  established  its  own  laboratories  in 
central  Mexico. 

By  October,  1948,  the  newly  built  and  equipped 
laboratories  attained  the  remarkable  production 
of  a  million  doses  of  vaccine  monthly,  and  by  the 
end  of  the  year  the  output  was  about  50  percent 
more.  The  use  of  the  vaccine  as  the  key  to  con- 
trol and  eventual  eradication  of  the  disease  met 
with  better  cooperation  from  the  Mexican  people 
than  had  the  previous  more  drastic  program  based 
on  large-scale  slaughter. 

Progress  during  1948  included  the  vaccination 
of  more  tiian  1,500,000  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and 
swine  and  a  reduction  of  the  quarantined  area  by 
about  40,000  square  miles,  or  more  than  a  tenth 
of  the  total.  The  estimated  number  of  animals 
still  to  be  vaccinated  exceeds  12  million.  The  _  of- 
ficials directly  in  charge  of  the  campaign  against 
the  disease  are  Oscar  Flores,  director,  representing 
Mexico,  and  Harry  H.  Johnson,  co-director,  repre- 
senting the  United  States.  The  civilian  staff  under 
their  supervision  numbers  over  3,000,  It  is  supple- 
mented by  units  of  the  Mexican  National  Army, 
which  perform  protective  and  quarantine-enforce- 
ment duties. 

The  large-scale  laboratory  and  field  operations 
in  Mexico  have  reduced  previous  apprehension 
that  the  dreaded  disease  might  get  out  of  control 
there  and  spread  to  other  countries  of  North  Amer- 
ica. Foreign  veterinary  authorities,  seeing  in  the 
developments  a  possible  key  to  their  own  prob- 
lems, have  shown  keen  interest  especially  in  the 
vast  vaccination  program,  and  several  foreign  of- 
ficials have  visited  Mexico  to  obtain  first-hand 
information. 

United  States  Research  on  Foot-and-Mouth  Disease 
Authorized.  Allied  to  the  situation  in  Mexico  but 
fundamentally  concerned  with  better  protection 
of  the  United  States  from  foot-and-mouth  disease 
from  any  source  was  legislation,  passed  by  the 
United  States  Congress  in  April,  1948,  authorizing 
research  on  this  malady  (Public  Law  496 — 80th 
Congress,  Chapter  229,  2d  session,  S.  2038).  United 
States  veterinary  officials  responsible  for  suppress- 
ing outbreaks  that  may  occur  in  the  United  States 
from  time  to  time  have  long  needed  more  scientific 
information  than  has  been  available  from  foreign 
laboratories. 

The  United  States  has  never  had  a  foot-and- 


VETERINARY  MEDIG1NE 


631 


VETERINARY  MEDICINE 


mouth  disease  laboratory  of  its  own,  largely  be- 
cause of  public  sentiment  against  experimenting 
with  the  highly  infectious  virus.  But  during  1948 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  received  assur- 
ances from  several  European  authorities  that  mod- 
ern safeguards  were  fully  adequate  to  control  the 
infection.  This  view  received  support,  also,  from 
domestic  research  workers  and  representatives  of 
the  livestock  industry  who  saw  in  such  a  labora- 
tory an  aid  to  United  States  defenses  should  an 
emergency  such  as  germ  warfare  arise.  The  same 
groups  held,  likewise,  that  expanding  commerce  of 
all  kinds  with  foreign  countries,  especially  by  air- 
plane, required  new  scientific  research  as  a  basis 
for  modern  quarantine  regulations  and  other  im- 
proved security  measures. 

After  extensive  hearings  Congress  authorized 
the  establishment  of  such  a  laboratory,  with  speci- 
fied safeguards.  The  principal  one  was  that  it  be 
on  a  coastal  island  separated  from  the  mainland 
by  deep  navigable  water.  The  selection  of  a  suit- 
able site  and  the  development  of  detailed  plans 
were  in  progress  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Veterinary  Education.  Increasing  demands  for  well- 
trained  veterinarians  for  both  private  and  public 
service  have  caused  veterinary  medicine  to  be  one 
of  the  least-crowded  professions.  During  1948,  as 
in  other  recent  years,  private  practice  attracted 
most  veterinarians.  Government  agencies,  particu- 
larly the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  the  United  States  Army,  have  ranked  next  in 
importance  as  employers.  For  example,  the  meat 
inspection  service  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  required  the  services  of  about  900 
veterinarians  in  1948.  Other  noteworthy  fields  are 
State  and  municipal  services,  teaching,  and  the 
commercial  preparation  of  veterinary  biological 
products.  Among  the  newer  opportunities  of  spe- 
cialized character  is  veterinary  service  for  fur 
animals  raised  in  captivity. 

During  1948  training  for  the  foregoing  lines  of 
work 'was  provided  by  10  colleges  in  the  United 
States  and  2  in  Canada,  accredited  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Such  accredita- 
tion signifies  that  graduates  of  those  institutions 
are  eligible  for  appointment  for  veterinary  service 
in  the  Department.  The  accredited  colleges  of 
veterinary  medicine  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada are: 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute,  College  of  Veteri- 
nary Medicine,  Auburn,  Ala. 
Colorado   State   College,   Division   of  Veterinary 

Medicine,  Fort  Collins,   Colo. 
Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic 
Arts,   Division  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  Ames, 
Iowa. 

Kansas  State  College,  Division  of  Veterinary  Medi- 
cine, Manhattan,  Kans. 

Michigan  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Applied 
Science,  Division  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  East 
Lansing,  Mich. 
Cornell  University,   New  York   State   Veterinary 

College,  Ithaca,  N.Y. 

Ohio  State  University,  College  of  Veterinary  Med- 
icine, Columbus,  Ohio 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  School  of  Veterinary 

Medicine,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Texas, 
School  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  College  Station, 
Tex. 

State  College  of  Agriculture,  College  of  Veteri- 
nary Medicine,  Pullman,  Wash. 
University  of  Toronto,  Ontario  Veterinary  College, 
Guelph,  Ontario,  Canada  TEcole  de  Medicine 


Veterinaire,  Universite  de  Montreal,  Oka,  Que- 
bec, Canada. 

During  1948  the  10  United  States  institutions 
had  a  total  enrollment  of  approximately  2,350 
students  and  conferred  degrees  on  141  graduates. 
Though  encouraging  veterinary  education,  the 
United  States  Government  conducts  no  schools  or 
courses  in  veterinary  medicine,  nor  are  there  any 
officially  accredited  night  schools  or  correspond- 
ence courses  in  that  subject.  During  1948  several 
new  veterinary  colleges  were  being  established  in 
other  States. 

License  to  Practice.  As  in  previous  years,  all  States 
and  the  District  of  Columbia  and  the  provinces  of 
Canada  had  laws  and  regulations  governing  the 
practice  of  veterinary  medicine.  Licensing  tests 
or  examinations  are  offered  periodically  to  candi- 
dates seeking  to  qualify  as  practitioners.  Registra- 
tion is  generally  required,  usually  with  the  State 
board  of  veterinary  examiners  at  the  State  capital. 

Bovine  Tuberculosis  Eradication.  In  the  cooperative 
Federal-State  campaign  against  bovine  tubercu- 
losis, conducted  systematically  since  1917,  the 
average  degree  of  infection  in  1948  was  found  to 
be  0.19  percent,  which  is  a  slight  reduction  from 
that  reported  for  the  two  previous  years.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  campaign  the  corresponding  fig- 
ure was  about  5  percent  for  the  United  States, 
though  in  some  localities  the  proportion  of  tuber- 
culous cattle  exceeded  25  percent.  Though  this 
campaign  has  been  eminently  successful,  sporadic 
outbreaks  during  1948  again  demonstrated  the  im- 
portance of  retesting  herds  regularly  so  as  to  de- 
tect and  remove  promptly  any  infected  animals 
before  they  spread  the  disease. 

Progress  in  Eradicating  Brucellosis.  The  eradication 
of  brucellosis,  or  Bang's  disease,  from  the  cattle  of 
the  United  States  continues  to  be  a  major  under- 
taking in  veterinary  medicine.  Federal,  State,  and 
private  veterinarians,  together  with  county  veteri- 
narians in  some  areas,  are  participating  in  various 
aspects  of  this  campaign. 

Owing  to  extensive  interest  among  cattle  owners 
in  the  early  eradication  of  the  disease  from  their 
herds,  where  it  has  caused  heavy  losses,  the  de- 
mand for  veterinary  service  has  been  unusually 
heavy,  often  exceeding,  the  ability  of  public  agen- 
cies to  meet  it.  One  major  factor  in  the  spread  of 
this  disease  has  been  the  addition,  by  many  farm- 
ers, of  cows  of  uncertain  origin  to  clean  herds  in 
the  effort  to  increase  milk  and  beef  production. 
The  application  of  blood  tests  to  more  than  5  mil- 
lion cattle  during  the  year  disclosed  approximately 
4.3  percent  of  infection,  which  is  slightly  less  than 
that  found  a  few  years  ago. 

The  disposal  of  reacting  cattle  is  covered  by  de- 
tailed regulations  and  in  many  States  provision 
has  been  made  for  the  payment  of  indemnities  for 
condemned  animals.  Vaccination,  particularly  of 
calves,  to  increase  their  resistance  to  the  disease  is 
part  of  the  campaign  of  control  and  eradication. 
During  1948  more  than  one  million  calves  were 
vaccinated. 

Equine  Infectious  Anemia  Studied.  A  serious  out- 
break of  infectious  anemia  among  race  horses  in 
New  England,  in  1947,  was  the  object  of  veteri- 
nary study  continuing  into  1948.  It  was  the  first 
time  the  disease  had  occurred  among  a  large  num- 
ber of  thoroughbred  horses,  hundreds  of  valuable 
animals  at  race  tracks  in  Massachusetts,  New 
Hampshire,  and  Rhode  Island  being  involved. 
Measures  outlined  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  promptly  put  in  force  by  State 
livestock  officials,  brought  the  outbreak  under  con- 
trol. A  thorough  investigation  indicated  that  biting 


VETERfNARY  MEDICINE 


632 


VIRGINIA 


flies  had  played  a  part  in  the  early  spread  of  the 
disease  and  that  further  dissemination  may  have 
resulted  from  the  use  of  contaminated  hypodermic 
needles  and  other  instruments  that  draw  blood 
even  in  very  small  amounts. 

Rabies  Survey.  The  results  of  a  survey  on  the  ex- 
tent of  rabies  in  the  United  States,  announced  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in 
1948  though  covering  the  previous  year,  showed 
dogs  to  he  the  principal  animals  affected.  The  data 
were  compiled  from  information  furnished  to  the 
Department  by  livestock  sanitary  officials  or  health 
officers  in  each  State.  Of  8,946  cases  reported, 
6,949  were  dogs,  766  cattle,  40  horses,  15  sheep, 
20  swine,  393  cats,  9  goats,  26  persons,  and  728 
animals  either  unclassified  or  miscellaneous.  The 
last  group  included  many  species  of  wild  animals 
such  as  coyotes,  foxes,  squirrels,  and  rats.  States 
from  which  more  than  500  cases  of  rabies  were  re- 
ported were  Texas,  Tennessee,  New  York,  Louisi- 
ana, and  Ohio.  Those  having  no  reported  cases 
were  Connecticut,  Dekware,  Idaho,  Maryland, 
Massachusetts,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  North 
Dakota,  Oregon,  Rhode  Island,  South  Dakota,  Ver- 
mont, Washington,  and  Wyoming. 

"X  Disease"  of  Cattle  Studied.  A  baffling  cattle 
malady  known  thus  far  mainly  as  "X  disease/7  al- 
though also  given  other  tentative  names,  became 
the  object  of  study,  during  1948,  by  Federal  and 
State  livestock  scientists.  By  the  end  of  the  year  it 
had  been  reported  from  32  States,  Early  symptoms 
of  the  disease  include  a  watery  discharge  from  the 
eyes  and  nose.  As  the  malady  progresses  the  ap- 
petite fails  and  there  is  loss  of  flesh  and  condition. 
The  victim  becomes  depressed  and  a  progressive 
thickening  of  the  skin  occurs.  Because  of  the  last 
symptom  some  patholo gists  have  called  the  disease 
hyperkeratosis.  The  normal  course  of  the  malady 
is  from  several  weeks  to  three  months.  Young 
stock  appear  to  be  more  susceptible  than  adults. 
Severely  affected  animals  usually  die. 

A  preliminary  survey  of  the  disease  in  five 
Southeastern  States  by  a  group  of  scientists  failed 
to  show  its  cause.  The  scientists  collected  samples 
of  soil,  plants,  and  tissues  from  affected  animals 
for  further  study.  Until  the  cause  of  the  strange 
disease  is  known,  the  scientists  advise  the  quaran- 
tining, voluntarily  3  of  affected  herds  as  a  protec- 
tion to  others  on  nearby  farms. 

Decrease  in  PuHorum  Disease.  The  poultry  malady, 
pullorurn  disease,  which  has  long  caused  heavy 
death  losses,  especially  among  young  chicks,  is  be- 
ing reduced,  in  the  United  States,  by  the  testing 
of  breeding  stock  and  the  elimination  of  infected 
birds.  Of  30  million  chickens  tested  in  1948,  ap- 

Eroximately  1.9  percent  reacted,  indicating  in- 
action, as  compared  with  3.3  percent  of  a  smaller 
number  tested  12  years  ago  when  the  systematic 
suppression  of  the  disease  began.  The  tests  are 
made  as  a  part  of  the  National  Poultry  Improve- 
ment Plan  conducted  jointly  by  Federal  and  State 
officials  in  cooperation  with  the  poultry  industry. 
Of  great  value  in  this  work  is  a  simple,  rapid, 
accurate  diagnostic  test  developed  in  1931  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  scien- 
tists. Although  the  disease  is  especially  fatal  to 
young  chicks,  it  causes  further  losses  through  re- 
duced hatchability  of  eggs,  curtailed  egg  produc- 
tion, and  deaths  of  hens  from  generalized  infec- 
tion. Since  the  main  reservoir  of  the  disease  is  the 
farm  flocks  that  supply  commercial  hatcheries  with 
eggs,  Federal  and  State  sponsors  of  the  national 
plan  have  provided  official  recognition  for  progres- 
sive steps  in  eradicating  the  infection  from  indi- 
vidual flocks. 


International  Veterinary  Congress  Award.  The  In- 
ternational Veterinary  Congress  Award  for  1948 
was  presented  to  Col.  A.  E.  Cameron,  Ottawa, 
Canada,  for  'long  and  distinguished  service  to 
veterinary  medicine  and  to  mankind  and  for  his 
zeal  to  improve  the  profession."  Col.  Cameron 
was  formerly  Veterinary  Director  General  of  Can- 
ada. Presentation  was  made  by  Dr.  W.  A.  Hagan, 
President  of  the  American  Veterinary  Medical  As- 
sociation at  its  annual  convention,  held  in  San 
Francisco, 

New  Veterinary  Books  and  Pamphlets.  Much  new 
literature  on  veterinary  subjects  appeared  during 
1948  both  as  individual  documents  and  as  articles 
in  professional  and  livestock  journals.  The  pub- 
lished material  included:  Proceedings,  51st  Annual 
Meeting  of  United  States  Livestock  Sanitary  As- 
sociation, (Waverly  Press,  Inc.);  Manual  of  Vet- 
erinary Bacteriology,  by  R.  A.  Kelser  and  H.  W. 
Schoening,  (Williams  &  Wilkins);  Diseases  of  Poul- 
try, edited  by  H.  E.  Biester  and  L.  H.  Schwarte, 
2d  edition  (Iowa  State  College  Press);  Report 
of  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  fiscal 
year  1948,  by  B.  T.  Sirnms  (U.S.  Government 
Printing  Office);  Career  Opportunities  for  Grad- 
uate Veterinarians  in  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Indus- 
try, Miscellaneous  Publications  No.  671  (U.S.  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office).  — DALLAS  S.  BURCH 

VIKING  FUND,  INC.,  The.  This  non-profit  organization 
was  created  and  endowed  in  1941  by  Axel  Leonard 
Wenner-Gren  for  the  promotion  and  support  of 
scientific,  charitable,  and  educational  enterprises. 
Its  main  sphere  of  interest  is  the  encouragement 
and  support  of  research  in  anthropology  and 
closely  related  sciences,  and  the  meeting  of  educa- 
tional and  institutional  needs  for  the  propagation 
of  these  sciences.  During  the  year  ended  Jan.  31, 
1948,  a  total  of  107  grants  were  awarded,  includ- 
ing twelve  Pre-Doctoral  and  Post-Doctoral  Viking 
Fund  Fellowships  in  Anthropology.  The  projects 
aided  by  grants  are  described  in  the  Annual  Re- 
ports or  the  Viking  Fund,  and  are  listed  in  the 
Cumulative  Record  of  Grants  printed  therein. 

During  the  year  ended  Jan.  31,  1949,  a  total  of 
106  new  grants  were  awarded,  including  24  Pre- 
Doctoral  and  Post-Doctoral  Viking  Fund  Fellow- 
ships in  Anthropology. 

Publications:  Viking  Fund  Publications  in  An- 
thropology, nos.  1-1 0;  Yearbook  of  Phi/deal  An- 
thropology, 1945,  1946;  and  others  resulting  from 
projects  supported  in  whole  or  in  part  by  the  Vi- 
king Fund  (listed  in  Cumulative  Record  of  Publi- 
cations in  Annual  Reports).  Prizes  and  awards: 
the  Viking  Fund  Annual  Awards  in  Anthropology, 
consisting  of  a  medal  and  a  cash  award.  Medalists 
for  1946  and  1947  were,  respectively:  Dr.  A.  L. 
Kroeber  and  Dr.  Robert  Harry  Lowie  for  the 
American  Anthropological  Association;  Dr.  Franz 
Weidenreich  and  Dr.  Earnest  A.  Hooton  for  the 
American  Association  of  Physical  Anthropologists; 
and  Dr.  A.  V.  Kidder  and  Dr.  John  Otis  Brew  for 
the  Society  for  American  Archaeology.  President, 
Richard  C.  Hunt;  Director  of  Research,  Dr.  Paul 
Fejos.  Headquarters:  14  East  71  St.,  New  York 
21,  N.Y. 

VIRGINIA.  A  south  Atlantic  State.  Area:  39,899  sq. 
mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  3,029,000,  com- 
pared with  (1940  census)  2,677,773.  Chief  city: 
Richmond  (capital),  193,042  inhabitants  in  1940. 
See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND 
METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES, 
VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 


VIRGIN  ISLANDS 


633 


VIRGIN  ISLANDS 


total  revenue  amounted  to  $152,482,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $156,704,000. 

Legislation.  The  General  Assembly  met  Janu- 
ary 14  and  adjourned  March  30,  having  passed  a 
record-breaking  $511  million  biennial  budget,  40 
percent  of  which  is  derived  from  business  opera- 
tions and  involves  no  tax  money.  Increased  tax 
rates  were  placed  on  corporate  and  individual  in- 
come, merchants,  public  service  corporations,  beer, 
and  recording  of  deeds.  Appropriations  for  educa- 
tion, public  health,  welfare,  and  care  of  mental 
defectives  were  increased. 

A  thorough  reorganization  of  the  executive 
branch  was  approved,  reducing  independent  de- 
partments and  agencies  from  72  to  30.  Improved 
and  more  economical  administration  is  expected 
to  result. 

Other  important  enactments  include  $2.5  million 
direct  aid  to  localities  for  hospital  and  health  cen- 
ter construction;  increased  unemployment  com- 
pensation payments  and  greater  coverage  of  work- 
men's compensation;  stronger  child  labor  laws; 
broader  regulation  of  insurance;  approval  of  the 
eight-State  Ohio  River  pollution  control  compact; 
an  airport  channeling  law;  and  submission  to  popu- 
lar vote  in  November,  1949,  of  a  constitutional 
amendment  to  repeal  the  poll  tax. 

Elections.  Truman  won  the  11  electoral  votes,  also 
taken  by  Roosevelt  in  1944,  with  a  plurality  over 
Dewey,  Thurmond,  and  Wallace.  Incumbent  Dem- 
ocratic Senator  A.  Willis  Robertson  was  reelected. 
Democrats  retained  the  9  House  seats.  There  were 
no  Statewide  contests  for  State  office. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  William  M.  Tuck;  Lieut. 
Governor,  L.  Preston  Collins;  Secretary  of  the 
Commonwealth,  Mrs.  Thelma  Y.  Gordon;  Attorney 
General,  Harvey  B.  Apperson;  State  Treasurer, 
Jesse  W.  Dillon;  Auditor  of  Public  Accounts, 
J.  Gordon  Bennett;  Comptroller,  Henry  G.  Gilmer. 

VIRGIN  ISLANDS,  U.S.  An  insular  possession  of  the 
United  States,  situated  about  70  miles  east  of  San 
Juan,  Puerto  Rico.  This  possession,  acquired  in 
1917  for  $25  million  through  a  treaty  with  Den- 
mark, forms  part  of  the  chain  of  the  Lesser  An- 
tilles which  extends  from  Puerto  Rico  to  the  coast 
of  South  America.  Of  the  50  islands  in  the  group 
only  the  three  largest  are  inhabited — St. -Thomas, 
St,  John,  and  St.  Croix. 

Area  and  Population.  Total  area:  132  square  miles. 
Population:  24,889.  Individual  islands  (1940): 
St.  Thomas,  28  square  miles,  11,265  inhabitants; 
St,  John,  20  square  miles,  722  inhabitants;  St, 
Croix,  84  square  miles,  12,902  inhabitants,  Of  the 
whole  population,  69  percent  in  1940  were  Ne- 
groes, 22  percent  of  mixed  race,  9  percent  whites. 
Vital  statistics  (1947):  birth  rate,  37.0;  death  rate, 
16.3,  per  1,000,  Capital:  Charlotte  Amalie  (on  the 
island  of  St.  Thomas),  population  9,801  in  1940. 
The  estimated  population  of  the  Virgin  Islands  at 
the  end  of  1947  as  the  result  o£  a  local  survey  was 
30,000. 

Education.  For  over  a  century  education  has  been 
compulsory.  At  the  present  time  all  children  be- 
tween 5}£  and  15  years  of  age  are  required  to  go 
to  school.  Free  education  is  provided  by  the  local 
government  in  the  elementary  grades  through 
high  school.  In  the  fiscal  year  ended  June,  1948, 
there  were  27  schools  for  all  grades  with  a  total 
enrollment  of  4,260  pupils.  Most  of  the  people 
speak  English. 

Defenses.  The  islands  are  the  most  eastern  out- 
post of  the  United  States  and  are  so  situated  as  to 
furnish  protection  both  to  United  States'  hold- 
ings in  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Panama  Canal 


The  fine  harbor  of  Charlotte  Amalie  provides  shel- 
ter for  as  many  as  23  warships  at  one  time.  De- 
fenses constructed  in  this  region  during  the  past 
few  years  have  been  primarily  to  bulwark  the  great 
naval,  military,  and  air  bases  in  Puerto  Rico. 

They  include  a  permanent  United  States  Marine 
Corps  air  base  near  Lindbergh  Bay  on  St.  Thomas, 
a  large  submarine  base  at  Charlotte  Amalie  Har- 
bor, and  a  United  States  Army  air  base  on  St. 
Croix  near  Frederiksted.  In  December,  1947,  the 
United  States  Navy  removed  its  personnel  and 
ceased  operations  of  the  Submarine  Base  and  the 
Marine  Corps  Air  Facilities  at  Bourne  Field  in  St. 
Thomas.  At  the  same  time  the  United  States  Army 
ceased  operations  of  the  airport  at  Benedict  Field, 
St.  Croix,  In  April,  1948,  the  San  Jose  Project,  a 
permanent  installation  of  the  United  States  Army 
Chemical  Service,  was  transferred  to  St.  Thomas 
from  Panama  and  took  over  the  former  Naval  Sub- 
marine Base. 

Product-ion  and  Trade.  St.  Thomas  has  largely  de- 
pended upon  commerce,  trade  and  shipping  for 
income.  St.  Croix  has  depended  chiefly  upon  agri- 
culture for  its  revenues.  During  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June,  1948,  St.  Croix  produced  4,350  tons 
of  sugar,  1,400  tons  more  than  the  previous  year. 
A  total  of  224,236.86  proof  gallons  of  alcoholic 
beverages  were  exported  from  the  Virgin  Islands. 

Public  Finance.  The  revenue  of  the  Municipality 
of  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John  amounted  to  $817,- 
581,  almost  the  same  as  for  the  preceding  year. 
Budget  expenditures  totaled  $965,733.  Income  tax 
collections  were  $417,698,  as  compared  with 
$511,870  in  the  preceding  year.  The  revenue  of 
the  Municipality  of  St.  Croix  was  $269,474,  as 
compared  with  $273,027  in  the  past  year.  Budg- 
eted expenditure  was  $456,893.  Congress  appro- 
priated $140,000  toward  the  expenses  of  local 
government  in  the  Municipality  of  St.  Croix.  In- 
come tax  collections  there  amounted  to  $103,070 
as  against  $86,232  in  the  previous  year. 

Government.  During  the  first  14  years  of  United 
States  control  the  Virgin  Islands  had  a  naval  gov- 
ernment. In  1931  jurisdiction  was  transferred 
from  the  Navy  Department  to  the  Department  of 
the  Interior  and  a  civil  governor  was  appointed 
by  the  President.  Congress  passed  an  Organic  Act 
for  the  islands  in  1936  which  effected  little  change 
in  the  structure  of  the  government  although  it  did 
allow  for  a  greater  measure  of  political  freedom. 
The  autonomy  of  the  two  municipalities  was  re- 
tained and  both  have  Municipal  Councils,  which 
when  called  in  joint  session,  constitute  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly.  The  Governor  is  appointed  by  the 
President  and  holds  office  at  his  pleasure. 

Governor  in  1948  William  Henry  Hastie  (in- 
augurated May  17,  1946).  Other  government  of- 
ficials are:  Morris  F.  de  Castro,  Government  Sec- 
retary; Louis  Shulterbrandt,  Commissioner  of 
Finance;  Francisco  Corneiro,  U.S.  Attorney;  and 
Herman  E.  Moore,  District  Judge  of  the  District 
Court  of  the  Virgin  Islands. 

Events,  1948.  The  outstanding  event  of  1948  was 
the  commemoration  of  the  one  hundredth  anni- 
versary of  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  Virgin 
Islands.  At  the  official  opening  held  in  Charlotte 
Amalie  on  July  3,  Governor  Hastie  read  greetings 
from  the  President  of  the  United  States  and  from 
the  King  of  Denmark.  With  the  Governor,  the 
Danish  Ambassador  to  the  United  States,  Mr.  Hen- 
rik  de  KaufTman,  was  one  of  the  principal  speakers. 
President  Harry  S.  Truman  visited  the  Virgin  Is- 
lands in  February,  and  unveiled  a  plaque  com- 
memorating the  Emancipation  Centennial  at  Char- 
lotte Amalie. 


STATISTICS 


634 


VITAL  STATISTICS 


The  Legislative  Assembly  provided  for  a  Ref- 
erendum on  questions  of  basic  importance  in  any 
revisions  of  the  present  Organic  Act.  Voters  were 
given  the  opportunity  to  express  their  views  on  the 
popular  election  of  the  Governor,  unification  of 
the  quasi-independent  political  districts  of  St. 
Croix  and  St.  Thomas  and  St.  John,  and  the  elec- 
tion of  a  Resident  Commissioner  to  the  United 
States  Congress.  — WILLIAM  H.  HASTEE 

VITAL  STATISTICS.  In  1948,  the  number  of  births  in 
the  United  States  declined  somewhat  from  the  rec- 
ord high  point  recorded  the  previous  year,  accord- 
ing to  provisional  data  of  the  National  Office  of 
Vital  Statistics,  in  the  Public  Health  Service  of 
the  Federal  Security  Agency.  The  crude  birth  rate 
was  the  second  highest  recorded  in  almost  30  years. 
The  crude  death  rate  estimated  for  1948  was  at 

TABLE  I— NUMBER  OF  BIRTHS,  DEATHS,  MAR- 
RIAGES, AND  DIVORCES:  UNITED  STATES, 

1933-1948 

(Births  and  deaths  exclusive  of  stillbirths;  divorces  include 
reported  annulments) 


Year 
1948*... 
1947 

Births 
.  .3,540,000 
3,699  940 

Deaths  a 
1,454,000 
1  445  370 

Marriages 
1,992354" 

Divorces  & 
471,666  * 

1946  

..3,288,672 

1,395,617 

2,291,045 

610,000 

1945.... 
1944  

.  .2,735,456 
.  2,794,800 

1,401,719 
1,411,338 

1,612,992 
1,452,394 

485,000 
400,000 

1943. 

.  2,934,860 

1,459,544 

1,577  050 

359,000 

1942.... 
1941 
1940.... 
1939  

,  .  .2,808,996 
,  .  .2,513,427 
,..2,360,399 

.  .2,265,588 

1,385,187 
1,397,642 
1,417,269 
1,387,897 

1,772,132 
1,695,999 
1,595,879 
1,403,633 

321,000 
293,000 
264,000 
251,000 

1938.... 
1937.... 
1936  .  .  . 

,  .  .2,286,962 
..2,203,337 
.  2  144,790 

1,381,391 
1,450,427 
1,479,228 

1,330,780 
1,451,296 
1,369  000  b 

244,000 
249,000 
236,000 

1935.,.. 
1934 

...2,155,105 
2  167  636 

1,392,752 
1  396  903 

1,  327,000  6 
1  302  000  6 

218,000 
204,000 

1933  

.  .2,081,232 

1,342,106 

1,  098,000  & 

165,000 

*  Data  for  1940-48  exclude  deaths  among  armed  forces  over- 
seas.   b  Estimated.    c  Provisional. 

the  record  low  first  set  in  1946,  Trie  number  of 
divorces  in  1947  and  the  number  of  marriages  in 
1947  and  1948  declined  from  the  all-time  high  in 
1946,  but  remained  well  above  prewar  levels. 

Natality  Statistics.  Provisional  data  for  1948  indi- 
cate that  the  second  largest  number  of  births  in 
the  history  of  the  country  occurred  during  the  year. 
It  is  estimated  that  about  3,540,000  live  births 
were  registered  in  1948,  a  decline  of  about  160,000 

TABLE  2— CRUDE  BIETH,  DEATH,  MARRIAGE,  AND 

DIVORCE  RATES;  UNITED  STATES,  1933-1948 
(Births  and  deaths  exclusive  of  stillbirths.  Rates  per  1,000  esti- 
mated midyear  population) 


Year 

Births 

Deaths  <* 

Marriages  Divorces  *> 

1948*  

24.2 

10.0 

1947  

25.8 

10.1 

13.9  = 

3.3" 

1946  

23.3 

10.0 

16.4 

4.3 

1945  

19.6 

10,6 

12.2 

3.5 

1944  

20.2 

10.6 

11.0 

2.9 

1943  

21.5 

10.9 

11.8 

2.6 

1942  

20.9 

10.4 

13.2 

2.4 

1941  

18.9 

10.5 

12.7 

2.2 

1940  

17.9 

10.7 

12.1 

2.0 

1939  

17.3 

10.6 

10.7 

1.9 

1938  

17.6 

10.6 

10.3 

1.9 

1937  

17.1 

11.3 

11.3 

1.9 

1936  

16.7 

11.6 

10.7  & 

1.8 

1935  

16.9 

10.9 

10.4  & 

1.7 

1934  

17.2 

11.1 

10.3  & 

1.6 

1933  

16.6 

10.7 

8.7& 

1.3 

Note:  Birth  and  divorce  rates  for  1940-46  based  on  population 
including  armed  forces  overseas;  after  1946,  based  on  popu- 
lation excluding  armed  forces  overseas.  Death  and  marriage 
rates  based  on  population  excluding  armed  forces  overseas, 
1940-48. 

«  Data  for  1940-48  exclude  deaths  among  armed  forces  over- 
seas.   J  Estimated.    6  Provisional. 

from  the  3,699,940  registered  in  the  preceding 
year.  The  1948  estimated  birth  rate  of  24.2  per 
1,000  population  (excluding  the  armed  forces  over- 


seas) was  6  percent  lower  than  the  1947  rate 
(25.8)  and  is  the  second  highest  recorded  in  al- 
most SO  years.  The  estimated  birth  rate  for  the 
first  six  months  of  1948  was  about  10  percent 
below  that  estimated  for  the  first  half  of  1947.  In 
the  second  half  of  1948,  however,  the  monthly 
rate  rose  to  the  1947  level. 

As  may  be  seen  from  Table  2,  the  trend  since 
1933,  when  the  birth  rate  reached  its  lowest  point 
in  this  country,  is  characterized  by  an  irregular 
rise  in  the  rate  from  16.6  in  1933  to  17.9  in  1940, 
a  more  rapid  rise  to  20,9  in  1942,  and  a  further  rise 
in  1943  when  the  wartime  peak  rate  of  21.5  was 
set.  The  decline  in  the  rates  during  the  next  two 
years  to  19.6  in  1945  erased  about  half  of  the  rise 
which  occurred  during  the  period  1941-43  and 
may  be  attributed  in  large  part  to  the  assignment 
of  millions  of  men  in  the  armed  forces  to  overseas 
posts.  The  demobilization  late  in  1945  and  in  1946, 
the  high  marriage  rate  during  this  period,  and  the 
high  level  of  economic  activity  account  for  the  up- 
surge in  the  birth  rate  which  occurred  in  the  sec- 
ond half  of  1946  and  the  record  high  rate  in  1947. 
Favorable  economic  conditions  undoubtedly  were 
a  factor  in  the  continuation  of  a  high  rate  in  1948. 

Person  in  Attendance  at  Birth.  The  period  1935- 
46  was  marked  by  a  rise  in  the  proportion  of  births 
attended  by  physicians,  a  sharp  increase  in  the 
proportion  of  births  in  hospitals,  and  a  decline  in 
the  proportion  of  births  attended  by  midwives. 
"  The  increased  use  of  hospitals  and  physicians  at 
birth  has  been  a  contributing  factor  in  the  decline 
in  the  infant  mortality  rate. 

In  1946,  94.6  percent  of  all  live  births  were  at- 
tended by  physicians,  an  increase  of  about  8  per- 
cent over  the  proportion  (87.5)  in  1935.  A  much 
larger  change  occurred  in  the  use  of  hospitals.  Be- 
tween 1935  and  1946,  the  proportion  of  births  at- 
tended by  physicians  in  hospitals  more  than  dou- 
bled, increasing  from  36.9  percent  in  1935  to  82.4 
percent  in  1946.  The  proportion  of  births  attended 
by  physicians  outside  hospitals  decreased  from  50.6 
percent  in  1935  to  12.2  percent  in  1946,  Midwives 
attended  5.1  percent  of  all  births  in  1946,  a  reduc- 
tion of  more  than  one-half  from  the  1935  propor- 
tion (10.7  percent). 

In  both  white  and  nonwhite  groups  there  has 
been  a  continued  upward  trend  in  the  proportion 
of  births  occurring  in  hospitals.  Over  the  12-year 
period,  the  proportion  of  such  births  in  each  of 
these  groups  has  approximately  doubled.  Neverthe- 
less, in  1946  the  proportion  of  births  of  white  in- 
fants in  hospitals  (87.1  percent)  was  almost  twice 
the  proportion  (45.2  percent)  for  nonwhite  infants. 
This  disparity  is  reduced  to  some  extent  if  births 
attended  by  physicians  outside  hospitals  are  in- 
cluded. In  1946,  98.4  percent  of  all  white  births 
as  compared  with  65.2  percent  of  nonwhite  births 
were  attended  by  physicians  in  or  out  of  hospitals. 
Midwives  attended  more  than  a  third  (33.8  per- 
cent) of  the  nonwhite  births  in  1946  but  were  of 
negligible  importance  (less  than  2  percent)  in 
white  births. 

Mortality  Statistics.  During  the  3-year  period, 
1946-48,  the  crude  death  rate  for  the  United."  States 
was  at  the  lowest  level  ever  recorded.  The  rate 
reached  the  record  low  of  10.0  per  1,000  popula- 
tion in  1946,  then  rose  slightly  to  10.1  in  1947. 
The  rate  for  1948  was  estimated  to  be  10.0  on  the 
basis  of  provisional  figures  for  the  first  10  months 
of  the  year. 

The  number  of  deaths  and  the  crude  death  rate 
for  the  United  States  for  1933  to  1948  are  shown 
in  Tables  1  and  2  (figures  for  1940-48  exclude 
armed  forces  overseas).  In  general,  the  rate  rose 


VITAL  STATISTICS 


635 


VITAL  STATISTICS 


from  1933  to  1936,  decreased  in  1937  and  1938, 
and  remained  relatively  level  until  1946,  when  a 
further  decrease  occurred.  In  such  comparison, 
however,  account  must  be  taken  of  changes  in  the 
composition  of  the  population  during  these  years, 
notably  the  gradual  aging  of  the  population,  and, 
for  the  war  years,  the  changes  caused  by  the  with- 
drawal from  the  population  of  physically  fit  men 
in  the  younger  age  groups  for  duty  overseas  with 
the  armed  forces.  If  allowance  were  made  for  the 
changes  which  occurred  in  the  age  composition  of 


States  represented  a  decrease  of  8.9  percent  from 
the  comparable  figure  of  1,526,783  issued  in  Jan- 
uary-September, 1947.  (See  Table  4.)  In  major 
cities  (cities  of  100,000  or  more  population,  or 
their  counties),  a  total  of  572,386  licenses  issued 
during  the  first  11  months  of  1948  was  a  decline 
of  8.7  percent  from  the  comparable  1947  figure. 
The  crude  marriage  rate  of  16.4  per  1,000  esti- 
mated population  in  1946  was  the  highest  ever 
recorded  in  the  United  States.  The  provisional 
1947  rate  of  13.9  represented  a  decline  of  15  per- 


TABLE  3— TEN  LEADING  CAUSES  OF  DEATH:  1900  AND  1947 
(Rates  per  100,000  estimated  midyear' population) 


Death-Registration  States:  1900 

Cause  of  Death  Rate 

All  Causes 1719.1 

Pneumonia  and  influenza 202.2 

Tuberculosis  (all  forms) 194.4 

Diarrhea,  enteritis,  and  ulceration  of  the  intestines 142.7 

Diseases  of  the  heart • 137.4 

Senility,  ill-defined  and  unknown 117.5 

Intracranial  lesions  of  vascular  origin 106.9 

Nephritis 88.6 

All  accidents 72.3 

Cancer  and  other  malignant  tumors 64.0 

Diphtheria 40.3 


United  States:  1947 

Cause  of  Death  Number*  Rateb 

All  Causes 1,445,370  1007.8 

Diseases  of  the  heart 460,580  321.2 

Cancer  and  other  malignant  tumors 189,811  132.4 

Intracranial  lesions  of  vascular  origin ....  131,039  91.4 

Nephritis 80,288  56.0 

Accidents  excluding  motor-vehicle  acci- 
dents    66,882  46.6 

Pneumonia  and  influenza 61,836  43.1 

Tuberculosis    (all  forms) 48,064  33.5 

Premature  birth 41,053  28.6 

Diabetes  mellitus 37,515  26.2 

Motor-vehicle  accidents 32,697  22.8 


a  Excludes  deaths  among  armed  forces  overseas.     b  Based  on  population  excluding  armed  forces  overseas. 


the  national  population,  it  would  be  seen  that  mor- 
tality decreased  from  1936  to  1947,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  rise  in  1943. 

Table  3  presents  the  number  of  deaths  and  the 
crude  death  rates  for  the  ten  leading  causes  of 
death  in  1947  and  the  rates  for  the  ten  leading 
causes  in  1900.  (The  data  for  1900  are  for  10 
States  and  the  District  of  Columbia.)  The  major 
mortality  trends  for  the  country  may  be  seen  here, 
namely:  the  decline  in  importance  of  the  infectious 
diseases  and  the  increased  importance  of  the 
chronic  diseases  of  old  age. 

At  the  turn  of  the  century,  pneumonia  and  in- 
fluenza (combined)  was  the  leading  cause  of 
death,  with  a  death  rate  of  202.2  per  100,000  pop- 
ulation. In  1947,  this  cause  was  in  sixth  place,  with 
a  rate  of  43.1.  Equally  dramatic  declines  are  seen 
for  tuberculosis  (from  194.4  to  33.5),  diarrhea, 
enteritis,  and  ulceration  of  the  intestines  (from 
142.7  to  5.6)  and  diphtheria  (from  40.3  to  0.6). 
Tuberculosis  dropped  from  second  to  seventh  place 
as  a  cause  of  death,  while  diarrhea,  etc",  and  diph- 
theria did  not  rank  among  the  ten  leading  causes  in 

1947.  These  four  causes  accounted  for  33.7  percent 
of  the  total  deaths  in  1900  as  compared  with  only 
8.2  percent  in  1947. 

During  this  period,  the  degenerative  diseases  of 
old  age  have  come  to  the  forefront.  To  these  causes 
— diseases  of  the  heart,  cancer  and  other  malignant 
tumors,  intracranial  lesions  of  vascular  origin,  ne- 
phritis, and  diabetes  mellitus — the  overwhelming 
proportion  of  deaths  are  now  attributed.  In  1900, 
23.7  percent  of  all  deaths  were  attributed  to  this 
group  of  causes.  By  1947,  the  corresponding  pro- 
portion had  risen  to  62.2  percent.  Important  among 
the  factors  responsible  for  this  marked  increase 
are:  the  decline  in  mortality  from  infectious  dis- 
ease; the  gradual  aging  of  the  national  population; 
and  improved  methods  for  the  diagnosis  of  chronic 
conditions. 

Marriage  Statistics.  Although  final  figures  on  mar- 
riages in  the  United  States  are  not  yet  available  for 

1948,  provisional  statistics  on  marriage  licenses  is- 
sued, which  tend  to  approximate  the  number  of 
marriages  occurring,  indicate  that  1948  continued 
the  decline  from  the  all-time  high  in  1946. 

During  the  first  9  months  of  1948,  a  total  of 
1,390,240  marriage  licenses  issued  in  the  United 


cent  from  the  record  1946  rate,  but  was  stiH  sec- 
ond highest  on  record. 

The  population  base  used  in  arriving  at  marriage 
rates  for  the  years  1940-47  comprises  the  total 
population  present  in  the  United  States  as  of  the 

TABLE  4— MARRIAGE   LICENSES   ISSUED   IN   THE 
UNITED  STATES  AND  IN  MAJOR  CITIES:  1947-1948 


Total  

United 
States 
1948* 

Major 
cities 
1948* 

United 
States 
1947 
2  014,843 

Major 
cities 
1947 
673,440 

January  

.  .  .   129,682 

46,377 

150,481 

52,139 

February  

.  ..   111858 

34,210 

138  252 

43,551 

March.  

.   130471 

45531 

138  592 

46,195 

April 

.    .   140321 

49  868 

159  351 

55302 

May 

155  946 

55829 

180,235 

64543 

June 

213719 

76  194 

227,948 

80466 

July 

161  065 

49  940 

162  773 

52504 

August 

175  267 

62672 

185  113 

64851 

September 

171  911 

57  195 

184  038 

61  186 

October  
November  
December.  .  .  . 

48,178 
46,392 

166,700 
159,338 
162,022 

54,571 
51,374 
46,758 

fl  Provisional. 

midyear,  estimated  .by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census, 
and  excludes  armed  forces  stationed  overseas. 
Overseas  personnel  have  been  excluded  primarily 
because  no  figures  are  available  on  foreign  mar- 
riages contracted  by  members  of  the  armed  forces. 

During  the  15-year  period,  1933-47,  marriages 
increased  successively  each  year  except  in  1938, 
1943-44,  and  1947.  (See  Table  1.)  A  provisional 
total  of  1,992,354  marriages  in  the  United  States 
in  1947  was  81  percent  higher  than  the  total  of 
1,098,000  registered  in  1933.  The  peak  of  the, 
rises  came  in  1946,  for  which  an  increase  of  678,- 
000  marriages  over  the  1945  total  was  larger  than 
the  increase  of  the  1945  total  over  the  1933  total. 

Divorce  Statistics.  Divorces  in  1947  dropped  pro- 
portionately more  sharply  than  marriages;  the 
crude  divorce  rate  of  3.3  per  1,000  estimated  pop- 
ulation in  1947  represented  a  decrease  of  23  per- 
cent from  the  record  high  rate  (4.3  per  1,000  pop- 
ulation) of  1946.  No  divorce  data  for  1948  are 
available  as  yet. 

For  the  years  1940-46,  the  population  base  used 
in  computing  divorce  rates  represents  the  total 
population  of  the  United  States  as  of  midyear,  esti- 
mated by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  including 
armed  forces  overseas.  It  was  assumed  that  di- 


VITAL  STATISTICS 


636 


VOCATIONAL  REHABILITATION 


TABLE  5— BIRTHS,  DEATHS,  MARRIAGES,  AND  DIVORCES,  AND  CRUDE  RATES:  UNITED  STATES,  EACH 

DIVISION  AND  STATE,  1947 

(Births  and  deaths  by  place  of  residence,  exclusive  of  stillbirths.  Marriages  and  divorces,  provisional  data,  by  place  of  occurrence. 
Rates  per  1,000  estimated  total  midyear  population  present  in  the  area) 


*T        .  .7.  ... 

Rate 

Births 

Deaths0     Marriages0 

Divorces  & 

Births 

Deaths  a   Marriages  ° 

Divorces  b 

United  States  

3,699,940 

1,445,370 

1,992,354 

471,000  c 

25.8 

10.1 

13.9 

3.3  e 

Geographic  Divisions: 

New  England  ,  

218,756 

99,806 

111,524 

20,183 

23.9 

10.9 

12.2 

2.2 

Middle  Atlantic  

678,005 

316,374 

326,176 

— 

23.1 

10.8 

11.1 

— 

East  North  Central  

734,821 

306,863 

367,570 

— 

25.1 

10.5 

12.6 

— 

"West  North  Central  

....       339,765 

141,390 

175,927 

41,927 

24.8 

10,3 

12.8 

3.1 

South  Atlantic  

554,013 

181,136 

311,925 

— 

28.7 

9.4 

16.2 

— 

East  South  Central  

321,172 

103,521 

188,160 

— 

29.7 

9.6 

17.4 

— 

West  South  Central  

375,959 

120,479 

221,542 

— 

27.2 

8.7 

16.0 

— 

Mountain  

136,785 

43,624 

142,612 

— 

31.1 

9.9 

32.5 

— 

Pacific  

340,664 

132,177 

146,918 

_— 

24.8 

9.6 

10.7 

— 

New  England: 

Maine  

23,873 

9,959 

11,152 

2,929 

27.0 

11.3 

12.6 

3.3 

New  Hampshire  

13,267 

6,194 

9,225 

1,435 

24.8 

11.6 

17.3 

2.7 

Vermont  

.  .  .      .         9,708 

4,378 

4,324 

751 

26.5 

12.0 

11.8 

2.1 

Massachusetts  

107,791 

51,754 

53,375 

10,074 

23.3 

11.2 

11.5 

2.2 

Rhode  Island  

18,536 

8,368 

9,337 

1,540 

24.9 

11.2 

12.5 

2.1 

Connecticut  

45,581 

19,153 

24,111 

3,454 

23.1 

9.7 

12.2 

1.7 

Middle  Atlantic: 

New  York  

323,250 

157,734 

164,522 

— 

22.8 

11.1 

11.6 

— 

New  Jersey  

106,242 

48,181 

55,802 

9,074 

23.0 

10.4 

12.1 

2.0 

Pennsylvania  

.    .    ..     248,513 

110,459 

105,852 

16,285 

23.6 

10.5 

10.1 

1.5 

East  North  Central: 

Ohio  

197,311 

82,254 

93,779 

29,263 

25.7 

10.7 

12.2 

3.8 

Indiana  

96,359 

40,567 

58,537  * 

— 

25.1 

10.6 

15.3* 

—  , 

Illinois  .......    ....    ... 

196,007 

93,686 

108,461  * 

— 

23.3 

11.2 

12.9  d 

— 

Michigan  

.    .    ..     161,085 

57,137 

71,266 

21,607 

26.5 

9.4 

11.7 

3.6 

Wisconsin  

.    .       84,059 

33,219 

35,527 

5,926 

25.9 

10.2 

10.9 

1.8 

West  North  Central: 

Minnesota  

,.    ..       75,577 

27,781 

35,991  * 

5,704 

26.2 

9.6 

12.5* 

2.0 

Iowa  

.      .  .       63,858 

26,484 

30,004 

6,742 

24.6 

10.2 

11.6 

2.6 

Missouri  ,  

90,060 

44,572 

43,613  * 

17,300  e 

23.1 

11.4 

11.2* 

4.4  * 

North  Dakota  

,  ,      .  .       17,064 

5,252 

5,547 

835 

31.5 

9.7 

10.3 

1.5 

South  Dakota  

16,539 

5,730 

7,905 

1,240 

28.6 

9.9 

13.7 

2.1 

Nebraska  

32,132 

12,871 

14,726 

3,306 

25.0 

10.0 

11.5 

2.6 

Kansas  

44,535 

18,700 

38,141 

6,800  « 

23.1 

9.7 

19.8 

3.5" 

South  Atlantic: 

Delaware  

7,717 

'  3,345 

5,133 

830 

26.5 

11.5 

17.6 

2.9 

Maryland  

56,687 

22,480 

60,181  * 

6,769 

26.5 

10.5 

28.1* 

3.2 

District  of  Columbia  

21,686 

8,254 

12,775  * 

2,080 

25.2 

9.6 

14.8* 

2.4 

Virginia  

85,740 

29,193 

40,350 

6,864 

28.6 

9.7 

13.5 

2.3 

West  Virginia  

55,085 

17,218 

18,655  d 

— 

29.3 

9.1 

9.9* 

— 

North  Carolina  

112,877 

30,187 

33,800* 

6,600  c 

30.5 

8.2 

9.1* 

1.8  « 

South  Carolina  

59.470 

17,230 

48,357  * 

— 

30.5 

8.8 

24.8* 

Georgia,.  

...    ,       94,944 

28,940 

68,715  d 

— 

30.3 

9.2 

21.9* 



Florida  

59,807 

24,283 

23,959 

20,919 

25.7 

10.4 

10.3 

9.0 

East  South  Central: 

Kentucky  

.       79,987 

28,371 

71,563* 

— 

28.8 

10.2 

25.7* 

— 

Tennessee  

....         86,619 

28,591 

17,157 

9,184 

28.0 

9.2 

5.6 

3.0 

Alabama  

..    .       88,116 

26,347 

45,960 

10,399 

31.1 

9.3 

16.2 

3.7 

Mississippi  
West  South  Central: 

.  .      .       66,450 

20,212 

53,480 

6,999 

31.7 

9.6 

25.5 

3.3 

Arkansas  

.    .       48,983 

15,095 

43,652 

9,578 

25.6 

7.9 

22.8 

5.0 

Louisiana  

.  .      .       74,630 

23,395 

32,909  * 

— 

29.3 

9.2 

12.9* 

Oklahoma  .  .       

..    ..       53,684 

19,327 

21,183d 

— 

23.5 

8.5 

9.3* 



Texas  

.    .     198,662 

62,662 

123,798  d 

43,600  * 

28.0 

8.8 

17.4* 

6.1" 

Mountain: 

Montana  

...    .       15,086 

5,760 

9,765 

2,439 

30.9 

11.8 

20.0 

5.0 

Idaho  

.    ...       16,265 

4,780 

8,029 

3,400  « 

31.0 

9.1 

15.3 

6.5  = 

Wyoming  

7,320 

2,349 

3,696 

1,468 

27.6 

8.9 

13.9 

5.5 

Colorado  

32,874 

12,613 

15,188  * 

_^, 

28.7 

11.0 

13.3* 

New  Mexico  

20,322 

5,471 

14,813 

3,160 

37.2 

10.0 

27,1 

5.8 

Arizona  

19,153 

6,032 

25,600  c 

2,400  « 

29.7 

9.4 

39.8  c 

3.7" 

Utah  

21,724 

4,996 

7,965  d 

2,545 

33.9 

7.8 

12.4* 

4.0 

Nevada  

4,041 

1,623 

57,556  d 

13,800  * 

29.1 

11.7 

414.1* 

99.3  ° 

Pacific: 

Washington  

58,481 

21,979 

39,659  * 

10,200  « 

24.8 

9.3 

16.8* 

4.3 

Oregon.  .  .  ,  

36,294 

13,501 

12,800  « 

6,683 

23.5 

8.7 

8.3" 

4,3 

California  

245,889 

96,697 

94,459 

~—  • 

25.1 

9.9 

9.6 

0  Excludes  armed  forces  overseas.    &  Includes  reported  annulments.    e  Estimated.    *  Marriage  licenses 


—  Data  not  available, 
issued. 

vorces  involving  military  personnel  on  overseas 
duty  were  for  the  most  part  granted  in  tliis  country. 
The  population  base  for  divorce  rates  after  1946 
excludes  armed  forces  overseas. 

A  record  total  of  610,000  divorces  was  granted 
in  the  United  States  during  1946,  while  the  1947 
provisional  estimate  was  471,000.  In  the  period, 
1933-47,  divorces  rose  sharply,  except  in  1938 
when  a  decline  of  2  percent  from  the  1937  total 
occurred,  and  in  1947  when  the  decline  from  1946 
was  23  percent  (See  Table  L)  Between  1933  and 
1943,  the  number  of  divorces  doubled,  rising  from 
165,000  in  1933  to  359,000  in  1943  and  from  1.3 
divorces  per  1,000  population  in  1933  to  2.6  per 
1,000  in  1943.  The  years  1945  and  1946  showed 


a  marked  upward  acceleration,  followed  by  the 
1947  decline.  HALBERT  L.  DUNNE 

VOCATIONAL  REHABILITATION,  Office  of.  A  unit  of 
the  Federal  Security  Agency  which  serves  as  the 
United  States  Government's  agent  in  the  State- 
Federal  partnership  for  vocational  rehabilitation 
of  disabled  civilians.  The  Office  of  Vocational  Re- 
habilitation is  responsible  for  certifying  Federal 
grant-in-aid  funds  for  the  use  of  the  States  and 
Territories,  establishing  standards  in  the  various 
areas  of  service,  and  furnishing  technical  and  pro- 
fessional assistance  to  the  State  general  rehabili- 
tation agencies  and  those  separate  agencies  serving 
the  blind — 87  in  all.  Vocational  rehabilitation  is 


VOCATIONAL  REHABILITATION 


637 


WAGE  AND  HOUR  AND  PUBLIC  CONTRACTS 


designed  to  restore,  preserve  or  develop  physically 
and  mentally  handicapped  men  and  women  of 
working  age,  including  the  blind,  to  the  fullest 
possible  physical,  mental,  social,  vocational  and 
economic  usefulness. 

Under  the  State-Federal  partnership,  services 
are  provided  for  disabled  civilians,  and  for  vet- 
erans with  non-service-connected  disabilities,  who 
are  of  working  age,  whose  disabilities  constitute 
substantial  job  handicaps,  and  who  have  reason- 
ably good  chances  of  becoming  employable  or 
more  suitably  employed  through  rehabilitation. 
The  services  include:  (1)  thorough  medical  exam- 
inations for  all  individuals  to  determine  extent  of 
disability,  to  discover  hidden  disabilities,  to  deter- 
mine work  capacity  and  to  determine  eligibility; 

(2)  medical,  surgical,  and  psychiatric  treatment 
and  hospital  care  to  reduce  or  remove  disability; 

(3)  artificial  appliances  such  as   limbs,  hearing 
aids,  braces,  and  the  like,  to  improve  work  ability; 

(4)  individual  counsel  and  guidance  to  help  the 
disabled  to  select  and  attain  the  correct  job  goal; 

(5)  training  for  the  right  job  in  schools,  colleges, 
universities,  on-the-job,  in-the-plant,  by  tutor,  or 
otherwise,  to  enable  the  individual  to  do  the  right 
job  well;  (6)  maintenance  and  transportation  dur- 
ing physical  restoration  and/or  training,  if  neces- 
sary; (7)  customary  occupational  tools,  equipment 
and  licenses  to  give  the  rehabilitated  person  a  fair 
start;  (8)  placement  on  the  right  job;   (9)  post- 
placement  follow-up  to  make  sure  the  workers  and 
the  jobs  match  each  other  and  that  employers  and 
workers  are  mutually  satisfied.  Services  (1),  (4), 
(5),  (8),  and  (9)  are  provided  without  charge  to 
all  individuals,  regardless   of  financial  situation; 
public  funds  are  used  to  provide  the  others  to  the 
extent  that  the  individuals  are  unable  to  do  so 
from  their  own  resources. 

During  the  last  five  years — from  July,  1943, 
through  June,  1948 — 219,039  disabled  men  and 
women  have  been  rehabilitated  by  the  State-Fed- 
eral program  to  qualify  for,  to  take,  and  to  perform 
useful  work,  compared  to  a  total  for  the  past  23 
years  of  210,125  under  limited  legislative  author- 
ity. On  an  average  yearly  basis,  program  gains  dur- 
ing the  last  five  years  represent  an  increase  in 
successful  rehabilitations  of  almost  400  percent 
over  the  figure  for  the  previous  23  years. 

In  the  same  five-year  period,  rehabilitation  re- 
sulted in  an  estimated  increase  of  more  than  $900 
million  in  earned  income  for  this  group.  These  re- 
habilitated people  paid  an  estimated  $75  million 
into  the  Federal  treasury  in  Federal  income  taxes 
alone. 

To  meet  the  annual  toll  of  disabilities,  from  200,- 
000  to  250,000  rehabilitations  a  year  would  be  re- 
quired. 

During  the  1948  fiscal  year,  the  most  successful 
in  the  State-Federal  program's  28-year  existence, 
the  State  agencies  served  an  all-time  high  number 
of  disabled  civilians,  and  also  greatly  enhanced  the 
volume,  quality,  and  diversity  of  the  component 
services  in  the  vocational  rehabilitation  program. 
By  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1948,  the  State  agen- 
cies' caseload  totaled  347,753  disabled  persons. 
Of  this  number  53,131  were  prepared  for  and 
placed  in  gainful  employment,  and  their  rehabili- 
tation was  declared  completed;  9,229  received 
services  and  were  working  gainfully,  but  were  re- 
ceiving some  degree  of  post-placement  follow- 
up;  and  7,396  were  ready  for  employment.  Ap- 
proximately-118, 000  disabled  persons  were  under- 
going the  process  of  rehabilitation  at  the  close  of 
the  1948  fiscal  year. 

For  the  fiscal  year  1948,  the  annual  rate  of  earn- 


ings  for  the  rehabilitated  group  upon  application 
for  services — approximately  $17  million — rose  to 
$86  million  during  the  first  year  after  rehabili- 
tation, an  increase  of  approximately  400  percent. 
The  post-rehabilitation  earnings  do  not  include 
those  of  some  6,000  rehabilitants  who  were  en- 
gaged in  farming  or  family  work  and  whose  earn- 
ings were  not  reported. 

Twelve  thousand  of  the  successful  rehabilitants 
during  1948  were  employed  at  the  time  they  ap- 
plied for  services  but  required  rehabilitation  for 
one  of  the  following  reasons  arising  from  their  dis- 
abilities: They  were  in  danger  of  losing  their  jobs, 
were  in  jobs  that  were  hazardous  to  them  or  their 
fellow  workers,  were  working  only  part-time,  or 
were  in  otherwise  unsuitable  employment. 

— MICHAEL  J.  SHORTLEY 

WAGE  AND  HOUR  AND  PUBLIC  CONTRACTS  DIVISIONS, 

These  Divisions  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  La- 
bor administer  the  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act  of 
1938  and  the  Walsh-Healey  Public  Contracts  Act, 

The  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act,  which  is  popu- 
larly known  as  the  Wage  and  Hour  Law,  applies 
to  employees  engaged  in  interstate  commerce  or 
in  the  production  of  goods  for  interstate  commerce, 
including  occupations  necessary  to  such  produc- 
tion. All  such  employees,  unless  specifically  ex- 
empted, must  be  paid  not  less  than  40  cents  an 
hour  and  not  less  than  time  and  one-half  their  reg- 
ular rate  of  pay  for  all  hours  worked  in  excess  of 
40  in  a  single  workweek.  Minimum  wage  rates  up 
to  40  cents  an  hour  have  been  established  by  wage 
orders  issued  on  the  basis  of  the  recommendations 
of  industry  committees,  for  all  industries  in  Puerto 
Rico,  and  for  substantially  all  industries  in  the 
Virgin  Islands  under  a  section  of  the  Act  which 
permits  rates  lower  than  those  established  in  the 
United  States  to  apply  in  the  Islands.  The  Act  also 
prohibits  the  shipment  in  interstate  commerce  of 
any  goods  produced  in  establishments  in  or  about 
which  oppressive  child  labor  is  employed  within 
30  days  prior  to  shipment.  As  of  July  1948,  the  Act 
covered  approximately  22,600,000  workers  in  the 
continental  United  States. 

The  Public  Contracts  Act,  which  applies  to  con- 
tracts made  by  the  Government,  or  any  agency 
thereof,  for  the  manufacturing  or  furnishing  of 
materials,  supplies,  articles,  or  equipment  in  any 
amount  exceeding  $10,000,  provides  for  the  pay- 
ment of  prevailing  minimum  wage  rates  as  deter- 
mined by  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  and  overtime 
pay  at  not  less  than  'time  and  one-half  the  basic 
rate  for  all  hours  worked  over  8  in  a  day  or  40 
in  a  week,  whichever  method  of  computation  will 
yield  the  employee  the  greater  compensation. 

This  Act  also  sets  restrictions  on  child  labor  and 
prohibits  convict  labor,  employment  of  home  work- 
ers, and  provides  for  standards  of  safety  and 
health.  In  the  fiscal  year  1948,  the  Administrator 
also  initiated  a  postwar  resumption  of  the  mini- 
mum-wage determination  program  under  the 
Walsh-Healey  Public  Contracts  Act.  As  a  result 
of  this  program,  a  new  determination  for  the  Suit 
and  Coat  Branch  of  the  Uniform  and  Clothing  In- 
dustry became  effective  during  the  fiscal  year  and 
a  public  hearing  was  held  on  the  amendment  of 
the  determination  for  the  Cap  and  Cloth  Hat 
Branch  of  the  Men's  Hat  and  Cap  Industry. 

The  Portal-to-Portal  Act  relieves  an  employer 
from  punishment  or  liability  under  the  Fair  La- 
bor Standards  Act  and  the  Public  Contracts  Act 
for  failure  to  pay  minimum  wages  or  overtime 
compensation  for  activities  performed  before  May 
14,  1947,  unless  the  activities  were  compensable 


WAGE  AND  HOUR  AND  PUBLIC  CONTRACTS 


638 


WAR  ASSETS  ADMINISTRATION 


by  contract  or  custom  or  practice,  and  permits  the 
compromise  of  remaining  claims  which  accrued 
before  that  date.  For  the  period  on  and  after  May 
14,  1947,  this  Act  sets  a  two-year  statute  of  limita- 
tions for  employee  claims  and  relieves  an  employer 
from  punishment  or  liability  for  his  failure  to  pay 
minimum  wages  or  overtime  compensation  for  pre- 
liminary and  postliminary  activities,  unless  com- 
pensable  under  contract,  custom,  or  practice. 
Under  certain  conditions,  the  Act  allows  employ- 
ers "good  faith"  defenses  against  liability  or  pun- 
ishment for  non-compliance  with  the  Acts. 

During  the  fiscal  year  which  ended  June  SO, 
1948,  30,053  inspections  were  completed  under 
both  Acts  and  29,024  establishments  were  found 
subject  to  their  minimum  wage  or  overtime  provi- 
sions. Of  the  establishments  inspected,  15,320  or 
51  percent  were  in  violation  of  the  minimum  wage 
or  overtime  provisions  of  the  Acts.  However,  these 
figures  should  not  be  interpreted  as  representative 
of  the  extent  of  violations  among  all  covered  estab- 
lishments since  establishments  are  selected  for  in- 
spection on  the  basis  of  complaints  and  other  infor- 
mation indicating  that  violations  probably  exist. 

Inspections  during  fiscal  year  1948  disclosed  a 
total  of  $10,757,900  in  back  wages  owed  to  ap- 
proximately 184,400  employees  in  15,320  estab- 
lishments. Employers  voluntarily  agreed  or  were 
ordered  by  the  courts  to  make  restitution  of 
$4,256,800  to  some  102,800  underpaid  employees. 

Since  many  establishments  are  covered  under 
both  Acts,  it  is  impossible  to  give  separate  figures 
for  restitution,  which  in  many  cases  would  be  due 
under  either  Act  Of  the  30,053  inspections  com- 
pleted during  the  year,  1,559  were  made  under  the 
Public  Contracts  Act,  all  but  26  of  which  were  con- 
current with  Wage-Hour  inspection.  Thirty-eight 
percent  of  the  Public  Contracts  inspections  dis- 
closed violations  of  the  minimum  wage,  overtime 
or  child-labor  provisions. 

Under  the  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act,  oppres- 
sive child  labor  means  in  general  the  employment 
of  minors  under  the  age  of  16  in  any  occupation, 
or  the  employment  of  minors  under  the  age  of  18 
in  any  occupation  found  and  declared  hazardous 
by  the  Secretary  of  Labor.  The  Secretary  of  Labor 
is  empowered,  however,  to  provide  by  regulation 
or  order  for  the  employment  of  minors  between  14 
and  16  years  in  non-manufacturing  and  non-min- 
ing occupations,  under  conditions  not  interfering 
with  their  schooling,  health  or  well-being.  The 
child-labor  provisions  of  the  Public  Contracts  Act 
provide  that  no  boy  under  16  or  girl  under  18  shall 
be  employed  on  Government  contracts  in  excess  of 
$10,000. 

Violations  of  the  child-labor  provisions  of  either 
or  both  Acts  were  found  in  approximately  5  per- 
cent of  the  total  number  of  establishments  in- 
spected during  the  fiscal  year.  Of  these,  1,384 
violated  the  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act  by  employ- 
ing minors  in  oppressive  child  labor.  As  a  result  of 
employing  1,134  minors  in  violation  of  the  Public 
Contracts  Act,  99  firms  were  assessed  liquidated 
damages  amounting  to  $162,000. 

The  Divisions  are  also  charged  with  the  inspec- 
tion of  safety  and  health  conditions  in  those  plants 
holding  public  contracts. 

Proceedings  for  injunctions  against  future  vio- 
lations of  the  wage  and  hour  and  child-labor  pro- 
visions of  the  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act  were 
instituted  in  273  cases,  while  the  criminal  penalties 
which  the  statute  provides  for  cases  of  wilful  vio- 
lation were  invoked  in  113  cases. 

During  the  last  fiscal  year,  a  special  industry 
committee  for  Puerto  Rico  recommended  minimum 


wage  rates  for  14  industries  and  the  Administrator 
subsequently  held  public  hearings  on  these  recom- 
mendations to  determine  whether  they  were  the 
highest  rates  (up  to  40  cents  an  hour)  which 
would  neither  result  in  substantial  curtailment  of 
employment  nor  give  any  industry  in  Puerto  Rico 
a  competitive  advantage  over  any  industry  in  the 
remainder  of  the  United  States.  By  the  close  of  the 
fiscal  year,  the  Administrator  had  put  wage  orders 
for  five  industries  into  effect,  disapproved  recom- 
mendations for  two  industries,  announced  his  final 
adoption  of  orders  for  two  industries  to  become 
effective  after  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year,  and  pro- 
posed his  adoption  of  orders  for  the  remaining 
five  industries. 

The  Fair  Labor  Standards  Act  provides  that  the 
Administrator  shall  submit  annually  to  the  Con- 
gress recommendations  for  further  legislation  in 
connection  with  matters  covered  by  the  Act  as  he 
may  find  advisable. 

Accordingly,  and  on  the  basis  of  the  Divisions* 
enforcement  experience  during  the  ten  years  the 
Act  has  been  in  existence,  the  Administrator  recom- 
mends: (1)  raising  the  minimum  wage  immedi- 
ately and  that  provision  be  made  for  industry 
committee  action  to  increase  this  minimum  in  those 
industries  where  it  is  economically  feasible;  (2) 
definition  of  the  regular  rate  of  pay;  (3)  prohi- 
bition of  employment  of  child  labor  in  commerce 
and  direct  prohibition  of  employment  of  child  la- 
bor in  the  production  of  goods  for  commerce;  (4) 
revision  of  the  requirements  for  employment  on  an 
annual  basis  so  as  to  make  such  employment  agree- 
ments more  flexible;  (5)  clarification  of  the  ex- 
emption for  retail  or  service  establishments. 

In  addition,  the  Administrator  favors  simpli- 
fying the  present  complex  system  of  exemptions 
which  apply  to  the  agricultural  handling  and  proc- 
essing industries  by  replacing  them  with  a  uni- 
form overtime  exemption  for  seasonal  operations 
on  an  industry  basis.  It  is  also  proposed  that  em- 
ployees in  the  fish  processing  and  handling  indus- 
tries, now  exempt  from  both  the  minimum  wage 
and  overtime  provisions,  be  accorded  minimum 
wage  protection;  and  that  they  be  included  in  the 
overtime  exemption  as  proposed  for  agricultural 
processing  industries.  The  Administrator  also  rec- 
ommends extending  the  minimum  wage  provi- 
sions to  employees  in  transportation,  and  provid- 
ing overtime  benefits  for  non-operating  employees 
in  transportation. 

WAKE  ISLAND.  A  coral  atoll  in  the  mid-Pacific  (19° 
15'  N.  and  166°  35'  E.),  2,004  miles  west  of  Ha- 
waii and  1,334  miles  northeast  of  Port  Apra,  Guam. 
It  comprises  a  group  of  three  islands  ( Wake,  Peale, 
and  Wilkes )  which  enclose  a  shallow  lagoon.  Total 
land  area:  4  square  miles.  By  Executive  Order 
dated  Dec.  29,  1934,  Wake  Island  was  placed  un- 
der the  control  and  jurisdiction  of  the  U.S.  Navy 
Department  During  1935  Pan  American  Airways 
established  a  base  on  Wake,  as  a  step  in  its  trans- 
pacific air  route. 

WAR  ASSETS  ADMINISTRATION.  The  government's 
war  surplus  disposal  agency  geared  its  activities  to 
virtual  liquidation  by  the  end  of  1948.  The  Sup- 
plemental Independent  Offices  Appropriation  Act 
of  1949  (approved  June  30,  1948)  provides  for 
abolishment  of  War  Assets  Administration  by  Feb. 
28,  1949.  It  terminated  declarations  of  surplus 
property  by  owning  agencies  as  of  June  30,  1948, 
and  terminated  priorities  and  preferences  in  the 
disposal  of  personal  property  as  of  Aug.  1,  1948. 
The  Administration  set  as  its  goal  complete  dis- 


WAR  CRIMES  TR!ALS 


639 


WAR  GRIMES 


posal  of  consumer  and  producer  goods,  aircraft  and 
electronics  by  the  end  of  the  year  and  the  greatest 
reduction  possible  in  real  property  and  aircraft 
components  by  the  end  of  February,  1949.  Great 
progress  was  made  in  the  reconciliation  of  records 
and  accounts  and  reduction  of  operating  expenses 
so  that  the  government  will  receive  the  greatest  net 
return  from  surplus  property  disposal  and  so  that 
the  remaining  disposal  functions  may  be  trans- 
ferred in  an  orderly  manner  to  successor  agencies. 
As  inventories  dwindled,  residuals  became  more 
difficult  to  sell.  The  ratio  between  operating  ex- 
penses and  returns  from  sales  suffered  accordingly. 
Freezes  and  restrictions  placed  on  various  disposals, 
because  of  national  defense  considerations  and 
needs,  slowed  activities.  On  the  other  hand,  elimi- 
nation of  priorities  and  preferences,  firming  of  in- 
ventories, and  the  use  of  improved  sales  methods 
tended  to  speed  accomplishment  of  the  Adminis- 
tration's goals. 

WAR  CRIMES  TRIALS.  During  1948,  trials  for  gross 
violations  of  the  laws  of  war,  for  Crimes  against 
Humanity  and  (against  a  few  leading  personali- 
ties) for  Crimes  against  Peace,  were  continued  by 
many  countries.  In  Germany,  except  for  the  U.S. 
Occupation  Zone,  the  German  courts  were  author- 
ized to  try  Germans  under  the  Allied  Control 
Council  Law  concerning  war  criminals.  In  Bel- 
gium, the  commutation  of  the  death  sentences  of 
two  quisling  Gestapo  traitors  caused  the  downfall 
of  the  Government.  Britain  prepared  the  trials  of 
Generals  von  Brauchitsch,  Rundstedt,  and  Mann- 
stein  for  mass  atrocities,  maltreatment  of  prisoners 
of  war,  etc.  (Brauchitsch  died  before  the  indict- 
ment was  served.)  A  short  summary  of  the  most 
important  of  the  1948  trials  in  which  the  United 
States  was  involved,  follows. 

The  Tokyo  Judgment.  In  November,  the  Judgment 
was  rendered  in  the  historical  trial  against  28  Japa- 
nese political  and  military  leaders,  which  had  start- 
ed before  the  11-nation  **  "International  Military 
Tribunal  for  the  Far  East"  on  May  3,  1946.  The 
Court  was  established,  and  the  Charter  under 
which  it  operated,  issued  by  General  MacArthur  as 
Supreme  Commander  for  the  Allied  Powers.  It  was 
the  longest  continuous  trial  ever — because  of  the 
number  and  complexity  of  the  issues  (covering 
events  between  Jan.  1,  1928,  and  Sept.  2,  1945, 
and  an  area  extending  from  New  Zealand  to  Ber- 
lin and  from  Manchuria  to  Washington,  D.C.),  the 
latitude  given  to  the  defense,  the  volume  of  evi- 
dence (transcript  of  the  proceedings  covers  48,412 
pages),  the  language  and  translation  problems,  and 
the  considerable  time  (6  months)  needed  to  pre- 
pare the  judgment. 

In  short,  the  defendants  were  charged  with  re- 
sponsibility for  Japan's  aggressive  wars  against 
countries  that  opposed  her  drive  to  dominate  East 
Asia  and  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans  and  their 
adjoining  countries  and  neighboring  islands;  with 
a  conspiracy  to  have  Japan  wage  aggressive  war 
against  China  and  eight  other  countries,  including 
the  United  States;  and  with  a  conspiracy  with  Ger- 
many and  Italy  to  have  the  three  Axis  countries 
mutually  assist  each  other  in  aggressive  war 
(Crimes  against  Peace);  and  with  wholesale  mur- 
der and  atrocities  against  prisoners  of  war  and 
enemy  civilians,  with  murder  at  Pearl  Harbor  and 
other  places,  and  other  violations  of  the  law  of 
war  (War  Crimes). 

The  Judgment  (1,211  pages)  carefully  describes 

*  One  judge  each  from  Canada,  China,  France,  Great 
Britain,  India,  Netherlands,  New  Zealand,  Philippines,  U.S., 
U.S.S.R.,  with  the  Australian,  Sir  William  Webb,  presiding. 


why  it  found  most  of  these  charges  to  be  estab- 
lished by  the  evidence  (which  evidence  consisted 
mainly  of  contemporaneous  Japanese  documents). 
Of  the  25  defendants  found  guilty  (3  died  during 
the  trial,  including  Matsuolca),  the  2  Prime  Minis- 
ters (Hideki  To  jo  and  Koki  Hirota),  and  5  others 
( Kenji  Dohihara,  Seichiro  Jtagaki,  Heitaro  Kimura, 
Jwane  Matsui,  Akira  Muto)  were  sentenced  to 
death  by  hanging,  16  to  life  imprisonment,  one  to 
20,  and  one  to  7  years. 

Tojp  was  found  to  **bear  major  responsibility  for 
Japan's  criminal  attacks  on  her  neighbors"  (p. 
1,207);  being  "associated  with  the  conspirators  as 
a  principal  in  almost  all  of  their  activities*'  to  con- 
quer the  vast  areas  from  the  East  Indies  to  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand.  The  Tribunal  rejected 
Tojo's  and  the  others'  elaborate  argument  that  all 
of  Japan's  acts  constituted  legitimate  self-defense. 

The  main  significance  of  the  Tokyo  judgment 
consists  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  second  interna- 
tional Court  (the  Niirnberg  International  Tribunal 
was  the  first)  to  uphold  the  principle  that  aggres- 
sive war,  is  an  international  crime  for  which  those 
guilty  are  punishable,  and  secondly  to  lay  down 
findings  as  to  what  actions  and  what  state  of  mind 
are  required  to  constitute  Crimes  against  Peace. 
(The  Indian  judge  dissented,  arguing  that  "Ag- 
gression" is  not  clear  enough  a  concept,  and  that 
it  was  not  declared  to  be  a  crime  at  the  time  the 
acts  were  committed.  The  majority  decision,  just  as 
the  Niirnberg  decision,  declared  that  it  was.  ) 

Some  defendants  appealed  to  the  U.S.  Supreme 
Court.  Reversing  its  previous  stand  in  war  crimes 
cases,  the  Supreme  Court  decided,  5  to  4  (with 
Justice  Jackson  casting  the  decisive  vote),  to  hear 
argument.  After  doing  so,  it  decided  to  have  no 
jurisdiction.  Thereupon,  on  orders  of  General  Mac- 
Arthur  the  death  sentences  were  carried  out. 

American  Trials  in  Niirnberg.  The  series  of  12  great 
trials  before  U.S.  Military  Tribunals  which  started 
late  in  1946  (following  the  trial  of  the  Interna- 
tional Military  Tribunal  against  Hermann  Goering 
et  al.)  almost  came  to  a  conclusion  by  the  end  of 
1948.f 

Military  Cases.  The  "Hostage"  Case.  Thus  called 
because  it  dealt  largely  with  the  German  policy 
of  shooting,  for  one  German  killed,  up  to  100 
enemy  civilians  ("hostages").  The  12  defendants 
(2  Field  Marshals  and  10  Generals)  were  charged 
with  the  murder  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  ci- 
vilians in  Greece,  Yugoslavia,  and  Albania  as  "hos- 
tages," "bandits,"  "partisans,"  "communists,"  and 
the  like,  for  having  carried  out  wholesale  devasta- 
tion in  these  countries  and  in  Norway,  and  for 
other  War  Crimes  and  Crimes  against  Humanity 
(torture,  systematic  terrorization,  imprisonment  in 
concentration  camps,  deportation  to  forced  labor, 
etc.).  Defendant  Gen.  Franz  Boehme  committed 
suicide;  the  proceedings  against  Field  Marshal  von 
Weichs  were  suspended  due  to  physical  unfitness, 
Two,  including  Field  Marshal  Wilhelm  List,  were 
sentenced  to  life  imprisonment,  two  defendants 
who  were  chiefs  of  staff  were  acquitted,  and  the 
others  received  prison  terms  between  7  and  20 
years. 

f  About  the  organization  of  these  Trials,  and  the  five 
cases  decided  in  1947,  see  previous  YEAR  BOOK.  Each 
Tribunal  was  composed  of  3  judges;  plus,  in  some  cases, 
one  alternate  judge.  In  all,  there  were  32  judges;  13  were 
former  members  of  their  State  supreme  courts.  All  were 
civilian  American  jurists.  The  prosecution,  headed  by  Brig. 
Gen.  Telford  Taylor,  consisted  of  131  attorneys — almost  all 
U.S.  civilians  employed  by  the  U.S.  Dept.  of  the  Army; 
the  rest  were  Allied  personnel.  The  185  defendants  in  the 
12  cases  were  represented  by  373  defense  counsel  and 
assistant  defense  counsel.  Except  for  some  American  law- 
yers, they  were  German  citizens. 


VAR  CRIMES  TRIALS  640 

The  Judgment  considerably  narrowed  the  eon- 
ention  of  the  Prosecution  concerning  the  criminal- 
ty  of  the  shooting  of  hostages  and  partisans.  But  it 
leclared: 

"That  the  acts  charged  as  crimes  in  the  indict- 
ment occurred  is  amply  established  by  the  evi- 
dence. In  fact  it  is  evident  that  they  constituted 
only  a  portion  of  the  large  number  of  such  acts 
which  took  place  as  a  part  of  a  general  plan  for 
subduing  the  countries  of  Yugoslavia  and  Greece. 
The  guilt  of  the  German  occupation  forces  is  not 
only  proven  beyond  a  reasonable  doubt  but  it 
casts  a  paH  of  shame  upon  a  once  highly  re- 
spected nation  and  its  people."  (p.  39) 
The  High  Command  Case.  Fourteen  other  mili- 
tary leaders  of  the  Third  Reich — including  three 
Seld  marshals  (WUhelm  von  Leeb,  Hugo  Sperrle, 
Georg  von  Kuechler)  and  some  other  field  com- 
manders in  World  War  II;  Admiral  Otto  Schnie- 
wind;   Gen.   Walter  Warlimont,   top    man,    after 
Keitel  and  Jodl,  in  Hitler's  Armed  Forces  Opera- 
tion Staff  which  issued  the  basic  orders  for  Ger- 
cnany's   conduct  of  the  war;    General   Hermann 
Reinecke  of  the  OKW  (Supreme  Command  of  the 
A^rmed  Forces),  who  was  responsible  for  the  regu- 
lations concerning  the  treatment  of  prisoners  of 
rtrar — were  descendants.  They  were  charged  with 
having  issued,  or  ordered  to  be  executed,  criminal 
Orders  resulting  in  the  death  of  masses  of  prisoners 
of  war  and  of  civilians  of  occupied  territories,  as 
well  as  torture,  deportation,  enslavement,  and  other 
mistreatment;   plunder,   wanton   devastation,    and 
destruction;   and  other  War  Crimes   and  Crimes 
against  Humanity. 

The  Judgment  particularly  emphasizes  the  crimi- 
aality  of  3  general  German  orders  which  had  dis- 
astrous effects:  the  "Commando  Order"  (ordering 
the  killing  of  Allied  "Commandos"  after  capture); 
the  '"Commissar  Order"  (which  ordered  for  "ideo- 
logical reasons"  the  ''extermination"  of  all  Russian 
Commissars  and  of  "the  Communist  intelligentsia" 
— the  German  Commanders  being  asked  to  "make  - 
"he  ^sacrifice  of  overcoming  their  personal  scru- 
ples"); and  the  so-called  "Barbarossa  Jurisdiction 
Drder,"  issued  six  weeks  before  the  German  attack 
3n  the  Soviet  Union,  authorizing  every  German 
sfficer  in  the  area  "Barbarossa"  (i.e.  Russia)  to 
)rder  the  summary  execution  without  trial,  of 
'Franctireurs"  and,  beyond  that,  promising  immu- 
lity  to  German  soldiers  for  crimes  against  the  in- 
labitants  unless  military  discipline  or  security  were 
mdangered. 

The  Judgment  declares  to  "have  a  strong  suspi- 
jion  from  the  record  of  this  case  that  anti-partisan 
varfare  was  used  by  the  German  Reich  as  a  pretext 
or  the  extermination  of  many  thousands  of  inno- 
:ent  persons"  (p.  95);  and  that 
"the  evidence  in  this  case  shows  that  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  Russian  prisoners  of  war  died 
from  hunger,  cold,  lack  of  medical  care,  and  ill- 
treatment  that  were  not  a  result  of  conditions" 
teyond  the  control  of  defendants. 

The  Tribunal  further  found  intimate  connection 
f  the  German  Armed  Forces  and  some  defendants, 
fith  the  heinous  extermination  activities  of  the 
pecial  SS  Einsatzgruppen  (see  below). 

These  defendants  _^also  were  charged  with 
Crimes  against  Peace,"  namely  with  having  actively 
articipated  in  the  planning,  preparation,  and  wag- 
ig  of  Hitler's  aggressive  wars  and  invasions.  Aft- 
r  studying  a  mass  of  contemporaneous  German 
ocuments  and  hearing  many  witnesses,  the  de- 
sndants,  and  detailed  arguments,  the  Tribunal 
cquitted  under  this  count.  It  found  that  these  de- 
sndants  were  not  on  "the  policy  level."  It  ruled 


WAR  CRIMES  TRIALS 


that  the  knowledge  that  a  war  which  is  being 
prepared  or  waged  is  criminal, 

is  not  sufficient  to  make  participation  even  by 
high-ranking  military  officers  in  the  war  crimi- 
nal. It  requires  in  addition  that  the  possessor  of 
such  knowledge,  after  he  acquires  it  shall  be  in 
a  position  to  shape  or  influence  the  policy  that 
brings  about  its  initiation  or  its  continuance  after 
initiation." 

Since  this  was  the  only  trial  ( except  the  Goering 
and  Tokyo  Trial)  in  which  military  men  were 
charged  with  "Crimes  against  Peace"  and  the  de- 
cision on  whether  and  when  high  military  leaders 
become  punishable  for  preparing  or  waging  aggres- 
sive war  was  one  of  the  basic  results  of  Niirnberg, 
a  few  more  quotations  may  be  given: 

"It  is  not  a  person's  rank  or  status  but  his  power 
to  shape  or  influence  the  policy  of  the  State, 
which  is  the  relevant  issue  for  determining  his 
criminality  under  the  charge  of  Crimes  against 
Peace. 

".  .  .  The  misdeed  of  the  policy  makers  is  all 
the  greater  in  as  much  as  they  use  the  great  mass 
of  the  soldiers  and  officers  to  carry  out  an  inter- 
national crime;  however,  the  individual  soldier 
or  officer  below  the  policy  level  is  but  the  policy 
maker's  instrument,  finding  himself,  as  he  does, 
under  the  rigid  discipline  which  is  necessary  for 
and  peculiar  to  military  organization. 
"We  do  not  hesitate  to  state  that  it  would  have 
been  eminently  desirable  had  the  Commanders 
of  the  German  Armed  Forces  refused  to  imple- 
ment the  policy  of  the  Third  Reich  by  means  of 
aggressive  war.  .  .  .  This  would  have  been  the 
honorable  and  righteous  thing  to  do.  ...  Had 
they  done  so  they  would  have  served  their  fa- 
therland and  humanity,  also.  But,  however  much 
their  failure  is  morally  reprimandable,  we  are  of 
the  opinion  and  hold  that  International  Common 
Law,  at  the  time  they  so  acted,  had  not  devel- 
oped to  the  point  of  making  the  participation  of 
military  officers  below  the  policy  making  or  pol- 
icy influencing  level  into  a  criminal  offense  in 
and  of  itself." 

Industrial  Cases.  The  Krupp  Case;  the  I.  G.  Far- 
ben  Case.  In  these  cases  some  of  Germany's  indus- 
trialists, namely  12  and  23  leaders,  respectively, 
of  the  firm  of  Krupp,  and  of  the  huge  chemical 
combine  I.  G.  Farben-Industrie  were  charged  with 
"Crimes  against  Peace,"  namely  with  knowing  par- 
ticipation in  the  planning,  preparation,  and  waging 
of  Hitler's  aggressive  wars  and  invasions,  Again  on 
the  basis  of  a  mass  of  contemporaneous  documents, 
testimonies,  and  affidavits,  the  Prosecution  endeav- 
oured to  show:  that  the  defendants'  started  clan- 
destinely to  rearm,  immediately  after  the  First 
World  War,  for  aggressive  purposes;  that  they  later 
on  enormously  increased  their  production  in  the 
two  vital  fields  of  guns  and  other  war  equipment 
made  of  steel  (Krupp)  and  of  synthetic  rubber, 
synthetic  gasoline,  nitrogen,  and  other  chemical 
material  in  which  I.  G.  Farben  had  a  virtual  mo- 
nopoly, to  enable  Hitler  to  start  the  war;  that  the 
defendants  actively  helped  Hitler  to  come  to  power 
and  to  stay  in  power;  that  their  knowledge  of  the 
aggressive  designs  was  proved  by  their  intimate 
and  continuous  collaboration  with  the  highest  Nazi 
authorities;  and  that  during  the  war,  by  their  use 
of  slave  labor,  by  spoliation  in  occupied  countries, 
and  by  preparing  to  dominate  industries  outside 
Germany  after  the  hoged-for  victory,  they  partici- 
pated in  the  criminal  Vaging"  of  Hitler's  war. 

However,  both  judgments  acquitted  under  these 
counts.  The  Krupp  judgment  indicated,  in  essence, 
that  it  might  have  decided  differently  with  respect 


WAR  CRIMES  TRIALS 


641 


WAR  CRIMES  TRIALS 


to  old  Gustav  Krupp  (too  sick  to  stand  trial),  who 
"stood  at  the  apex  of  the  huge  Krupp  combine  until 
1943." 

With  respect  to  Alfred  Krupp,  and  the  other  de- 
fendants, however,  the  Tribunal  found  that  Krupp's 
rearmament  production  in  violation  of  the  Peace 
Trials  was  established,  but  that  their  knowledge 
and  intent  that  this  was  done  for  aggressive  war 
and  not,  as  the  defense  argued,  for  defensive  war 
and  for  creating  a  strong  bargaining  position  for 
Germany,  had  not  been  shown  prima  facie  by  the 
Prosecution.  In  a  concurring  opinion,  Judge  Wil- 
kins,  stated  that  with  respect  to  some  defendants 
tide  evidence  was  so  strong  that  under  a  less  con- 
servative interpretation,  the  conspiracy  to  prepare 
aggressive  war,  as  charged,  might  have  been  estab- 
lished; but  since  Crime  against  Peace  is  the  "grav- 
est accusation  that  can  be  raised  against  any  indi- 
vidual/* the  Tribunal  wished  to  adopt  a  conserva- 
tive interpretation  in  this  "comparatively  new  field 
of  international  law." 

The  majority  decision  in  the  I.  G.  Farben  case 
declared  that  the  I.  G.  Farben  leaders  were  merely 
acting  as  private  business  men,  who  were  duped  by 
Hitler  just  as  so  many  others  inside  and  outside 
Germany,  and  that  to  find  them  guilty  of  Crimes 
against  Peace  might  open  the  door  to  mass  punish- 
ment. For,  where  should  be  the  limit?  Judge  He- 
bert,  in  a  separate  opinion  in  this  case,  agreed  with 
the  finding  of  not  guilty  on  the  count,  but  sharply 
disagreed  with  the  "moral  exculpation/* 

On  the  other  counts,  particularly  systematic 
spoliation  and  plunder  of  industrial  and  other  prop- 
erty of  great  value  in  various  countries  overrun  by 
Germany,  and  employment  under  most  inhumane 
conditions  of  great  numbers  of  deportees  from 
those  territories,  and  of  concentration  camp  in- 
mates, Krupp  and  Farben  defendants  were  found 
guilty  to  varying  degrees. 

In  the  Farben  case,  the  gravest  aspect  of  the 
Slave  Labor  count  was,  as  the  Judgment  found, 
that  Farben  in  1941-42  erected  a  large  buna  fac- 
tory in  Auschwitz  (Poland)  with  labor  partly  fur- 
nished from  the  notorious  Auschwitz  concentration 
camp.  "Many  of  those  who  became  too  ill  or  weak 
to  work  were  transferred  by  the  SS  to  Birkenau 
(the  extermination  section  of  Auschwitz)  and  ex- 
terminated in  the  gas  chambers."  After  Farben  set 
up  a  separate  labor  camp,  "those  who  became  un- 
able to  work  or  who  were  not  amenable  to  dis- 
cipline were  sent  back  to  the  Auschwitz  concentra- 
tion camp,  or,  as  was  more  often  the  case,  to  Bir- 
kenau for  extermination  in  the  gas  chambers." 
(p.  148) 

The  most  important  feature  of  the  Krupp  judg- 
ment was  that  Alfred  Krupp  was  sentenced  not 
only  to  12  years  imprisonment  but  to  confiscation 
of  the  entire  Krupp  plants  and  property  (which  he 
had  owned  since  1943;  they  were  unofficially  val- 
ued at  some  $500  million ) .  Presiding  Judge  Ander- 
son dissented  with  respect  to  this  latter  penalty. 

The  Rusha  Case.  In  this  case,  14  high  officials  of 
Nazi  organizations  which  were  under  the  super- 
vision of  Himrnler  (the  "Reich  ^Commissar  for 
Strengthening  of  Germanism;"  the  "Main  Race  and 
Settlement  Office"  of  the  SS  ["Rusha'1;  the  '  Re- 
patriation Office  for  Ethnic  Germans;"  and  the 
"Well  of  Life  'Lebensborn'  Society")  were  tried 
for  a  combination  of  War  Crimes  and  Crimes 
against  Humanity  which  has  become  known  under 
the  name  of  "genocide" — the  crime  of  destroying 
or  weakening  entire  racial  or  ethnic  groups.  In  the 
words  of  the  Judgment: 

"The  Germanization  program  envisioned  certain 

drastic  and  oppressive  measures,  among  them: 


"Deportation  of  Poles  and  Jews;  the  separation 
of  family  groups,  and  the  kidnapping  of  children 
for  the  purpose  of  training  them  in  Nazi  ideol- 
ogy; confiscation  of  all  property  of  Poles  and 
Jews  for  resettlement  purposes;  the  destruction 
of  the  economic  and  cultural  fife  of  the  Polish 
population;  and  the  hampering  of  the  reproduc- 
tion of  the  Polish  population.  This  policy  was  put 
into  practice  in  all  of  the  countries,  twelve  in 
number,  as  they  were  ruthlessly  overrun  by  Hit- 
ler's armed  forces."  (p.  5292) 
E.g.,  a  Himmler  directive  ordered  for  the  non- 
Germans  in  the  East  the  following  schooling: 
"Simple  arithmetic  up  to  500  at  the  most;  writ- 
ing of  one's  name;  the  doctrine  that  it  is  divine 
law  to  obey  the  Germans  and  to  be  honest,  in- 
dustrious and  good.  I  don't  think  that  reading 
should  be  required." 

More  schooling  would  only  be  given  in  Germany 
if  a  child  was  found  by  the  SS  to  be  racially  perfect, 
and  he  had  to  remain  permanently  in  Germany. 
"The  parents  of  such  children  .  .  .  will  then 
probably  produce  no  more  children  so  that  the 
danger  of  this  subhuman  people  of  the  East  .  .  . 
will  disappear."  (p.  5293) 
The  judgment  continues:  .  .  .  "as  the  ferocity 
of  war  quickened,  more  drastic  decrees  and  bar- 
baric policies  were  adopted.  For  instance,  .^.  . 
the  question  of  dealing  with  the  so-called  "ra- 
cially inferior"  population  was  solved  not  so 
much  by  deportation  as  by  adoption  of  extermi- 
nation measures,  thus  bringing  about  a  speedier 
elimination  of  undesirable  foreign  elements  by' 
death."  (p.  5294) 

The  Einsatzgruppen  (Special  SS  Units)  Cose.  Some  of 
the  most  shocking  aspects  of  the  Nazi  extermina- 
tion program  were  dealt  with  in  the  case  against 
24  leaders  of  special  SS  units  called  Einsatzgrup- 
pen. Organized  before  the  German  attack  01  Rus- 
sia, their  special  task  was  systematically  to  ex- 
terminate Jews,  Communists,  gypsies,  "a-socials," 
and  other  "undesirables" — men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren. On  the  basis  of  the  contemporaneous  top- 
secret  reports  of  these  units  which  were  regularly 
sent  to  Berlin,  the  Tribunal,  after  4%  months  of 
trial,  reaffirmed  the  finding  of  the  International 
Military  Tribunal  that  "the  Einsatzgruppen  and 
other  units  of  the  Security  Police  killed  two 
million  defenseless  human  beings,"  and  it  found 
that  of  these,  the  units  under  the  command  of 
the  defendants  caused  the  death  of  a  cumulative 
number  of  1  million  deaths,  over  a  huge  area  ex- 
tending from  the  Baltic  to  the  Crimea  and  the 
Caucasus.  These  units  were  also  used  to  search  the 
prisoner  of  war  camps,  and  to  execute  Russian  Gov- 
ernment and  party  officials,  "leading  personalities 
of  the  economy,"  "intellectuals"  and  "all, Jews" 
whom  they  found  among  the  prisoners  of  war. 

The  Judgment  makes  some  gory  quotations  from 
the  Reports  of  the  units,  about  the  methods  of  ex- 
ecution— how  victims  had  to  dig  their  own  graves, 
or  kneel  in  ditches,  how  they  had  to  give  up  and 
sort  their  shoes,  clothing,  and  underclothing  before 
being  executed,  etc.,  and  states  that  "the  imagina- 
tion staggers  in  the  contemplation  of  a  human 
degradation  beyond  the  power  of  language  ade- 
quately to  portray  it."  (p.  6649) 

(As  said  before — see  High  Command  Case — 
these  extermination  units  worked  in  areas  which 
were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  German  Army  Com- 
manders, and  the  latter's  collaboration  or  con- 
nivance played  a  big  role  in  the  High  Command 
Case.) 

The  main  defense  arguments  were:  that  the  de- 
fendants had  to  do  the  work  despite  misgivings, 


WASHINGTON 


642 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  PURIFICATION 


because  it  was  ordered;  that  these  measures  were 
necessary  because  the  victims  were  actual  or  po- 
tential enemies  of  Germany  who  either  had  com- 
mitted or  would  commit  crimes.  The  Judgment 
most  strongly  refused  these  arguments  and  the  ar- 
gument of  the  legality  of  "ideological  killings," 
and  then  convicted  14  of  the  24  defendants  to 
death. 

The  Administration  of  Concentration  Camps  Case 
(Pohl  Case).  Some  of  the  ugliest  features  of  the  Nazi 
regime  also  were  revealed  in  the  trial  of  18  of- 
ficials of  the  central  SS  agency  (SS  General  Os- 
wald Pohl  was  its  chief)  which  was  in  charge  of 
administering  and  supervising  all  German  concen- 
tration and  extermination  camps.  The  task  included 
the  allotment  of  food,  clothing,  etc.,  and  even  of 
the  facilities  for  the  gassing;  the  disposal  of  the 
belongings  of  the  victims,  including  their  gold 
teeth;  the  hiring  out  of  camp  inmates  to  industry; 
and  tiie  running  of  the  considerable  industrial  en- 
terprises of  the  SS  in  which  the  labor  was  furnished 
by  concentration  camp  prisoners.  The  evidence 
(contemporaneous  documents  and  reports  by  sur- 
viving inmates)  told  a  story  of  starvation,  torture, 
murder,  "medical  experiments,"  and  other  mass 
atrocities. 

The  main  defense  arguments  were,  again,  "su- 
perior orders"  by  Himmler  and  Hitler;  and  non- 
involvement  because  the  acts  were  committed  out- 
side the  jurisdiction  of  the  defendants.  There  were 
3  death  sentences,  3  acquittals,  3  sentences  to  life 
imprisonment,  and  9  lesser  prison  terms. 

The  balance  sheet  of  the  American  Trials  in 
Nurnberg  as  of  the  end  of  1948,  was:  11  of  the 
12  cases  (involving  164  of  185  defendants)  were 
completed;  33  defendants  were  acquitted,  4  were 
released  from  trial  because  of  sickness,  4  commit- 
ted suicide,  24  were  sentenced  to  death  by  hang- 
ing, 20  to  life  imprisonment,  69  to  other  prison 
terms,  and  10  were  released  because  their  terms 
were  considered  as  served. — JOHN  H.  E,  FRIED 

WASHINGTON.  A  Pacific  State.  Area:  69,127  sq.  mi. 
Population:  (July  1,  1948)  2,487,000,  compared 
with  (1940  census)  1,736,191.  Chief  cities:  Olym- 
pia  (capital),  13,254  inhabitants  in  1940;  Seattle, 
368,302.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDUCATION,  MINERALS 
AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COL- 
LEGES, VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  March  31, 
1947,  total  revenue  amounted  to  $239,218,000;  to- 
tal expenditure,  $257,701,000. 

Elections.  Truman  won  the  8  electoral  votes  with 
a  majority  over  Dewey,  Wallace,  and  other  candi- 
dates. His  plurality  over  Dewey  was  about  two- 
thirds  of  Roosevelt's  125,000  in  1944.  There  was 
no  Senate  race.  Democrats  won  2  of  the  6  House 
seats  for  a  gain  of  1.  Incumbent  Democratic  Gov- 
ernor Mon  C.  Wallgren  was  defeated  for  reelection 
by  former  Governor  Arthur  B.  Langlie,  Republican. 
Democrats  won  other  State  contests:  Lieutenant 
Governor — Victor  A.  Meyers;  Secretary  of  State — 
Earl  Coe;  Attorney  General — Smith  Troy;  Treas- 
urer—Tom Martin;  Auditor— Cliff  Yelle.  Mrs. 
Pearl  A.  Wanamaker  was  reelected  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction.  The  voters  approved  a  $100 
million  veterans*  bonus  bond  issue;  increased  leg- 
islative pay;  home  rule  powers  to  localities;  a  city- 
county  consolidation  measure;  and  sale  of  liquor 
by  the  drink. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Mon  C.  Wallgren;  Lieut. 
Governor,  Victor  A.  Meyers;  Secretary  of  State, 
Earl  S.  Coe;  Attorney  General,  Smith  Troy;  State 
Treasurer,  Russell  H.  Fluent;  State  Auditor,  Cliff 
Yelle. 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  PURIFICATION.  New  light  has 
been  thrown  upon  the  important  process  of  steri- 
lization of  water  with  chlorine  by  studies  con- 
ducted at  Harvard  University.  The  vital  role  of 
undissociated  hypochlorous  acid,  HOC1,  in  the 
process  has  been  demonstrated  and  the  effect  of 
acidity,  pH,  upon  the  effectiveness  of  the  killing- 
power  of  chlorine  has  been  explained.  The  success 
and  extended  use  and  general  approval  of  free 
residual  or  break  point  chlorination  for  the  treat- 
ment of  water  both  to  kill  pathogenic  organisms 
and  to  reduce  and  avoid  bad  tastes  and  odors  con- 
tinue to  be  reported.  Devices  for  automatic  con- 
tinuous recording  of  chlorine  residuals,  both  total 
and  break  point,  have  come  on  the  market  this 
year.  Warning  lights  and  bells  that  give  immediate 
notice  of  either  under-  or  over-dosage  make  pos- 
sible great  uniformity  of  residuals  and  resulting 
success  and  economy  of  the  process.  The  use  of 
chlorine  dioxide  not  only  to  sterilize  drinking  wa- 
ter but  also  to  oxidize  taste-  and  odor-producing 
compounds,  especially  of  chlorophenol  tastes,  from 
industrial  wastes,  continues  to  meet  with  success 
at  several  places. 

Improvements  in  the  art  of  water  treatment  are 
anticipated  by  a  prominent  researcher  in  the  ap- 
plication of  the  electron  microscope  to  the  study 
of  pathogenic  organisms.  This  may  prove  of  value 
in  determining  the  role  of  water,  if  any,  in  the  dis- 
semination of  the  virus  of  infantile  paralysis.  Seven 
cities  are  known  to  be  participating  in  a  study  of 
the  effect  of  adding  sodium  fluoride  to  water  nor- 
mally deficient  in  fluorides  to  combat  tooth  decay. 
(The  cost  would  be  about  10$  per  capita.) 

Suspicion  has  been  directed  against  excessive 
nitrates  in  drinking  water  as  a  possible  cause  of 
cyanosis  in  infants. 

The  management  of  many  water  supplies  has 
been  concerned  with  the  increase  of  rates  to  meet 
the  rising  costs,  many  of  which  have  been  allowed 
by  Public  Service  Commissions. 

The  increase  in  the  use  of  water  for  air-condi- 
tioning has  continued.  The  general  assembly  of 
Indiana  passed  an  act  requiring  anyone  who  re- 
moves 200  gallons  per  minute  or  more  from  a  well 
for  air-conditioning  to  return  it  to  the  ground 
through  a  re-charge  well  and  in  a  safe  condition. 

New  developments  in  electric  operation  of 
pumps  have  made  possible  the  automatic  pressure- 
flow  control  system  of  water  pumping  which  prom- 
ises better  efficiency,  fewer  disruptions  of  opera- 
tion, reduction  in  size  and  cost  of  elevated  tanks 
and  other  improvements  and  economies.  These 
methods  have  been  successfully  used  in  Richmond, 
Va.  An  interesting  new  process  has  been  reported 
in  successful  use  for  lining  water  mains  in  place 
with  electrically  deposited  bitumen.  Sections  of 
pipe  from  300  to  1,000  ft.  in  length  are  valved  off, 
cleaned  mechanically,  and  lined  with  electrically 
deposited  bitumen. 

The  cathodic  protection  of  the  various  metallic 
structures  of  a  water  distribution  and  water  treat- 
ment plant  has  this  year  received  the  recognition 
of  the  American  Water  Works  Association  through 
the  publication  of  a  committee  report,  and  success- 
ful operation  of  these  devices  has  been  reported 
— both  of  the  type  which  employs  rectified  current 
from  an  electric  power  line  through  anodes  hang- 
ing within  the  structure  as  in  an  elevated  tank  to 
protect  its  interior  surface  and  also  the  type  which 
employs  a  metal  like  magnesium,  high  in  the 
electromotive  series,  to  act  as  an  exterior  anode  to 
protect  the  exterior  of  a  structure,  such  as  a  pipe 
in  the  ground.  The  successful  use  of  magnesium 
in  this  way  has  been  reported  as  a  protective  de- 


WATER  SUPPLY  AND  PURIFICATION 


643 


WATERWAYS 


vice  for  the  entire  irmnicipal  piping  system  (water 
and  gas)  of  Lake  Jackson,  Texas,  a  village  of  800 
homes. 

Among  the  new  water  supply  projects  mentioned 
in  the  news  of  1948  is  a  $9  million  new  well  field 
and  water  treatment  plant  planned  for  Miami, 
Florida.  Additions  to  the  water  treatment  facilities 
of  Tampa,  Florida,  now  being  completed  embrace 
large  upward  flow  sedimentation  units.  An  indus- 
trial supply  to  cost  $2  million  will  increase  the  wa- 
ter supply  of  Birmingham,  Alabama,  by  50  million 
gallons  per  day.  Savannah,  Georgia,  has  completed 
a  new  $4,800,000  water  supply  project  with  a  fil- 
tration plant  of  40  million  gallons  per  day  capacity. 
In  Jacksonville,  Florida,  the  voters  have  approved 
expenditures  of  $5  million  for  extensions  and  re- 
habilitations of  the  municipal  water  system. 

Anderson,  Indiana,  has  embarked  upon  a  pro- 
gram of  installing  four  Ranney  well  collectors  in 
the  river  bottom.  Approximately  15  million  gallons 
per  day  are  available  in  the  aquifer.  The  city  will 
make  no  capital  investment  but  agrees  to  buy 
6,500,000  gallons  per  day  to  operate  lie  system 
and  to  pay  the  company  according  to  an  agreed- 
upon  schedule.  The  cost  of  the  system  is  estimated 
to  be  slightly  under  $500,000.  Two-story  sedimen- 
tation tanks  have  been  designed  for  the  new  25 
million  gallons  per  day  water  treatment  plant  of 
Long  Beach,  Cal.  The  water  treatment  plant  at 
Dallas,  Texas,  will  improve  operating  conditions 
and  increase  capacity  from  72  to  100  million  gal- 
lons per  day.  A  bond  sale  of  $3,340,000  has  been 
approved,  and  the  money  is  to  be  used  largely  for 
improvements  in  the  water  works  system. 

At  Worcester,  Mass.,  a  $3  million  loan  has  been 
approved  for  water  works  improvement,  to  include 
a  1,000-million-gallon  reservoir.  A  new  150  million 
gallon  per  day  intake  line  18,500  ft.  long  made  of 
10  ft.  diameter,  24  ft.  long  sections  of  precast  re- 
inforced concrete  pipe  has  been  started  at  Cleve- 
land, Ohio.  It  will  lead  to  the  proposed  Notting- 
ham Water  Filtration  plant  of  equal  capacity.  A 
total  of  $35  million  will  be  provided  during  the 
next  10  years  for  expenditure  on  Detroit's  water 
supply,  and  rates  will  be  increased  to  provide  this 
sum.  The  largest  item  in  proposed  improvements 
is  a  new  pumping  station  which  together  with  a 
four-mile  tunnel  will  cost  $23,500,000.  Initial  op- 
erating experiences  with  Chicago's  new  320  million 
gallon  per  day  filtration  plant  serving  one  and  one- 
half  million  people  and  112  square  miles,  which  is 
53  percent  of  the  city's  area,  have  been  reported. 
Partial  operation  of  the  plant  has  occasioned  op- 
erating difficulties  for  a  number  of  reasons.  This 
new  plant  has  many  unique  features.  To  conserve 
horizontal  space,  many  parts  of  the  plant  were 
made  two-story.  The  filters  are  designed  to  operate 
at  almost  double  the  average  rate  for  short  periods 
of  time. 

Progress  is,  being  made  on  the  new  Delaware 
water  supply  for  New  York  City  to  be  completed 
in  1954  out  it  appears  that  the  city  will  barely 
catch  up  with  its  water  needs.  The  present  safe 
yield  is  1,045  million  gallons  per  day,  less  than 
the  actual  use  in  1947  which  was  1,185  million 
gallons  per  day.  In  1954,  the  Delaware  supply  will 
bring  in  an  additional  540  million  gallons  per  day 
but  at  that  time,  at  the  present  rate  of  increase  in 
demand,  the  requirements  will  be  for  1,556  mil- 
lion gallons  per  day.  It  is  planned  to  place  the 
ground  water  supplies  in  reserve  at  that  time  and 
the  safe  yield  or  the  remaining  supplies  will  be 
then  only  1,400  million  gallons  per  day  or  less 
than  the  estimated  requirements.  It  appears,  then, 
that  the  city  should  again  look  for  more  water. 


Los  Angeles  plans  to  construct  additional  reser- 
voirs and  conduits  to  add  a  mean  annual  supply 
of  258  million  gallons  of  water  per  day  of  Colo- 
rado River  water  to  bring  the  total  water  supply 
of  the  city  up  to  the  requirements  of  3,500,000 
people  expected  in  1980  (twice  the  present  popu- 
lation ) .  The  three  main  systems  from  Owens,  Colo- 
rado, and  Los  Angeles  Rivers  will  be  so  intercon- 
nected that  either  of  its  two  aqueducts  could  be 
out  of  use  for  three  months  without  curtailing 
service.  The  wells  in  the  San  Fernando  Valley 
would  be  pumped  to  furnish  the  additional  water 
needed  during  this  period. 

Los  Angeles  is  not  the  only  city  of  the  West 
receiving  water  from  Reclamation  Bureau  Projects. 
It  has  been  reported  that  (in  July,  1947)  37  mu- 
nicipalities were  so  supplied.  In  the  Missouri  River 
Basin  Project,  19  municipalities  were  thus  to  be 
supplied.  The  larger  cities  of  the  far  western  states 
resort  to  long-distance  transportation  of  water  from 
30  to  240  miles. 

The  value  of  water  works  construction  in  1948, 
according  to  the  Engineering  News  Record,  was 
$297  million,  an  increase  in  dollar  value  of  50  per- 
cent over  that  of  1947.  This  may  be  compared 
with  the  total  dollar  value  of  construction  in  1948 
of  $1,740  million,  which  represents  an  increase  of 
21  percent  over  that  of  1947;  but  because  of  the 
decreased  value  of  the  dollar  it  is  said  to  represent 
an  increase  in  actual  volume  of  construction  of 
only  11  percent.  — W.  E.  HOWLAM> 

WATERWAYS,  Inland.  Cargoes  carried  on  inland  wa- 
terways showed  a  marked  increase  in  1948.  In  the 
United  States  they  have  reached  aU-time  levels. 
The  Mississippi  River  system  was  estimated  to 
have  carried  148  million  of  the  500  million  tons 
carried  on  United  States  shallow  draft  waters,  and 
a  further  15-20  percent  increase  is  expected  in 
1949. 

In  England  and  Continental  Europe  the  primary 
reason  for  increased  volume  is  the  shortage  of 
freight  cars  and  motor  transport.  In  tibe  United 
States  it  was  caused  by  the  40  percent  increase  in 
freight  rates  since  the  war,  improved  towboats  and 
handling  equipment  in  use,  and  clearing  the  riv- 
ers of  ice. 

About  thirty  large  new  Diesel  towboats  were 
put  in  service  in  1948  and  more  were  being  built. 
Today  large  river  trains  carry  as  many  as  20  barges 
with  a  tonnage  equal  to  five  or  six  freight  trains. 
An  integrated  tow,  the  Harry  Truman,  was  com- 
pleted in  June.  This  is  a  series  of  eleven  integrated 
barges  built  to  lock  together,  reducing  water  resist- 
ance. The  complete  1,200-ft  unit  is  longer  than  the 
Queen  Mary  and  cuts  the  time  from  New  Orleans 
to  St.  Louis  by  nearly  a  week. 

The  Corps  of  Engineers  recommended  a  new 
$100  million  Illinois-Mississippi  canal  from  Bureau, 
fiL,  to  Hampton,  111.,  a  distance  of  64  miles,  since 
the  present  canal  is  inadequate  for  modern  barges 
and  towboats.  Another  recommendation  was  for 
a  $65  million  tidewater  ship  canal  across  the  Mis- 
sissippi delta,  seven  miles  long,  500  feet  wide,  and 
36  feet  deep,  which  would  save  considerable  mile- 
age to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

A  proposal  was  made  to  connect  the  New  York 
Barge  Canal  with  the  Ohio  system  at  Pittsburgh 
using  the  Alleghany  and  Genesee  Rivers.  An  al- 
ternate route  would  connect  Lake  Erie  at  Ashta- 
bula,  Ohio,  with  the  Ohio  via  Beaver  River,  north- 
west of  Pittsburgh. 

The  St.  Lawrence  Waterway  was  still  a  live  issue. 
[President  Truman  urged  its  construction  in  his 
1949  State  of  the  Union  Message  and  $20  million 


WITHER  BUREAU 


644 


WESTERN  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 


for  preliminary  work  was  provided  in  the  1949-50 
budget]  Proposals  for  converting  the  Panama  Ca- 
nal into  a -sea-level  route  were  aired  during  the 
year,  as  were  proposals  for  an  additional  canal 
through  Colombia. 

Most  canal  operating  machinery  in  Western  Ger- 
many was  undamaged  during  the  war  and  now 
practically  all  of  the  2,800  miles  of  canals  and 
waterways  are  open  for  at  least  one-way  traffic. 
Lack  of  shipping  keeps  totals  below  prewar  levels. 
In  England,  canal  receipts  as  of  Oct.  1,  1948, 
were  up  11.4  percent  over  1947.  Most  British  ca- 
nals are  narrow  and  in  poor  repair,  which  limits  the 
size  of  carriers  to  7  by  70  ft  Because  of  their  con- 
dition, motorized  equipment,  even  of  very  low  pow- 
er, is  damaging  to  the  banks. 

In  Spain  the  proposed  mile-long  Duestra  ship 
canal  would  allow  10,000-ton  ships  to  reach  the 
center  of  Bilboa.  Here  nearly  a  mile  and  a  half  of 
200-ft.  quays  equipped  with  an  extensive  rail  sys- 
tem would  serve  shipping. 

In  Poland  the  Oder  River  was  being  deepened, 
wrecks  removed,  and  completion  of  the  Danube- 
Oder  canal  will  provide  navigation  for  all  coun- 
tries concerned.  Stettin  will  be  the  terminal  and 
is  being  equipped  as  Poland's  first  bulk  cargo  port. 

— J.  W.  HAZEN 

WEATHER  BUREAU,  U.S.  Weather  Service.  A  major 
problem  facing  the  U.S.  Weather  Bureau  in  1948 
was  to  meet  increased  demands  by  industry,  com- 
merce, agriculture  and  the  general  public  for 
weather  service.  This  problem  was  attacked  by 
placing  special  emphasis  on  mass  distribution  of 
weather  information  through  local  commercial  pub- 
lication and  broadcasting  channels  and  by  adding 
about  50  communities  without  local  weather  offices 
to  the  list  of  those  served  through  telephoned  or 
telegraphed  bulletins  from  existing  Weather  Bu- 
reau stations. 

The  establishment  of  new  airports,  the  expansion 
of  air  commerce,  particularly  among  non-sched- 
uled operators,  and  the  increase  in  private  flying 
placed  heavier  demands  on  the  Weather  Bureau 
for  aviation  weather  services.  The  increased  ob- 
servational requirements  were  met  as  fully  as  prac- 
ticable ^through  a  system  of  "cooperative  airway 
stations"  at  approximately  150  airports  where  local 
airport  or  airline  personnel  provided  official  weath- 
er observations  in  cooperation  with  the  Weather 
Bureau.  Service  to  pilots  of  privately  owned  air- 
craft was  improved  by  the  broadcast  of  local  flying 
weather  reports  by  radio  stations  in  some  localities. 

A  new  weather  forecasting  center  was  estab- 
lished at  Seattle  to  encompass  the  States  of  Idaho, 
Oregon  and  Waking*011'  ?J1  formerly  in  the  San 
Francisco  district.  Subdivision  into  smaller  districts 
enabled  the  forecast  centers  to  provide  better 
weather  service  by  giving  more  attention  to  local 
weather  variations.  Specialized  weather  services 
were  also  improved.  New  mobile  weather  units 
were  assigned  to  fire-weather  warning  centers  in 
Oregon  and  Washington,  bringing  the  total  of 
these  to  seven  units  which  enable  the  forecaster 
to  move  his  office  to  the  scene  of  the  fire  where 
his  weather  services  become  a  component  part  of 
the  fire  suppression  organization.  Horticultural 
service  formerly  operating  in  Florida,  California, 
Oregon  and  Washington  only,  was  extended  to 
Wisconsin  to  give  frost  warnings  to  cranberry 
growers  and  other  farming  interests. 

The  meteorological  observation  network  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere  was  strengthened  by  the  es- 
tablishment of  additional  Arctic  weather  stations 
at  Prince  Patrick  and  Isachsen  Land,  This  program 


was  carried  out  by  the  Weather  Bureau,  operating 
jointly  with  Canada  and  using  air  transportation 
of  the  U.S.  Air  Force  in  winter  and  vessels  of  the 
U.S.  Navy  during  the  summer. 

The  increased  demand  for  daily  weather  service 
was  paralleled  by  similar  demands  for  climatologi- 
cal  information.  These  extensive  demands  led  the 
Weather  Bureau  to  expand  its  program  for  treat- 
ment of  weather  data  by  machine  methods.  Punch 
card  machine  units  began  taking  over  from  the 
State  Ch'matological  Section  Centers  the  tabulation 
and  preparation  for  publication  of  the  daily  records 
from  the  basic  network  of  6,000  cooperative  cli- 
matological  stations.  The  changeover  from  manual 
to  mechanical  procedures,  which  should  be  com- 
pleted in  about  a  year,  will  result  in  increased  ac- 
curacy and  accessibility  of  original  climatological 
records  and  also  a  more  adequate  climatological 
service. 

Research.  One  of  the  major  research  undertakings 
of  1948  was  the  Cloud  Physics  Project,  popularly 
called  the  "Artificial  Precipitation  Project."  Be- 
cause of  strong  public  interest  and  the  potentially 
great  economic  value  of  producing  rainfall  arti- 
ficially, the  Weather  Bureau  with  the  cooperation 
of  the  U.S.  Air  Force,  National  Advisory  Com- 
mittee for  Aeronautics,  and  the  U.S.  Navy,  carried 
out  near  Wilmington,  Ohio,  scientifically  controlled 
experiments  using  all  available  measuring  facili- 
ties including  radar  and  instrumented  aircraft.  Ex- 
periments on  winter-type  stratus  clouds  (Weather 
Bureau  Research  Paper  No.  30)  and  on  summer- 
type  cumuliform  clouds  (Weather  Bureau  Re- 
search Paper  No.  31 )  showed  that  artificial  modifi- 
cation of  clouds  by  use  of  dry  ice  as  a  "seeding 
agent"  is  of  doubtful  economic  importance  for 
production  of  rain  and  they  gave  no  indication  that 
seeding  initiates  self-propagating  storms.  Dissipa- 
tion of  cumulus  clouds  rather  man  new  develop- 
ment was  generally  the  result  of  treatment. 

Observational  phases  of  the  Thunderstorm  Re- 
search Project,  under  joint  sponsorship  of  the  U.S. 
Air  Force,  U.S.  Navy,  National  Advisory  Com- 
mittee for  Aeronautics,  and  the  U.S.  Weather  Bu- 
reau, were  completed  in  1947  after  accumulation 
of  an  excellent  series  of  data  from  the  vicinity  of 
Orlando,  Fla.,  in  1946,  and  Wilmington,  Ohio,  in 
1947.  Analysis  of  the  observations,  which  is  being 
carried  on  through  contract  with  the  University 
of  Chicago,  is  expected  to  be  completed  in  1949. 
A  program  started  by  the  Weather  Bureau  in  1946 
to  observe  by  radar  the  location  and  movement  of 
significant  precipitation  areas  was  continued  in 
1948  with  the  installation  of  experimental  radar 
storm  detection  units  at  several  midwestern  loca- 
tions where  they  could  serve  for  locating  destruc- 
tive thunderstorms  and  tornadoes  that  frequent 
those  areas. 

In  the  field  of  forecasting  research,  several  meth- 
ods for  forecasting  specific  weather  elements  at 
particular  places  were  developed  through  applica- 
tion of  statistical  techniques.  These  objective  meth- 
ods represent  new  tools  which  supplement  but  do 
not  replace  other  forecasting  procedures.  In  addi- 
tion to  seeking  to  improve  methods  for  forecasting 
a  few  hours  to  a  week  in  advance,  the  Weather 
Bureau  reported  experimentation  with  methods  for 
predicting  weather  a  month  in  advance. 

— F.  W.  REICHELDERFER 

WESTERN  PACIFIC  ISLANDS,  British.  The  British  island 
groups  ( Gilbert  and  Ellice  Islands,  British  Solomon 
Islands,  Tonga,  New  Hebrides,  and  Pitcaira  Is- 
land), under  the  administration  of  the  British 
High  Commissioner  for  the  Western  Pacific. 


WESTERN  SAHARA 


645 


WOMEN'S  BUREAU 


WESTERN  SAHARA.  Spanish  colonial  possessions  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  Africa,  consisting  of  the  Terri- 
tory of  Ifni  (area,  741  square  miles;  population, 
35,000  in  1944)  and  Spanish  Sahara  (area,  105,409 
square  miles;  population,  37,000  in  1944)  which 
includes  the  two  zones  of  Rio  de  Oro  and  Sekia  el 
Hamra.  Chief  towns  are  Villa  Cisneros  and  Smara 
in  Spanish  Sahara  and  Sidi  Ifni  in  the  Territory  of 
Ifni.  Under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  high  commission- 
er of  Morocco,  the  colony  has  a  politico-military 
local  government  in  Cabo  Juby. 

WEST  VIRGINIA.  A  south  Atlantic  State.  Area:  24,- 
282  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  1,915,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  1,901,974.  Chief 
cities:  Charleston  (capital),  67,914  inhabitants  in 
1940;  Huntington,  78,836.  See  AGRICULTURE,  EDU- 
CATION, MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNI- 
VERSITIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $110,859,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $101,791,000. 

Elections.  Truman  won  the  8  electoral  votes  by  a 
majority  over  Dewey  and  Wallace  half  again  as 
large  as  Roosevelt's  70,000  in  1944.  Incumbent  Re- . 

Eublican  Senator  Chapman  Revercomb  was  de- 
sated  for  reelection  by  Matthew  M.  Neely.  Dem- 
ocrats captured  all  6  House  seats  for  a  gain  of  4. 
Democrats  swept  all  Statewide  contests  for  State 
office,  including:  Governor — Okey  L.  Patterson; 
Secretary  of  State— D.  Pitt  O'Brien;  Attorney  Gen-  . 
eral — Ira  J.  Partlow;  Auditor — Edgar  B.  Sims; 
Treasurer — Richard  E.  Talbott;  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture — J.  B.  McLaughlin. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Clarence  W.  Meadows; 
Lieut.  Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  William 
S.  O'Brien;  Attorney  General,  Ira  J.  Partlow;  State 
Treasurer,  Richard  E.  Talbott;  State  Auditor,  Ed- 
gar B.  Sims.  , 

WHEAT.  The  1948  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States, 
as  reported  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
in  December,  1948,  amounted  to  1,288,406,000 
bushels,  compared  with  the  1947  crop  of  1,367,- 
180,000  bu.  and  the  10-year  average  (1937-46)  of 
942,623,000  bu. 

Yields  of  the  chief  producing  States  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  in  1948  were  (in  bushels):  Kansas  231,- 
368,000,  North  Dakota  136,580,000,  Oklahoma  98,- 
962,000,  Montana  90,547,000,  Nebraska  82,988,- 
000,  Washington  79,268,000,  Ohio  57,648,000, 
Texas  56,290,000,  Colorado  53,525,000,  South  Da- 
kota 50,391,000,  Illinois  40,065,000,  Missouri  39,- 
270,000,  Michigan  36,270,000,  Idaho  34,583,000, 
Oregon  27,818,000,  Minnesota  18,509,000,  Penn- 
sylvania 18,354,000,  New  York  12,452,000,  Cali- 
fornia 11,988,000. 

World  Wheat.  The  world  output  of  wheat  in  1948 
was  estimated  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture on  Nov.  29, 1948,  to  total  6,285  million  bu.,  as 
compared  with  a  world  output  of  5,815  million  bu. 
in  1947. 

WHITE  HOUSE  OFFICE,  The.  A  division  of  the  Execu- 
tive Office  of  the  President,  which  serves  the  Presi- 
dent in  the  performance  of  detailed  activities  inci- 
dent to  his  office.  The  officials  include  three  Secre- 
taries: Matthew  J.  Connelly,  Charles  G.  Ross,  Wil- 
liam D.  Hassett.  Assistant  to  the  President:  John  R. 
Steelman.  Special  Counsel:  Clark  M.  Clifford.  Ad- 
ministrative Assistants:  David  K.  Niles,  Charles  S. 
Murphy,  Donald  S.  Dawson.  Administrative  Assist- 
ant in  the  President's  Office:  Rose  A.  Conway.  So- 
cial Secretary:  Reathel  M.  Odum.  Executive  Clerk: 
William  J.  Hopkins. 


WINDWARD  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  four  British  colo- 
nies consisting  of  the  islands  of  Grenada  (133 
square  miles),  St.  Vincent  (150  square  miles),  St. 
Lucia  (233  square  miles),  and  Dominica  (304 
square  miles).  Total  area,  820  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation, about  285,000.  Capital,  St.  George's  (on 
Grenada),  5,755  inhabitants.  More  than  75  percent 
of  the  people  are  Negroes,  2  percent  Europeans, 
and  the  remainder  mulatto.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  inhabitants.  Arrowroot,  nutmeg, 
cocoa,  sugar,  cotton,  copra,  citrus  fruits,  rum, 
spices,  and  vegetables  are  the  main  products.  For- 
eign trade  (1946):  imports,  £2,126,298;  exports 
£1,363,925.  Finance  (1946):  revenue,  £1,550,- 
355;  expenditure,  £1,392,217. 

Government.  Each  island  colony  retains  its  own 
institutions  of  government.  Under  the  administra- 
tion of  one  governor,  the  colonies  have  no  common 
legislature,  law,  revenue,  or  tariffs,  but  do  unite 
for  certain  other  common  purposes.  Governor  and 
Commander  in  Chief,  Sir  Arthur  F.  Grimble. 

WISCONSIN.  An  east  north  central  State.  Area:  56r 
066  sq.  mi.  Population:  (July  1,  1948)  3,309,000, 
compared  with  (1940  census)  3,137,587.  Chief 
cities:  Madison  (capital),  67,447  inhabitants  in 
1940;  Milwaukee,  587,472.  See  AGRICULTURE,  ED- 
UCATION, MINERALS  AND  METALS,  SCHOOLS,  UNI- 
VERSITIES AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1947, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $197,918,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $179,946,000. 

Elections.  Truman  won  the  12  electoral  votes, 
Dewey's  in  1944  by  a  24,000  majority,  with  647,- 
310  votes  to  Dewey's  590,959  and  Wallace' s  25,- 
282.  There  was  no  Senate  contest.  Democrats  broke 
the  Republican  monopoly  on  House  seats  by  win- 
ning 2  of  the  10.  Incumbent  Republican  Governor 
Oscar  A.  Rermebohm  was  reelected.  Other  State 
officers  elected  included:  Lieutenant  Governor — 
George  M.  Smith;  Secretary  of  State— Fred  R.  Zim- 
merman; Attorney  General — Thomas  E.  Fairchild; 
Treasurer — Warren  R.  Smith. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Oscar  A.  Rennebohm; 
Lieut  Governor  (Vacancy);  Secretary  of  State, 
Fred  R.  Zimmerman;  Attorney  General,  John  E. 
Martin;  State  Treasurer  (Vacancy);  State  Auditor, 
J.  Jay  Keliher. 

WOMEN'S  BUREAU.  This  bureau  in  the  United  States 
Department  of  Labor  is  the  Federal  agency  estab- 
lished by  Congress  in  1920  to  promote  the  welfare 
of  wage-earning  women,  improve  their  working 
conditions,  increase  their  efficiency,  and  advance 
their  opportunities  for  profitable  employment.  In 
the  first  year  in  which  the  Bureau  functioned,  only 
8%  million  women  had  gainful  employment  outside 
the  home.  By  late  1948,  approximately  17,272,000 
were  employed  and  another  530,000  available  for 
employment.  Taken  together,  the  women  with  jobs 
and  tnose  seeking  them  accounted  for  about  32 
percent  of  the  country's  total  woman  population  14 
years  of  age  and  over,  and  29  percent  of  all  persons 
in  the  labor  market. 

During  1948,  the  Women's  Bureau  conducted  re- 
search on  employment  opportunities  for  women, 
their  working  conditions  in  important  woman-em- 
ploying industries,  their  earnings  in  specific  occu- 
pations, and  on  other  subjects  directly  related  to 
women's  participation  in  the  economic  life  of  the 
United  States.  Continuing  the  long  time  program 
of  cooperation  with  State  labor  departments,  wom- 
en's organizations,  trade  unions,  and  others,  it  also 
compiled  data  and  gave  technical  assistance  on  leg- 
islation and  administration  dealing  with  minimum 


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646 


WORLD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION 


wage,  equal  pay,  hours  of  work,  and  laws  affecting 
the  civil  and  political  status  of  women. 

Another  method  by  which  the  Bureau  helped  to 
promote  the  economic  welfare  of  women  was  the 
convening  in  February,  1948,  of  a  major  conference 
on  "The  American  Woman,  Her  Changing  Role — 
Worker,  Homemaker,  and  Citizen."  This  3-day 
session,  which  was  opened  with  an  address  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  1)  Reviewed  the 
basic  social  and  economic  factors  underlying  wom- 
en's increased  employment;  2)  Evaluated  the 
progress  made  by  women  since  the  "Declaration  of 
Sentiments"  was  drawn  up  at  the  first  Woman's 
Rights  Convention  in  Seneca  Falls,  N.Y.,  in  1848; 
and  3)  Afforded  an  opportunity  for  a  thorough  ex- 
change of  opinion  on  the  issues  women  face  in 
their  capacities  as  workers,  hornemakers,  and  citi- 
zens. 

Other  significant  activities  of  1948  included  tech- 
nical and  consultative  services  to  the  United  Na- 
tions and  Ihe  International  Labor  Organization. 
The  Bureau's  Director  served  as  an  adviser  to  the 
United  States  delegation  at  the  7th  session  of  the 
United  Nations  Economic  and  Social  Council  in 
Geneva,  and  throughout  the  year  as  a  representa- 
tive on  the  Human  Rights  and  the  Status  of  Wom- 
en subcommittee  of  the  Interdepartmental  Com- 
mittee on  International  Social  Policy, 

Services  to  the  International  Labor  Organization 
included  attendance  of  two  senior  staff  members  at 
the  31st  International  Labor  Conference  in  San 
Francisco  and  preparation  of  technical  documents 
on  a  number  of  subjects,  among  which  were  night 
work,  maternity  leave,  re-employment  rights  of 
women,  equal  pay  for  women,  welfare  facilities  for 
women  in  textile  mills,  and  vocational  training  for 
women  production  workers. 

As  in  the  past,  the  Bureau  also  carried  on  a  pro- 
gram of  Inter-American  cooperation  and  developed 
training  courses  for  visiting  women  labor  officials 
from  the  other  Americas.  Recipients  of  grants 
awarded  by  the  United  States  Government,  these 
women  studied  methods  of  promoting  the  welfare 
of  employed  women  through  legislation,  improved 
working  conditions,  and  wider  employment  oppor- 
tunities. 

Studies  Published  in  1948.  Among  research  studies 
published  in  1948  was  The  Outlook  for  Women  in 
Science.  Composed  of?  8  separate  bulletins,  this 
series  discusses  women's  contributions  to,  and  ex- 
pected employment  in,  13  major  fields  of  science 
and  in  5  occupations  directly  related  to  science. 

A  second  major  study  published  during  1948  was 
the  project,  Women's  Occupations  Through  Seven 
Decades.  An  occupational  history  of  women  in  the 
United  States,  this  260-page  report  discusses  the 
leading  occupations  of  women,  as  reported  in 
decennial  censuses,  from  1870  to  1940  and  furnish- 
es other  information  considered  vital  to  a  realistic 
appraisal  of  the  current  and  anticipated  employ- 
ment of  women. 

One  of  the  new  projects  of  1948  was  the  Hand- 
book of  Facts  on  Women  Workers.  This  handbook 
includes  current  facts  on  women's  employment, 
their  wages  or  salaries,  economic  responsibilities, 
standards  for  employment,  civil  and  political  status, 
and  other  subjects  relating  to  and  of  concern  to 
women  workers. 

Studies  in  Progress  in  1948.  Projects  on  which  pre- 
liminary work  was  completed  in  1948  included 
studies  on  night  work  in  the  hotel  and  restaurant 
industries,  women  in  Federal  service,  and  the  em- 
ployment outlook  for  women  in  the  social  services. 
Legislation.  Minimum-Wage.  Bureau  service  ren- 
dered to  State  administrators  of  minimum-wage 


legislation  included  assistance,  on  request,  in  the 
preparation  of  basic  factual  data  for  presentation 
to  wage  boards;  consultation  on  specific  points  of 
wage  board  procedure  and  other  administrative 
problems;  and  the  preparation  of  such  technical 
material  as  digests  of  laws  and  compilations  of 
wage  orders.  Minimum-wage  activity  was  particu- 
larly heavy  in  1948  because  of  the  programs  car- 
ried on  in  many  States  for  the  revision  of  existing 
wage  orders  and  the  growing  recognition  in  others 
of  the  need  for  such  action. 

Equo/  Pay.  Technical  assistance  was  given  to  State 
officials,  women's  organizations,  trade  unions,  and 
others  interested  in  passing  or  amending  State 
equal-pay  legislation  and  in  the  passage  of  Federal 
legislation  on  equal  pay.  By  the  end  of  1948,  9 
States  had  equal-pay  laws  and  a  proposal  for  a 
Federal  law  was  pending  in  the  U.S.  Congress. 

Hours  of  Work.  As  in  past  years,  State  admin- 
istrators were  furnished  technical  data  in  support 
of  improved  hours-of-work  legislation.  Employers 
and  individuals,  upon  request,  also  were  given  con- 
siderable information  on  the  laws  of  the  43  juris- 
dictions which  limit  daily  or  weekly  hours  of  work 
of  women  employees  in  one  or  more  specific  occu- 
pations. 

Civil  and  Political  Status.  Progress  in  this  field  dur- 
ing 1948  included  revision  of  the  major  study, 
The  Legal  Status  of  Women  in  the  United  States. 
This  project,  in  addition  to  a  summary  report  for 
•  the  United  States  as  a  whole,  includes  separate  re- 
ports on  women's  status  in  each  of  the  48  States, 
the  District  of  Columbia,  Alaska,  Puerto  Rico,  Ha- 
waii, the  Canal  Zone,  and  Virgin  Islands.  Work 
also  was  continued  on  a  detailed  United  Nations 
Questionnaire  dealing  with  public  law  and  its  re- 
lation to  women  of  the  United  States.  Also  pre- 
pared were  statements  for  the  United  States  Con- 
gress on  the  need  for  broadening  laws  governing 
the  service  of  women  on  Federal  juries  and  on  the 
discriminations  against  women  in  existing  immigra- 
tion laws. 

Special  Services  and  Publications.  The  publication, 
Facts  on  Women  Workers,  was  issued  monthly, 
and  throughout  the  year  a  number  of  interpretative 
articles,  news  releases,  radio  scripts,  and  leaflets 
were  prepared  on  such  subjects  as  women's  partici- 
pation in  the  labor  market,  their  wage-earning  re- 
sponsibilities in  relation  to  family,  their  hours  of 
work  and  wages,  their  protection  under  minimum- 
wage  laws  and  other  labor  legislation,  and  their 
status  under  the  civil  and  political  laws  of  the  48 
States,  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  the  three  ter- 
ritories. — FRIEDA  S.  MILLER 

WOOL.  The  1943  world  wool  production  was  indi- 
cated at  3,730  million  lb.,  according  to  reports  re- 
ceived by  the  Office  of  Agricultural  Relations,  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  (Foreign  Agriculture 
Circular,  Nov.  29,  1948).  In  1947  the  world  wool 
output  was  estimated  at  3,710  million  lb. 

The  1948  wool  yields  of  the  chief  producing 
countries  (in  millions  of  lb.)  were:  Australia,  1,- 
040,  Argentina  430,  New  Zealand  345,4,  United 
States  289.3,  U.S.S.R.  285,  Union  of  South  Africa 
212  (includes  Union  Protectorates  and  South- West 
Africa),  Uruguay  149.9,  Spain  88,  China  75,  Great 
Britain  70,  Turkey  64.1,  India  53,  Brazil  50,  Chile 
46.3,  Iran  30,  France  29.3,  Bulgaria  28.6,  Italy  28, 
French  Morocco  28,  Pakistan  25,  Iraq  24.2,  Peru 
20.7,  Algeria  18.3,  Portugal  18,  Greece  179  Af- 
ghanistan 15. 

WORLD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION  (WHO).  Combining 
the  functions  of  former  organizations  in  the  fiela 


WORLD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION 


647 


WORLD  HEALTH  ORGANIZATION 


of  international  health  cooperation,  WHO  repre- 
sents the  first  truly  world-wide  body  of  this  kind 
in  history.  It  is  based  on  the  concept  that  health, 
whether  for  whole  nations  or  for  the  individuals 
comprising  them,  is  no  longer  possible  in  the 
shrunken  world  of  today  without  teamwork  be- 
tween governments  and  peoples  on  a  scale  far 
greater  than  ever  before,  and  that  defensive  meas- 
ures against  diseases  cannot  be  looked  upon  as 
adequate  protection  for  the  health  of  the  peoples 
of  the  world. 

Origins.  The  WHO  Constitution,  drafted  in  the 
spring  of  1946  at  Paris,  was  approved  by  the  In- 
ternational Health  Conference  convened  by  the 
UN  Economic  and  Social  Council  in  New  York, 
June  19-July  22,  1946.  In  order  to  carry  on  certain 
urgent  functions  which  previously  had  been  the 
responsibility  of  agencies  such  as  the  League  of 
Nations  Health  Organization  and  UNRRA's  Health 
Division,  a  WHO  Interim  Commission  was  estab- 
lished at  the  conclusion  of  the  1946  New  York 
Health  Conference. 

The  Interim  Commission,  which  consisted  of 
representatives  from  eighteen  states,  under  the 
Chairmanship  of  Dr.  Andrija  Stampar  of  Yugo- 
slavia, achieved  its  most  dramatic  success  in  1947 
in  helping  the  Government  of  Egypt  to  bring  a 
large-scale  cholera  epidemic  to  a  complete  stand- 
still within  six  weeks.  Much  other  less  sensational, 
but  no  less  important,  work  was  done  during  the 
life  of  this  preparatory  body  through  the  establish- 
ment of  expert  committees  in  a  number  of  fields 
to  advise  the  organization  on  technical  questions 
and  through  the  continuation  of  a  field  services 
program  taken  over  from  UNRRA  in  fourteen 
countries  of  Europe,  Africa  and  Asia. 

In  the  arrangements  made  at  the  International 
Health  Conference  it  had  been  specified  that  the 
WHO  Constitution  would  come  into  effect  when 
26  members  of  the  United  Nations  ratified  then- 
signatures.  This  number  was  exceeded  on  Apr.  7, 
1948.  As  a  result  it  was  possible  to  convene  the 
first  World  Health  Assembly. 

This  Assembly  met  in  Geneva  from  June  24  to 
July  24,  1948,  and  among  other  things  fixed  the 
date  of  Sept.  1,  1948,  for  the  permanent  World 
Health  Organization  to  come  into  existence  offi- 
cially as  a  specialized  agency  of  the  United  Na- 
tions. 

Purpose  and  Scope.  The  objective  of  WHO,  as 
stated  in  its  Constitution,  is  "the  attainment  by 
all  peoples  of  the  highest  possible  level  of  health," 
the  word  "health"  being  defined  as  "a  state  of 
complete  physical,  social  and  mental  well-being 
and  not  merely  the  absence  of  disease  or  infirmity/ 
Its  functions  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  (1) 
to  coordinate  international  health  work,  including 
that  of  inter-governmental  and  governmental  agen- 
cies and  of  private  groups;  (2)  to  propose  and  ad- 
minister international  conventions  on  health  mat- 
ters, and  to  work  for  epidemic  control;  ( 3 )  to  pro- 
vide technical  services,  including  the  reporting  of 
epidemics  and  vital  statistics,  the  unification  of 
medical  terminology,  the  establishment  of  stand- 
ards for  biological  and  pharmaceutical  products, 
etc.;  (4)  to  assist  governments  in  strengthening 
their  health  services  and  to  give  health  assistance 
to  special  groups  (e.g.  the  peoples  of  trust  terri- 
tories); (5)  to  foster  mental  health  activities;  in 
cooperation  with  other  agencies,  to  promote  nutri- 
tion, maternal  and  child  health,  environmental  hy- 
giene, etc.;  and  to  promote  improvement  in  stand- 
ards of  health  teaching  and  the  development  of  in- 
formed public  opinion;  (6)  to  conduct  research  in 
the  fieldf  of  health. 


Members.  Membership  in  WHO  is  open  to  all 
states.  There  were  56  members  as  of  Dec.  31, 1948, 
including  both  members  and  non-members  of  the 
United  Nations.  The  eighteen  states  selected  by  the 
first  World  Health  Assembly  in  July,  1948,  to  des- 
ignate persons  to  serve  on  the  WHO  Executive 
Board  are  the  following;  Australia,  Brazil,  Byelo- 
russian S.S.R.,  Ceylon,  China,  Egypt,  France,  In- 
dia, Iran,  Mexico,  Netherlands,  Norway,  Poland, 
Union  of  South  Africa,  United  Kingdom,  U.S.S.R., 
United  States,  Yugoslavia. 

Officers  and  Headquarters.  At  its  first  Session,  held 
immediately  following  the  first  World  Health  As- 
sembly, the  WHO  Executive  Board  elected  Sir 
Aly  Tewfik  Shousha,  Pasha  (Egypt),  as  its  Chair- 
man. Dr.  Brock  Chisholm  (Canada)  had  been  ap- 
pointed first  Director-General  of  WHO  by  the 
Health  Assembly.  Headquarters  of  the  Organiza- 
tion is  in  the  Palais  des  Nations,  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land. The  Organization  also  maintains  a  Haison  of- 
fice in  the  Empire  State  Building,  New  York. 

Regional  Arrangements.  Regional  Offices  exist  Or 
will  be  established  in  six  major  geographical  areas 
of  the  world  ( Eastern  Mediterranean,  Western  Pa- 
cific, South  East  Asia,  Africa,  Europe,  and  the 
Americas).  The  Regional  Office  for  South  East 
Asia,  established  at  the  end  of  1948,  is  the  first 
such  body.  The  Regional  Office  for  the  Eastern 
Mediterranean  is  to  be  established  at  a  meeting  in 
Cairo  on  Feb.  7,  1949.  The  Pan  American  Sanitary 
Organization  is  in  process  of  becoming  the  WHO 
regional  body  for  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Other 
such  offices  are  being  created  as  soon  as  the  major- 
ity of  countries  in  the  areas  concerned  agree  to 
participate.  A  (temporary)  Special  Office  for  Eu- 
rope, particularly  concerned  with  health  rehabilita- 
tion in  the  war-devastated  regions,  was  also  estab- 
lished on  Jan.  1,  1949. 

Events  of  1948.  The  year's  principal  development 
was  the  creation  of  the  permanent  organization  it- 
self on  foundations  laid  by  the  Interim  Commission 
during  the  preceding  two  years.  This  landmark  in 
international  cooperative  effort  for  improving  the 
world's  health  standards  resulted  directly  from  the 
first  World  Health  Assembly. 

Delegates  and  observers  from  nearly  seventy  na- 
tions participated  in  this  gathering.  The  chief  task 
facing  them  was  to  decide  what  WHO  could  and 
should  do  in  view  of  the  limited  resources  that 
would  be  available  for  the  first  year  of  operations 
($5  million).  Basing  their  decisions  for  the  most 
part  on  recommendations  made  by  the  Interim 
Commission,  the  delegates  assigned  top  priority  to 
work  in  the  fields  of  malaria,  tuberculosis,  venereal 
diseases,  maternal  and  child  health,  nutrition,  and 
environmental  hygiene.  They  also  decided  on  a 
long-range  program  in  public  health  administra- 
tion, on  special  studies  in  parasitic  and  virus  dis- 
eases, and  on  a  campaign  for  the  promotion  of 
mental  health. 

In  addition  to  these  activities,  many  of  which 
had  been  begun  during  the  life  of  the  Interim 
Commission,  it  was  agreed  that  WHO  would  con- 
tinue such  work  as  biological  standardization,  the 
unification  of  pharmacopoeias,  the  revision  of  in- 
ternational quarantine  regulations,  and  the  collec- 
tion and  dissemination  of  epidemiological  informa- 
tion to  help  control  the  international  spread  of 
communicable  disease. 

Most  of  these  various  undertakings  were  under 
way  as  the  year  1948  came  to  a  close.  Two  sessions 
of  the  WHO  Executive  Board  were  held  ( July  and 
October)  to  give  effect  to  decisions  and  policies 
of  the  Health  Assembly,  while  a  whole  series  of 
meetings  of  expert  committees  took  place  between 


WORID  PEACE  FOUNDATION 


648 


YACHTING 


September  and  December  to  deal  with  specific 
technical  aspects  of  the  work  being  carried  out  or 
planned  for  the  near  future. 

Details  on  program  and  personnel  for  the  South 
East  Asia  Regional  Office  of  WHO  were  decided 
at  another  major  international  gathering  which  took 
place  in  New  Delhi  at  the  beginning  of  October, 
attended  by  representatives  of  the  countries  in  that 
area  and  by  members  of  the  Secretariat.  Moreover, 
representatives  of  seventeen  countries  in  all  parts 
of  Europe  met  in  Geneva  at  a  two-day  conference 
in  November  to  outline  their  needs  for  assistance 
from  WHfO  in  rehabilitating  national  health  serv- 
ices. This  conference  was  held  in  connection  with 
the  establishment  of  the  Special  Office  for  Europe, 
mentioned  above. 

WHO's  six  top  priority  campaigns,  in  particular, 
are  planned  and  coordinated  at  the  headquarters 
level  with  the  advice  of  international  committees  of 
specialists  in  each  of  the  fields  concerned.  The  pro- 
grams are  carried  out  primarily  by  advisory  and 
demonstration  teams  sent  into  the  field  to  assist 
national  health  authorities.  These  activities,  repre- 
senting a  part  of  WHO's  so-called  "field  opera- 
tions," are  supplemented  by  a  Fellowship  Program 
for  the  international  exchange  of  medical  and 
public  health  personnel  and  by  a  Medical  Supply 
Service  to  provide  teaching  material  and  to  give 
advice  on  the  procurement  of  drugs,  biologicals, 
equipment,  etc. 

As  the  work  of  the  organization  developed  dur- 
ing the  first  months  of  its  existence  as  a  permanent 
agency  it  became  clear  that  future  budgets  of 
WHO  would  need  to  be  substantially  larger  than 
the  first  one  if  even  a  minimum  of  work  represent- 
ed by  requests  of  governments  for  demonstration 
teams  and  other  assistance  were  to  be  carried  out 
effectively.  By  the  end  of  1948  such  requests  al- 
ready amounted  to  more  than  twice  as  much  as 
WHO  could  fulfill.  Accordingly,  plans  were  being 
made  to  present  more  nearly  adequate  budget  pro- 
posals to  the  second  World  Health  Assembly, 
which  was  scheduled  to  meet  during  the  latter  part 
of  June  and  the  first  part  of  July,  1949,  in  Rome. 
— G.  BROCK  CHISHOLM 

WORLD  PEACE  FOUNDATION,  The.  An  organization, 
founded  by  Edwin  Ginn,  devoted  to  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  facts  of  international  relations  in  clear 
and  undistorted  form.  This  function  is  performed 
through  the  publication  of  an  annual  series  of  Doc- 
uments on  American  Foreign  Relations  and  through 
two  quarterly  periodicals,  International  Organiza- 
tion and  Documents  of  International  Organization: 
A  Selected  Bibliography.  In  addition  the  Founda- 
tion publishes  occasional  studies  on  international 
relations,  which  have  been  extensively  used  by 
teachers,  specialists,  and  government  officials; 
maintains  a  documents  library,  and  carries  on  a 
modest  program  of  community  education  in  the 
New  England  area  through  a  number  of  voluntary 
organizations.  President  of  Board  of  Trustees,  Har- 
vey H.  Bundy;  Director,  Raymond  Dennett.  Of- 
fices: 40  Mt  Vernon  St.,  Boston  8,  Mass. 

WRESTLING.  A  strong  band  of  matmen  from  the  U.S. 
Navy  captured  team  honors  in  the  national  A.A.U. 
championships,  winning  two  individual  titles  on 
the  way.  Individual  winners  were  Ensign  Malcolm 
MacDonald,  U.S.  Navy,  114.5-lb.  class;  Lieut 
Robert  Kitt,  U.S.  Navy,  125.5;  Leo  Thomsen,  Cor- 
nell College  of  Iowa,  136.5;  Newt  Copple,  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska,  147.5;  Leland  Merrill,  New 
York  A.C.,  160.5;  Dale  Thomas,  Marion,  Iowa,  174; 
Henry  Wittenberg,  New  York  Police  Department, 


191;  Ray  Gunkel,  Purdue  University,  heavyweight. 
Wittenberg  later  won  the  light-heavyweight  class 
as  the  Olympic  Games  in  London. 

Oklahoma  A.  and  M.  took  the  National  Collegi- 
ate A. A.  team  title.  Individual  champions  follow: 
Arnold  Plaza,  Purdue,  114.5;  George  Lewis, 
Waynesburg,  125.5;  Bill  Dickenson,  Michigan 
State,  136.5;  Bill  Koll,  Iowa  State  Teachers,  147.5; 
Jack  St.  Glair,  Oklahoma  A.  and  M.,  160.5;  Glen 
Brand,  Iowa  State,  174;  Vern  Gagne,  Minnesota, 
191;  Richard  Hutton,  Oklahoma  A.  and  M.,  heavy- 
weight. Brand  added  to  his  laurels  by  annexing  the 
Olympic  crown  in  middleweight  free-style  wres- 
tling. See  OLYMPIC  GAMES. 

— THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

WYOMING.  A  mountain  State.  Area:  97,914  sq.  mi. 
Population:  (July  1,  1948)  275,000,  compared  with 
(1940  census)  250,742.  Chief  city:  Cheyenne 
(capital),  22,474  inhabitants  in  1940.  See  AGRI- 
CULTURE, EDUCATION,  MINERALS  AND  METALS, 
SCHOOLS,  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES,  VITAL  STA- 
TISTICS. 

Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ended  Sept.  30,  1946, 
total  revenue  amounted  to  $20,017,000;  total  ex- 
penditure, $16,491,000. 

Elections.  Truman  wc-n  the  3  electoral  votes, 
Dewey's  in  1944,  by  a  plurality  over  Dewey,  Wal- 
lace, and  others.  Governor  Lester  C.  Hunt,  Demo- 
crat, defeated  incumbent  Republican  Senator  Ed- 
ward V.  Robertson,  running  for  reelection.  Repub- 
licans retained  the  sole  House  seat.  There  was  no 
contest  for  State  office.  Dr.  A.  G.  Crane,  Secretary 
of  State,  succeeded  to  the  Governership. 

Officers,  1948.  Governor,  Lester  C.  Hunt;  Lieut. 
Governor,  None;  Secretary  of  State,  A.  G.  Crane; 
Attorney  General,  Norman  B.  Gray;  State  Auditor, 
Everett  T.  Copenhaver;  State  Treasurer,  C.  J.  Rog- 
ers; Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Edna  B. 
Stolt. 

YACHTING.  A  tremendous  growth  in  the  world's 
navy  of  pleasure-seekers  and  keen  competition 
marked  last  season.  White  sails  dotted  inland  wa- 
terways as  well  as  the  rougher  waves  of  the  seas 
in  a  year  of  colorful  international  contests,  and 
the  sparkling  performances  written  into  1948's  log 
by  United  States  skippers  featured  the  heavy  cal- 
endar. 

In  the  five  Olympic  classes,  American  sailors 
gained  two  firsts  and  a  second  (see  OLYMPIC 
GAMES).  Lockwood  Pirie  of  Chicago  annexed  the 
world  Star  Class  championship  off  Lisbon,  Portu- 
gal, with  his  racer  Twin  Star  after  having  nailed 
victories  to  the  mast  in  the  midwinter  and  Bacardi 
Cup  series  off  Havana.  Henry  C.  Taylor's  black 
yawl  Baruna,  a  consistent  scorer  all  year,  finished 
first  in  the  Newport-to-Bermuda  ocean  race  for 
the  third  time  and  led  all  opposition  on  corrected 
time  to  become  the  first  yacht  in  history  to  take  the 
major  prize  twice  in  this  classic. 

Garner  H.  Tullis's  77-foot  ketch  Windjammer  II, 
out  of  New  Orleans,  won  the  fifteenth  St.  Peters- 
burg-to-Havana  thrash  and  Larry  Barr  of  San 
Diego,  Calif.,  sailed  his  Mickey  home  to  triumph 
in  the  inaugural  Newport  Harbor-to-Ensenada 
event,  that  Pacific  Coast  test  drawing  a  mighty 
fleet  of  104  starters.  The  Cuban  cutter  Ciclon  took 
the  Miami-to-Nassau  fixture. 

Henry  S.  Morgan's  sloop  Djinn  was  among  the 
year's  leading  winners,  annexing  one  of  yachting's 
most  coveted  prizes,  the  cup  put  in  competition 
by  the  late  King  George  V  of  England,  then  adding 
the  famous  Astor  Cup.  Among  the  highlights  of 
international  competition  were  the  Scandinavian 


649 


YEMEN 

Gold  Cup  and  Seawanhaka  Cup  regattas  for  Six- 
meters,  both  sailed  on  Oyster  Bay,  L.I.,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Seawanhaka  Corinthian  Y.C.  Nor- 
way and  Sweden  both  made  bids  for  the  Gold  Cup, 
but  it  was  successfully  defended  by  George  Nich- 
ols* Goose,  sailed  by  Briggs  Cunningham.  Sven 
Salen's  challenger  Maybe  VI  from  Stockholm  in- 
vaded in  an  attempt  to  capture  the  Seawanhaka 
Cup,  but  lost  to  the  American  craft,  Llanoria, 
sailed  by  Herman  F.  Whiton,  which  previously 
had  scored  in  the  Olympics.  The  blue-hulled 
Llanoria  proved  one  of  the  leading  victors  of  the 
year. 

Other  features  were  the  Long  Island  Sound's 
sweep  of  its  team  series  with  the  International 
One-Design  Class  skippers  of  the  Royal  Bermuda 
Y.C.  and  Bermuda's  victory  over  the  Luders  Six- 
teen team  from  the  Indian  Harbor  Y.C.  The  Chi- 
cago Y.C.  swept  its  series  of  Luders  Sixteen  races 
for  the  Ocean-Great  Lakes  challenge  trophy. 

Club  and  interclub  regattas  and  overnight  races 
drew  record  fleets,  with  Larchmont's  Race  Week 
again  holding  the  spotlight.  Although  sailing 
gained  in  many  parts  of  the  world  and  the  United 
States  in  particular,  Long  Island  Sound  remained 
the  greatest  center  for  the  sport.  One  of  yachting's 
outstanding  feminine  skippers,  Aileen  Shields,  led 
her  crew  from  the  Larchmont  Y.C.  to  both  the 
Long  Island  Sound  and  the  national  women's 
championships.  The  Vineyard  Haven  Y.C.  crew, 
with  Norman  D.  Cassel  at  the  tiller,  captured  na- 
tional junior  laurels.  The  Atlantic  Coast  Star  Class 
title  was  taken  by  Shittalah,  owned  by  E.  W. 
Etchells,  veteran  sportsman  who  again  ranked  with 
yachting's  top  winners.  — THOMAS  V.  HANEY 

YEMEN.  An  absolute  monarchy  (Arab)  in  the  south- 
west corner  of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  A  population 
of  about  3,500,000  with  their  capital  at  San'a  live 
in  an  area  of  some  75,000  square  miles  much  of 
which  is  well-watered.  Agriculture  is  extensive, 
with  such  crops  as  barley,  wheat,  millet,  and  cof- 
fee, the  country's  leading  export. 

Government.  A  1936  Treaty  of  Friendship  signed 
by  Great  Britain  and  the  Kingdom  of  Yemen  rec- 
ognized the  latter's  complete  independence.  Consti- 
tuted as  a  theocratic  state  Yemen  was  ruled  by  the 
elderly  Imam  Yahya,  leader  of  an  old  branch  of  the 
Moslem  Shia  sect  The  country's  fanatical  sectarian- 
ism resulted  in  its  virtual  inaccessibility  to  Euro- 
peans and  its  almost  complete  isolation  from  world 
affairs,  modified  by  recent  adherence  to  the  Arab 
League  and  the  United  Nations.  Education  is  of 
the  most  primitive. 

Events,  1948.  In  February  Imam  Yahya  was  mur- 
dered and  San'a  held  for  three  weeks  by  the  army 
of  the  insurgent  al-Sayyid  Abdullah  ibn  Ahmad  al- 
Wazir,  leader  of  a  group  dissatisfied  with  the  pro- 
longed ultra-conservative  rule  of  Yahya.  He  was 
supported  by  the  Imam's  sixth  son,  Sayf  al-Haqq 
Ibrahim,  who  had  previously  retired  to  neighboring 
Aden  as  leader  of  the  dissident  "Free  Yemeni" 
party.  The  forces  of  Sayf  al-Islam  Ahmad,  the 
Imam's  eldest  son,  powerful  but  unpopular,  suc- 
ceeded in  entering  San'a.  He  had  been  designated 
by  his  father  as  next  in  line.  On  March  21  the  Arab 
League,  after  investigating  the  situation,  recog- 
nized him  as  ruler  of  the  Yemen,  and  shortly  there- 
after Pakistan,  India,  and  Great  Britain  also  recog- 
nized him.  — DOROTHEA  SEELYE  FRANCE 

YUGOSLAVIA.  A  Balkan  republic.  Area:  96,134 
square  miles.  Population  (Jan.  1,  1941  est):  15,- 
920,000.  Chief  cities  (1931  census):  Belgrade 
(capital)  266,849,  Zagreb  185,581,  Subotica  100,- 


YUGOSLAVIA 


058,  Ljubljana  79,056,  Sarajevo  78,173,  Skoplje 
64,737,  Novi  Sad  63,985. 

Education  and  Religion.  The  new  law  provides  for 
free  and  compulsory  education  of  7  years  in  ele- 
mentary state  schools.  Enrollment  (1946-47):  15,- 
165  elementary  schools,  669,578  pupils;  894  sec- 
ondary schools,  308,772  pupils;  51  teacher  training 
institutions,  15,493  pupils;  67  art  and  "  music 
schools,  13,044  pupils;  49  faculties  of  the  higher 
institutions  of  learning,  46,423  students;  also 
(1945-46)  over  1,698  elementary  classes  for  mi- 
norities (Albanian,  Magyar,  Slovak,  Czech,  Ital- 
ian, Rumanian),  and  127  secondary  schools  with 
22,583  pupils  for  minorities.  Under  Tito,  new  uni- 
versities opened  at  Skoplje  (Macedonia)  and  Sara- 
jevo, and  new  faculties  added  to  the  universities 
at  Belgrade,  Zagreb,  and  Ljubljana.  Over  half  of 
the  population  cannot  read  or  write. 

Tne  religion  of  the  Serbs  (roughly  the  regions 
of  Serbia,  Montenegro,  and  large  parts  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina)  is  Eastern  Orthodox,  while  that 
of  the  Croats  and  Slovenes  ;s  Roman  Catholic; 
Moslem  communities  are  scattered  in  Bosnia, 
along  the  Albanian  border,  and  in  Macedonia. 
(The  1931  census  showed  48.7  percent  of  Serb 
Orthodox,  37.4  percent  Roman  Catholics,  and  11.2 
percent  Moslems.) 

Production.  The  country  is  predominantly  agri- 
cultural; forestry,  cattle  raising,  and  mining.  Coal 
copper,  marl,  bauxite,  iron,  lead  and  chrome,  are 
especially  important.  Manufacturing  industries  are 
chiefly  lumbering,  textile  weaving,  milling,  tanning 
and  the  production  of  leather  goods,  chemical 
products,  brewing,  and  sugar  refining.  Between 
1946-1948,  under  the  5-Year  plan,  200  new  fac- 
tories had  been  erected.  But  on  November  26, 
Tito  admitted  that  he  was  obliged  to  "reorganize 
and  regroup"  the  5- Year  plan  to  industrialize  the 
country  and  to  eliminate  all  secondary  projects  due 
to  the  economic  offensive  against  him  by  the  Corn- 
inform  states.  All  local  projects  were  to  be  sacri- 
ficed for  tiie  benefit  of  the  main  target  which  was 
to  industrialize  the  country. 

Foreign  Trade.  Main  imports:  cotton  (raw),  COt- 
ton  yarns,  and  textiles;  iron  and  manufactures 
thereof;  wool,  wool  yarns,  and  cloths;  machinery; 
vehicles;  electrical  apparatus;  coal;  crude  and  lu- 
bricating oils;  silk,  silk  yarns,  and  manufactures 
thereof;  synthetic  organic  dyes.  Exports:  timber, 
copper  and  various  ores,  livestock,  wheat,  meat, 
hemp,  fresh  fruit,  eggs,  lard,  dried  prunes,  hops, 
corn,  tobacco.  But  the  prewar  trades*  trends 
changed  by  the  "Iron  Curtain"  situation. 

Finance.  Unit  is  the  dinar;  one  dinar  equals  26.5 
milligrams  of  gold.  The  1947  revenue  totalled  97,- 
631  million  dinars,  and  expenditure  85,976  million 
dinars.  The  estimated  1948  budget  of  124,841.3 
million  dinars,  allowed  for  an  expenditure  of  54.3 
percent  above  the  1947  revenue.  The  army  esti- 
mates, which  in  1947  amounted  to  13,550  million 
dinars,  were  raised  to  15,500  million  dinars  in 
1948. 

Transportation.  In  1939  there  were  6,655  miles 
of  railways  and  20,906  miles  of  highways.  On  Oct. 
26,  1948,  Belgrade's  radio  announced  that  in  the 
postwar  period  over  1,041  km.  of  railway  lines  had 
been  constructed  and  4,350  km.  repaired.  Lack  of 
transport  constituted  the  main  bottleneck  in  the 
development  of  Yugoslavia's  economy;  roadbeds 
are  poor  and  rolling  stock  is  worse.  All  railroad  fa- 
cilities are  heavily  overtaxed  by  the  movement  of 
equipment,  supplies,  materials,  and  manpower  re- 
quired by  the  5- Year  plan.  The  Danube  is  the  most 
important  artery  of  the  total  length  of  26,687  miles 
of  waterways. 


YUGOSIAVIA 


650 


YUGOSL4VM 


Government.  The  Constitution  of  Sept.  3,  1931, 
was  replaced  by  that  of  Nov.  29,  1945,  proclaim- 
ing the  Republic.  On  Jan.  31,  1946,  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  Federal  People's  Republic  of  Yugoslavia 
proclaimed  a  federal  state,  with  supreme  power 
vested  in  a  central  government.  Yugoslavia  has  6 
republics  (Slovenia,  Croatia,  Serbia,  Bosnia-Her- 
zegovina, Montenegro,  and  Macedonia);  each  of 
these  areas  has  its  own  government.  In  addition 
there  is  an  autonomous  province  (Voivodina)  and 
an  autonomous  region  (Kosovo-Metohiya). 

On  Dec.  11,  1948,  the  Yugoslav  Presidium  creat- 
ed two  new  Ministries  (the  Ministry  of  Science  and 
Culture  and  the  Ministry  of  Railways)  in  the  fed- 
eral government  All  legislative  and  administrative 
authority  rests  in  the  National  Assembly,  elected 
every  4  years  and  consisting  of  2  branches  (the 
Federal  House  of  Representatives  and  the  House 
of  Nationalities). 

Events,  1948.  As  during  the  last  several  years, 
Marshal  Tito  continued  to  capture  the  headlines  of 
world  news.  Tito's  defection  from  the  Cominform 
and  subsequent  differences  with  his  neighboring 
pro-Soviet  satellites  were  reflected  in  the  domestic 
situation.  On  November  26,  Tito  announced  that 
the  unfriendliness  of  the  Cominform  states  had 
caused  him  to  modify  his  Five- Year  plan  for  the 
industrialization  of  Yugoslavia.  Despite  internal 
economic  difficulties  and  open  political  hostilities 
from  the  East,  Tito's  government  enjoyed  more  sta- 
bility and  had  less  to  fear  for  its  continuity  than 
did  most  of  the  governments  in  Europe.  Tito 
headed  a  strongly  disciplined  party,  a  strong  army, 
and  strong  security  forces;  he  commanded  a  coun- 
try that  was  well  disciplined  and  loyal  to  him,  and 
he  was  in  possession  of  political  alternatives  that 
gave  him  any  needed  freedom  of  movement. 

Purges.  Nearly  two  months  before  the  Comin- 
form quarrel  came  to  a  head  in  the  anti-Tito  reso- 
lution of  June  27,  Tito  had  taken  measures  to  de- 
capitate the  pro-Soviet  opposition  at  home;  he  had 
removed  from  office  Andrija  Hebrang,  one-time 

Elanning  board  head,  and  Sreten  Zujovic,  who  had 
een  Finance  Minister;  the  elimination  of  these 
elements  neutralized  any  attempt  that  might  have 
been  made  to  organize  opposition  leaders  inside 
the  Yugoslav  Communist  Party.  At  the  same  time, 
Ozna,  the  Yugoslav  security  police,  put  a  close 
watch  on  Soviet  officials.  At  its  Fifth  Congress  in 
July,  Tito  succeeded  in  reorganizing  the  Yugoslav 
Communist  Party  and  expanded  its  Central  Com- 
mittee and  Politburo  to  include  key  men  of  tried 
and  trusted  loyalty. 

The  reorganization  was  followed  by  a  purge 
within  party  ranks.  Nevertheless,  Tito  had  to  ad- 
mit that  the  economic  boycott  by  the  Kremlin's 
satellites  hurt  him;  he  was  short  of  oil  and  other 
basic  commodities  as  a  consequence  of  his  political 
difficulties  with  the  U.S.S.R.  (Since  Tito  launched 
his  Five-Year  plan,  1947-1951,  at  an  estimated 
cost  of  over  278  million  dinars,  it  became  apparent 
that  the  plan  depended  on  Yugoslavia's  foreign 
trade  which,  after  1945,  was  predominantly  in 
U.S.S.R.  hands.) 

Break  with  Stalin.  The  breach  between  Tito  and 
Stalin  had  been  developing  some  6  months  largely 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  West.  Tito  had  to 
slow  down  his  pro-Communist  domestic  policy 
since  the  Five-Year  plan  was  not  doing  well — the 
peasants  were  not  producing  enough  food.  Tito's 
protests  to  Stalin  that  the  U.S.S.R.  had  not  deliv- 
ered the  goods  and  machinery  needed  for  Yugo- 
slavia's Plan  brought  no  results,  Tito  thereupon 
discussed  with  the  American  Ambassador,  Caven- 
dish Cannon,  the  possibility  of  unfreezing  50  mil- 


lion of  Yugoslavia's  gold.  The  Cormnform  quarrel 
came  to  a  head  in  the  anti-Tito  resolution  of 
June  28  (following  the  first  "brotherly  critique"  of 
March  20  from  the  Central  Committee  of  the  All- 
Union  Communist  Party  in  Moscow,  and  then  of 
almost  identical  letters  stressing  the  orthodox  Com- 
munist line,  sent  to  Tito  by  the  Hungarian  Com- 
munists and  all  other  Cominform  parties). 

In  April,  Tito  sent  a  firm  letter  to  Moscow  deny- 
ing all  charges  and  stating  that  his  policies  were 
best  adopted  to  the  present  condition  of  Yugoslavia 
and  that  they  were  not  inconsistent  with  the  doc- 
trine of  Marx  and  Lenin.  (Immediately  thereafter 
Tito  ordered  the  nationalization  of  small  industry 
and  retail  trade.  A  new  grain  tax  was  imposed  on 
independent  peasants  to  force  marginal  farmers  to 
enter  cooperatives — the  Yugoslav  substitute  for  the 
collective  farm, ) 

The  mid- June  issue  of  the  Cominform  bulletin 
attacked  Tito  directly.  Then  a  personal  .message 
was  sent  to  the  Marshal  from  Stalin,  warning  him 
of  his  deviation  from  orthodox  principles  of  land 
nationalization.  Tito  refused  to  send  delegates  to 
the  Bucharest  meeting  of  the  Cominform  (where 
the  headquarters  had  been  transferred  from  Bel- 
grade) and  the  Cominform  adopted  a  resolution 
confirming  Moscow's  accusations.  In  turn,  Tito 
challenged  the  right  of  the  Cominform  to  issue  di- 
rectives to  him. 

Foreign  Relations.  Tito's  stand  helped  to  improve 
his  relations  with  the  West.  He  received  17  Italian 
warships.  On  July  19  the  United  States  unfreezed 
Yugoslavia's  gold  (Yugoslavia  agreed  to  pay  the 
United  States  $17  million  in  settlement  of  Ameri- 
can claims  for  the  nationalization  of  American 
property  in  Yugoslavia,  compensation  for  2  Ameri- 
can transport  planes  shot  down  in  August,  1946, 
and  settlement  of  lend-lease  and  pre-UNRRA  ac- 
counts). Although  Prague-Belgrade  relations  also 
cooled  off  due  to  the  Cominform  troubles,  a  trade 
agreement  was  signed  on  May  24  (to  run  up  to 
Dec.  31,  1948).  The  Czechoslovak-Yugoslav  talks 
for  a  trade  pact,  held  at  Belgrade  in  December, 
for  the  purpose  of  renewing  an  annual  trade  treaty, 
collapsed. 

After  July  1,  Tito  sent  several  notes  to  Albania 
protesting  against  "provocative  acts,"  and  on 
July  3,  Albania  broke  off  economic  relations  with 
Yugoslavia.  Tito  had  several  arguments  with  Hun- 
gary. In  the  case  of  Bulgaria,  the  old  problem  o£ 
Macedonia  reappeared,  Yugoslavia  accusing  Sofia 
of  "aggressive  nationalism."  That  Tito's  regime  did 
not  defect  fully  from  Moscow's  camp  was  evident 
at  the  international  conferences  where  Tito's 
spokesmen  reaffirmed  in  the  strongest  language 
that  the  country  was  an  ally  of  the  U.S.S.R.  Fre- 
quent Yugoslav-Greek  border  clashes  occurred;  in 
fact,  a  United  Nations'  Assembly  resolution  stated 
that  the  "continued  aid  given  by  Albania,  Bulgaria, 
and  Yugoslavia  to  the  Greek  guerrillas  endangered 
peace  in  the  Balkans."  See  UNITED  NATIONS. 

The  Danube  Conference  (q.v.),  held  in  Bel- 
grade, July  20-August  18,  adopted  a  new  Danube 
Convention  legalizing  "the  Danube  for  the  Dan- 
ubians"  under  Soviet  leadership. 

On  December  23,  three  agreements,  believed 
designed  to  help  Yugoslavia  insure  against  an  eco- 
nomic boycott  by  the  satellite  states,  were  signed 
with  Great  Britain.  They  covered  compensation 
for  nationalized  and  expropriated  British  property 
in  Yugoslavia,  a  short-term  trade  pact,  and  a  money 
and  property  agreement.  Yugoslavia  was  to  export 
timber,  wood  products,  and  some  foodstuffs;  Great 
Britain  was  to  send  textiles,  raw  materials,  crude 
oil,  chemicals,  and  machinery  to  Yugoslavia.  These 


YUKON 


651 


ZOOLOGY 


commodities  are  important  to  Yugoslavia's  Five- 
Year  plan  of  industrialization  and  will  also  aid  the 
nation  in  its  economic  defense  against  boycotting 
actions  by  the  Soviet  bloc. — JOSEPH  S.  ROUGHS: 

YUKON.  A  territory  in  northwestern  Canada  extend- 
ing over  an  area  of  207,076  square  miles;  including 
1,730  square  miles  of  fresh  water.  Population  (1941 
census):  4,914;  (1948  est)  8,000.  Chief  towns: 
Dawson  (capital)  1,043  inhabitants  in  1941, 
Whitehorse  754. 

Production.  Mining  is  the  chief  industry,  the  out- 
put for  1946  being  valued  at  $1,693,904  of  which 
gold  (45,286  fine  oz.)  accounted  for  $1,664,260 
and  silver  (31,230  fine  oz.)  for  $26,124).  Final 
figures  on  1947  mineral  production  show  a  total 
value  of  $2,095,508,  of  which  gold  (47,641  fine 
oz.)  amounted  to  $1,667,435  and  silver  (372,051 
fine  oz.)  to  $267,877.  Fur  pelts  taken  in  the  season 
1946-47  numbered  58,777  valued  at  $373,176. 
White  spruce  has  commercial  importance;  other 
forest  trees  are  pine,  balsam,  poplar,  cotfconwood, 
and  birch. 

The  amount  of  fish  landed  was  265  cwt,  valued 
at  $5,014.  The  Alaska  Highway  (British  Columbia 
to  Alaska)  passes  through  the  southern  part  of  the 
territory.  There  are  58  miles  of  railway,  and  sev- 
eral landing  fields  for  aircraft.  The  Yukon  River 
(1,437  miles  long)  is  an  important  means  of  com- 
munication from  the  coast  to  the  interior.  Finance 
(1946-47):  revenue  $1,270,594;  expenditure  $1,- 
158,628. 

Government.  The  Yukon  is  governed  by  a  con- 
troller and  a  territorial  council  of  three  elected 
members.  A  member  elected  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons represents  the  territory  in  the  Federal  Parlia- 
ment at  Ottawa.  Commissioner:  J,  E.  Gibben,  K.C. 
See  CANADA. 

ZANZIBAR.  A  British  protectorate  consisting  of  the 
islands  of  Zanzibar  (640  sq.  mi,)  and  Pemba  (380 
sq.  mi.),  off  the  East  coast  of  Africa.  Total  area, 
1,020  square  miles.  Population  (1945  estimate), 
250,000,  of  which  Zanzibar  has  150,000,  Pemba, 
100,000.  Capital,  Zanzibar  (45,276),  one  of  the 
finest  ports  in  Africa. 

Production  and  Trade.  Cloves,  the  most  important 
industry  of  the  islands,  occupies  about  48,000  acres 
and  furnishes  about  82  percent  of  the  world  sup- 
ply. A  total  of  310,258  cwt,  valued  at  £1,159,322 
was  exported  in  1946.  Production  of  clove  oil  in 
the  same  year  amounted  to  410,677  lb.,  valued  at 
£83,784.  The  coconut  industry  ranks  next  in  im- 
portance, there  being  about  57,000  acres  under 
cultivation,  Export  of  domestic  copra  in  1946 
amounted  to  8,035  long  tons,  valued  at  £204,110. 
Rice  and  tropical  fruits  are  also  grown.  The  exports 
for  1946  totaled  £2,163,886,  imports,  £1,977,996. 
Chief  imports  are  textiles,  tobacco,  petroleum, 
foodstuffs,  and  cattle. 

Government.  The  estimated  1947  revenue  was 
£824,793;  expenditure,  £956,753.  The  protector- 
ate is  administered  by  a  British  Resident  who  pre- 
sides over  the  Legislative  Council,  established  in 
1926,  The  Sultan,  Seyyid  Sir  Khalifa  bin  Harub, 
who  succeeded  to  the  sultanate  in  1911,  presides 
over  the  Executive  Council  and  retains  considerable 
authority.  British  resident,  Sir  Vincent  G.  Glenday 
(appointed  Mar.  3,  1946). 

ZINC,  Domestic  consumption  of  zinc  established  a 
peacetime  record  in  1948,  806,000  net  tons  of  slab 
zinc  (1947:  780,675  tons),  despite  important  in- 
creases in  price  during  the  year  that  brought  Prime 
Western  grade,  East  St  Louis,  to  17.50  cents  per 


lb.  from  10.50  cents  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 
Demand  for  galvanizing  was  heaviest,  taking  45 
percent  of  the  total;  die  castings  took  29  percent; 
brass  products  took  13  percent,  but  this  industry 
also  consumed  heavy  tonnages  of  scrap. 

Domestic  mine  production  dropped  to  approx- 
imately 618,000  net  tons  in  1948  due  to  strikes  in 
several  production  areas  (1947:  637,608  tons). 
There  was  an  important  decline  in  the  production 
of  the  Tri-State  District  (Kansas,  Missouri  and 
Oklahoma)  due  to  a  two-month  strike.  Production 
of  the  western  States  increased  some,  but  this  was 
offset  in  part  by  lower  production  in  States  east  of 
the  Mississippi. 

Imports  of  slab  zinc  increased  about  30  percent 
over  1947,  and  came  principally  from  Canada.  Im- 
ports for  the  first  eleven  months  of  1948  totaled 
84,519  tons  (year  1947:  72,312  tons).  Imports  of 
zinc  ore  declined  about  10  percent  from  1947, 
242,371  tons  (zinc  content)  in  the  first  eleven 
months  of  1948  (year  1947:  297,959  tons).  Mexico 
was  the  principal  source  of  the  ore  imports,  ship- 
ping about  50  percent  of  total  receipts  by  the  Unit- 
ed States,  but  this  tonnage  was  well  below  1947 
shipments.  Canada  was  second  with  about  20  per- 
cent of  the  total.  Receipts  from  Peru,  less  than  10 
percent,  were  only  half  as  large  as  in  1947. 

Consumers  were  hard  pressed  to  obtain  enough 
zinc  to  keep  their  plants  in  operation  throughout 
the  last  half  of  the  year.  At  year  end,  the  shortage 
of  zinc  was  generally  conceded  to  be  more  acute 
than  that  of  any  other  nonf errous  metal.  In  the  first 
three  quarters  it  had  been  possible  for  consumers  to 
supplement  purchases  from  producers  with  ship- 
ments from  a  small  stock  held  by  the  Office  of 
Metals  Reserve.  But  with  the  transfer  of  this  metal 
to  the  strategic  stockpile,  this  was  no  longer  pos- 
sible. The  United  States  government  was  reported 
to  be  carrying  a  stockpile  of  about  250,000  tons  of 
slab  zinc  and  about  175,000  tons  of  zinc  in  concen- 
trates. The  present  Munitions  Board  procurement 
program  calls  for  shipments  of  about  5,000  tons  a 
month  until  the  middle  of  1949. 

World  smelter  production  of  slab  zinc  was  ap- 
proximately 1.6  million  net  tons,  excluding  the 
U.S.S.R.  and  Japan  (1947:  1,545,532  tons).  The 
United  States  was  the  leading  producer  with  about 
845,000  tons  (1947:  861,245  tons).  Canada  was 
second,  185,000  tons;  Belgium,  166,000  tons;  Po- 
land, 96,000  tons;  Australia,  92,000  tons;  Great 
Britain,  81,000  tons;  France,  62,000  tons;  Mexico, 
56,000  tons;  Rhodesia,  25,000  tons.  There  were 
gains  in  the  smelter  production  of  all  countries  ex- 
cept the  United  States.  — JOHN  ANTHONY 

ZOOLOGY,  The  thirteenth  International  Congress  of 
Zoology,  the  first  to  be  held  since  before  the  war, 
met  in  Paris  in  July,  1948,  with  good  representa- 
tion of  zoologists  from  most  parts  of  the  world. 
Papers  covering  many  fields  of  zoology  were  pre- 
sented and  published  in  summary  form.  Symposia 
were  held  on  animal  pigments,  sex  determination 
and  evolutionary  mechanisms.  The  committee  on 
zoological  nomenclature  adopted  a  number  of  pro- 
posals designed  to  make  scientific  names  more 
stable.  Official  lists  of  generic  and  specific  names 
are  to  be  proposed  and  once  adopted  will  not  be 
subject  to  change.  Hemming  (Nature,  162:708) 
summarized  the  work  of  this  committee. 

A  list  of  the  phyla,  classes  and  orders  of  the 
animal  kingdom  was  prepared  by  a  committee  for 
the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  (Duke  Univ.  Press).  Unfortunately  it  con- 
tains several  errors. 

Ecology;  Evolution.  In  1883  all  life  on  the  island 


ZOOLOGY 


652 


ZO01OGY 


of  Krakatau  in  the  East  Indies  was  destroyed  by 
a  tremendous  volcanic  explosion.  After  a  few  years 
animals  and  plants  began  to  reestablish  themselves 
and  now  hundreds  of  kinds  are  present.  This  trans- 
formation has  been  studied  over  the  years  by  a 
number  of  Dutch  scientists  with  important  results 
for  evolution,  dispersal  and  ecology.  The  original 
data  and  conclusions  are  summarized  in  a  large 
volume  by  Dammerman  (Trans.  Netherlands  Royal 
Acad.), 

A  volume  by  Hatt  and  collaborators  on  the  life 
of  islands  in  Lake  Michigan  (Cranbrook  Inst. 
Science,  Bull  27)  reveals  that  the  same  evolution- 
ary and  dispersal  factors  responsible  for  the  pe- 
culiar fauna  of  older  and  more  isolated  oceanic 
islands  are  at  work.  Change  in  habit  in  response 
to  the  narrower  insular  environment,  the  first  step 
in  evolutionary  modification,  is  often  noticeable 
as  in  the  voles  (Microtus) ,  confined  to  meadows 
on  the  mainland  but  swarming  through  the  forest 
on  the  islands,  or  the  peepers  (Hyla  crucifer) 
which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  shallow  water  of  the 
kke  edge  on  the  islands  where  ponds  of  the  type 
frequented  by  this  frog  on  the  mainland  are  lack- 
ing. 

Fonnosov  presented  an  important  study  of  the 
ecological  importance  of  snow  in  the  lives  of  birds 
and  mammals  (Moscow,  Russian  with  French 
summary).  The  important  and  puzzling  cyclic  fluc- 
tuations in  the  populations  of  northern  animals 
were  extensively  analyzed  by  Siivonen  (Helsinki, 
Papery  on  Game-research,  I ) . 

Genetics.  Volume  2  of  Advances  in  Genetics  (Aca- 
demic Press)  contains,  among  others,  important 
papers  by  Heston  on  the  genetics  of  cancer,  by 
Mayr  on  the  genetical  nature  of  species,  by  Catche- 
side  on  the  genetic  effects  of  radiation,  and  by 
Dahlberg  on  human  genetics.  The  last  named  au- 
thor also  published  a  book,  Mathematical  Methods 
for  Population  Genetics  ( Interscience  Press).  An 
important  review  volume  Animal  Genetics  and 
Medicine  by  Gruneberg  appeared  (Paul  B.  Hoeber, 
Inc.,  1947).  A  new  British  journal  Heredity  con- 
tains a  bibliography  of  German  publications  on 
genetics  during  the  war  and  a  criticism  of  the  often 
mentioned  "Sewall  Wright  effect"  in  genetics  by 
Fisher  and  Ford,  among  other  contributions. 

Anatomy;  Embryology;  Physiology.  Several  impor- 
tant studies  of  the  vertebrate  brain  were  published. 
Edinger's  pioneering  work  on  the  evolution  of  the 
brain  in  tie  horse  (as  revealed  by  fossil  brain- 
casts)  shows  that  the  primitive  Eocene  horses  had 
brains  that  were  almost  at  the  reptilian  level  ( Geo- 
logical Soc.  Amer. ) .  A  monograph  on  the  brain  of 
the  tiger  salamander  (Ambystoma)  by  Herrick 
(Chicago  Univ.  Press)  contains  "the  distilled  wis- 
dom of  one  of  the  keenest  minds  ever  to  study  the 
organization  of  the  nervous  system  as  an  approach 
to  the  problems  of  behavior." 

O.  Larsell  published  an  important  study  of  the 
cerebellum  in  birds  (Jour.  Corny.  Neurology), 
while  in  Denmark  volume  4  of  Krabbe's  treatises 
on  the  morphogenesis  of  the  mammalian  brain  was 
brought  out.  A  copiously  illustrated  text  of  com- 
parative anatomy,  very  up  to  date  in  its  treatment 
of  evolution  and  allied  subjects,  was  written  in 
Switzerland  by  Portmann  (Benno  Schwabe,  Basel). 

The  New  York  Academy  of  Sciences  published 
a  significant  study  of  mechanisms  of  embryonic 
development,  the  results  of  a  symposium.  Guyenot 
and  others  cooperated  in  a  major  contribution  to 
knowledge  of  innervation  and  regeneration  in  the 
forelimb  of  the  salamander  (Rev.  Suisse  Zool,  55), 

G.  H.  Parker  summarized  his  lifelong  interest 
in  color  transformations  in  an  excellent  treatise 


Animal  Colour  Changes  (Cambridge  Press).  An- 
other monograph  combining  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology is  The  Avian  Egg  by  Romanoff  and  Romanoff 
(John  Wiley).  . 

H.  M.  Evans  and  colleagues  wrote  a  series  or 
papers  on  pituitary-induced  gigantism  in  rats  and 
its  corollaries  (Growth,  12).  Riddle's^  extensive 
studies  of  endocrines  and  constitution  in  pigeons 
and  doves  (Carnegie  Inst  Washington)  contain  a 
wealth  of  valuable  experimental  data  bearing  on 

fenetics,  physiology  and  anatomy.  Another  volume 
y  Riddle  and  his  associates  relates  to  the  metabo- 
lism of  carbohydrates  and  fats  in  the  pigeon  ( Car- 
negie Inst.  Washington,  1947).  It  will  be  a  valu- 
able reference  on  the  basic  physiology  of  the  bird. 
A  comprehensive  text,  General  Endocrinology,  by 
Turner  was  brought  out  (G.  B.  Saunders). 

A  bibliography  of  about  4,000  entries  on  animal 
venoms  by  Harmon  and  Pollard  (Univ.  Florida 
Press)  will  be  of  as  much  interest  to  zoologists  as 
to  physicians. 

Animal  behavior.  In  Hormones  and  Behavior,  a 
review  volume  by  Beach,  we  have  the  "first  com- 
plete survey  ever  made  of  present  knowledge  re- 
garding the  influence  of  hormones  on  animal  and 
human  behavior."  The  school  of  animal  behavior 
founded  in  Austria  by  Lorenz,  particularly  his  con- 
cept of  "releasers,"  was  expounded  with  numerous 
striking  illustrations  by  his  follower  Tinbergen 
(Wilson  Bull,  60). 

Von  Frisch's  remarkable  studies  of  the  dances  of 
the  honeybee,  brought  out  obscurely  in  Austria 
during  the  war,  were  translated  and  published  in 
English  (Jour.  Animal  Behavior,  1947).  He  found 
that  a  bee  which  has  discovered  a  source  of  honey 
can  reveal  its  distance  and  direction  to  other  bees 
by  means  of  these  "dances.**  A  summary  of  present 
understanding  of  the  concept  "instinct*  by  Thorpe 
will  be  of  value  (Bull.  Animal  Behavior,  7).  Breoer 
(Bull  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  92)  has  described 
the  behavior  and  adaptations  of  certain  tide  pool 
fishes  of  the  Bahamas. 

Bird  Display  and  Behavior  by  Armstrong  pro- 
vides an  inclusive,  if  somewhat  uncritical,  summary 
of  this  field,  with  an  extensive  bibliography  (Lon- 
don: Lindsay,  Drummond). 

The  perplexing  question  as  to  how  birds  find 
their  way  home  when  removed  to  a  distance,  and 
how  they  find  their  goal  when  migrating,  received 
extended,  if  somewhat  inconclusive,  discussion. 
Yeagley  (Jour.  Applied  Physics,  18)  suggested 
that  birds  detect  latitude  by  sensitivity  to  the  in- 
clination of  magnetic  lines  of  force,  and  longitude 
by  detecting  the  Coriolis  force  due  to  the  rotation 
of  the  earth.  Yeagley's  work  has  been  much  criti- 
cized both  from  a  theoretical  and  experimental 
point  of  view.  It  seems  virtually  certain  that  the 
forces  he  would  invoke  are  too  slight  and  too  much 
cloaked  by  other  forces  to  be  of  service  to  birds. 
This  is  best  brought  out  in  a  symposium  held  in 
England  (Nature,  June  26,  1948). 

Meanwhile  Griffin  and  Hock  (Science,  107)  re- 
leased gannets  (Morus  bassanus),  a  coastal  bird, 
inland  at  a  distance  from  their  nests  and  followed 
them  in  an  airplane.  They  seemed  to. seek  home 
solely  by  circuitous  wandering  until  the  coast,  with 
which  they  were  familiar,  was  reached.  The  hom- 
ing feats  of  certain  other  species  of  birds,  however, 
make  it  unlikely  that  all  homing  in  strange  terri- 
tory has  its  basis  in  trial  and  error. 

Invertebrates.  The  first  volume  of  the  Annual  Re- 
view  of  Microbiology  ( Stanford  Univ.,  1947;  C.  E. 
Clifton,  editor)  summarizes  recent  studies  of  pro- 
tozoa. A  fully  annotated  bibliography  on  oysters 
by  Baughman  appeared  (Texas  A.  and  M.  Col- 


zooiocr 


653 


ZOOLOGY 


lege).  Extensive  studies  of  the  Coelenterata  of 
Belgium  by  Leloup  and  of  the  freshwater  and  ter- 
restrial molluscs  of  Belgium  by  Adam  were  issued 
by  the  Royal  Natural  History  Museum  of  Belgium. 
Oughton  completed  a  study  of  the  zoogeography 
of  the  land  snails  of  Ontario  (Univ.  Toronto  Press). 

Kaston's  large  and  well  illustrated  work  Spiders 
of  Connecticut  (State  of  Conn.)  will  be  of  value 
far  beyond  the  confines  of  this  State.  Bryant  wrote 
on  the  spiders  of  Hispaniola  (Bull.  Mus.  Comp. 
ZooL,  100),  while  Snodgrass  completed  a  valu- 
able anatomical  study  of  the  feeoting  organs  of 
arachnids. 

The  Songs  of  Insects  by  G.  W.  Pierce  (Harvard 
Univ.  Press)  is  by  an  author  who  is  primarily  a 
physicist.  The  result  is  a  model  investigation  of 
this  fascinating  subject.  Of  papers  on  a  particular 
group  of  insects,  Uvarov's  reviews  of  the  literature 
on  the  economically  important  Acrididae  ( locusts ) 
may  be  mentioned  (Trans.  Royal  Ent.  Soc.  Lon- 
don, 99;  and  British  Mus.  PubL). 

DeLong  monographed  the  Cicadeltidae  (leaf- 
hoppers),  another  group  of  agricultural  pests 
(Bull  Illinois  Nat.  Hist.  Sur.,  24),  while  Braun 
wrote  extensively  on  the  Microlepidoptera  (Memoir 
Amer.  Entom.  Soc.).  The  aquatic  beetles  of  the 
family  Corixidae  were  treated  at  length  by  Hun- 
gerford  and  Sailer  (Univ.  Kansas  Press).  Vaurie 
reviewed  the  North  American  members  of  another 
family  of  beetles,  the  Languriidae  (Bull.  Amer. 
Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  92). 

Of  more  biological  interest  is  Nielsen's  study  of 
the  development  and  biology  of  the  caddis  flies 
(Hydroptilidae)  (Danish  Royal  Soc.  BioL,  5).  The 
anopheline  mosquitoes  of  South  Africa  were  the 
subject  of  a  book  by  De  Meillon  (S.  African  Inst. 
Med.  Res.,  1947).  Of  medical  importance  as  vec- 
tors of  malaria,  these  mosquitoes  also  present  many 
problems  to  the  student  of  speciation. 

Zimmerman's  Insects  of  Hawaii,  of  which  five 
of  ten  proposed  volumes  appeared,  is  the  most  im- 
portant regional  work  of  the  year  in  entomology. 
The  first  volume  is  devoted  to  a  description  and 
analysis  of  the  evolutionary  peculiarities  of  the 
Hawaiian  fauna,  of  which  the  insects  provide  many 
examples.  The  Institute  of  National  Parks  in  Bel- 
gium published  more  in  the  series  of  technical 
monographs  on  the  natural  history  of  Albert  Park, 
Belgian  Congo,  the  latest  dealing  with  various 
families  of  insects. 

Cold  blooded  vertebrates.  A  notable  review  of  the 
distribution  of  cold  blooded  vertebrates  by  Dar- 
lington (Quart.  Rev.  BioL,  23)  makes  tropical 
Asia  an  important  evolutionary  center  for  this 
group.  Berg's  important  classification  of  fishes,  hith- 
erto available  only  in  Russian,  was  published  in 
English  (J.  W.  Edwards,  Ann  Arbor).  Schultz' 
The  Ways  of  Fishes  ( Van  Nostrand ) ,  though  pop- 
ular in  approach,  contains  much  information  and 
a  classification.  A  completely  revised  edition  of 
Hubb's  and  Lagler's  valuable  Fishes  of  the  Great 
Lakes  Region  was  issued  ( Cranbrook  Inst.  Science, 
1947).  Miller  continued  his  studies  of  the  distri- 
bution and  evolution  of  fishes  in  the  isolated 
springs  of  the  Great  Basin  desert  and  Death  Valley 
( Univ.  Michigan  Publ.  Zoology ) , 

The  first  general  review  of  the  biology  of  the 
amphibians  in  many  years  was  written  by  Angel 
(Payot,  Paris,  1947).  Pickwell's  Amphibians  and 
Reptiles  of  the  Pacific  States  (Stanford  Univ.  Press) 
is  a  popular  but  well  illustrated  and  informative 
volume.  Continuing  their  work  on  the  Mexican 
fauna,  Smith  and  Taylor  published  a  check-list 
and  key  to  the  amphibia  of  Mexico. 

The  reptiles  and  amphibians   of  New  Guinea 


were  the  subject  of  an  extensive  paper  by  Love- 
ridge  (Bull  Mus.  Comp.  ZooL,  101).  De  Witte 
and  Laurent  published  complete  taxonomic  revi- 
sions of  some  of  the  Colubrine  snakes  of  Africa 
(Royal  Belgian  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  1947). 

Birds.  Older  beliefs  that  birds  hibernate  are  con- 
sidered myths,  yet  Jaeger  has  now  shown  that  the 
poor-will  (Phalaenoptilus),  a  species  of  nightjar, 
may  spend  days  or  weeks  of  inclement  weather 
during  the  winter  in  a  hibernation-like,  comatose 
condition  (Condor,  50).  Cott  (Proc.  ZooL  Soc. 
London,  116)  found  that  the  flesh  o£  brightly  col- 
ored or  conspicuous  birds  is  less  palatable  to  flesh 
eaters,  including  man,  than  is  that  of  dull-colored 
birds.  The  bright  colors  of  the  former  group,  there- 
fore, are  believed  to  have  the  function  of  warning 
potential  enemies. 

Volume  6  of  Peter's  Check-list  of  Birds  of  the 
World,  treating  the  woodpeckers  and  allied  fami- 
lies, appeared  (Harvard  Univ.  Press).  Another  val- 
uable reference  work,  Catalogue  of  Birds  of  the 
Americas,  neared  completion  with  the  publication 
of  a  volume  by  Hellmayr  and  Conover  on  the  wa- 
terbirds  (Chicago  Natural  Hist.  Mus.).  Bent's  great 
series  on  the  life  histories  of  North  American  birds 
reached  16  volumes  with  the  appearance  of  one 
covering  the  wrens  and  related  groups  (U.S.  Nat. 
Mus.,  Bull.  195). 

Among  works  pertaining  to  more  limited  areas 
may  be  mentioned  Bailey's  excellently  illustrated 
Birds  of  Arctic  Alaska  (Colorado  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.). 
Bond's  volume  on  the  birds  of  the  West  Indies 
deals  with  a  remarkable  insular  fauna,  notable  for 
the  high  percentage  of  species  that  have  become 
extinct  (Macmillan,  1947).  Van  Bemmel's  list  of 
birds  of  the  Molucca  Islands  (Treubia,  19)  com- 
plements recent  lists  of  birds  of  most  of  the  adja- 
cent island  groups.  A  monographic  study.  The 
Ruffed  Grouse,  by  Bump  and  collaborators  is  one 
of  the  most  exhaustive  studies  ever  made  of  a  game 
bird  (N.Y.  Conservation  Comm.). 

O.L.  Austin,  Jr.,  in  charge  of  conservation  for 
the  military  government  in  Japan,  published  a 
carefully  annotated  list  of  Japanese  publications  on 
birds  and  mammals  during  the  war  (U.S.  Fish  and 
Wildlife  Serv.,  Tech.  Leaflet  305).  Among  the  im- 
portant works  by  Japanese  scientists,  many  of  them 
Eublished  in  English,  may  be  mentioned  Kuroda's 
ibliography  of  the  duck  tribe,  Yamashina's  stuolies 
of  the  chromosomes  of  birds  and  hybrid  sterility, 
and  a  study  of  the  physiology  of  molt  in  the  canary 
by  Kiyochi  and  Hideshi.  Austin  himself  contribT 
uted  a  valuable  volume  on  the  birds  of  Korea 
(BulL  Mus.  Comp.  ZooL,  101). 

Mammals.  Among  regional  works  Rand's  account 
of  the  mammals  of  Alberta,  Canada  (Canad.  Nat. 
Mus.),  Dalquest's  Mammals  of  Washington  (Univ. 
Kansas  Publ. ) ,  and  Handley  and  Patton's  report  on 
the  mammals  of  Virginia  (Va,  Comm.  Game,  1947) 
deal  with  portions  of  North  America.  The  unique 
mammalian  fauna  of  Australia  was  reviewed  in  an 
informative,  semi-popular  volume,  Furred  Animals 
of  Australia  (Scribners,  1947). 

The  earliest  fossil  mammals  of  South  America, 
of  interest  because  of  their  peculiar  evolutionary 
history  during  the  long  geological  isolation  of  that 
continent,  were  the  subject  of  the  first  of  a  pro- 
jected series  of  volumes  by  Simpson  (BulL  Amer. 
Mus.  Nat.  Hist. ) .  The  same  journal  published  fur- 
ther results  of  Tate's  studies  of  the  anatomy  and 
taxonomy  of  the  marsupials,  and  a  revision  of  the 
fossil  bison  of  Alaska  by  Skinner  and  Kaisen. 

The  American  pronghorn  antelope,  of  interest  as 
a  game  species  and  as  the  only  surviving  member 
of  its  family,  is  the  subject  of  a  book  by  Einarsen 


ZOOIOGY 


654 


zootoor 


(Wildlife  Management  Inst).  The  whales  and 
dolphins  of  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States  are 
discussed  in  an  excellently  illustrated  article  by 
Scheffer  and  Slipp  (Amer.  Midland  Naturalist, 
39).  Other  important  studies  of  marine  mammals 
are  listed  by  Austin  in  the  bibliography  of  Japa- 
nese publications  mentioned  above,  along  with 
other  works  of  interest  on  the  mammals  of  eastern 
Asia. 

Anthropology.  A  memorial  volume  presented  to 
the  veteran  South  African  anthropologist,  Robert 
Broorn,  contains  several  articles  by  recognized  au- 
thorities on  Australopithecus  and  the  other  "ape- 
men"  known  from  African  fossil  material  (Royal 
Soc.  South  Africa).  Later  in  the  year  Dr.  Broom, 


in  cooperation  with  scientists  from  the  United 
States,  discovered  a  new  fossil  man  in  Africa  of 
much  larger  size  than  any  hitherto  known  from 
that  continent.  It  may  be  related  to  the  giant  fossil 
pre-human  types  known  from  Java  and  southern 
China. 

Another  African  discovery,  this  by  a  British  ex- 
pedition, was  of  a  skull  of  the  Miocene  ape,  Pro- 
consul,  previously  known  from  fragments  only.  It 
lacked  the  pronounced  ridges  above  the  eyes  char- 
acteristic of  living  anthropoid  apes,  such  as  the 
gorilla,  and  thus  may  have  been  an  evolutionary 
point  of  departure  for  some  of  the  earlier  pre- 
human types  in  which  such  ridges  tend  also  to  be 
inconspicuous.  — DEAN  AMADON 


GLOSSARY 


GLOSSARY 

OF   IMPORTANT   NEW   WORDS   AND   WORDS   IN   THE   NEWS 
Compiled  by  HAROLD  WARD 


aoglobulin.  A  protein  discovered  in  1944  by  a  Nor- 
wegian physician  and  now  known  to  be  associ- 
ated with  four  other  factors  in  the  blood-clotting 
process,  serving  especially  to  accelerate  the  pro- 
duction of  prothrombin. 

Aero-theater.  An  art  form  which  combines  dramatic 
performances  with  acrobatics  and  strenuous 
physical  display.  Established  in  Chicago  in  1947 
by  Erwin  F.  Beyer,  Gymnastic  Coach  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago. 

airdrop.  To  drop  supplies  by  parachute  from  an  air- 
plane; by  extension,  the  delivering  of  supplies  in 
this  manner  and  the  supplies  themselves. 

airfreighter.  An  airplane  designed  to  carry  heavy 
freight. 

airlift.  The  operation  of  transporting  foodstuffs  and 
other  consumer  goods  into  Berlin  by  airplane;  or- 
ganized under  American  initiative  during  the 
land  transport  blockade  imposed  by  the  U.S.S.R. 
in  1948. 

airtiilery.  Air  artillery;  especially  with  reference  to 
the  long-range  guided  missiles  which  it  is  be- 
lieved will  replace  bombers  and  heavy  guns  in 
future  wars. 

Americanocracy.  Economic  and  political  domination 
of  a  country  by  the  United  States.  Term  attrib- 
uted to  Niklas  Zachariades,  Secretary  of  the 
Greek  Communist  Party,  in  an  attack  upon 
American  intervention  in  Greece. 

aminopterin.  A  synthetic  drug  under  investigation  in 
the  treatment  of  acute  leukemia  in  children. 
Chemical  name,  4-aminopteroyl-glutamic  acid. 

Anacom.  An  electrically  operated  analytic  comput- 
ing machine  designed  to  solve  complex  mathe- 
matical problems  pertaining  to  electrical  circuits, 
hydraulics,  thermodynamics,  and  various  types 
of  machinery. 

anhydrovitamin  A.  A  substance  obtained  by  treating 
vitamin  A  with  an  acid  to  remove  its  water  con- 
tent; it  has  an  action  similar  to  but  very  much 
weaker  than  that  of  vitamin  A  but  its  function  is 
not  yet  clearly  understood. 

Antrycide.  Trade  mark  of  a  synthetic  crystalline 
compound  developed  by  British  scientists  in  the 
search  for  a  drug  effective  against  trypanosomi- 
asis  in  cattle,  especially  in  tropical  Africa.  It  is 
derived  from  a  group  of  organic  compounds 
chemically  designated  as  the  4-amino~6- ( 2'-ami- 
no-6/-methylpyrimidyl-4'r-amino )  quinaldine- 1 : 
I'-dimetho  salts,  all  of  which  were  found  to  have 
trypanocidal  properties  against  laboratory  infec- 
tions. 

APF.  Animal  protein  factor.  See  VITAMIN  B-12. 

aquametry.  Quantitative  chemical  analysis  applied 
to  reactions  involving  water. 

atomic  clock.  A  high-precision  instrument  for  the 
measurement  of  time  by  a  constant  frequency 
derived  from  a  microwave  absorption  line  in  the 
spectrum  of  ammonia  gas  or  other  suitable  vi- 
brator. Developed  in  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards and  believed  to  have  a  potential  accuracy  of 
one  part  in  as  high  as  10  billion. 

cjureomycin.  An  antibiotic  extracted  from  a  mold 
fungus  (Streptomyces  aureofaciens) ,  differing 
from  penicillin  and  streptomycin  in  having  a 
specific  effect  on  viruses;  so  called  from  its  gold- 
en color.  Isolated  by  Dr.  B.  M.  Duggar  and  as- 
sociates. 


657 


autotronic.  Describing  a  system  for  the  automatic, 
electronically  controlled  operation  of  banks  of 
elevators  in  office  buildings;  designed  especially 
to  relieve  traffic  congestion  during  rush  perioas 
in  accordance  with  signals  which  actuate  prop- 
erly adjusted  electronic  devices. 

avogram.  That  quantity  of  matter  which  is  equal  to 
one  gram  divided  by  Avogadro's  number;  a  term 
proposed  by  a  group  of  American  chemistry 
teachers. 

baciHomycin.  An  antibiotic  isolated  from  a  soil  micro- 
organism (Bacillus  subtilis),  found  to  be  effec- 
tive against  certain  fungi,  especially  that  causing 
athlete's  foot. 

balladromic.  Traversing  a  direct  course;  heading  to 
hit  the  target;  said  of  guided  missiles. 

bepo.  A  British  experimental  pile,  slightly  larger 
than  the  gleep  and  also  located  at  Harwell;  used 
in  research  on  atomic  energy.  Its  power  rating  is 
about  6,000  kilowatts. 

biblicphenom.  A  person  with  a  phenomenal  knowl- 
edge of  books,  authors,  publishers,  editions,  and 
related  topics;  used  humorously  by  Bennett  Cerf 
in  description  of  a  New  York  dealer  in  rare 
books. 

biobibliography.  A  combination  of  biographic  and 
bibliographic  information;  a  commemorative  or 
memorial  bibliography. 

bisocicition.  A  state  of  conflict  between  two  contrast- 
ing or  hostile  systems  of  thought  occupying  the 
mind  simultaneously  or  in  rapid  alternation. 
Term  used  by  Arthur  Koestler  in  his  book  Insight 
and  Outlook. 

boval.  A  natural  clearing  in  a  forest  due  chiefly  to 
erosion  of  the  soil  overlying  a  ferruginous  crust; 
hence,  bovalization,  the  process  of  forming  such 
an  area,  to  the  detriment  of  soil  fertility. 

brachydrotnic.  Heading  short;  taking  a  deflected  or 
slanting  path  toward  the  target;  said  of  guided 
missiles. 

cctrdiolipin,  A  phosphorus-containing  substance  ex- 
tracted from  beef  heart  and  of  value  in  checking 
blood  tests  for  syphilis  in  persons  who  have  had 
malaria  or  have  been  vaccinated  against  certain 
diseases:  isolated  by  Dr.  Mary  C.  Pangborn  of 
New  York. 

cartophily.  The  collecting  and  appreciation  of  the 
pictorial  cards  formerly  enclosed  in  packages  of 
cigarettes;  hence,  cartophilist,  one  who  collects 
these  cards. 

cenogonaL  Having  one  or  more  angles  in  common; 
applied  especially  to  different  crystals  some  of 
whose  angles  have  identical  values.  Term  pro- 
posed by  A.  F.  Rogers  of  Stanford  University. 

cepharanthine.  A  drug  related  to  quinine;  developed 
by  Japanese  chemists  and  under  investigation  as 
of  possible  value  in  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis. 

channel  wing.  A  type  of  airplane  wing  which  re- 
sembles a  half-section  of  a  cylinder,  curving 
downward  and  having  an  engine  at  the  center  of 
the  arc  connected  with  a  propeller.  It  is  claimed 
that  such  wings  permit  easy  take-off  and  landing. 

chemastery.  A  pedagogical  aid  in  the  teaching  of 
chemistry,  based  on  the  use  of  playing  cards  pic- 
turing various  chemical  symbols,  formulas,  va- 
lences, etc.  Designed  by  H.  M.  Demuth. 


GlOSSARr 


658 


GLOSSARY 


ehemonomics.  A  proposed  term  for  chemical  eco- 
nomics, especially  with  reference  to  chemical 
market  research;  coined  by  C.  D.  Ulmer  of  the 
Koppers  Co.  . 

chemosurgery.  A  medical  technique  which  utilizes 
chemistry,  surgery,  and  microscopic  analysis;  ap- 
plied especially  in  the  removal  of  skin  cancers. 

cinemafome.  An  apparatus  for  the  examination  of 
very  thin  sections  of  rock  samples  extracted  from 
oil-bearing  formations;  it  consists  of  a  specially 
designed  microtome  which  feeds  the  rock  slices 
to  a  motion-picture  camera,  the  developed  film 
then  being  carefully  studied  for  peculiarities  of 
rock  structure. 

clathrate.  Any  of  a  class  of  quinol  compounds  whose 
quinol  molecules  are  so  interlocked  through 
hydrogen  bonds  as  to  form  infinite  three-dimen- 
sional complexes  of  trigonal  symmetry.  Term  pro- 
posed by  the  English  chemist  Powell  in  allusion 
to  the  enclosed  or  protected  nature  of  the  giant 
molecules  of  the  compound. 

clinodromic.  Traversing  a  path  held  at  a  constant 
angle  with  respect  to  a  moving  target;  said  of 
guided  missiles. 

clmoscopk.  Viewing  aslant;  specifically,  sighting  to 
keep  a  guided  missile  in  line  with  a  shifting  tar- 
get. 

cocoon.  The  special  weatherproof  covering  in  which 
valuable  military  or  other  equipment  may  be 
tightly  sealed  during  transport  or  when  not  in 
use.  It  is  usually  in  the  form  of  cellophane  sheets 
or  a  liquid  resin  which  may  be  sprayed  onto  the 
surface,  where  it  dries  instantly,  forming  a  tough 
film. 

condylometer.  A  dental  instrument  which  indicates 
the  exact  bite  of  a  patient  by  facilitating  ob- 
servation of  the  condyle  bones  of  the  Jaw. 

cosmotron.  An  immensely  powerful  atom-smashing 
machine  under  construction  at  the  Brookhaven 
National  Laboratory  of  the  Atomic  Energy  Com- 
mission. It  is  designed  to  bombard  the  nuclei 
of  atoms  with  particles  having  energies  com- 
parable to  those  of  cosmic  rays,  or  from  2.5  to  3 
billion  electron  volts. 

criminalistks.  That  branch  of  criminology  which 
deals  especially  with  the  scientific  methods  of 
crime  detection. 

cybernetics.  A  new  science  which,  in  the  words  of 
its  originator,  Norbert^  Wiener,  an  American 
mathematician,  studies  "the  common  elements  in 
the  functioning  of  automatic  machines  and  of 
the  human  nervous  system"  in  order  "to  develop 
a  theory  which  will  cover  the  entire  field  of  con- 
trol and  communication  in  machines  and  in 
human  organisms/'  The  term  is  from  a  Greek 
word  meaning  steersman. 

Darvisul.  See  PHENOSULFAZOLE. 

de-cocoon.  To  remove  the  cocoon  (special  weather- 
proof covering)  from  military  or  other  equip- 
ment, prior  to  installation  and  use. 

deltlology.  The  collecting  of  postcards  as  a  hobby. 

diliydroergocornine.  A  drug  considered  promising  in 
die  treatment — not  cure — of  high  blood  pressure; 
it  is  derived  from  ergot  and  acts  by  a  blockage  of 
sympathetic* nerve  impulses. 

discophife.  A  collector  and  connoisseur  of  phono- 
graph recordings. 

disinflation.  A  general  reversal  in  the  trend  of  in- 
dustrial, production,  commodity  markets,  and 
prices  after  a  prolonged  boom  period:  term 
coined  by  Geoffrey  Crowther,  an  English  econ- 
omist. 

dithiobiuret.  A  growth-promoting  chemical  devel- 
oped by  a  research  group  at  the  University  of 


California;  it  has  been  shown  to  prolong  the  life 
of  grape-vine  cuttings  when  applied  in  proper 
concentration. 

Dixiecrat.  A  member  of  the  Democratic  Party  in  the 
United  States  who  rejected  the  plank  of  civil 
rights  of  the  party  platform  and  its  candidate 
for  the  presidency;  especially  one  from  the  south- 
ern States:  word  coined  during  the  1948  presi- 
dential campaign.  See  STATES*  RIGHTS  PARTY. 

Dramamine.  Trade  name  of  a  synthetic  drug  found 
beneficial  in  the  treatment  and  prevention  of 
seasickness.  Discovered  by  medical  research 
workers  at  Johns  Hopkins  University.  Chemical 
name,  betadimethylaminoethyl  benzohydryl 
ether  8-chlorotheophyllinate. 

dropsonde.  A  radiosonde  which,  instead  of  being 
sent  up  into  the  atmosphere  by  balloon,  is 
dropped  by  parachute  from  an  airplane  flying 
above  difficult  terrain  not  suitable  for  ground 
stations,  as  in  deserts  and  arctic  regions. 

duo-stroiter.  A  baby  carriage  built  to  accommodate 
two  children. 

eehridine.  An  organic  compound  derived  from  pyri- 
dine,  which  has  been  found  effective  against 
fungi  causing  athlete's  foot  and  ringworm  and  in 
the  prevention  of  certain  fungus  diseases  of 
plants. 

Econometer.  An  apparatus  for  exhibiting  the  correla- 
tions between  selected  groups  of  economic  data. 
The  factors  chosen  are  represented  on  opposite 
sides  of  a  large  disk  on  which  value-relationships 
are  shown  by  an  indicator  which  controls  the  rise 
and  fall  of  colored  liquids  in  a  series  of  flasks. 
Econorama.  An  array  of  machines  designed  to  il- 
lustrate various  aspects  of  economic  theory  by 
the  use  of  such  graphic  devices  as  dials,  pointers, 
colored  liquids,  models,  graduated  scales,  and 
the  like.  Similar  in  purpose  to,  but  more  elab- 
orate than,  the  Econorneter,  it  was  invented  and 
built  by  an  American  industrialist,  J.  D.  Mooney. 
electrokymograph.  An  instrument  for  recording  and 
measuring  the  action  of  the  heart  by  means  of 
X-rays  which  project  the  heart-shadow  upon  a 
fluorescent  screen  used  in  conjunction  with  a 
photoelectric  cell. 

electromyo graph.  An  instrument  resembling  the 
electrocardiograph,  but  adapted  for  recording 
electric  waves  set  up  in  muscles,  converting 
them  into  both  sound  and  visual  records. 
Electronic  Flight  Simulator.  An  exact,  full-scale  replica 
of  the  cockpit  of  an  airplane  designed  for  the 
ground  training  of  flight  crews  under  all  flying 
conditions. 

electronography.  A  method  of  printing  without  di- 
rect contact  between  paper  and  inked  surface  by 
means  of  an  applied  electric  charge  which  ion- 
izes the  ink  particles,  causing  them  to  migrate 
from  the  type  or  printing  plate  to  the  oppositely- 
charged  printing  surface.   Invented  by  W.   C. 
Huebner.  Also  called  electromigratetics. 
electrophrenic.  Describing  a  method  of  artificial  res- 
piration which  depends  upon  the  electrical  stim- 
ulation of  one  or  both  of  the  phrenic  nerves. 
estron.  A  generic  term  proposed  by  the  Tennessee 
Eastman  Corporation  to  distinguish  all  types  of 
cellulose  acetate  fibers,  yarns,  and  filaments  from 
the  rayon  types,  which  use  regenerated  cellulose. 
ethnolinguistics.  The  study  of  linguistics  in  relation 
to  other  elements  of  human  culture;  language 
treated  as  an  integral  part  of  sociobiology. 
evapotranspircation.  The  physiographic  processes  of 
evaporation  and  transpiration,  treated  as  a  func- 
tional unit  in  the  study  of  climate. 


GLOSSARY 


Fair  Deal.  President  Truman's  name  for  the  program 
and  policies  of  the  government  under  his  admin- 
istration, as  given  in  his  State  of  the  Union 
message  before  Congress,  Jan.  5,  1949. 

feedlift.  The  emergency  feeding  of  stranded  live- 
stock by  supplies  of  hay  and  other  fodder 
dropped  from  airplanes  to  range  areas  isolated 
by  storms,  blizzards,  and  extreme  cold.  This 
"Operation  Hayride"  was  performed  by  U.S. 
Air  Force  planes  to  save  starving  cattle  trapped 
on  Western  and  Rocky  Mountain  ranges  during 
the  exceptionally  bitter  winter  of  1949. 

Fiber  A.  See  OKLON*. 

fbperon.  One  of  the  winglike  surfaces  which  pro- 
vide for  the  automatic  control  of  speed,  lift,  and 
altitude  in  a  rocket  or  guided  missile:  a  device 
combining  the  functions  of  a  flap  and  aileron  in 
an  airplane. 

Fotosetter.  Trade  name  of  a  printing  machine  by 
means  of  which  the  copy  is  first  photographed 
and  then  transferred  directly  to  the  printing  sur- 
face from  the  film. 

gleep.  The  British  graphite  low-energy  experimen- 
tal pile,  installed  at  Harwell  for  atomic  energy 
investigations  and  the  production,  of  radioiso- 
topes.  It  operates  at  a  rate  of  about  100  kilowatts. 

goitrogenesis.  The  act  or  process  of  producing  goi- 
ter; whence  goitrogen,  any  substance  capable 
of  initiating  or  promoting  such  a  growth. 

guppy.  A  high-powered,  diesel-engined  submarine 
equipped  with  an  extensible  air-intake  tube  ( the 
schnorkel)  to  permit  long  periods  of  undersea 
operations  at  great  depths.  Developed  in  the 
U.S.  on  the  basis  of  captured  German  designs. 
Name  from  the  initials  of  Greater  Underwater 
Propulsive  Power  +  Y. 

hankie-hatter.  The  British  equivalent  of  bobby- 
soxer,  so  called  because  she  wears  a  kerchief  in 
place  of  a  hat 

helicodromic.  Having  a  flight  path  curving  like  a 
corkscrew  or  bent  screw  spiral;  applied  to 
guided  missiles. 

heliport.  An  airport  for  helicopters,  especially  one 
located  in  small  and  congested  urban  areas  not 
accessible  to  regular  airplanes. 

herringbone.  A  peculiar  up-and-down  distortion  of 
a  television  image,  due  to  interference  from 
wave  frequencies  set  up  by  diathermy  machines. 
Sometimes  called  Parker  method  from  its  resem- 
blance to  the  old-fashioned  method  of  penman- 
ship. 

historiate.  To  provide  (a  map,  chart,  or  the  like) 
with  interesting  historical  details,  often  in  the 
form  of  pictures  in  color. 

holidate.  A  holiday  date;  a  sharing  of  all  or  part  of 
one's  vacation  time  with  another  person. 

Hydrafrac.  Trade  name  of  a  method  for  loosening 
underground  rock  formations  by  means  of  jellied 
gasoline  pumped  down  an  oil  well,  thus  permit- 
ting the  imprisoned  oil  to  flow  to  the  surface 
along  with  the  recovered  gasoline. 

hydrofoil.  A  winglike  structure  placed  under  a 
speed-boat  to  lessen  drag  by  raising  the  hull 
completely  out  of  the  water. 

hydrolube.  A  non-flammable,  non-corrosive,  anti- 
freeze liquid  for  use  in  the  hydraulic  system  of 
airplanes;  developed  by  the  U.S.  Naval  Research 
Laboratory. 

hydronamic.  Contraction  of  hydrodynamic,  espe- 
cially as  applied  to  the  study  of  airplane  design 
and  performance. 

hydronitrogen.  Any  of  a  class  of  chemical  com- 
pounds containing  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  as 
ammonia,  hydrazine,  etc. 


659  GiOSSARY 

hypersonic.  Pertaining  to  or  characterized  by  very 
high  supersonic  velocities,  especially  those  with 
a  Mach  number  of  5  or  greater. 

INBA.  A  plant-growth  regulator  which  has  been 
made  radioactive  to  permit  an  exact  tracing  of 
its  course  through  the  plant. 

isosyst.  The  state  or  condition  of  constant  composi- 
tion throughout  a  given  experiment;  applied  es- 
pecially in  studies  of  chemical  phase  equilibria. 
Term  suggested  by  V.  C.  Williams,  an  American 
chemist,  on  the  analogy  of  isobar,  isotherm,  etc. 

isotone.  The  stable  nucleus  of  an  atom  or  any  of  its 
isotopes;  term  suggested  by  Maria  G.  Mayer, 
American  nuclear  physicist. 

kappa.  A  substance  of  undetermined  composition 
present  in  the  cytoplasm  of  certain  stocks  of  the 
unicellular  organism  Paramecium  and  essential 
to  the  production  of  paramecin.  Although  lo- 
cated outside  the  chromosomes  it  is  believed  to 
exert  a  powerful,  and  under  certain  conditions 
a  permanent,  effect  upon  the  genes  and  hence 
upon  the  processes  of  inheritance.  Discovered 
by  T.  M.  Sonneborn  and  associates. 

K-band.  A  band  of  microwave  frequencies  below 
3  centimeters  in  wavelength;  used  in  radar. 

Keedoozle.  Trade  name  of  a  type  of  grocery  store 
which  dispenses  canned  or  packaged  goods  on 
the  principle  of  the  Automat  or  juke  box,  the 
customer  recording  selections  on  a  special  tape- 
device  whose  various  punchings  are  then  made 
to  actuate  corresponding  chutes.  Devised  by 
Clarence  Saunders, 

khellin.  A  substance  extracted  from  the  fruit  of  a 
Middle  East  plant  (Amni  visnaga)  and  shown 
to  have  a  strong  vasoconstrictor  effect  on  the 
blood  vessels  of  the  heart. 

kynurenin.  An  organic  compound  formed  by  the 
break-down  of  the  ammo  acid  tryptophane;  it 
is  believed  to  participate  in  the  formation  of 
nicotinic  acid. 

Jitterbug.  A  person  who  is  careless  in  disposing  of 
garbage,  waste,  and  litter;  one  who  violates  or 
ignores  street-cleaning  regulations. 

lorate.  To  disseminate  or  spread  about,  as  news, 
gossip,  information,  etc.  Also,  lorating.  Possibly 
from  loran,  the  navigation  system  developed 
during  World  War  II. 

LP  record.  A  long-playing  phonograph  record,  con- 
structed with  grooves  so  close  together  that  one 
face  of  a  12-inch  disk  will  carry  a  22%-minute 
recording.  Developed  by  Peter  Goldmark  of  the 
Columbia  Co. 

Lysenkoism.  The  body  of  doctrine  regarding  the  na- 
ture and  processes  of  inheritance  associated  with 
the  Soviet  agronomist  Trofim  D,  Lysenko.  It 
challenges  the  formal  genetics  of  Weismann, 
Mendel,  and  Morgan,  claiming  that  the  genes 
may  be  permanently  modified  by  somatic  condi- 
tions, especially  in  regard  to  nutrition,  and  that 
individually  acquired  characters  may,  under 
suitable  conditions,  be  inherited. 

marbleomania.  An  over-emphasis  upon  ornate  and 
intimidating  marble  effects  in  public  buildings, 
especially  art  museums,  theaters,  etc. 

Methadon.  Trade  name  for  a  powerful  narcotic 
used  as  a  substitute  for  morphine  in  the  relief 
of  extreme  pain;  developed  in  Germany  and 
under  investigation  in  the  U.S. 

methoxychlor.  A  powerful  insecticide,  related  to  but 
less  toxic  than  DDT;  tests  have  shown  it  to  be 
effective  against  lice,  flies,  the  Mexican  bean 


GLOSSARY 


660 


GLOSSARY 


beetle,  and  certain  other  pests.  The  chemical 
name  is  p-methoxyphenyl  trichloroethane. 

Metopon.  Trade  name  for  a  morphine  derivative 
which  has  been  found  effective  in  relieving  the 
intense  pain  of  those  in  the  last  stages  of  cancer. 

micro  card.  A  standard  3  X  5-inch  library  card  on 
which  are  pasted  microfilm  reproductions  of 
books,  pamphlets,  documents,  etc;  designed  to 
be  read  by  a  special  device  called  the  Scratinizer. 

micro-groove.  An  LP  disk;  so  called  from  the  excep- 
tional fineness  of  the  grooves  cut  into  its  surface. 

micronutrient.  A  substance,  especially  certain  metals, 
whose  presence  in  minute  quantities  is  essential 
to  the  health  of  man  and  animals. 

migratetics.  See  ELECTRONOGRAPHY. 

motoriboating.  The  tendency  of  an  audio  system  to 
emit  a  succession  of  pulsating  sounds  resem- 
bling that  of  a  motorhoat;  it  is  associated  with 
feedback  of  certain  audio  frequencies. 

myanesin.  A  chemical  derived  from  glycerin  and 
thought  to  be  of  value  in  the  treatment  of  vari- 
ous neuro-muscular  disorders. 

nee-materialism.  A  philosophic  system  formulated 
by  S.  W.  Trornp,  a  Dutch  geologist:  it  seeks  to 
integrate  the  various  fields  of  scientific  knowl- 
edge so  as  to  provide  a  materialist  base  for  the 
revaluation  of  all  moral  and  religious  concepts. 

nitrogation.  A  method  of  f  ertilizing  the  soil  by  direct 
application  of  liquid  anhydrous  ammonia  to  the 
irrigation  water;  used  on  farms  in  the  U.S. 

nitrojection.  The  direct  application  to  the  soil  of 
anhydrous  ammonia  gas  as  a  means  of  improving 
its  fertility;  the  method  was  first  commercially 
used  in  the  U.S.  in  1943,  subsequent  to  the 
nitrogation  process. 

omnirange.  A  type  of  very-high-frequency  radio 
beams  emitted  in  all  directions  simultaneously. 
Developed  in  the  U.S.  as  an  aid  to  air  naviga- 
tion, permitting  aircraft  pilots  to  find  their  course 
and  position  anywhere  within  the  network  of 
about  400  omnirange  stations. 

operational  research.  Described  by  P.  M.  S.  Blackett, 
a  leading  British  scientist,  as  "the  technique  of 
the  scientific  analysis  of  war";  by  extension,  any 
application  of  scientific  method  and  technical 
resources  to  peacetime  operations,  especially 
with  reference  to  planned  development. 

Operation  Hayride.  See  FEEDLEFT. 

Orion.  Trade  name  of  a  synthetic  fiber  made  from 
acrylonitrile,  an  ingredient  of  Buna  N  synthetic 
rubber.  Preliminary  tests  show  it  to  possess  great 
strength,  toughness,  and  durability*  especially 
as  a  fabric  for  curtains,  drapes,  seat  coverings 
and  the  like.  Formerly  referred  to  as  Fiber  A. 

ostreodynamometer.  An  instrument  capable  of  de- 
tecting the  movements  of  an  oyster  within  its 
shell  and  without  disturbing  its  normal  activi- 
ties. Developed  to  study  the  effects  of  water 
pollution  on  oysters. 

overtake.  In  printing,  proofread  galleys:  term  used 
by  Winston  Churchill  (1948).  Compare  earlier 
figurative  use  of  the  verb  (1330),  indicating 
completion  of  a  task  beset  with  difficulty  or  hin- 
dered by  other  intervening  business. 

oversigned.  The  person  whose  name  appears  at 
the  beginning  of  an  article,  document,  report, 
etc.;  analogous  to  undersigned. 

palynology.  The  scientific  study  of  pollen  and  other 
spores,  their  dispersal  and  applications;  pollen 
analysis:  term  proposed  in  1944  by  British  re- 
searchers. 


paramecin.  A, powerful  nucleoprotein  which  occurs 
within  the  bodies  of  certain  paramecia,  where 
its  production  is  controlled  by  the  cytoplasmic 
factor  kappa.  It  is  transmitted  by  inheritance 
within  certain  strains  of  the  organism  and  is  gen- 
erally lethal  to  other  strains  lacking  in  kappa. 
Discovered  and  isolated  by  T.  M.  Sonneborn  and 
associates  in  research  on  genetics  in  Paramecium. 

pcrathion.  A  synthetic  insecticide  developed  in  Ger- 
many; it  is  effective  against  mites  and  toxic  for 
many  other  insects  attacking  fruits  and  vegeta- 
bles. It  is  also  highly  toxic  for  warm-blooded 
animals  and  may  be  distinguished  by  its  garlic- 
like  odor. 

Parker  method.  See  HERRINGBONE. 

permenorm.  A  nickel-iron  alloy  that  has  the  property 
of  becoming  highly  magnetized  when  placed  in 
an  electric  field,  thereby  improving  the  perform- 
ance of  vacuum  tubes,  amplifiers,  and  rectifiers. 
Developed  in  Germany. 

petrochemistry.  The  chemistry  of  petroleum  and  its 
derivatives,  especially  the  natural  and  synthetic 
hydrocarbons. 

pheJIumenist.  One  who  collects  matchbox  labels; 
also,  pheHumenism,  the  collecting  of  such  objects. 
British  coinage. 

phenosulfazole.  A  modified  sulfa  drug  reputed  to 
have  value  in  the  treatment  of  poliomyelitis.  Also 
called  Darvisul 

Phenurone.  Trade  name  of  a  derivative  of  pheno- 
barbital  reported  to  be  of  therapeutic  value  in 
the  treatment  of  epilepsy. 

photocomposition.  The  composing  of  printed  matter 
by  photographic  means  rather  than  directly  from 
movable  type;  a  method  coming  into  use  through 
such  machines  as  the  Fotosetter  and  Phototex- 
type. 

photodiagram.  A  diagrammatic  view,  as  of  a  factory, 
community,  etc.,  "superimposed  upon  an  actual 
photograph  of  the  area. 

photo-skinned.  Describing  a  terrain  relief  model 
over  whose  surface  corresponding  aerial  photo- 
graphs have  been  pasted  in  exact  alignment. 

plasmagene.  A  factor  present  in  the  cytoplasm  of 
a  cell  which  is  believed  to  play  a  significant,  and 
sometimes  decisive,  role  in  the  mechanism  of 
heredity;  an  extra-nuclear  replica  of  the  gene, 
subject  to  the  influences  of  the  cellular  environ- 
ment. 

plasthetics.  Plastics,  resins,  and  other  synthetic  prod- 
ucts, considered  as  forming  a  single  branch  of 
chemical  science,  technology,  and  engineering. 
Term  coined  by  British  chemists. 

plastisol.  A  suspension  of  finely  divided  resin  par- 
ticles in  a  plasticizer:  useful  in  the  application 
of  plastic  coatings  to  various  surfaces. 

Polacoior.  Trade  name  of  a  three-color  motion-pic- 
ture process  by  means  of  which  the  separate 
color  images  are  imposed  on  a  single  layer  of 
standard  black-and-white  film. 

pollster.  One  who  takes  public  opinion  polls;  de- 
risively, one  who  makes  overconfident  or  inac- 
curate predictions  based  on  the  data  of  such 
polls,  as  happened  in  the  U.S.  Presidential  elec- 
tion of  1948. 

polo-crosse.  A  combination  of  polo,  lacrosse,  and 
netball,  played  by  mounted  teams  of  six  on  a 
side,  the  polo  sticks  having  a  net  on  the  end  in- 
stead of  a  mallet.  Introduced  in  Australia. 

polymixin.  An  antibiotic  discovered  in  a  soil  bacil- 
lus by  American  scientists;  it  is  believed  to  be 
more  effective  than  streptomycin  in  the  treat- 
ment of  certain  diseases,  especially  undulant 
fever,  tularemia,  and  a  type  of  meningitis  caused 
by  Friedlander's  bacillus. 


GLOSSARY 


661 


GLOSSARY 


precoat.  To  apply  (to  metals)  a  thin  surface-layer 
by  hot-dip  or  electroplating  methods  in  order  to 
improve  quality,  wear,  or  performance  of  metal 
parts.  Also  precoafing. 

Progressive  Party.  A  new  political  party  calling  for 
a  program  of  "peace,  freedom,  and  abundance" 
established  in  Philadelphia,  July  23,  1948.  It 
nominated  Henry  A.  Wallace  for  President  of 
the  U.S.  and  Glen  H.  Taylor  for  Vice  President. 

psychoquack.  One  who  practices  psychiatry  without 
adequate  training  or  license;  a  quack  psychia- 
trist 

quantum  liquid.  Helium  in  the  superfluid  condition; 
so  called  because  it  confirms  the  prediction  of 
quantum  theory  that  even  at  the  temperature  of 
absolute  zero  there  is  motion  among  the  mole- 
cules. 

radiocardiography.  A  method  for  studying  the  blood 
flow  through  the  heart  by  recording  the  passage 
of  injected  radioisotopes  with  the  aid  of  a  spe- 
cially constructed  Geiger-Muller  counter  con- 
nected with  a  pen  which  traces  the  radiocardio- 
gram  On  graph  paper. 

raster.  The  pattern  of  variably  luminescent  lines 
traced  on  a  radar,  television,  or  other  viewing 
screen  by  the  movement  of  the  cathode-ray 
beam  across  the  photosensitive  surface  of  the 
transmitting  unit. 

.  resinography.  The  study  of  the  structure  of  synthetic 
resins;  especially,  the  microscopic  examination  of 
the  etched  or  polished  surfaces  in  order  to  iden- 
tify the  various  pigments,  fillers,  or  other  sub- 
stances entering  into  their  composition.  Hence, 
resinographer,  a  specialist  in  this  technique. 

resistentialism.  A  humorous  British  parody  on  existen- 
tialism, attributed  by  its  author,  P.  F.  Jennings, 
to  a  mythical  Pierre-Marie  Ventre.  "Pre-atomic 
philosophies  were  concerned  with  what  men 
thought  about  things.  Resistentialism  is  the  phi- 
losophy of  what  Things  think  about  us." 

roentgen  equivalent  physical  (r.e.p.).  Radiation  of 
an  intensity  such  that  it  may  be  absorbed  at  the 
rate  of  83  ergs  per  gram  of  tissue.  Also  called 
roentgen  equivalent  man  (r.e.m.). 

rotochute.  A  parachute  for  use  with  rockets  or  in 
high-altitude  airplanes.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
long,  dartlike  tube  equipped  at  the  tip  with  a 
propeller  whose  horizontal  blades,  by  their  swift 
rotation  during  descent,  break  the  fall  of  delicate 
instruments,  supplies,  or  other  loads  attached 
to  it. 

Rouxcolor.  Trade  name  of  a  4-color  motion-picture 
process  in  which  the  separate  images  are  super- 
imposed on  one  standard  frame,  bo,th  camera 
and  projector  lenses  using  filters  to  achieve  the 
final  color  image.  Developed  by  A.  and  L.  Roux, 
French -opticians. 

rutherford  (rd).  Proposed  name  for  a  unit  of  radio- 
active disintegration  smaller  than  the  curie  and 
independent  of  any  natural  constants :  defined  as 
that  quantity  of  a  radipisotope  which  disinte- 
grates at  the  rate  of  a  million  disintegrations  per 
second.  Term  suggested  by  E.  U.  Condon  and 
L.  F.  Curtiss,  American  physicists. 

sabosterite.  A  hygroscopic,  dielectric,  anti-acid  min- 
eral discovered  in  southern  Italy. 

Salamander.  An  unmanned,  remote-controlled  am- 
phibious craft  developed  by  the  U.S.  Navy  to- 
ward the  end  of  World  War  II  for  use  against 
enemy  mines  and  for  the  demolition  of  beach 
defenses  prior  to  attack  by  landing  forces.  Also 
called  X-craft. 


scopodromic.  Traversing  a  course  in  the  line  of  sight; 
homing;  applied  to  guided  missiles. 

sengierite.  A  radioactive  mineral  discovered  in  the 
Congo  and  shown  to  contain  copper,  uranium, 
and  vanadium  in  hydrous  form.  Named  after 
Edgar  Sengier,  Belgian  mining  executive. 

serotonin.  A  crystalline  protein  isolated  from  beef 
serum  and  believed  to  be  associated  with  vaso- 
constrictor activity  in  blood  vessels. 

Shell ie.  Trade  name  for  a  collapsible,  disposable 
nursing  bottle  for  babies. 

simulcast.  To  broadcast  by  radio  and  television 
simultaneously. 

SKF  538-a.  A  synthetic  pain-killing  drug  hav- 
ing many  times  the  potency  of  cocaine;  under 
investigation  as  a  local  anesthetic.  Chemical 
name,  1-  ( B-dimethylaminoethoxy )  -4-butyl-iso- 
quinoline. 

slope-line.  A  system  of  lights  so  arranged  on  an 
airfield  as  to  form  a  pair  of  sharply  defined 
converging  lines  between  which  an  aircraft  pi- 
lot may  guide  his  plane  to  a  safe  landing. 

sociobiology.  The  study  of  human  sociological  phe- 
nomena from  the  viewpoint  and  in  terms  of  the 
biological  and  physical  sciences;  biophysics  as 
applied  to  sociology.  Term  proposed  by  C.  F. 
Hockett  of  Cornell  University. 

spasmolytic.  Having  the  power  to  relax  spasms; 
anti-spasmodic;  said  especially  of  various  drugs, 
spasmolytes,  capable  of  relaxing  spasms  in  certain 
smooth  muscles. 

Spirodome.  Trade  name  for  an  experimental  appa- 
ratus combining  the  functions  of  a  respirator  and 
oxygen  tent,  designed  to  give  the  exact  amount 
of  oxygen  at  the  correct  pressure  needed  for 
normal  breathing. 

sprig.  The  branched  small  sparks  appearing  in  the 
stream  of  sparks  emitted  in  grinding  iron  or 
other  metal. 

spurchase.  A  purchase  made  on  the  spur  of  the 
moment;  something  bought  on  impulse.  Term 
coined  by  marketing  specialists  of  the  Du 
Pont  Co. 

STAMNI.  An  instrument  for  the  accurate  measure- 
ment of  airplane  speeds  by  the  use  of  high 
frequency  sound  waves;  adapted  also  for  the 
determination  of  the  Mach  number.  Name  a 
contraction  of  "sonic  true  airspeed  and  Mach 
number  indicator,"  developed  at  the  Cornell 
Aeronautical  Laboratory. 

States1  Rights  Party.  A  political  party  founded  dur- 
ing May,  1948,  in  Jackson,  Miss.,  by  southern 
Democrats  who  opposed  the  civil  rights  program 
of  the  regular  Democratic  Party.  At  its  Birming- 
ham, Ala.,  convention,  July  17,  it  chose  Governor 
James  Strom  Thurmond  of  S.C.  as  its  1948 
Presidential  candidate. 

submariner.  A  qualified  and  fully  trained  member 
of  a  submarine  crew. 

sulfamethazine.  A  sulfa  drug  believed  to  be  effective 
in  controlling  certain  animal  diseases,  as  mastitis 
in  cows  and  shipping-fever  in  horses. 

sulfaquinoxalin.  A  sulfa  drug  which  has  been  suc- 
cessfully used  in  the  control  of  the  destructive 
poultry  disease,  coccidiosis;  developed  by  chem- 
ists at  the  Rhode  Island  State  College. 

superfluid.  A  peculiar  state  of  matter,  noted  only  in 
helium  when  cooled  to  within  a  degree  of  abso- 
lute zero.  Among  its  properties  are  an  exception- 
al heat  conductivity,  the  ability  to  permeate 
very  dense  substances,  and  to  flow  upwards 
against  gravity.  Called  also  quantum  liquid. 

Swartkrans  man.  A  race  of  giant  ape-men  whose  for- 
mer existence  is  inferred  from  the  anatomical 
characteristics  of  a  single  huge  fossil  jawbone 


GLOSSARY 


662 


GLOSSARY 


and  teeth  discovered  by  Dr.  Robert  Broom  in 

the  Swartkrans  cave  in  Africa. 

TAPIine.  The  Trans  Arabian  Pipe  Line. 
tele-juke.  A  juke  box  equipped  for  television. 
tele-transcription.  A  method  for  the  transcribing  of 
television  programs  on  films  for  subsequent  pres- 
entation; also,  the  film  itself. 
thesaurSc.  Encyclopedic;  having  or  containing  large 
stores  of  miscellaneous  information,  most  of  it 
useless;  used  in  a  description  of  the  radio  come- 
dian Robert  O.  Lewis. 

thiazolyl.  A  synthetic  drug  of  the  sulfa  type  now 
under  investigation  as  of  possible  therapeutic 
value  in  the  treatment  of  polio. 
throughput.  The  quantity  of  raw  materials  which 
may  be  processed  for  intended  final  use  in  a 
given  time,  as  in  a  chemical  plant  for  the  con- 
version of  paraffins  to  fatty  acids. 
fhujaplidn.  A  crystalline  substance  isolated  by  Swed- 
ish chemists  from  an  oily  extract  of  the  heart- 
wood  of  the  western  white  cedar  (Thuja  pli- 
cata);  it  may  prove  to  have  useful  antibiotic 
properties. 

tomodromic.  Having  a  flight  path  which  cuts  athwart 
a  moving  target;  heading  to  cut  or  intersect;  ap- 
plied to  guided  missiles. 

topectomy.  A  brain  operation  in  which  certain  af- 
fected areas  are  removed  with  little  or  no  dam- 
age to  the  patient's  normal  personality. 
transistor.  A  very  small,  compact,  and  highly  effi- 
cient device  for  the  instantaneous  control  and 
amplification  of  an  electron  current  without 
using  a  vacuum  and  at  low  power  consumption. 
The  current  from  a  fine  tungsten  wire  strikes 
a  crystal  of  germanium  which  transmits  it,  great- 
ly amplified,  to  another  tungsten  wire  connected 
with  the  receiving  apparatus.  The  device,  de- 
veloped by  scientists  of  the  Bell  Laboratories, 
may  replace  the  vacuum  tube  in  many  electronic 
applications. 

tricothedn.  An  antibiotic  extracted  from  a  fungus 
(Tricothecium  roseum)  and  shown  to  be  effec- 
tive in  arresting  the  spread  of  certain  other  fungi 
by  impairing  uieir  reproductive  powers.  Discov- 
ered by  chemists  of  the  Imperial  Chemical  In- 
dustries (England). 

trifocal.  Having  three  foci;  said  especially  of  a  lens 
one  segment  of  which  corrects  for  near  vision, 
another  for  far  vision,  and  the  third  being  adapt- 
ed for  intermediate  vision. 

Trimeton.  Trade  name  of  the  organic  compound  pro- 
phenpyridamine,  reported  to  have  been  effective 
in  the  treatment  of  various  types  of  allergy. 
trudgery.  Hard,  tiresome,  and  monotonous  labor  in- 
volving incessant  trudging  from  one  place  to 
another. 

Tuf-Iite.  Trade  name  of  a  hard,  durable  plastic 
formed  from  butadiene-styrene  resins;  suitable 
for  use  in  bowling  balls,  shockproof  helmets, 
etc. 

Turbo-Wasp.  A  jet  propulsion  engine  designed  in 
England  and  improved  in  the  U.S.  It  operates 
with  a  single-stage,  double-entry  centrifugal 
compressor,  nine  combustion  chambers,  and  an 
axial  flow  gas  turbine,  delivering  the  equivalent 
of  9,000  horsepower. 

Twilight  War.  Winston  Churchill's  name  for  the 
"phony  war"  period  of  World  War  II,  which 
ended  when  he  became  Prime  Minister;  used  in 
his  book,  The  Gathering  Storm. 
twofer.  A  free  coupon  which  entitles  the  holder  to 
two  theater  tickets  for  the  price  of  one  if  pre- 
sented at  the  box  office  of  the  designated  show 
or  other  attraction. 


Uniforce.  The  combined  military  forces  of  the  pro- 
posed Western  Union  defense  pact  between 
Britain,  France,  and  the  Benelux  countries,  with 
headquarters  at  Fontainebleau.  The  principal 
sections  are  the  Uni-air,  Uni-terre,  and  Uni-mer, 
for  the  air,  land,  and  sea  forces  respectively. 

update.  To  bring  up  to  date;  to  revise,  with  correc- 
tions, additions,  etc.,  as  a  textbook,  manual, 
handbook,  etc. 

Vari-Typer.  Trade  name  of  a  compact,  keyboard- 
operated,  electrically  actuated  composing  ma- 
chine for  the  rapid  preparation  of  copy  and 
stencils  for  all  types  of  reproduction.  It  has  the 
general  appearance  of  a  typewriter,  but  is 
"  equipped  with  various  styles  and  sizes  of  types 
and  is  seH-justifying. 

vetmobile.  A  vehicle  designed  and  custom-built  for 
disabled  veterans;  it  is  equipped  with  special 
devices,  gadgets,  and  accessories  according  to 
the  needs  of  the  user  and  was  first  conceived  by 
E.  T.  Adkins,  formerly  of  the  U.S.  Naval  Re- 
serve. 

vitamin  B-12.  A  red  crystalline  substance  isolated 
from  liver  and  also  from  a  mold  of  the  strepto- 
mycin group.  It  has  been  shown  to  be  highly 
effective  in  the  treatment  of  pernicious  anemia 
and  is  possibly  identical  with  the  animal  protein 
factor  (APF)  essential  for  the  growth  of  chicks, 
pigs,  and  other  animals.  Its  isolation  was  accom- 
plished independently  by  British  and  American 
chemists. 

vitamin  U.  A  vitamin  present  in  many  raw  foods  and 
vegetables  and  possibly  responsible  for  the  pre- 
vention of  stomach  ulcers;  under  investigation 
by  Dr.  Gamett  Cheney  of  Stanford  University. 

X-craft.  See  SALAMANDER. 

xerography.  Dry  printing;  a  photoreproduction 
method  invented  by  C.  F.  Carlson.  The  photo- 
conductive  surface  of  an  electrically  charged 
plate,  after  exposure  to  the  copy,  retains  only  a 
positive  charge  in  the  areas  covered  by  the  copy. 
Negatively  charged  powder,  sprayed  upon  tne 
plate,  adheres  to  these  areas,  from  which  it  is 
transferred  to  the  positively  charged  printing 
surface,  being  permanently  fused  thereto  by  a 
few  seconds  of  heating. 

xeroprinting.  A  simplified  variation  of  xerography 
which  uses  a  suitably  prepared  plate  on  a  rotat- 
ing cylinder  in  conjunction  with  a  charging  de- 
vice and  various  mechanisms  for  the  develop- 
ment, transfer,  and  fixing  of  the  images. 

ylem.  The  primordial  flux  of  highly  compressed  neu- 
tron gas  from  which  all  matter  has  been  sup- 
Eosed  to  develop  through  expansion  and  the 
uilding  of  atoms  by  neutron  capture.  Term  in- 
troduced by  R.  A.  Alpher,  American  physicist. 
y«ke.  To  lock  an  arm  around  a  person's  throat  pre- 
paratory to  robbing  him;  a  variant  of  the  under- 
world term,  to  mug. 

Zarem  camera.  A  high-speed  camera  whose  shutter, 
constructed  on  the  principle  of  a  Kerr  cell,  can 
operate  at  the  rate  of  10  million  exposures  per 
second  or  give  a  single  exposure  in  100-millionth 
of  a  second.  Designed  by  A.  M.  Zarem. 

Zoe.  The  French  atomic  energy  pile,  designed, 
built,  and  successfully  operated  under  the  di- 
rection of  Frederick  Joliot-Curie.  It  uses  uranium 
oxide  as  the  activating  material,  heavy  water  as 
the  moderator,  and  develops  no  external  heat 
energy  requiring  elaborate  cooling  arrangements. 
The  energy  generated  does  not  exceed  five  kilo- 
watts. Name  from  initials  of  the  words  zero  Sner- 
gie,  oxyde  d 'uranium,  eau  lourde  (heavy  water). 


INDEX 


ARTICLES  appearing  in  their  proper  alphabetical  sequence  in  the  text  are  not  relisted  here,  but 
when  reference  is  made  to  them  they  are  indicated  by  the  asterisk  [*].  For  individual  countries, 
refer  to  proper  alphabetical  order  in  the  text.  For  Societies  and  Organizations  see  pages  508-523; 
for  deaths  of  well-known  people  see  Necrology,  pages  369-386. 


Abdullah,  King,  32 
academies,  1-2,  356 
accidents,  2-3* 

home,  3 

motor-vehicle,  2 

number  of,  2 

occupational,  3 

public  nonmotor-vehicle,  2 
adult  education,   Brooklyn  In- 
stitute program,  84 
Advance     Planning     Program, 

131 
advertising,  3-4  * 

business  paper,  4 

cost  of,  3 

direct  mail,  4 

magazine,  4,  320 

newspaper,  5,  393 

radio,  4 

roadside  signs,  255 

television,  4 

aeronautics.  See  aviation. 
Aeronautics,  National  Advisory 

Committee  for,  357 
Afghanistan,  5-7  * 

army,  330 

economic  development,  7 

map  of,  6 
Africa,  7* 

exploration  in,  176 
African  National  Congress,  386 
Agence  France  Presse,  393 
agriculture,  10-19° 

Agricultural     Research     Ad- 
ministration, 8  * 

Bureau  of  Agricultural  Eco- 
nomics, 8  * 

colonization    experiment, 
Alaska,  21 

cost  of  aid  to,  460 

costs  in  farming,  15 

cotton  product,  18 

crop  production,  10,  11 

domestic  demand,  11 

exports  in  1947-48,  13 

Farm  Credit  Administration, 
178* 

farm  family  spending,  15 

farmers'  earnings,  14 

fats  and  oils,  19 

Federal  legislation,  586 

food  buying,  12 

foreign  market,  12 

fruits,  18 

Hungary,  collective  farms  in, 
252 

insect  pests,  264-267 

Iran,  277 


Agriculture  (Continued) 
livestock,  11,  16 
marketing     and     purchasing 

cooperatives,  7-8 
meat  production,  17 
plant  quarantine,  264-267 
prices,  449  *J 

rural  electrification,  16 
Soil     Conservation     Service, 

523 

sugar  production,  18 
technology,  effect  of,  15 
tobacco  product,  18 
unemployment  in,  296 
world  bread-grain  total,  12 
See    also    under    names    of 
countries,   and  Food   and 
Agriculture  Organization, 
UN 
Agriculture,    U.S.    Department 

of,  19-20  * 
agencies,  19 
housing  functions,  251 
legislative  basis  of  action,  19 
Soil     Conservation     Service, 

523 

Agricultural   Research   Admin- 
istration, 8-10* 
Agricultural    and    Industrial 

Chemistry,  Bureau  of,  8 
Animal  Industry,  Bureau  of, 

9 

chemical  research,  107 
Dairy  Industry,  Bureau  of,  9 
Entomology  and  Plant  Quar- 
antine, Bureau  of,  9 
Experiment    Stations,    Office 

of,  10 

Human  Nutrition  and  Home 

Economics,  Bureau  of,  10 

Agronomy,    National    Institute 

of  (Paraguay),  270 
air-conditioning  and  refrigera- 
tion, 20  * 
aircraft,  20 
air  cleaning  tool,  245 
New  Orleans  public  schools, 

20 

Ohio  State  experiments,  20 
U.S.  Army  experiments,  20 
aircraft, 

air-conditioning  of,  20 
production  of,  118 
in  U.S.  Air  Force,  21 
See  also  aviation,  civil,  and 

aviation,  military, 
air  force,  Swedish,  534 
Air  Force,  U.S., 
aircraft,  21 
air  strength,  359 
composition  of,  21 

663 


Air  Force  ( Continued ) 

Department  of  the,  20  * 

use  of  photography  in,  426, 
427 

map  making,  221 

See  also  aviation,  military. 
Air  Force,  U.S.  Naval.  See  avi- 
ation, military, 
airlines,  55,  56 

cargo  lines,  56 

China,  115 

crashes,  55 

electric    reservation    system, 
127 

feeder  lines,  56 

nationalization   of   in   Great 

Britain,  237 
air-mail  rates,  53,  55 
Air  National  Guard,  59 
Air    Navigation    Development 

Board,  63 
airplanes, 

Air  Force  research,  61,  62 

Navy  planes,  61,  62 

new  engine  types,  58 

rocket  power,  57 

soaring  and  sailplanes,  57 
Air  Policy  Board,  Congression- 
al, 53,  58 

Air   Policy  Commission,  Presi- 
dent's, 53,  56 
airports,  57 

federal  aid  for,  118 

lighting  of,  255 

plans,  57 

Air  Power  for  Peace  by  E.  Wil- 
son, 53 

Air  Safety  Board,  proposed,  54 
Air    Transport    Squadron, 

CNRRA,  115 
Alabama,  21  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  133 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Aland  Islands,  21  * 
Alaska,  Territory  of,  21  * 

Aleutian  Islands,  23 

geologic  mapping  in,  220 

pulp  and  paper  industry,  206 

statehood,  22 
Alaska,  University  of,  21 
Albania,  22  * 

Communism,  22 

elections,  22 


/NDEX 

Albania  (Continued) 
Greek  civil  war,  239 
Marshall  Plan,  22 
Yugoslavian  note  to,  650 
Aleman,  Miguel,  336 
Aleuts,  21 

Alford  Refrigerated  Ware- 
house, Dallas,  Texas,  20 
Algeria,  23-24  * 
Communism,  24 
elections,  24 
land  reform,  24 
Alien  Property,  Office  of,  25  * 
aliens, 

civil  liberties,  306 
deportation  of,  256 
legislation  affecting,  256 
property  in  Philippines,  422 
property  liquidation,  25 
war  legislation,  308 
See  also  immigration,  emigra- 
tion and  naturalization. 
Allied  Control  Council  for  Ger- 
many, 226,  227 
American  Anthropological  As- 
sociation, 29 

American  Association  for  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,  76 
American  Dental  Association, 

154 

American  Education  Week,  26 
American  Federation  of  Labor, 

298 

American  Federation  of  Mu- 
sicians, 355 
American  Folklore  Society, 

197,  511 
American  Friends  Service 

Committee,  474 
American  Gas  Association  re- 
search project,  245 
American-Italian  treaty,  285 
American  literature,  26-28  * 
Americana,  27 
biography,  26 
drama,  27 
history,  26 
literary  criticism,  27 
poetry,  27 
prose,  27 
science,  28 

American  Road  Builders*  As- 
sociation, 138 
American  Society  for  Testing 

Materials,  105 

American  Spice  Trade  Associa- 
tion, 530 

analytical  chemistry,  101 
anatomy,  research  in,  652 
Anglo-American  Oil  Company, 

276 
Anglo-American  Productivity 

Council,  235 

Anglo-Canadian  trade  agree- 
ment, 93 

Anglo-Iraq  Treaty,  279 
Animal  Industry,  Bureau  of,  9 
animals,  domestic, 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  9 
diseases  of,  630-632 
Annamese,  213,  214 
Antarctic, 
exploration  in,  177 
work  on  names  in,  218 


664 

Antarctic  territories  dispute, 

39,  111,  337 
anthropology,  29-31  * 

archaeology,  30 

Benedict,  Ruth,  31 

college  courses  in,  29 

cultural  anthropology,  31 

exchanges,  30 

fossil  discoveries,  654 

organizations,  29 

physical  anthropology,  30 

prizes,  31 

publications,  30 
antibiotics,  327,  462 

in  ophthalmology,  409 
Antigua,  312 
aqueducts,  31-32  * 

Colorado-Big  Thompson 
project,  31 

Montreal,  Canada,  31 

reinforced  concrete  pipe,  31 

San  Diego  Aqueduct,  32 

Second  Mokelumne  Aque- 
duct, 31 
Arab  League,  32-33  * 

French  Morocco,  347 

"Greater  Syria"  plan,  32 

Islamic  Moslem  Brother- 
hood, 32 

Libya,  317 

Palestine  question,  32,  33 

pipeline  through  Syria,  33 
Arab  League, 

Saudi  Arabia,  488 

Spanish  Morocco,  348 

UN  role,  33 

Arab  Legion,  Transjordan,  552 
Arabs, 

Arabia,  32 

Palestine,  414,  415 
archaeology,  34-36,*  30 

British  Isles,  35 

Cyprus,  35 

Egypt,  34 

France,  35 

Greece,  35 

Holland,  35 

India,  34 

Iraq,  34 

Italy,  35 

Mexico,  35 

Palestine,  34 

Turkey,  34 

United  States,  36 
architecture,  36-38  * 

France,  36 

Latin  America,  36 

Soviet  Union,  36 

United  States,  36,  37 
Arevalo  Martinez,  Dr.  Juan 

Jose,  241 
Argentina,  38-39  * 

Antarctic  territories   dispute, 
39 

army,  338,  341 

attempt  on  Per6n's  Me,  39 

elections,  38 

literature,  302 

Mexico,  relations  with,  337 

newspapers,  395 

parliamentary  crisis,  39 
Arizona,  39* 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

Indian  franchise,  262 


Arizona  (Continued) 

legislation,  40 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  133 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Arkansas,  40* 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

populations,  444 

representatives,  133 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
armaments   and   armed   forces, 

UN  action  on,  570,  578 
Armed  forces,  U.S., 

coordination  of,  359 

cost  of  upkeep,  459 

Civilian  Components,  361 

expansion  of,  586 

food  consumption,  13 

Hoover  Commission,  362 

Information  School,  361 

Key  West  Conference,  359 

Medical  Services,  361 

Military  Air  Transport,  360 

military  law,  362 

Military  Sea  Transport,  361 

Munitions  Board,  361 

National  Military  Establish- 
ment, 359  * 

naval  progress,  364 

Newport  Conference,  360 

recruiting,  361 
Armed  Forces  Information 

School,  361 
Armed  Forces  Staff  College, 

292 
armies,  338-339 

Australia,  341 

Great  Britain,  340 

Greece,  341 

U.S.S.R.,  340 
Army,  U.S.,  40-41,  359 

changes  for  enlisted  men,  40 

Courts-Martial,  40 

functions,  339 

ground  forces,  340 

reorganization,  41,  339 

Reserve  and  National  Guard, 
340 

training,  340 

U.S.,  339 

Women's  Army  Corps,  41 
Arozamena,  Domingo,  416 
art,  41-44  * 

art  and  industry,  44 

acquisitions,  44 

exhibitions,  41-42 

Latin  American,  300-301  * 

museums,  41 

National  Academy  of  De- 
sign, 356  * 

painting,  43 

prints,  44 

sales,  44 

sculpture,  43,  44 


arts  and  crafts  in  Korea,  296 
Arctic, 

exploration  in,  177 

weather  stations  in,  644 
Articles  of  War,  amended,  40 
Ashanti,  232 
Asian  Cominform,  130 
Associated  Press,  393 
associations.  See  under  societies 
and    organizations,    508- 
523. 

Associations  of  Comic  Maga- 
zine Publishers,  Inc.,  321 
Asswam  Dam,  163 
astronomy,  44—46  * 

moon,  observation  of,  46 

new  camera,  46 

new  comets,  45 

Palomar  telescope,  44,  45 
Attlee,  Clement  R.,  234 
atom  smashing,  431 
atomic  energy, 

atomic  fission,  47 

Federal  action  on,  586 

Federal  legislation,  181 

fuel,  402 

power,  402 

radioisotopes,  402 

Red  Cross  resolution  on,  472 

UN  Commission  impasse, 

570 
Atomic  Energy  Act, 

FBI  role,  181 
Atomic  Energy  Commission, 

The  U.S.,  46  * 
atrocities,  German,  640,  641, 

642 

Auriol,  M.  Vincent,  209 
aureomycin,  328 
Australia,  47  * 

aid  to  Britain,  48 

area,  47 

army,  338 

exploration  in,  177 

bank  nationalization,  49 

Commonwealth  relations,  48 

currency  problem,  48,  49 

immigration,  49 

literature,  49-50* 

referendum  defeat,  49 
Australian  literature,  49-50* 

current  events,  50 

drama,  50 

fiction,  50 

history,  50 

poetry,  50 
Austria,  50-52  * 

communications,  51 

displaced  persons,  474 

Marshall  Plan,  52 

occupation  forces,  50 

treaty  negotiations,  51 

U.S.S.R.,  relations  with,  52 
automobiles, 

accidents  in,  2 

battery-driven,  165 

casualties,  267 

Great  Britain,  236 

magnetic  clutch,  434 

See  also  motor  vehicles, 
aviation,  civil,  53  * 

aerial  surveys  for  forest- 
insect  detection,  266 


665 

Aviation  (Continued) 

aerial  spraying  against  forest- 
insects,  266 

airline  traffic,  55 

air  parcel  post,  55 

airport  program,  57 

British  engines,  58 

cargo  lines,  56 

charts  for,  221 

Civil  Aeronautics  Adminis- 
tration, 118  * 

Civil  Aeronautics  Authority, 
119* 

Civil  Aeronautics  Board, 
119* 

education  in,  160 

feeder  lines,  56 

International  Organization, 
272 

international  records,  57 

major  airline  crashes,  55 

personal  flying,  56 

photography  in,  427 
aviation,  naval, 

program,  367 

rocketry  and  jet  propulsion, 
57,  58 

recommendations  of  Presi- 
dent's Commission,  53-54 

soaring  and  sailplanes,  57 

school  regulations,  57 

weather  services,  644 
aviation,  military,  58-65  * 

Air  Force,  U.S.,  20-21  * 

Berlin  "airlift,"  229 

Federal  Airways  Aid  to,  118 

foreign  developments,  64-65 

XJnited  States,  58 
budget,  59,  60 
operations,  62,  63 
production,  60,  62,  63 
research,  60,  62 
awards,  for  films,  350 


B 


bacitracin,  327 
Bahrein  Island,  65  * 

Iran  claim  to,  278 

production  and  trade,  65 
Balkans, 

Balkan  Slav  bloc,  85 

UN  Committee,  22,  570 
Bandjai,  263 

Gangka-Billiton-Riouw  Archi- 
pelago, 263 

Bank  for  International  Settle- 
ments, 231 
banks  and  banking,  66-68  * 

commercial  banking,  66 

credit  policies,  67-68 

deposits  and  money  supply, 
66,  67 

Export-Import  Bank,  177 

for  farmers,  179 

Federal  Reserve  System,  67, 
68,  184 

Germany,  229 

Great  Britain,  237 

investments,  66 

insurance  of  deposits,  183 

International  Bank,  271  * 

loans,  66 


INDEX 

Banks     and    Banking     (Con- 
tinued) 

public  debt,  460 

reserves,  67 
Barley,  69  * 

world  production,  69 

U.S.  production,  11,  69 
basketball,  70* 

in  U.S.,  70 

Olympic  results,  404 
Bastista,  Fulgencio,  145 
bee  culture,  266 
Beel,  Louis  J.  M.,  263 
Belgium,  72-74  * 

army,  338 

labor  strikes,  73 

Leopold  III,  King,  72,  73 

navy,  368 

socialism,  501 

Western  Union,  74 
Belgian  Congo,  71-72  * 

Communism,  71 

Ruanda-Urundi,  72 
Belize,  Guatemala,  242,  337 
Bell  Telephone  Laboratories, 

experiments,  126,  127 

inventions,  434 
Beltsville,  Md.,  Agricultural 

Research  Center  at,  8 
Benedict,  Ruth,  31,  370 
Ben  Gurion,  David,  282 
Benelux  countries,  388 

attitude  towards  Spain,  528 

treaty  with  Great  Britain, 

238 
Benes,  Eduard,  128,  147,  148, 

149 

Bentley,  Elizabeth  T.,  588 
Bering  Sea  Patrol,  122 
Berlin, 

"airlift/7  20,  59,  229 

blockade,  21,  229 

British  paper  on,  238 

municipal  elections,  129 

Soviet  role,  565 

Security  Council  action,  576 
Bernadotte,  Count  Folke,  282, 

414 

Berres,  Batlle,  625 
birth  control, 

Planned  Parenthood,  436 

Woman's  Home  Companion 
poll  on,  436 

Massachusetts  League,  436 
births,  U.S.  statistics  on,  634, 

636 
Bituminous  Coal  Research, 

Inc.,  245 

Bizonal  Economic  Administra- 
tion (for  Germany),  228 
Blackett,  Prof.  P.  M.  S.,  433 
Blankers-Koen,  Mrs.  Fanny, 

404 

Bodet,  James  Torres,  337 
Boeing  Airplane  Company 

strike,  298 
Bogota",  Colombia, 

Conference,  39,  411,  417 

revolt,  123 
Bolivia,  75-76  * 

army,  338 

Hertzog-Dutra  meeting,  76 

illiteracy,  76 

literature,  302 

political  unrest,  75 


INDEX 


666 


bonds, 

market  prices,  188 

tables  of  bond  yields,  189 
Bonn  Charter,  formulation  of, 

228 
books,  315,  316,  317, 

International  Book  Ex- 
change, 158 

photographic  reproduction 
of,  425 

microprinting  of,  428 
border  patrol,  U.S.,  257 
Borneo,  East,  263 
Borneo,  South  East,  263 
Borneo,  West,  statistics,  263 
Bothnia,  Gulf  of,  21 
botany,  76-78  * 

cytology,  77 

ecology,  76 

floristics,  76 

genetics,  77 

morphology,  77 

mycology,  77 

pathology,  77 

periodicals,  76 

plant  quarantine,  264-267 

physiology,  77 
boxing,  78  * 

Olympic  results,  404 
Bradley,  Gen.  Omar  W.,  339 
Brazil,  78-80  *       , 

anti-Communist  legislation, 
79 

army,  338 

art,  301 

exploration  in,  177 

literature,  302 

Marshall  Plan,  79 
bread-grain  crop,  world,  12 
bridges,  80-81  * 

all-aluminum,  477 

foreign  bridges,  81 

U.S.  construction,  80-81 
British  Commonwealth,  82-83 

Australian  view  of,  48 

Ceylon  view  of,  100 

Great  Britain,  238 

India,  position  of,  260 

Northern  Ireland  status,  279 

Newfoundland  status,  391 

New  Zealand  view  of,  397 

Pakistan  'dispute,  413 
British  Empire,  82-83  * 
British  Honduras,  83  * 

government,  83 

Mexican  resolution  on  Belize, 
337 

production,  83 

trade,  83 

British  Isles,  archaeology,  35 
Brobeck,  W.  M.,  431 
Bulgaria,  84-86* 

army,  338 

Communism,  85 

Greek  civil  war,  85,  86 
Burma,  Union  of,  86-87 

area,  86 

Communism,  86 

revolt  of  Central  Burma,  87 

socialism,  501 
•Brodie,  Dr.  Israel,  292 
Brookhaven  National  Labora- 
tory, 47,  431 


Buddhism, 

China,  113 

U.S.,  84 
budgets, 

armed  forces,  361 

Bureau  of  the  Budget,  84  * 

electric  light  and  power  con- 
struction, 167 

Federal  government,  458, 

459,  460 

Buffalo  Niagara  Electric  Cor- 
poration, 165 
business,  87-91 

building  design,  37 

commodity  prices,  89 

construction,  87,  88 

consumer  non-durable  goods, 
88 

corporation  profits,  91 

court  cases  affecting,  308 

durable  goods  industries,  88 

foreign  trade,  91 

inventories,  89 

national  income,  87 

national  product,  87 

Office  of  Business  Econom- 
ics, 201 
business  papers,  advertising 

in,  4 
Bustamante,  Jose  Luis,  420 


California,  91  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  133 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
California,  University  of,  phys- 
ics research  at,  431 
Callao  rebellion,  421 
Cambodia,  213 
cameras,  424-430 

all-electric,  165 

in  astronomy,  46 
Campbell,  Thomas  D.,  25 
Canada,  92-95  * 

army,  338 

Britain,  relations  with,  93 

aviation,  65 

Dominion  Prime  Ministers 
Conference,  93 

immigration,  95 

labor  conditions,  296,  297, 
298 

literature,  95 

navy,  368 

Newfoundland  status,  94, 
391 

Marshall  Plan,  94 

ports  and  harbors,  446 

Socialism,  501 

U.S.,  relations  with,  93 
Canadian-American  defense,  93 
Canadian  Library  Association, 

315 
Canadian  literature,  95  * 

biography,  95 


Canadian     Literature      (Con- 

tinned) 
history,  95 
novels,  95 
poetry,  95 
Canadian  Press,  393 
canals,  643 

inter-oceanic,  124 
Panama,  417 
Suez,  532  * 

"Canton  incident,"  117 
capital  investment,  190 
Carias,  Andino,  Tiburcio,  246 
Caribbean  Legion,  142,  156, 

247,  398 
Carlos  VIII,  527 
Carnegie  endowments,  96  * 
Carnegie  Corporation  of 

N.Y.,  96 

Carnegie  Endowment  for  In- 
ternational Peace,  97 
Carnegie  Foundation  for  the 
Advancement   of  Teach- 
ing, 97 

Carnegie  Institute,  43 
Carnegie  Institution  of 

Washington,  97 
Catalog  of  Copyright  Entries, 

140 

Catholic  Church,  Roman, 
Brazil,  80 
China,  113 
Costa  Rica,  141 
Czechoslovakia,  479 
France,  479 
Hungary,  253,  628 
Italy,  130,  285, -286,  479 
international  role,  627-628 
Catholic  Church,  Roman,  in 

U.S.,  97-99  * 
Catholic  press,  98 
displaced  persons,  98 
in  education,  479 
hierarchy  meeting,  98 
lay  organizations,  99 
schools,  98 
social  actions,  98 
veterans  services,  98 
cattle, 

Argentina,  38 
Chile,  110 

foot-and-mouth  disease,  630 
grazing  lands  for,  206 
cellulose,  chemical  experiments 

with,  109 

Central  Conference  of  Ameri- 
can Rabbis,  292 
cereal  products,  13,  14 
Ceylon,  100  * 
Commonwealth  Conference, 

100 

UN  membership,  100,  571 
Chalbaud,  Carlos,  628 
Chambers,  Whittaker,  588 
Chamizal,  337 
Chandernagor,  213 
Channel  Islands,  233 
charity,  contributions  to,  131, 

422 

Community  Chests  and 
Councils  of  America, 
131* 

Community  Trusts,  131  * 
Masons,  212 


667 


INDEX 


chemicals, 

from  coke  and  coal,  342 

raw  materials,  342 

in  photography,  430 
chemistry  and  chemical  tech- 
nology, 100-110* 

analytical  chemistry,  101 

Bureau  of  Agricultural  and 
Industrial  Chemistry,  8 

chemurgy,  101 

drugs,  101 

fertilizer,  102 

fuel,  102,  103 

metallurgy,  103 

Nobel  prize  in,  399 

nuclear  chemistry,  103 

organic  free  radicals,  104 

petroleum  refining,  104 

pharmacology,  105 

plastics,  105 

polymerization,  106 

protein,  106 

sewage  and  wastes,  107 

radioisotopes,  107 

starch,  107,  108 

synthetic  rubber,  108 

tumor  enzymology,  109 

wood  and  paper,  109 
Chennault,  General  Claire  L., 

115 

Chiang  Kai-shek,  Mme.,  117 
Chiang  Kai-shek,  General,  114, 

115 
Children's  Medical  Center, 

Boston,  329 
Children's  Bureau,  186 
child  welfare, 

Children's  Fund  of  Michi- 
gan, 110 

child  welfare  in  U.S.,  297, 
638 

Federal  program,  186 

Social  Security  services,  508 

UN  Appeal  for  Children,  580 

UN  resolution  on  Greek  chil- 
dren, 570 
Chile,  110-112  * 

Antarctic  territories  dispute, 
112 

anti-Communist  legislation, 
111 

army  size,  338 

literature,  302 

Marshall  Plan,  94 
China,  112-118  * 

agricultural  improvement, 
198 

army  size,  338 

Communism,  114,  116,  130 

displaced  persons,  473 

Formosa,  208  * 

navy,  368 

production,  113 

Tungting  flood,  116 

U.S.-China  relations,  117 

UN,  relations  with,  117 
Chinese  Federation  of  Labor, 

299 
Christian  Science  Publishing 

Society,  118 
church-state  issue, 

Hungary,  253 

U.S.,  306 

Church  World  Service,  Inc., 
183 


Churchill,  Winston,  234 
Cinecolor  Corporation,  426 
Citizens  Federal  Committee  on 

Education,  160 
Citizens  Radio  service,  182 
Civil  Aeronautics  Administra- 
tion, 118,*  54 
Civil  Aeronautics  Board,  119,* 

53,  54,  57 

Civil  AJFairs  Division,  U.S. 
Army  magazine  distribu- 
tion, 322 

Civil  Air  Transport,  115 
Civil  Aviation,  Department  of, 

54 
Civil  Defense  Planning,  U.S. 

Office  of,  194 
Civil  liberties, 
Federal  legislation,  587 
in  Italy,  285 
in  U.S.,  304-307 
Civil  service,  U.S.,  119  * 
F.B.I,  "loyalty"  check,  120, 

181,  182,  588 
reconversion  program,  119 
number  of  persons  employed, 

119 
civil  war, 

Costa  Rica,  141 
China,  116 
See  also  revolts. 
Clarke-McNary  Act,  206 
Clay,  General  Lucius  D.,  227 
Cleveland,  bus  line  changes, 

469 

coal,  120-121  * 
coal  chemicals,  342 
conversion  of,  244 
exports,  121 
Great  Britain,  236 
reclamation  of  fines,  245 
research,  245,  343 
strikes,  120 

synthetic  fuel  from,  343 
Taft-Hartley  Act,  120 
U.S.  reserves,  103 
world  production,  121 
See  also  coke. 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey, 
maps,  121 
research,  121 
seismological  service,  491 
Coast  Guard,  U.S.,  121-122 
Bering  Sea  Patrol,  122 
enforcement  of  Federal  laws, 

122 
International  Conference, 

121 

International  Ice  Patrol,  121 
rescues,  121 
coffee,  122-123* 
consumption,  122 
production,  122 
Brazil,  79 
Coffee  Growers,  Federation  of, 

168 
coke,  123,*  342 

U.S.  production,  103 

See  coal,  and  minerals  and 

metals. 

"cold  war."  See  Communism, 
colleges  and  universities.  See 
universities  and  colleges, 
593-624. 


colonization,  Alaska  experi- 
ment in,  21 
Colorado,  124  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
legislation,  124 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  133 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Colorado-Big  Thompson  Proj- 
ect, 31 

Columbia,  123-124  * 
army  strength,  338 
Bogota  revolt,  123 
Communism,  124 
literature,  302 
strikes,  124 
Columbia  River, 
flood,  333 
flood  control,  197 
Columbia  University,  experi- 
ments at,  432 

Columbian  Workers,  Confed- 
eration of,  124 
cornet  discoveries,  45 
comics,  321 
Cominform, 
Albania,  23 
Bulgaria,  85 
China,  130 
Czechoslovakia,  563 
denouncement  of  Tito,  129 
Greece,  23 
Yugoslavia,  563 
commerce, 

Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Do- 
mestic Commerce,  200— 
202* 
Federal  law  on  interstate 

commerce,  309,  310 
See  also  trade,  foreign. 
Commerce,  U.S.  Department 

of,  124-125  * 
and  aviation,  54 
housing  functions,  251 
Commission  for  Defense  of  De- 
mocracy, investigation  of, 
159 
Commission  on  Narcotic  Drugs, 

UN,  356 

committees.   See  under  socie- 
ties and  organizations, 
508-523. 

Commodity  Exchange  Author- 
ity, 125  * 

communications,  125-128  * 
electrical,  126 
experiments,  126 
international  languages,  172 
use  of  photography  in,  425 
printing  developments,  126 
radio,  127 
in  Siam,  497 
telegraphy,  127 
telephony,  128 
See  also  Federal  Communi- 
cations Commission,  182- 
183.* 

Communism,  128-131  * 
Albania,  22 


INDEX 


668 


Communism  (Continued} 
Algeria,  24 

Asian  Cominform,  130 
Austria,  51,  52 
Belgium,  73 
Brazil,  79 
Bulgaria,  85 
Burma,  86,  130 
Chile,  111 

China,  114,  116,  130 
Colombia,  124 
Cuba,  145 

Czechoslovakia,  128,  147 
Denmark,  153 
Finland,  129,  191 
France,  210,  215 
Germany,  227,  129 
Hungary,  252 
India,  130,  260 
Indochina,  130 
Indonesia,  264 
Italy,  129,  285 
Korea,  294 
Norway,  401 
Poland,  129,  441 
Philippines,  423 
Rumania,  482 
Siam,  498 

and  Socialist  movement,  500 
U.S.,  130 
in  education,  159 
Federal  action  against,  588 
in  labor  unions,  358 
Venezuela,  629 
Yugoslavia,  129 
Compensation,  Bureau  o£  Em- 
ployees, 168* 
concentration  camps,  Germany, 

642 
Confederation  of  Chilean 

Workers,  111 
Confederation    of    Colombian 

Workers,  124 

Conference  of  American  States, 
Ninth  Inter- American,  411 
role  of  Argentina  at,  39 
Confucianism, 
China,  113 
Congress,  U.S., 
members  of  81st,  132-136 
record  of  80th,  584 
war  powers  of,  308 
Congress  of  Anthropological 
and  Ethnological  Sciences, 
Third  International,  29 
Congress  of  Industrial  Organi- 
zations (CIO),  136* 
convention,  299 
Connecticut,  136* 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
legislation,  136 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  133 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132* 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
conscientious  objectors,  legal 

provision  for,  308 
conscription, 
Great  Britain,  237,  341 


Conscription  (Continued) 
U.S.  Selective  Service  Act, 

492-494,  586 
conservation, 
forests,  206 

fish  and  wildlife,  195-196 
Conservation  Division  of  Geo- 
logical Survey,  223 
Constitutional  Committee   (for 

Western  Germany),  228 
construction,  136-138  * 
amount,  136 
costs  of,  137 

court  decisions  affecting,  138 
equipment,  138 
geographical  distribution, 

137 
houses, 

amount,  137 
cost  of,  249 
residential,  248 
housing  needs,  138 
seasonal  variation,  137 
value  of,  136 
construction  industry, 
aqueducts,  31  * 
architecture,  36  * 
bridges,  80  * 
building  activity,  87 
dams,  149  * 
foundations,  208* 
houses,  248,  87 
ports  and  harbors,  446  * 
roads  and  streets,  476  * 
shipbuilding,  325 
tunnels,  554  * 
value,  87 

waterways,  inland,  643  * 
Bee  also  under  construction. 
Continental  Air  Command,  21 
continents,  population  table 

for,  442 

Convair  Equipment  Corpora- 
tion, 55 

cooking,  use  of  spices  in,  530 
Cooperative  Commonwealth 

Federation,  94 
Cooperative  Health  Services, 
Institute  of  Inter-American 

Affairs,  269 
Cooperative  League  of  U.S.A., 

139 
cooperatives,  consumers',  138- 

139* 

amount  of  business,  139 
number  of  members,  139 
types,  139 

cooperatives,  agricultural,  7,  8, 
Cooperative  Wildlife  Research 

units,  196 

copper,  139-140,*  341 
Coptic  Church  in  Ethiopia,  173 
copyrights, 

better  service  on,  140 
Catalog  of  Copyright  En- 
tries, 140 
claims  to,  140 
increased  fees  for,  140 
Office  of  Alien  Property,  25 
Cordova,  Manuel,  J.  168 
Corfu  incident,  UN  Security 
Council  debate  on,  23 
corn,  140  * 
world  output,  140 
U.S.  output,  140,  11 


Corn  (Continued) 

U.S.  exports,  13,  14 
corporations, 

assets  and  liabilities,  191 

finances,  189 

profits,  91 
Costa  Rica, 

agriculture,  270 

civil  war,  141,  142 

elections,  141 

literature,  303 

invasion  of,  398,  417 
Costellp,  John  A.,  164 
costs,  living,  589 

construction,  137 

housing,  249 

See  also  prices, 
cotton,  142  * 

cotton  gin  cooperatives,  7 

goods  produced,  545 

U.S.  production,  18,  142 

world  cottonseed  output,  142 

world  production,  18,  142 
court  cases, 

affecting  education,  160 

against  glass  companies,  231 

affecting  construction  indus- 
try, 138 

See  also  law. 
court  games,  142-143* 

tennis,  142 

squash  rackets,  143 
Courts-Martial,  U.S.  Army, 

40 

Crab  Orchard  National  Wild- 
life Refuge,  195,  196 
credit, 

bank  policies,  67 

Commodity  Credit  Corpora- 
tion, 125  * 

See  also   loans. 

crime,  143-144,  180-182,  452- 
454 

amount  in  U.S.,  143 

Army  and  Navy,  452 

and  civil  liberties,  306 

FBI  statistics  on,  181 

general  problem  of,  144 

incidence  of,  143,  180 

increase  of,  452 

juvenile  delinquency,  143, 453 

legal  aspects  of,  306 

prevention  of,  180 

prison  population,  452 

probation  and  parole,  453 

sex  offenders,   453 

State  legislation,  453 
crops,  See  food. 
Cuba,  144-146  * 

army,  338 

art,  301 

Communism,  145 

Dominican  Republic  dispute, 
418 

elections,  145 

labor  crisis,  145 
currency  reform, 

China,   204 

France,  204,  209 

Germany,  204 

New  Zealand,  205 

Western  Germany,  228 

See  also  money. 
Customs  Union  Commission, 
West  Indies,  83 


669 


INDEX 


cycling,  U.S.  Olympics,  405 
cyclotrons,  430,  431 
Cyprus,  146  * 

archaeology,  35 
Cyrenaica,  disposition  of,  287, 

317 

cytology,  and  genetics,  77 
Czechoslovakia,  146-149  * 

army  size,  338 

Communism,  128 

Communist  coup,  147,  148 

cooperation  with  Poland, 
441 

displaced  persons,  474 

elections,  147,  148 

general  strike,  147 

Marshall  Plan,  147 

Security  Council  action  on, 
577 


D 


17 


Dahomey,  217 
dairy  industry, 

Bureau  of,  9 

cooperatives,  7 

products,  13,  14, 
Dakar,  217 
dams,  149-150  * 

Asswam  Dam,  Egypt,  163 

Bekhme  Dam,  279 

Davis  Dam,  149 

foreign  dams,  150 

Grand  Coulee  Project,  149 

Hell's  Canyon,  149 

Hungry  Horse,  149 

McNairy,  149 

TVA,  543 
Danube  Conference,  150  * 

background  to,  150 

outcome  of,  150 

U.S.S.R.  role  in,  563 

Yugoslavia,   effect  on,  650 
Davis  Dam,  149 
Dawson,  Wra.  L.,  386 
deaths, 

automobile,  267,  476 

general  statistics  on,  635, 
636 

See  also  under  accidents; 
and  necrology,  369-386. 
de  Borbon,  Juan,  527 
Deception  Island,  177 
de  Gasperi,  Alcide,  285 
De  Gaulle,  Charles,  211 

party  of,  130,  209 
Defense  Transportation,  Office 
of,  151* 

controls  on  railroads,  151 

freight  car  construction,  151 
de  la  Torre,  Haya,  420 
Delaware,  151* 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,   133 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Democratic  Revolutionary 
Rally,  216 


democracy, 

study  of,  in  schools,  159,  160 
Denmark,  152-154* 
army  size,  338 
Communism,  153 
Marshall  Plan,  153 
possessions, 
Faeroes,  178* 
Greenland,  240  * 
South  Schleswig  issue,  152 
war  criminals  trial,  153 
dentistry,  154  * 
manpower,  154 
schools,  154 
teaching,  154 

Des  Moines  Art  Center  contro- 
versy, 41 

de  Valera,  Eamon,  164 
Dictionary  of  Occupational 

Titles,  169 

Dimitrov,  Premier  Georgi,  gov- 
ernment of,  85 
Dirac,  Dr.  P.  A.  M.,  433 
direct  mail  advertising,  4 
disarmament,  UN  Proposals, 

570,  578 
disasters, 
aircraft,  55 

Philippine  earthquake,  423 
Texas  City  blast,  116 
Tungting  flood,  116 
Disaster  Surplus  Property  Pro- 
gram, 131 
diseases, 
cattle,  630 
communicable,  463 
domestic  animals,  630-632 
general,  464 
malaria  and  typhus,  control 

of,  487 
plants,  77 
tuberculosis,  462 
venereal,  463 

See  also  Public  Health  Serv- 
ice, 462. 
Displaced  Person  Act  of  1948, 

98,  258,  473 
divorce, 
law,  310 

statistics  on,  635,  636 
Dodecanese  Islands,  disposition 

of,  240 
Domestic  Commerce,  Office  of, 

201 
Dominican  Republic,  155- 

156* 

dispute  with  Cuba,  418 
literature,  303 

Dominion  Prime  Ministers  con- 
ference, Canadian  role  at, 
93 

draft,  See  conscription  and  se- 
lective service, 
drama, 
Australia,  50 
France,  215 
Germany,  225 
Italy,  283 
Netherlands,  390 
Pulitzer  prize,  466 
Spain,  529 
U.S.,  27 
U.S.S.R.,  484 
drugs,  101,  105,  199 
antibacterial,  327 


Drugs  (Continued) 
discoveries,  101,  462 
eye  treatment,  for,  409 
narcotic,  356,  572 

Du  Bois,  W.  E.  B.,  386 

Dutra,   Eurico   G.,   and   com- 
munists, 79 


E 


earnings, 
airlines,  55 

consumers*  cooperatives,  139 
electric  power  sales,  166 
motion  picture  industry,  348 
railroads,  468 
U.S.  farmers,  14 
See  also  wages  and  profits, 
earthquakes, 
Iran,  492 
Japan,  492 
Philippines,  424,  492 
seismology,  scope  of,  490 
seismological  organizations, 

491 

study  of,  121 

usefulness  of  data  on,  491 
EGA  program,  203 

See  also  Marshall  Plan, 
ecology,  76 

Economic  and  Social  Council, 
UN,  Commission  on  Nar- 
cotic Drugs,  356 
Economic  Conference,  Havana, 

Mexican  role  at,  337 
Economic  Cooperation  Admin- 
istration, 
U.S.,  203 
aid  to  Korea,  295 
sale  of  magazines,  322 
Ecuador,  156-157  * 
art,  301 
Gran  Colombia  Conference, 

157 

literature,  303 
Eddy,  Mary  Baker,  118 
editing  of  magazines,  322 
education,  157-162,*  185 
in  aviation,  57 
Catholic  church,  98 
curriculum,  159 
exchange  of  students,  30 
Federal  legislation,  158, 

159,  160 

in  fire  prevention,  195 
Fulbright  Act,  158,  162 
General  Education  Board, 

218 

higher  education,  158 
Hungary,  253 
Indian  reservations,  262 
institutional  enrollment,  593 
inter-American  cooperation 

in,  270 

librarians,  316 
Methodist  Church,  335 
military,  291-292 
Negro  discrimination,  305 
"released"  time  issue,  306 
Rockefeller  grants  to,  478 
teacher  supply,  158,  185 
UNESCO,  157,  557-558  * 
U.S.  Office  of,  159-162 
veterans,  629,  161 


INDfX 


670 


Education  (Continued) 
veterinarians,  631 
vocational  guidance,  186 
See  also  under  names  of 

countries. 
Education,  U.S.  Office  of,  159- 

162* 

aviation  education,  160 
Citizens  Federal  Committee, 

160 

enrollments,  159 
Federal  legislation,  160 
foreign  students,  161 
grant-in-aid  programs,  161 
Health  services,  160 
library  services,  160 
Negro  leaders,  160 
rural  education,  160 
science  in  education,  160 
teachers,  160 
veterans,  161 

Education  Division,  Institute  of 
Inter- American  Affairs, 
270 

Educational,  Scientific  and 
Cultural  Organization, 
UN,  conference  on  Beirut, 
157,  312 
elections, 
Albania,  38 
Algeria,  24 
Canada,  94 
China,  115 
Costa  Hica,  141 
Cuba,  145 

Czechoslovakia,  147,  148 
Eire,  164 
Finland,  193 
France,  210 
Honduras,  £46 
Italy,  286 
Korea,  294 
Netherlands,  387 
Puerto  Kico,  466 , 
Rumania,  481 
Siam,  498 
South  Africa,  524 
Spain,  528 
Sweden,  534 
U.S.,  583 
See  also  under  names  of 

States. 
Egypt, 

Arab  League  affairs,  32 
archaeology,  34 
army  size,  338 
Britain,  relations  with,  162 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  28* 
Palestine  problem,  163,  415 
Sudan  question,  29 
Eire,  163-164* 
Britain,  relations  with,  164 
Commonwealth  relations, 

237,  238 
Northern  Ireland,  question, 

279 

electrical  industries,  164-165* 
appliances,  164 
magnetic  clutch,  165 
power  plants,  164,  165 
transformers,  165 
electric  light  and  power,  165- 

167* 

budget,  167 
finances,  166 


Electric  Light  and  Power  (Con- 
tinued) 

generating  capacity,  167 
operation,  166 
rural  electrification,   167 
electronics, 

contributions  to  music,  355 
electronic  computers,  357 
new  devices,  434 
in  printing,  126 
in  radio,  626 
elevators,  improvements  for, 

165 

Elizabeth,  Princess,  237 
embryology,  research  on,  652 
Emergency  Price  Control  Act, 

provisions  of,  247,  248 
emigration.  See  immigration, 
emigration,  and 
naturalization. 
Emmanuel  III,  King  Victor, 

285 

employment,  168-169 
extent  of,  U.S.,  450 
population  by  employment 

status  tables,  446 
on  railroads,  468 
in  shipbuilding,  495 
Social  Security  Administra- 
tion, 505 

textile  industry,  545 
unemployment  insurance, 

169 
U.S.,  Canada,  and  Britain, 

297 
U.S.  Employment  Service, 

168 

Veterans  Employment  Serv- 
ice, 169 
Vocational  rehabilitation, 

636 
Employment  Security,  Bureau 

of,  168 

Employment  Service,  U.S., 
responsibilities  of,  168 
endowments, 
Duke,   156* 
Carnegie,  96-97 
engineering, 
in  agriculture,  10 
foundation  construction,  208 
in  geology,  220 
See  also   construction. 
English  literature,  169-171  * 
biography,  170 
contemporary  scene,  170 
history,  170 
literary  history,  170 
novel,  171 
poetry,  171 
short  stories,  171 
England,  area  and  population, 

233 
Environmental  Health  Center, 

Cincinnati,  464 
Eniwetok  Atoll, 

experiment  at,  46,  240,  401 
Entomology  and  Plant  Quaran- 
tine, Bureau  of,  9 
Eritrea,  Italian,  171  * 
disposition  of,  287 
Ethiopian  view,  174 
Erlander,  Tage,  534 
Eskimos,  in  Alaska,  21 


.  essays, 

France,  216 

Netherlands,  390 
Estime,  Dumarsais,  242 
Ethiopia,  173-174  * 

army  size,  338 

American  relations,  174 

Italian  colonies  question,  174 

UN  assistance,  174 
entomology,  research  in,  264 
European  Recovery  Program, 
174-176  * 

and  prices,  449 

cost  of,  459 

See  also  Marshall  Plan. 
Evatt,  Dr.  Herbert  V.,  role  of, 

in  General  Assembly,  48 
Everglades  National  Park, 

Florida,  363 

exhibitions  of  art,  41—43 
Existentialism, 

Communist  view  of,  215 
expenditures,  Federal  Govern- 
ment, 

decline  in,  459 

graphs  of,  459,  460 
Experiment  Stations,  Office  of, 

10 
exploration,  176-178  * 

Africa,  176 

Antarctic,  177 

archaeological,  34-38 

Arctic,  177 

Asia,  176 

marine,  177 

South  America,  177 
explosives,  minimizing  hazards 

of,  344 
exports,  201 
Export-Import  bank,  93, 177  * 

table  of  costs,  202 
Extension  Service,  19 


Faisal  II,  King,  278 
Falkland  Islands,  178,*  337 
dispute  over,  39 
exploration  on,   177 
Far  Eastern  Commission,  288, 

289 
Farm  Credit  Administration. 

178,*  19 
farmers, 

crop-loss  insurance,   183 
FCA  loans  to,  178 
FHA  loans  to,  179 
insurance  for,  183 
See  also  under  agriculture. 
Farmers  Home  Administration, 

179* 

farming  costs,  15 
farms,  electrification  of,  483 
Farm  Security  Administration, 

19 

fats  and  oils,  13,  14,  19,  175 
Federal  Advisory  Council,  185 
Federal  Aid  Airport  Program, 

118 

Federal  Airways  aid,  118 
Federal  Barge  Lines,  125 
Federal    Bureau   of   Investiga- 
tion, 180-182,*   143,   144 


Federal   Bureau   of   Investiga- 
tion (Continued) 
Civil  Service  investigation, 

120,  181,  182 
jurisdiction  of,  180 
legislation  pertaining  to,  181 
training  for,  181 
Federal  Crimes  Bill,  143 
Federal  Crop  Insurance  Act, 

amendment  of,  183 
Federal  Displaced  Person  Act, 

98 

Federal  Extortion  Statute,  181 
Federal  Housing  Administra- 
tion, 251 

Federal  National  Mortgage  As- 
sociation, 470 
Federal  Open  Market  Com- 
mittee, 185 
Federal  Security  Agency,  185- 

186* 

Childrens  Bureau,  186 
Office  of  Education,  185 
Public  Health  Service,  185 
Federal  Trade  Commission, 

186* 

"Cement  Institute"  case,  138 
Federal  Works  Agency,  187  * 
Bureau  of  Community  Facil- 
ities, 131 
feed  supplies,  17 
fencing,  187  * 
in  U.S.  187 
Olympic  results,  405 
ferro-alloy  metals,  341 
fertilizers,  commercial,  102, 

342 

cost  of,  15 
fertilizer  plant  cooperatives, 

7 

Fezzan,  317 
fiction,  writing  of, 
Germany,  225 
Italy,  283 
See  also  under  literature 

articles. 

Field  Service,  Office  of,  202 
Figueres,  Jose,  141 
films,  348 
awards  for,  350 
propaganda,  273 
See  also  under  motion  pic- 
tures, 
finance, 

devaluation  of  franc,  209 
Reconstruction  Finance 

Corporation,  469-470 
See  also  banks  and  banking; 
foreign  exchange;   money; 
and  under  names  of  coun- 
tries. 

finance,  U.S.,  187-191  * 
bond  market,  188,  189 
consumer  spending,  190 
corporate  capital,  190 
national  savings,  190  ' 
stock  market,  187,  188,  189 
finances,  Federal  legislation, 

586 
Financial  and  Development, 

Office  of,  205 
fine  arts,  American  writings  on, 

28 

fingerprints,  FBI  collection  of, 
180 


671 

Finland,  191-193* 
Aland  Islands,  21  * 
army  size,  338 
Communism,  129,  191 
dismissal  of  Leino,  192 
elections,  193 
labor  difficulties,  139 
Marshall  Plan,  193 
fire  insurance  cooperatives,  8 
Fire  Prevention  Week,  195 
Fire  protection,  193-195  * 
legislation,  194 
losses  from  fire,  194 
methods  of  fighting  fires,  194 
Monsanto     Chemical     Com- 
pany, 267 
fires,  forest,  206 
Fiscal  Service,  U.S. 
Fish  and  Wildlife  Service, 

195,  196 
legislation,  196 
marine  biology  research, 

195,  196 
rat  control,  195 
research  projects,  196 
fishing,  Alaska,  21,  22 
floods,  332 

China,  116 

flood  control,  196-197  * 
Columbia  River  basin,  197 
programs,  196,  197 
research,  207 
of  Soil  Conservation  Service, 

523 
Florida, 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  133 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Florida  Citrus  Canners  Cooper- 
ative, 20 

flying, 'personal,  56 
Fogg  Museum,  (Harvard),  42 
folkfore,  197* 
food, 

consumption  of, 
U.S.,  11,  12 
foreign  12, 
ERP  program,  175 
exports  of,  12,  13,  14 
inspection  of,  186 
Institute  of  Inter-American 

Affairs,  278 
inter-American     cooperation, 

270 

prices,  U.S.,  589 
production, 
U.S.,  11, 
world,  10,  12 
production  and  consumption 

estimates,  175 
resources  and  birth  control, 

436 

shortage  of, 
world,  12 
Europe,  12 
Philippines,  424 
UN  resolution  on  wastage, 
572 


INDEX 

Food  (Continued") 

U.S.  contributions  to  Europe, 

203 

See  also  Food  and  Drug  Ad- 
ministration, 199.* 
Food  and  Agriculture  Organi- 
zation, UN,  198-199,* 
allocation  of  food,  198 
annual  conferences,  199 
missions,  199 
services,  199 
foods, 

nutrition  research,  10 
cooking,  10 

Food  Supply  Division,  Institute 
of,  Inter- American  Affairs, 
270 
foot-and-mouth  disease,  in 

Mexico,  630 
football,  200  * 
in  U.S.,  200 
Olympic  results,  405 
Foreign  and  Domestic  Com- 
merce, Bureau  of,  200  * 
Business  Economics,  Office 

of,  201 
Domestic  Commerce,  Office 

of,  201 

Field  Service,  Office  of,  202 
International  Trade,  Office 

of,  201 
Small  Business,  Office  of, 

202 

Foreign  Assistance  Act,  203 
Foreign  Economic  Cooperation 

Act,  585 

foreign  exchange,  203-205  * 
International  Bank,  205 
International  Monetary 

Fund,  203 
foreign  aid,  202 
gold  imports,  205 
Foreign  Liquidation  Commis- 
sions, 205  * 
loan  to  Korea,  295 
surplus  property,  205 
foreign  relief, 

Advisory  Committee  on  Vol- 
untary Foreign  Aid,  4  * 
U.S.  aid  to  China,  117 
See  relief  and  rehabilitation. 
Foreign  Service,  U.S.,  531 
foreign  trade,  91 
Belgium,  74 

Tariff  Commission,  U.S.,  539 
See  also  under  names  of 

countries. 

Foreign-Trade  Zones  Act,  201 
Foreign-Trade  Zones  Board, 

205* 
Forest  Products  Laboratory, 

experiments  at,  207 
forests, 

forest  insects,  266 
tree  diseases,  267 
Forest  Service,  U.S.  205-208* 

Alaska  timber  sale,  206 
•     cooperative  work,  206 

research,  206-207 
Forrestal,  James,  359,  360 
Fosdick,  Dr.  Raymond  B.,  45 
fossils,  study  of,  220 
foundations, 
Bartol,  211 
Biochemical,  211 


INDEX 


672 


Foundations  (Continued) 
Buhl,  84  * 
Carnegie,  97* 
Falk,  178  * 
Ford,  200  * 
Georgia  Warm  Springs, 

224* 

Guggenheim,  242  * 
Hayden,  244  * 
Kellogg,  293* 
Liberia,  313 
Markle,  325 
Reynolds,  475 
Rockefeller,  478* 
Sloan,  500  * 
Textile,  544* 
World  Peace,  648  * 
See  also  under  societies  and 

organizations,  508—523. 
Fourteenth  Amendment  and 

civil  liberties,  305 
France,  208-211  * 
archaeology,  35 
architecture,  36 
army  size,  338 
aviation,  64 
Communism,  130,  210,  211 

215 

elections,  210 
finances,  204 
Indochina  war,  211 
Lebanon,  relations  with,  312 
literature,  214 
Marshall  Plan,  209,  210 
Monnet  Plan,  209 
navy,  368 

ports  and  harbors,  446 
Ruhr  question,  227,  231 
steel  production,  281 
strikes,  210,  298 
Syria,  relations  with,  538 
franchise,  electoral, 
Algerian  natives,  24 
South  African  natives,  525 
Franco,  Generalissimo,  527 
Freedom  of  the  Press  Confer- 
ence, 117 

Freedom  of  the  Press,  Commis- 
sion on,  395 

free  navigation  of  Danube,  150 
French  Guiana,  213  * 
exploration  in,  177 
statistics  on,  217 
French  Indochina,  213-214* 
cost  of  war  in,  211 
native  uprising,  214 
strife  with  Siam,  498 
French  literature,  214-216  * 
characteristics  of,  214 
drama,  215 
essay,  216 
literary  history,  215 
novel,  215 

Jean-Paul  Sartre,  215 
Freyberg,  Lieut.  Gen.  Sir  Ber- 
nard, 397 

frozen  food  cooperatives,  8 
fruit  and  vegetable  cooper- 
atives, 7 

fruit  insects,  265 
U.S.  product,  18 
fuels,  342-544,  219,  223 
coal,  244,  245,  342 
chemical  research,   102-103 
coke,  342 


Fuels  (Continued) 

geologic  investigation,  219 
investigations  on  oil  and  gas, 

219,  223 

natural  gas,  244,  344 
petroleum,  244,  342,  421 
synthetic  liquid  fuels,  343 
Fulbright  Act, 
provisions  of,  158 
program,  162 
funds,  trust, 

Commonwealth,  125  * 
Children's    Fund    of    Mich- 
igan, 110  * 
See  also  under  societies  and 

organizations,  508-523. 
furs,  21 

Future  Farmers  of  America, 
161 


G 


Gabon,  212 

Gaitan,  Jorge  Eliecer,  123,  417 

Gallegos,  Romulo,  628 

Galvez,  Juan  Manuel,  246 

Gandhi,  Mohandas  K.,  259,  374 

gas, 

from  federal  lands,  223 

geologic  investigation,  219 

natural  gas  and  petroleum, 
342 

Oil   and   Gas    Division,   In- 
terior Department,  403 

pipelines,  245 

research,  102 

sources  of,  244 
General  Assembly,  UN, 

Greek  civil  war,  239 

Korea  Commission,  294 

See  also  under  United  Na- 
tions, 

General  Electric  Company  ex- 
periments, 208,  256,  433 
General  Land  Office,  300 
General  Motors  Corporation 

wage  increase,  297 
generators,  electrical, 

new  types,  165 

capacity  of,  167 
genetics, 

research  in,  652 

Russian  controversy  over,  561 
geochemistry,  220 
geodesy  and  control  surveys, 

220 
Geological  Survey,  219-223  * 

Conservation  Division,  223 

Geologic  Division,  219-220 

Topographic  Division,  220- 
221 

Water  Resources  Division, 

222-223 
geophysics,  219 
George,  King,  237 
George,  King,  of  Greece,  239 
Georgia,  223  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

Negro  question,  386 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  133 


Georgia  (Continued] 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Gerhardsin,  Einar,  400 
German  Economic  Council,  228 
German  literature,  224-226  * 

fiction,  225 

poetry,  225 

theater,  225 
Germany,  226-231  * 

architecture,  36 

army  size,  341 

Berlin  blockade,  229-230 

Bonn  Charter,  228 

currency  reform,  229 

Communism,  129,  227 

displaced  persons,  474 

Eastern  Zone,  230-231 

literature,  224-226* 

London  Conference  on,  228 

military  occupation  of,  226- 
227 

Ruhr  question,  231 

socialism,  501 

steel  production,  281 

war  crimes  trial,  639 

Western  Germany,  204,  227- 

228 
germicides,  269 

germicidal  lamps,  255 
glass  and  glassware,  231  * 

in  lamps,  255 
gold,  231  * 

imports,  205 

production,  342 
Gomulka,  Wladyslaw,  129,  441 
Gonzalez,  Natalicio,  419 
Good   Offices    Committee    and 

Indonesian  war,  263 
Gottwald,  Klement,  128,  147 
government.  See  under  names 

of  countries. 

Graf,  Ferdinand,  speech  of,  51 
Graham  Land,  177 
grain, 

buckwheat,  84 

cooperatives,  7 

exports, 

U.S.,  13,  14,  69 
U.S.S.R.,  560 

stored-grain  insects,  265 

world  consumption,.  175 
Gran  Columbia  Conference,  157 
Grand   Coulee   Irrigation   Pro- 
ject, 149 

Grand  Coulee  power  plant,  165 
grasses  and  legumes,  testing  of, 

207 

grasshoppers,  265 
Grazing  Service,  300 
Gran  San  Martin,  Ramon,  145 
Great  Britain,  233-238  * 

Anglo-Canadian  trade,  93 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  28  * 

army  size,  341 

aviation,  58,  64 

coal  problems,  236 

Commonwealth  and  Empire, 
237-238 

dispute  with  Egypt,  163 

Eire  legislation,  164 

literature,  169-171 

loan  from  U.S.,  202 


673 


INDEX 


Great  Britain  (Continued) 

Marshall  Plan,  235 

merchant  shipping,  496 

military    preparedness,    124, 
340,  341 

nationalization  of  industries, 
236-237 

navy,  368 

National  Health  Act,  501 

newspapers,  395 

ports  and  harbors,  446 

royal  family,  237 

Socialism  in,  501 

steel  industry,  236,  281 

unemployment,  297 

wages,  235-236,  297 

strikes,  298 
Great  Dayak,  263 
Greece,  238-240  * 

Aegean  Islands,  acquisition 
of,  5 

archaeology,  35 

army  size,  338,  341 

Bulgarian  role  in  war,  86 

civil  war,  23,  86 

Marshall  Plan,  239 

UN  Committee  action,  239 
Greek  Orthodox  Church,  156 
Greek-Turkish  Assistance  Act 

(1948),  555 
Greenland,  240  * 

exploration  in,  177 
Groza,  Premier,  481 
Guadalcanal  Island,  83 
Guatemala,  241-242  * 

Belize  affair,  242 

labor  strife,  241  * 

literature,  303 
Gustav  V,  King,  533 
Gustavo  Guerrero,  Dr.  Jose,  168 


H 


Haganah,  414 
Haiti,  242-243  * 

agriculture,  270 

art,  301 

Hansen,  Dr.  William,  431 
Hastie,  William  H.,  633 
Hatta,  Mohammed,  264 
Havana  Charter,  provisions  of, 

276 
health, 

cooperatives,  8 

Indian  medical  service,  262 

insurance  in  Great  Britain, 
237 

health,  mental,  463 
Health  and  Sanitation  Division, 
Institute    of    Inter-Ameri- 
can affairs,  269 
heart  disease  treatment,  326 
heating  and  ventilating,  244r- 
245* 

fuel  supply,  244-245 

research,  245 

Hebrew  Union  College,  292 
Hell's  Canyon  Dam,  149 
helium,  344 
heroin,  356 

Hertzog,  Dr.  Enrique,  govern- 
ment of,  75 
highways, 

aerial  photos  for,  426 


Highways  (Continued) 

appropriations,  465 

construction  of,  137 

cost  of,  465 

heated,  245 

improvement,  465 

Public  Roads  Administration, 
465 

See  also  roads   and  streets. 
Hispaniola,  island  of, 

Dominican  Republic,   155  * 

Haiti,  242  * 
Hiss,  Alger,  588 
history,  writing  of, 

Australia,  50 

Canada,  95 

England,  170 

Pulitzer  prize,  466 

United  States,  26 
hockey,  field,  245  * 

World  Festival,  245 

Olympic  results,  405 
Holding  Company  Liquidation 

Commission,  289 
home  economics,  education  in, 

161 

Home  Loan  Bank  Board,  251 
homes,  accidents  in,  3 
Hong  Kong,  117 
Hoover  Commission,  362 
horses,  in  U.S.  Army,  340 
Hospital  Survey  and  Construc- 
tion Act,  186 
hospitals, 

armed  services,  361 

construction,  37 

Hospital    Survey    and    Con- 
struction Act,  186 

Marine,  464 

mental,  457 

House  Committee  on  Un-Amer- 
ican Activities,  159 
houses, 

aid-conditioning  in,  20 

electrical  heating  study,  245 

model,  10 
housing,  U.S.,  248-251  * 

Congressional  Committee  on, 
138 

construction,  87,  137,  248 

costs  of,  249 

Federal  legislation,  249,  251, 
585 

financing,  248,  470 

government  activity,  251 

insurance  companies,  268 

need  estimate,  249 

new-style  apartment  build- 
ing,  37 

veterans  loans,  248 
Housing  and  Home  Finance 

Agency,  250^ 
Housing  ElpeffiSer,  Office  of, 

247-248  *      * 
Hoxha,  Gen.  Enver,  22 
Hukbalahops,  423 
Human  Nutrition  and  Home 

Economics,  Bureau  of,  10 
Human  Rights,  Universal  De- 
claration of,  572 
Hungary,  252-254  * 

American  criticism  of,  253 

church-state  issue,  253 

Communism,  252 

elections,  246 


Hungary  (Continued) 

persecution  of  Catholic 
Church,  479 

treaty  with  U.S.S.R.,  253 
Hungry  Horse  Dam,  Montana, 

149 

Hussein,  Ibn,  551 
Hyderabad, 

conquest  of,  260 

Security  Council  action,  577 


Idaho,  254  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  133 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Identification  Division  of  FBI, 

180 
Illinois,  254 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  133 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Illinois,  University  of,  painting 

exhibition,  41 
illumination,  254-255  * 

improvements,  255 

International  Commission, 

254 
immigration, 

Australia,  49 

Canada,  95 

Israel,  415 

immigration,   emigration,  and 
naturalization,   U.S.,  256- 
259 

Federal  legislation,  258 

immigration  tables,  256 

naturalization,  257' 
income, 

consumers,  190 

national,  87 

radio,  182 

See  also  earnings. 
Independence  National  Histor- 
ical Park,  363 
India,  259-261 

archaeology,  34 

army  size,  338 

art,  301 

Commonwealth  Conference, 
261 

Communism,  260 

dam  construction,  150 

exploration  in,  176 

Hyderabad  conquest,  260 

Kashmir  dispute,  260 

navy  size,  368 

refugees,  474 

spices,  530 


INDSX 


674 


India  (Continued) 

treatment  of  Indians  in  South 

Africa,  525 
Indiana,  261  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343- 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  133 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Indian  Affairs,  Office  of,  21 
India-Pakistan  question,  Secur- 
ity Council  action  on,  576, 
577 

Indian  Independence  Act,  412 
Indians,  American, 
in  Alaska,  21 
Bureau  of  Indian  Affairs, 

261-262  ° 

naturalization  of,  258 
Indians,  East,  in  South  Africa, 

386,  525 

Indonesia,  262-264  * 
Communism,  264 
Dutch  policy,  388 
Dutch-Republican  talks,  264 
and  Islam,  282 
native  revolt,  263,  264 
Indonesia, 

Security  Council  action,  576 
Socialism,  501 
spices,  530 
Industrial  College  of  the  Armed 

Forces,  291 
industrial  production.  See  under 

various  countries, 
industry, 
art  in,  44 

building  design,  37 
expansion  of,  103 

•  hygiene  in,  462 
investment  of  RFC  in  plants, 

470 

radioisotopes,  use  of,  107 
stock  values,  188 
use  of  psychiatry,  458 
waste  disposal  and  treatment, 

487 

See  also  business  review. 
Industry   and  Trade,   Depart- 

*  ment  of,  54 

Infantile  Paralysis,  National 
Foundation  for,  224 

inflation, 
China,  114 

Federal  legislation,  585 
United  States,  589 

Information  and  Educational 
Exchange  Act,  585 

Information  Centers,  U.S.,  322 

inland  waterways,  U.S.,  497 

insecticides.  See  insect  pests  and 
plant  quarantine.  264- 
267**. 

Institute  of  Modern  Art  (Bos- 
ton), 41 

Institute  of  Social  Anthropol- 
ogy, 30 

Institute  de  la  Hispanidad, 
resurrection  of,  527 


institutes, 

Battelle  Memorial,  71  * 
Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts 

and  Sciences,  84* 
Carnegie,  97  * 
Franklin,  211  * 
French,  214  * 
See  also  under  societies  and 

organizations,  508-523. 
Institutions, 
Brookings,  83  * 
Carnegie,  97 
Smithsonian,  500  * 
Insurance,  267-268  * 
casualty,  267 
crop  insurance,  183 
for  farmers,  183 
on  FHA  mortgage,  248 
fire,  267 

Great  Britain,  237,  501 
life,  268 
marine,  268 

old-age,  186,  503,  504,  587 
public  assistance,  504,  505 
railroad  workers,  467 
suretyship,  268 
survivors,  186 
unemployment,  169,  504, 

505 

veterans,  630 
Tntdex,"  127 
inter-American  cooperation, 
Argentina  and  Mexico,  39 
Caribbean  Commission,  96  * 
defense, 

Brazil-U.S.,  291 
Mexico-U.S.,  292 
Inter-American  Affairs,  In- 
stitute of,  268-271 
Inter-American  Conference 
of  American  States,  411 
Inter-American  Confedera- 
tion of  Workers,  Peru,  299 
Organization  of  American 

States,  411-412* 
Pan  American  Union,  417- 

418 

Treaty  of  Reciprocal  Assist- 
ance, 417 

Women's  Bureau  work,  646 
Inter-American  Institute  of 

Agricultural  Sciences,  122 
International  Book  Exchange 

of  UNESCO,  158 
International  Conference  on 
Analytic  Chemistry,  101 
International  Cooperative  Al- 
liance, 139 

International  Educational  Re- 
construction, Commission 
for,  158 

International  Federation  of  Li- 
brary Associations,  315 
International  Ice  Patrol,  121 
International  Labor  Confer- 
ence, 273 
International  Monetary  Fund, 

274* 

purposes,  274 
resources,  274 
transactions,  204,  205 
International  News  Service,  393 
International  Rules  of  Botani- 
cal Nomenclature,  changes 
in,  76 


International  Telephone  and 

Telegraph  Company,  126 
International   Tribunal,   in   Ja- 
pan, 290 
International   Typographical 

Union,  394 

International  Refugee  Organi- 
zation, 258,  279,*  473 
International  Trade,  Office  of, 

201 

inventories,  business,  89 
investments,  monthly  tabula- 
tion of,  66 
Iowa,  276  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  133 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Iran,  277-278  * 

army  size,  338 

exploration  in,  176 

Bahrein  Island  claim,  278 

Seven- Year  Plan,  277 
Iraq,  278-279  * 

Anglo-Iraqi  Treaty,  279 

Arab  League  affairs,  32 

archaeology,  34 

army  strength,  338 

demonstration  on  Palestine 

partition,  279 

Iraq  Petroleum  Company,  278 
Irgun  Zvai  Leumi,  282 
iron  and  steel,  280-281,*  341 

demand,  280 

iron  ore  reserves,  281 

prices,  280 

production, '280 
Isle  of  Man,  233 
Israel,  282,*  413-415 

Judaism  in,  292 

refugees,  474 
Italy,  284-287 

archaeology,  35 

army  strength,  338 

Communism,  130,  285 

elections,  386 

labor  strife,  285,  286 

Marshall  Plan,  285 

naval  strength  368 

question  of  colonies,  174, 287 

UN  action  on,  569 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  479 

shooting  of  Togliatti,  286 

Trieste  problem,  552 
Islamic  Moslem  Brotherhood. 

32 

Ivory  Coast,  217 
Italian  Literature,  282-284  * 

drama,  283 

fiction,  283 

periodical,  283 

poetry,  284 


j 


Jamaica,  83,  287  * 
Japan,  288-291  * 

economic  reconstruction,  291 


675 


INDEX 


Japan  (Continued) 

former  territories,  412 

labor  strife,  290 

Manchurian  army,  117 

navy,  368 

Socialism,  501 

war  crimes  trial,  290,  639 
Japanese,  American,  305 

return  to  West  Coast,  587 
Java, 

Communism,  130 

East  Java,  263 

West  Java,  263 

See  also  Indonesia. 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff,  U.S.,  291- 
292* 

Armed  Forces  Staff  College, 
292 

Industrial  College  of  Armed 
Forces,  291 

National  War  College,  291 
Jerusalem,  414 

UN  action  on,  571,  580,  581 
Jewish  Agency,  414 
Jewish  Institute  of  Religion, 

292 
Jewish  Theological  Seminary, 

292 
Jews, 

Algeria,  24 

French  Morocco,  347 
Jinnah,  Mohammed  AH,  413 
Joint  Congressional  Committee 

on  Housing,  138,  249 
Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff,  291  * 

Key  West  Conference,  359 

Newport  Conference,  360 
Journada  Experimental  Range, 

207 

Japanese  beetle,  265 
Judaism,  292* 

effect  of  establishment  of 
Israel  upon,  292 

in  U.S.,  292 
Juin,   Gen.   Alphonse-Pierre, 

347 

Juliana,  Queen,  387 
jurisprudence,  311 
Justice,  U.S.  Department  of, 
292* 

Antitrust  Division,  31  * 
juvenile  delinquency, 

and  comic  books,  321 

See  also  under  criminology 
and  prisons. 


K 


Kansas,  292  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  133 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Karikal,  213 

Kashmir,  dispute,  413,  260 
Kauai,  Hawaii,  243 
Ketchikan  Pulp  and  Paper 
Company,  206 


Kentucky,  293  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
legislation,  293 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Key  West  Conference  of  Joint 
Chiefs  of  Staff,  339,  359, 
360 

King,  W.  L.  MacKenzie,  sur- 
render of  premiership,  93 
Korea,  293-295  * 

Chinese  recognition,  117 
Communist  action,  294 
'  EGA  aid,  295 
elections,  294 
literature,  arts  and  crafts, 

295-296  * 
North-South  Korean  Unity 

Conference,  295 
UN  Commission  on,  572 
Kosenkina,  Mrs.  Oksana,  562, 

588 

"Kowloon  incident,"  117 
Krupp,  Alfred,  641 
Kuomintang,  115 
Kuwait  Oil  Company,  296 


labor,  296-300  * 

Bureau  of  Labor  Standards, 
300* 

Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics, 
300* 

Child  labor,  297 

court  cases  affecting,  299, 
308,  310 

court  cases  affecting,  299, 
308,  310 

Cuba,  145 

disturbances  in  U.S.,  589, 
590 

employment,  296 

International  Labor  Organi- 
zation, 273  * 

International  Labor  Confer- 
ence, 273 

labor  movements,  298-299 

legislation  affecting,  299 

Mexico,  337 

NLRB,  358 

in  newspaper  world,  394 

railway  workers,  467 

strikes,  298 

unemployment,  296 

U.S.  Department  of  Labor, 
296* 

U.S.  merchant  shipping,  496 

wages,  297 

Women  s  Bureau,  645-646  * 

women  workers,  297 
Labor  Management  Relations 
Act, 

agencies,  of,  184 

operation  of,  298,  299,  300, 
589,  590 

provisions  of,  358 


Labor  Statistics,  Bureau  of, 

300* 
official  price  indexes,  450 

study — City  Workers'  Family 
Budget,  450 

survey  of  salaries,  315 
labor  unions,  358,  359 

AFL,  25  * 

CIO,  136  * 

in  cooperatives,  139 

court  cases,  306 

Guatemala,  241 

longshoremen,  590 

Mexico,  337 

packing-house  workers,  590 

United  Mine  Workers,  120, 
589 

United  Automobile  Workers, 

297,  590 
Labrador,  300  * 

Labrador,  controversy  over, 

94 

Lamaism,  in  China,  113 
lamps,  new  types  of,  255 
Land, 

Bureau  of  Land  Manage- 
ment, 300  * 

Office  of  Land  Utilization, 

300* 

land-grant  colleges  and  univer- 
sities, 161 
land  reform, 

Algeria,  24 

Hungary,  252 

Japan,  289 

languages,  international,  171 
Laos,  213 
Latin  America, 

architecture,  36 

art,  302  * 

geologic  Survey  work  in,  220 

Institute  of  Inter-American 
Affairs,  268-271* 

literature,  302-304* 
Latin  American  Confederation 

of  Labor,  337 
Latin  American  Conference  of 

Labor,  299 

Latin  American  literature,  302- 
304* 

Argentina,  802 

Bolivia,  302 

Brazil,  302 

Chile,  302 

Colombia,  302 

Costa  Rica,  303 

Cuba,  303 

Dominican  Republic,  303 

Guatemala,  303 

Mexico,  303 

Paraguay,  303 

Peru,  303 

Salvador,  303 

Uruguay,  303 

Venezuela,  303 
law,  304-311 

business,  308-310 

civil  liberties,  304-307 

relating  to  construction  in- 
dustry, 138 

educational,  159,  160 

fish  and  wildlife,  196 

food  and  drugs,  199 


INDEX 

Law  (Continued) 

Federal  statutes, 
stolen  property,  181 
extortion,  181 
national  security,  181,  182 

on  high  seas,  122 

International  Labor  Organi- 
zation, 273 

jurisprudence,  311 

international,  574,  575 

International  Court  of  Jus- 
tice, 581 

labor,  310 

affecting  libraries,  315 

migratory  divorces,  310 

military,  362 

motion  picture  industry  anti- 
trust suit,  350 

price  practices,  449 

for  rubber  industry,  480 

transportation,  310 

U.S.  Army,  40 

U.S.  Department  of  Justice, 
divisions  of,  292 

war  legislation,  307-308 

See  also  legislation. 
Lawrence,  Dr.  Ernest,  431 
lead,  311,*  341 
Lebanon,  312  * 

Arab  League  affairs,  32 

Palestine  problem,  312 
Leeward  Islands,  83,  240,  312  * 
"Legation  Quarters,"  117 
legislation, 

affecting  steel  industry,  280 

agricultural,  19 

atomic  energy,  586 

Communism,  587 

defense,  586 

displaced  persons,  586 

draft,  586 

educational,  159,  160 

enacted,  584 

farm,  586 

fire  prevention,  194 

fiscal,  586 

food  and  drug,  199 

foreign,  585 

Housing,  247,  248,  249-251 

immigration  and  naturaliza- 
tion, U.S.,  258 

labor,  299 

protection  of  wildlife,  196 

rent  control,  247,  248 

social,  587 

taxes,  586 

unpassed,  585 

See  also  law, 
Lehar,  Franz,  355,  377 
Leino,  Yrjo,  192 
lend-lease,  transfer  of  functions 

of,  205 

Leopold  III,  King,  72 
leukemia,  treatment  of,  329 
Lewis,  John  L.,  120 
Liberia  Foundation,  313 
libraries 

extent  of  services  in  U.S.,  160 

government,  273 
Library  of  Congress,  SIS- 
SIS* 

library  progress,  315-317  * 
international  relations, 
legislation  affecting,  315 
planning  and  surveys,  315 


676 

Library  Progress  (Continued) 

school  libraries,  316 

statistics  on,  316 
Libya,  317  * 

commission  investigation  of, 
317 

Arab  League,  317 
lighting,  254-256 
lignite,  synthetic  fuel  from,  343 
literary  history  and  criticism, 

England,  170 

France,  215 

Spain,  529 

United  States,  27 
literature, 

American,  26  * 

American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Letters,  1  * 

Australia,  49  * 

Canada,  95  * 

comic  books,  321 

English,  169  * 

France,  214  * 

Germany,  224* 

Italy,  282  * 

Korea,  295 

Latin  America,  302  * 

magazines,  320-322  * 

Netherlands,  388  * 

Nobel  prize  in,  399 

Pulitzer  prizes  in,  466 

Spain,  528  * 

Sweden,  535  * 

U.S.S.R.,  483  * 
livestock,  16 

cooperatives,  7 

numbers  of,  16 

pests,  265 

products,  11 

value  of,  16 
loans, 

to  Great  Britain,  235 

Iran,  277 

to  Japan,  289 

Korea,  295 

Spanish  request  for,  527 

to  builders,  250 

Farm  Credit  Administration. 
178* 

Farmers  Home  Administra- 
tion, 179  * 

for  home  financing,  248 

for  housing  projects,  250 

International  Bank,  272 

monthly  tabulation  of,  66 

by  RFC,  469,  470 

Rural  Electrification  Admin- 
istration, 482 

See  also  banks  and  banking. 
London,  England,  work  on  Un- 
derground, 469 
London  Conference, 

failure  of,  227 

reopened;  concluded,  228 
Louis,  Joe,  78 
Louisiana,  318  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

legislation,  318 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  134 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 


Louisiana  (Continued) 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Low  Countries,  union  of,  74 
Lowdermilk,  Walter  Clay,  24 
Loyalty  Hearing  Boards,  182 
"loyalty  investigation,"  U.S. 

Civil  Service,  120 
FBI  role,  in,  181,  182 
Loyalty  Review  Board,  120  * 
Luxembourg,  318,*  388 
Lysenko,  Trofim,  561 


M 


McBain,  Dr.  J.  W.,  434 
McNary  Dam,  149 
MacArthur,  Gen.  Douglas,  288 
Madoera,  263 
magazines,  320-322  * 

advertising  in,  4,  320-321 
circulation,  320 

tables,  4 

comic  magazines,  321 
editing,  322 

foreign  markets  for,  321 
suspensions,  322 
magnetic  phenomena,  study  of, 

121 
Mahasabha  organization, 

Hindu,  260 
Mahe\  213 
Maine,  323  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  343 
population,  444 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Maintenance  and  Operation  of 

Schools  (Program),  131 
Malan,  D.  F.,  524 
Manchuria,  323  * 

civil  war,  116,  130 
Mao  Tse-tung,  130 
Map  Information  Office  of  Ge- 
ological Society,  221 
maps 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 

121 
Geological  Survey,  219,  220, 

221,  222 
use  of  aerial  photography  in 

making,  425 
Marihuana  control,  356 
Marine  Corps,  367 
marine  insurance,  268 
Marcantonio,  Vitp,  26 
Maritime  Commission,  U.S., 

324* 

postwar  program,  325,  495 
employees  in  civil  service, 

119 
Maritime  Conference,  U.N., 

271 
Maritime  Safety  Commission, 

271 

maritime  workers  strike,  298 
marine  biology,  research  in, 
195 


677 


INDEX 


marine  expeditions,  177 
marketing,  agricultural,  15 
Markos,  General,  23 
marriage  statistics,  635,  636 
Marshall,  Gen.  George  C.,  174, 

531 

Marshall  Islands,  412 
Marshall  Plan,  (ERP),  174- 
176* 

aims  of,  175 

Albania,  22 

allotments,  176 

Austria,  52 

Brazil,  79 

Canada,  94 

Czechoslovakia,  147 

Denmark,  153 

Finland,  193 

France,  209,  210 

Great  Britain,  234,  235 

Greece,  239 

Italy,  285 

Korea,  295 

origin  of,  174 

Portugal,  448 

procurements,  176 

Spain,  527 

Switzerland,  537 

work  of,  175 
Maryland,  326  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

legislation,  326 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  134 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Masaryk,  Jan,  148 
Massachusetts,  326  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

legislation,  326 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  134 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 

water  pollution  control,  486 
Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  experiments,. 
432 
Matanuska  Valley  Colonization 

Project,  21 
Maui,  Hawaii,  243 
Meat,  13 

production  and  consumption 

of,  17 

Medical  and  Hospital  Services 
of  the  Armed  Forces,  Or- 
ganization on,  361 
medicine,  veterinary,  630-632 
medicine  and  surgery,  326- 
331* 

antibiotics,  327-329 

armed  forces,  361 

arterial  grafts,  329 


Medicine   and   Surgery    (Con- 
tinued ) 
heart  disease,   treatment  of, 

326-327 
Institute  of  Inter-American 

Affairs,  269 

leukemia,  treatment  of,  329 
Nobel  prize  in,  399 
use  of  photography  in,  428 
radioisotopes,  use  of,  107 
Rockefeller  grants  to,  478 
socialization  in  Great  Britain, 

237 
surgery,  technical  advances 

in,  330 
Mental  Health,  International 

Congress  on,  455 
Mental  Health,  World  Federa- 
tion for,  455 
Merchant  Marine,  U.S., 
shipbuilding,  494 
shipping,  496 
tonnage,  496 

See  also  Maritime  Commis- 
sion. 

Merchant  Ship  Sales  Act,  325 
mercury,  331,*  342 
metallurgy,  103,  343 
metals, 

aluminum,  25 
chromium,  118  * 
copper,  139-140,*  341 
gold,  231,*  341 
iron,  341 
lead,  311,*  341 
manganese,  324,*  341 
mercury,  331,*  341 
metallurgy,  343 
nickel,  398  * 
silver,  499,*  341 
synthetic  liquid  fuels,  343 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  343 
See  also  names  of  metals. 
meteorology,  331-334* 
January-April,  331 
May-August,  332 
September-December,  333 
Methodist  Church,  334-335  * 
General  Conference,  334 
Methodist  Publishing  House, 

335 

missionary  conference,  335 
new  bishops,  335 
Metropolitan  Museum   (N.Y.), 

41,42 

Metropolitan  Opera  Associa- 
tion, 354 

Mexican  Fishery  Mission,  195 
Mexico,  335-337  * 
archaeology,  35 
Argentina,  relations  with, 

337 

army  strength,  338 
foot-and-mouth  disease  in, 

630 
Inter-American  Conference, 

337 

international  politics,  337 
laborers  into  U.S.,  257 
labor  strife,  337 
literature,  303 
telegraphy,  127 
"'  "  gan,  337  * 

_hways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 


Michigan  (Continued) 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  134 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Micronesian  Anthropology,  Co- 
ordinated Investigation  of, 
241 
microscope,  development  of, 

432 

Middle  East  Survey,  UN,  33 
migration,  Canada,  95 
Military  Air  Transport  Service, 

21,  63,  360 
military  preparedness,  338-341 

cost  of,  459 

foreign  armies,  340-341 

National  Military  Establish- 
ment, 359-362  * 

National  Security  Council, 
364* 

National  Security  Resources 
Board,  364  * 

naval  progress,  364  * 

Security  Resources  Board, 
364 

Selective  Service,  492 

Sweden,  534 

Turkey,  555 

U.S.  Army,  339-340 

U.S.  Joint  Chiefs  of  Staff, 
291-292  * 

U.S.  Merchant  shipping,  325 

world,  military  strength, 

338-339 
Mindzenty,  Joseph  Cardinal, 

253 
Minerals, 

coal,  342,  343 

coke  and  coal  chemicals,  342 

fertilizers,  342 

and  metal  stockpits,  470 

mineral  production  by  states, 
343 

petroleum,  342,  344 

gas, 

natural,  342,  344 
synthetic,  344 

research  and  mapping  of  de- 
posits, 219 

U.S.  Geological  Survey  serv- 
ice, 219,  223 

Mines,  U.S.  Bureau  of,  343- 
345* 

coal,  research  in,  343 

copper,  341 

explosive,  research  on,  344 

gold,  341 

iron  and  steel,  341 

lead,  341 

manganese,  341 

mercury,  341 

metallurgy  studies,  343 

research  project  of,  245 

safety  activities,  344 

silver,  341 

zinc,  341 
Mining,  21 

Chile,  110 

on  Federal  lands,  223 

Great  Britain,  236 


INDEX 


678 


Mining  (Continued) 
leaf  311  * 

U.S.  Geological  Survey  su- 
pervision, 223 
Minh,  Ho  Chi,  214 
Minnesota,  345  * 
Highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
minorities,  U.N.  statement  on, 

572 

Miranda,  Miguel,  38 
missionary  activities,  Method- 
ists, 335 

Mississippi,  345  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 
legislation,  345 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Missouri,  345  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
legislation,  34,5 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Missouri  River  Basin  project, 

222 
Mobile  Striking  Force,  U.S. 

Army,  339 

Mohammed,  Sultan  Sidi,  347 
Mohammed  Zahir  Shah,  5 
Mohammedanism, 
China,  113 
See  also  Islam,  281  * 
molasses,  production  of,  207 
Molokai,  Hawaii,  243 
Molotov,  Vyacheslav,  559 
"Molotov  Plan/'  441 
money, 
China,  114 
counterfeiting,  490 
dollar  shortage, 
Australia,  48 
Sweden,  535 
financial  difficulties, 

Philippines,  424 
Fiscal  Service,  195  * 
forgery,  490 
German  currency  reform, 

229 

International   Monetary 
Fund,  274,*  203,  205 
Lebanon,  312 
national  debt,  460 
New  Zealand,  397 


Money  (Continued) 

South  African — shortage  of 
reserves,  525 

Spain — shortage  of  reserves, 
527 

U.S.  Secret  Service,  490 

U.S.  Treasury  Department, 
552 

See  also  banks  and  banking; 
foreign  exchange;  financial 
review. 
Mongolian  People's  Republic, 

346* 

Monnet  Plan,  209 
Monopoly  controls,  31 
Monsanto  Chemical  Co.,  267 
Montana,  346  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  134 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Monte  Carlo,  346 
Montgomery,  Field  Marshal 

Lord,  340 
Montserrat,  312 
monuments, 

Battle  Monuments  Commis- 
sion, American,  71  * 

See  also  national  parks  and 

monuments,  362-363.* 
Moors, 

Spanish  Morocco,  348 

Tangier,  539 
Morocco,  French,  346-348  * 

nationalist  movement,  347 

Arab  League,  347 

Moslems,  347 
Morocco,  Spanish,  348  * 

nationalist  movement,  348 

Arab  League,  348 
morphology,  77 
Moslem  Brotherhood, 

Egypt,  163 

Syria,  538 
Moslems, 

in  Afghanistan,  5 

Algeria,  23,  24 

Arabia,  32 

conference  in  Tangier,  539 

French  Morocco,  347 

India,  260 

Pakistan,  413 

Tunisia,  553 

Moslem  League,  Pakistan,  413 
motion  pictures,  348-351  * 

awards,  350 

court  cases  affecting,  309, 
350 

list  of  twenty-four  best,  348- 
350 

photographic  process,  426, 
427,  429 

television,  350 
motor  vehicles,  351-352  * 

accidents  involving,  2 

exports,  351 

production,  351 
Mt.  Palomar  telescope,  45 

photographic  process,  428 


Munitions  Board,   National 
Military  Establishment, 
361 
Museum  of  Modern  Art, 

(N.Y.),  42 
museums,  American, 
art  exhibits  in,  41-43 
Smithsonian  Institution, 

500* 

music,  352-356 
awards,  355 
deaths,  355 
electronics,  355 
festivals,  355 
folk  music  albums,'  198 
Korea,  295 
operas,  353-354 
Pulitzer  Prize,  466 
symphony  orchestras,  353 
mycology  and  plant  pathology, 
77 


N 


Narcotic  drugs, 

Bureau  of  Narcotics,  356  * 
in  Siam,  498 

National  Airports  Plan,  118 

National  Association  of  Maga- 
zine Publishers,  321 

National  Baptist  Convention  of 
America,  69 

National  Bureau  of  Standards, 
research,  432 

National  Catholic  Community 
Service,  98 

National  Catholic  Welfare 
Conference,  98 

National  Christian  Council, 
China,  113 

National  Conference,  Nanking, 
299 

National  Council  for  Liberation 
of  Libya,  317 

National  Council  of  Catholic 
Men,  99 

National  Council  of  Catholic 
Women,  99 

National  debt,  460-461 

National  defense, 
cost  of,  459 

Federal  legislation,  586 
military  geology,  220 
National  Security  Council, 
364* 

National  Security  Resources 

Board,  364* 

See  also  National  Military 
Establishment. 

National  Dental  Health  Insti- 
tute, 154 

National  Fire  Protection  Asso- 
ciation, 194 

National  Fire  Waste  Council, 
195 

National  Gallery,  42 

National  Guard  of  the  U.S., 
340,  361 

National  Health  Assembly,  160 

National  Housing  Act,  249,  250 

National  Housing  Agency,  247 

National  Housing  Council,  251 

National  Institute  of  Health, 

462 
research  activities  of,  185 


nationalization,  industrial, 
Australia,  49 
Germany,    (Eastern  Zone), 

230 
Great  Britain,  236,  237,  281, 

501 

Hungary  >  252,  253 
International  Cooperative 
Alliance  view  on,  139 
Rumania,  482 

National  Mental  Hygiene  Pro- 
gram, 186 

National  Military  Establish- 
ment, 359-362* 
Hoover  Commission,  362 
Key  West  Conference,  359- 

360 

legislation  affecting,  361 
medical  services,  361-362 
Newport  Conference,  360 
Rumanian  industries,  482 
transport,   360-361 
uniform  military  law,  362 
National  People's  Party,  (Kuo- 

mintang),  115 
national  security, 
Central  Intelligence  Agency, 

99* 

legislation,  181 
National  Security  Act,  359 
role  of  FBI  in,  181 
National  Serigraph  Society,  44 
National  Stolen  Property  Act, 

181 
National  Urban  Rat  Control, 

195 

National  War  College,  291 
naturalization.  See  immigra- 
tion, emigration,  and 
naturalization, 
natural  resources, 
fish  and  wildlife,  195 
forest  conservation,  206 
water  supply,  222 
Naura,  Trust  Territory  of,  48 
naval  progress,  364-368* 
air  program,  367 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Fleets, 

366 

foreign  navies,  368 
Marine  Corps,  367 
naval  establishment,  365 
navy  commanders,  365 
research,  367,  368 
ship  construction,  366 
See  also  Navy,  U.S. 
navies,  foreign,  368 
navigation, 
Danube,  150 
maritime,  271 

use  of  photography  in,  428 
Navy,  U.S., 

aircraft.  See  aviation,  mili- 
tary. 

maps  for,  222 

Naval  Research  Office,  368  * 
Naval  Reserve,  367 
relations  with  Army,  359 
use  of  photography,  425,  426 
See  also  naval  progress,  364- 

368,* 

Nebraska,  369  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 


679 

Nebraska  (Continued) 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Negeb,  415 
Negroes,  386  * 
Africa,  386 
U.S.,  304,  305,  386 
South  Africa,  525 
West  Indies,  386 
Nehru,  Jawaharlal,  260 
Neruda,  Pablo,  111 
Netherlands,  387-388  * 
abdication  of  queen,  387 
archaeology,  35 
army  strength,  338 
economic  situation,  388 
general  elections,  387 
Indonesia  question,  388 
literature,  388 
naval  strength,  368 
new  government,  387 
Netherlands  East  Indies.  See 

Indonesia. 

Netherlands  literature,  388 
drama,  390 
essay,  390 
novel,  390 
poetry,  389 
Nevada,  390* 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Nevis,  (Island),  312 
Newfoundland,  391-392* 
status  of,  94 

union  with  Canada,  391 
New  Hampshire,  392  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,   421 
population,  444 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
New  Jersey,  392  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
legislation,  392 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  389,  490 
senators,  134 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
New  Mexico,  392  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
Indian  franchise,  262 


INDEX 

New  Mexico  (Continued) 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
New  Look,  179 
news  agencies,  393  * 

Agence  France  Presse,  393 
Associated  Press,  393 
Canadian  Press,  393 
International  News  Service, 

393 
North  American  Newspaper 

Alliance,  393 
Press  Wireless,  Inc.,  393 
Reuters  News  Service,  393 
United  Press  Associations, 

393 

Newspaper  Controllers'  Associ- 
ation, 394 

Newspapers,  393-395,* 
advertising  in,  4,  393 
Argentina,  395 
awards,  466 
Catholic  press,  98 
color  reproductions,  426 
convention,  394 
"freedom  of  the  press/*  395 
Great  Britain,  395 
labor  problems,  394 
national  elections,  394 
newsprint  supply,  393 
printing  process,  395 
newsprint,  395-396  * 
consumption,  396 
supply,  393,  395 
world  production,  396 
New  York,  396  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 
legislation,  396 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
ports  and  harbors,  447 
rapid  transit  changes,  469 
representatives,  134 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
sewage  disposal,  486 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
water  supply  project,  643 
New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar 

Exchange,  123 
New  Zealand,  396-397  * 
army  size,  338 
Commonwealth  relations, 

397 

currency  change,  205,  397 
import  restriction,  397 
Socialism,  501 
Nicaragua,  397-398* 
Costa  Rica  invasion,  142, 

398,  418 

election  of  Roman,  398 
rebellion,  398 
Niger,  217 
Nobel  prizes,  399 
Nonscheduled  Flying  Advisory 
Committee,  57 


INDEX 


680 


North  American  Newspaper 

Alliance,  393 
North  Atlantic  Defense  Pact, 

Canada  view  of,  94 

Norwegian  view  of,  401 
North  Carolina,  399  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  135 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

\ital  statistics,  636 
North  Dakota,  399  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  135 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Northern  Baptist  Convention, 

68 

Northern  Customs  Union,  153 
Northern  Ireland  Safeguarding 

of  Employment  Act,  280 
Norway,  400-401  * 

aviation,  65 

Communism,  401 

East-West  conflict,  401 

North  Atlantic  pact,  401 

Oslo  conference,  401 

Socialism,  501 
Novels, 

Canada,  95 

England,  171 

France,  215 

Netherlands,  390 

Pulitzer  prize,  466 

Spain,  529 

Sweden,  535 

U.S.S.R.,  483 
nuclear  chemistry,  103 
nuclear  energy,  401-403  * 

atomic  fuel,  402 

atomic  power,  402 

Eniwetok  Atoll  experiment, 
240 

protective  legislation,  181 

radioisotopes,  402 

research  in  physics,  430-431 

U.S.  Atomic  Energy  Com- 
mission, 46-47  * 
Niirnberg  trials,  639-642 


O 


Oahu,  Hawaii,  243 

Oak  Ridge  National  Laboratory, 
47 

obituaries.  See  necrology,  369- 
386. 

occupational  guidance  and  in- 
formation, 161 

occupations,  accidents  in,  3 

Odria,  Gen.  Manuel,  420 

Office  of  Aviation  Safety,  118 


Office  of  Defense  Transporta- 
tion, action  in  coal  strike, 
120 
Office  of  Foreign  Agricultural 

Relations,  19 
Ohio,  403  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Ohio  State  University,   experi- 
ments, 20 
oil, 

geologic  investigation,  219 
from  Federal  lands,  223 
See  also  petroleum. 
Oil  and  Gas  Division,  U.S.  De- 
partment of  the  Interior, 
403 

O'Kelly,  President  Sean  T.,  163 
Oklahoma,  403  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Olympic  Games,  403-408  * 
basketball,  70 
boxing,  404 
canoeing,  404 
color  film  of,  427 
cycling,  405 
fencing,  405 
football,  405 
hockey,  405 
roadrace,  405 
shooting,  405 
swimming,  406 
track  and  field,  406 
unofficial  national  placings, 

408 

water  polo,  406 
weightlifting,  408 
Winter  Olympics,  408-409 
wrestling,  408 
yachting,  408 
"Operation  VMes,"  59 
opera,  353,  354 
opium, 

curbs  in  Siam,  498 
international  control,  356 
ophthalmology,  409-410  * 
allergy,  410 
antibiotics,  409 
Beta  rays,  410 
fibroplasia,  410 
glaucoma,  410 
iontophoresis,  410 
uveitis,  410 
surgery,  410 
Oregon,  410  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 


Oregon  (Continued) 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Organization  for  European 
Economic  Cooperation. 
See  Marshall  Plan. 
Organization  of  American 

States,  411-412 
Bogota  Conference,  411 
Costa  Rican  uprising,  142, 

398 

Council  of,  418 

organizations.  See  under  socie- 
ties and  organizations, 
508-523, 
Orthodox  Churches,  Eastern, 

156 

Greek  Orthodox,  156 
Russian  Orthodox,  156 
Oslo  conference,  401 
Overseas  Teacher-Relief  Fund 
of  National  Education  As- 
sociation, 158 
Outer  Mongolia,  346 
"overtime-on-overtirne,"  138 
overtime  wages,  138 


Paasikivi,  Juho,  129,  191 
Pacific  Telephone  and  Tele- 
graph Company,  208 
Pahlavi,  Muhammad  Riza,  277 
Pakistan,  412-413  * 

economic  problems,  413 

and  Islam,  282 

Kashmir  dispute,  260,  413 

refugee  problems,  413 
paleontology,  220 
Palestine,  413-415  * 

archaeology,  34 

Bernadotte  report,  415 

British  withdrawal,  414 

displaced  persons,  473 

partition  plan,  414 

refugees,  415 

UN  mediation,  414 
Palestine  Commission,  UN,  414 
Palestine  problem,  reactions  to, 

Arab  League,  32 

Egypt,  163 

Great  Britain,  238 

General  Assembly  action, 
569 

Iraq,  279 

Lebanon,  312 

Saudi  Arabia,  488 

Security  Council  action,  575 

Syria,  538 

Transjordan,  552 
Palomar  Mountain  telescope, 

44,45 
Panama,  416  * 

art,  301 

elections  in,  416 

international  front,  416 
Pan  American  activities,  417- 
418* 

Conference  of  American 
States,  417 


681 


INDEX 


Pan  American  Activities  (Con- 
tinned ) 

Costa  Rica,  invasion  of,  417 

Cuba-Dominican  Republic 
dispute,  418 

Organization  of  American 

States,  418 

Pan  American  Airways,  com- 
munications network,  128 
Pan  American  Exhibition,  300 
Pan  American  Union, 

art  exhibition,  302 

officers,  411 

visitors  received  by,  418 

work  of,  411 
Pan  American  World  Airways, 

115 
paper,  chemical  experiments 

with,  109 
Papua,  418,*  48 
Paraguay,  418-419  * 

agriculture,  270 

army  rebellion,  419 

army  strength,  338 

elections,  419 

literature,  303 
parks,  national,  206 
Pasha,  Mustafa,  N.,  163 
patents, 

legal  aspects,  309 

Office  of  Alien  Property,  25 

Patent  Office,  U.S.,  419  * 
Paul,  Prince,  239 
peace, 

Carnegie  Endowment,  97 

Nobel  prize,  399 

presidential  statement  on, 

583 
peace  treaties,  UN  action  on, 

570 

peanuts,  19 

Pekkala,  Premier  Mauno,  192 
Pennsylvania,  420  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  135 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
Per&z,  Mariano  Ospina,  123 
periodicals,  Italian,  283 
Per6n,  Juan,  38 

attempted  assassination  of. 
38 

relations  with  John  F. 

Griffith,  39 
Peronista  Party,  39 
Persian  Gulf,  islands  in,  65 
Peru,  420^21  * 

agriculture,  270 

army  strength,  338 

APRA  Congress,  420 

overthrow  of  government, 
421 

rebellion  at  Callao,  421 

rebellion  at  Juliaca,  420 
pests,  insect,  264r-267 
petroleum,  421-422,*  65,  79 

Bahrein  Island,  65 

chemical  experiments,  102, 
104 


Petroleum  (Continued') 
difficulties  abroad, 
Brazil,  79 
Rumania,  482 
on  Federal  land,  223 
Iraq,  278 
Iran,  276 

and  natural  gas,  344 
Oil  and  Gas  Division,  In- 
terior Department,  403 
refining  of,  104 
Saudi  Arabia,  488 
synthetic  fuel  from,  343 
U.S.  output,  chart  of,'  421 
world  output,  chart  of,  421 

petrology,  220 

pharmacology,  105 

Philadelphia,  sewerage  dis- 
posal, 486 

Philadelphia  Museum  of  Art, 
42 

philanthropy,  422,*  131 

Philippine  Alien  Property  Ad- 
ministration of  the  U.S., 
422* 

Philippine  War  Damage  Com- 
mission, U.S.,  424  * 

Philippines,  Republic  of  the, 

422-424  * 
death  of  Roxas,  423 
food  shortage,  424 
Hukbalahop  rebellion,  423 
U.S.  Philippine  War  Damage 

Commission,  424 
volcanic  disaster,  423 

philosophy,  writings  on, 
England,  171 
Germany,  226 
United  States,  28 

phonograph  records,  long  play- 
ing, 126,  355 

photogrammetry,  220 

photography,  424-430 

aerial  photography,  221,  426 

bibliography,  430 

book  reproduction,  428 

in  communication,  425 

colors,  426 

in  mapping,  220,  425 

materials  and  apparatus,  429 

medicine,  428 

motion  pictures,  426 

Mt.  Palomar  telescope,  428 

new  cameras,  425 

new  techniques,  432 

navigation  charts,  428 

photographic  process,  430 

printing  process,  424 

Pulitzer  prize  for,  466 

in  scientific  research,  425 

standardization  of,  428 

television,  426 

physics,  430-436  * 
atom  smashers,  431 
bibliography,  435 
cosmic  radiation,  430 
cyclotrons,  430,  431 
magnetic  clutch,  434 
neutron  beam  diffusion,  431 
new  particle,  433 
Nobel  prize  in,  399,  433 
photographic  techniques, 

428,  432 
semi-conductor,  434 


Physics  (Continued) 

surface  depth  measurement, 
433 

research  instruments,  431 
physiology, 

plant,  77 

research  in,  652 
pipe  lines,  31 
Pius  XII,  Pope,  286 

See  also  Vatican  City,  627- 

628.* 

Planned  Parenthood  Federa- 
tion, 437 

Plant  Industry,  Soils,  and  Agri- 
cultural Engineering,   Bu- 
reau of,  10 
plants, 

quarantines,  264-267 

research  on,  10 

See  also  under  botany, 
plasticizers,  105 
plastics,  437-440  * 

acrylics,  439 

cellulosics,  439 

in  illumination,  255 

nylon,  440 

phenolics,  437 

polyethylene,  439 

polystyrene,  438 

research  on,  105 

saran,  439 

urea,  439 

vinyls,  438 

platinum,  production  of,  342 
Plaza  Lasso,  Galo,  157 
poetry, 

Australia,  50 

Canada,  95 

England,  171 

Germany,  225 

Italy,  284 

Netherlands,  389 

Pulitzer  prize,  466 

Spain,  529 

Sweden,  535 

United  States,  27 

U.S.S.R.,  483 
Poland,  440-442  * 

army  size,  338 

Communism,  129,  441,  442 

cooperation  with  Czechoslo- 
vakia, 

Russo-Polish  Treaty,  441 

Warsaw  Conference,  441 
polymerization,  106 
Pondichery,  213 
population,  442-446  * 

and  birth  control,  436 

Bureau  of  the  Census,  99  * 

crude  death  rate,  465 

employment  status,  446 

rural  areas,  444 

sex  and  color,  444—445 

U.S.  population,  443,  444 

urban  areas,  444 

world  population,  442 

See  also  under  names  of 

countries. 

Portal-to-Portal  Act,  637 
Port  au  Prince,  243 
Port  of  New  York  Authority, 

447 
ports  and  harbors,  446-447  * 

European  construction,  446 

U.S.  construction,  447 


INDEX 

Portugal,  447-448  * 
army  size,  338 
economic  problems,  447 
Marshall  Plan,  448 
pottery.  See  ceramics,  99.* 
poultry  cooperatives,  7 
Powell,  Dr.  G.  F.,  432 
power, 

Federal  Power  Commission, 

184* 

generators,  165 
plants,  164,  165 
transformers,  165 
Presbyterian  Church,  The, 

449* 
Cumberland  Presbyterian 

Church,  449 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the 

U.S.,  449 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the 

U.SJL,  449 
United  Presbyterian  Church 

of  North  America,  449 
President,  Executive  Office  of 

the,  176  * 

President's  Commission  on 
Higher  Education,  Report 
of,  158 

Press  Wireless,  Inc.,  393 
Pribilof  Islands,  21 
prices  and  costs,  449-451 
prices,  commodity,  89 
cost  of  living,  589 
farm  products,  14 
Great  Britain,  235 
housing,  249 
Japan,  £89 
manipulation  of,  125 
price  control, 
Australia,  49 
China,  116 
steel  products,  280 
stocks,  188 

table  of  U.S.  prices,  187 
textiles,  545 
U.S.S.R.,  560 
printing, 
magazines,  320 
new  process,  126 
newspapers,  395 
use  of  photography  in,  424 
Printing  Office,  U.S.  Govern- 
ment, 233 

Pri6  Socarras,  Dr.  Carlos,  145 
prisons,  parole,  and  crime  con- 
trol, 452-454  * 
Army  and  Navy  program, 

452-453 

incidence  of  crime,  452 
juvenile  delinquency,  453 
parole,  453 
prison  industries,  454 
prison  population,  452 
state  legislation,  453 
See  also  under  crime, 
production.  See  under  names 
of  countries;  also  under 
business  review. 
Production  and  Marketing  Ad- 
ministration, 125 
profits, 
airlines,  55 
corporation,  91 
See  also  wages  and  earnings. 


682 

Progressive  Conservative  Party, 

94 

Progressive  Party,  role  of  Com- 
munists in,  130 
propaganda, 

United  States,  273 

via  magazines,  322 

via  newspapers,  395 
property,  alien,  25 
Protection  of  People's  Property, 

Commission  for,  230 
proteins,  research  on,  106 
Protestant  missions, 

China,  113 
psychiatry,  455  * 

extramural  psychiatry,  457- 
458 

genetics,  458 

hospital  services,  457 

in  industrial  relations,  458 

nosophobia,  457 

status  of,  455 

trends,  456-457 
Public  Contracts  Act,  637 
public  finance,  458-461  * 

estimates  of  budget,  459, 

1948  budget,  458 

public  debt,  460-461 
public  health, 

Commonwealth  Fund,  work 
of,  125 

Federal  Security  Agency, 
program,  185 

Great  Britain,  501 

Institute  of  Inter-American 
Affairs,  269 

inter-American  cooperation, 
269 

Rockefeller  grants,  478 

school  health  services,  160 

See  also  sanitation. 
.Public  Health  Service,  461- 
465*       • 

appropriations  for,  185 

demonstrations,  463 

Indian  Medical  service,  262 

industrial  hygiene,  462 

Marine  Hospitals,  464 

mental  health,  463 

National  Institute,  462 

the  nation's  health,  464 

tuberculosis  control,  462 

venereal  disease  control,  463 

water  pollution  control,  464 
Public  Housing  Administration, 

251 

Public  Library  Inquiry,  315 
Public  Roads  Administration, 
method  of  apportionment, 
476 
Public  Service  Electric  and  Gas 

Company  of  N.J.,  165 
Puerto  Rico,  465-466  * 

elections,  466 

Mexican  attitude  toward, 
337 

preparation  of  maps  of,  221 

Truman  visit,  466 
Punjab,  West,  413 
purchasing  cooperatives,  7 


Quakers,  474 
Quirino,  Elpidio,  423 


R 


radar, 

experiments  with,  432 

use  in  harbor  control,  447 
radio, 

advertising  in,  4 

use  in  dental  teaching,  154 

Federal  broadcasts,  273 

FCC  authorizations,  182 

income  in,  182 

use  in  fire  service,  194 

International  Telecommuni- 
cation Union,  275  * 

improvements  in,  126 

Korea,  296 

new  design,  434 
R.C.A.  Laboratories  experi- 
ments, 126 

radioisotopes,  107,  402 
railways,  467-469  * 

China,  114 

electric  reservation  system, 
127 

court  case  affecting,  310 

dividends,  468 

earnings  of,  468 

employment  on,  468 

freight  rates,  467 

labor,  467 

Railroad  Retirement  Board, 

467 
railroads, 

nationalization  in  Great  Bri- 
tain, 236 

ODT,  151 

reorganizations,  468 

transportation  produced,  468 

workers7  insurance,  505 

See  also  under  transportation 
under  names  of  countries. 
rain,  artificial,  644 
rationing, 

Great  Britain,  235 

Sweden,  535 
rats,  control  of,  195 
rayon  goods  produced,  545 
receipts,  Federal  Government. 

See  taxation. 
Reciprocal  Trade  Agreement 

measure,  585 
reclamation,  land, 

Algeria,  24 

Bureau  of  Reclamation,  469 

Missouri  River  Basin,  222 
reconstruction, 

Hungary,  252 

International  Bank  for  Re- 
construction, 271  * 

Japan,  290 

Norway,  400 

Tunisia,  554 

UN  action  on,  579 

U.S.S.R.,  560 

Reconstruction  Finance  Cor- 
poration, 469-470 

functions  of,  469 

housing  aid,  251,  470 

liquidation  of  stockpiles,  470 
Red  army,  85 
Red  Cross,  470-471  * 

League  of  Red  Cross  Socie- 
ties 


688 


INDEX 


Red  Cross  (Continued) 

American  National  Red 
Cross,  471 

International  Conference  of, 

471 

reform,  legislative,  311 
Reformed  Churches,  472  * 

Christian  Reformed  Church, 
472 

Evangelical  and  Reformed, 
472 

Reformed  Church  in  Amer- 
ica, 472 
refugees  and  displaced  persons, 

472-474  * 

idmission  into  U.S.,  258,  473 
Canada,  95 

Catholic  resettlement  pro- 
gram, 98 

Catholic  Relief  Services,  479 

in  Denmark,  153 

Displaced  Person  Act,  473 

Federal  action,  586 

Germany,  473 

India,  413,  473 

International  Refugee  Or- 
ganization, 274-275,*  473 

legislation  affecting,  258 

Pakistan,  413 

Palestine,  473 

UN  relief  for  Palestine,  573 

UN  resolution  on,  571 
Rehabilitation,  Vocational,  Of- 
fice of,  636-637  * 
relief  and  rehabilitation 

Australia  support,  48 

Advisory  Commission  on 
Voluntary  Foreign  Aid,  4  * 

China,  117 

cost  of,  459 

ECA  program,  203 

financial  aid,  202 

Food  and  Agricultural  Or- 
ganization, UN  198-199  * 

Marshall  Plan,  175 

Red  Cross,  471-472  * 

Roman  Catholic  Church  (in 
U.S.),  98 

U.S.  loans,  202,  203 
religion, 

Islam,  281-282  * 

Judaism,  292  * 

Roman  Catholic  Church, 
478-479  * 

See  also  under  names  of 

countries. 
religious  organizations, 

Advent  Movement,  3  * 

Baptist,  68  * 

Brethren,  80  * 

Buddhist,  Churches,  84  * 

Catholic  Church  in  U.S., 
97* 

Christian  Science,  118  * 

Churches  of  God,  118  * 

Congregational  Christian 
Churches,  131  * 

Disciples  of  Christ,  154  * 

Eastern  Orthodox  churches, 
156* 

Federal  Council  of  Churches 
in  America,  183  * 

Friends,  Society  of,  474  * 

Latter-Day  Saints,  304  * 


Religious  Organizations   (Con- 

tinued) 

Lutheran  Church,  318  * 
Mennonites,  331  * 
Methodist  Church,  334  * 
Nazarene,  Church  of  the, 

369* 

Presbyterian  Church,  449  * 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 

454* 

Reformed  Churches,  472  * 
Russian  Orthodox  Church, 

156* 

Salvation  Army,  484* 
Unitarians,  566  * 
United  Brethren,  567  * 
United  Church  of  Canada, 

567* 

Universalist  Church,  592  * 
See  also  under  religion  under 

names  of  countries. 
Renegotiation  Act,  legal  aspects 

of,  308 
rent, 
Emergency  Price  Control 

Act,  247,  248 
Federal  legislation,  585 
Housing  and  Rent  Act  of 

1948,  248 
Remy,  Jean,  242 
Representatives,  House  of, 

membership,  131 
Republic  of  Eire  Bill,  238 
rescues  at  sea,  121 
research, 

agriculture  in,  8 

National  Research  Council, 

363* 

National  Research  Coun- 
cil, Canada,  363  * 
naval,  367 
Office  of  Naval  Research, 

368* 

retail  trade,  index  of,  89 
Reuters  News  Service,  393 
Revenue  Act  of  1948, 
provisions  of,  540 
revolutions  and  uprisings, 
Colombia,  123 
Burma,  87 
Costa  Rica,  141 
Czechoslovakia,  147 
Egypt,  163 

French  Indochina,  214 
Greece,  239 
Indonesia,  263 
Iran,  277 
Java,  130 
Paraguay,  419 
Peru,  420 
Philippines,  423 
Rhode  Island,  475  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 
legislation,  475 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
rice,  476  * 

Burma  product,  86 


Rice  (Continued) 

French  Indochina,  213 

Japan,  289 

Siam  crop,  498 

U.S.  production,  14,  476 

world  production,  476 
Rio  Treaty,  417 
roads  and  streets,  476-478  * 

construction,  137 

traffic  death  rate,  476 

Federal  aid  highway  pro- 
gram, 476 

highways,  by  states,  477 

improvements,  138 

lighting  of,  255 

motor  fuel  consumption,  by 
states,  477 

motor  fuel  taxes  by  states, 
477 

motor  vehicles,  by  states, 

477 

Road  Show,  138 
Robertson,  Gen.  Sir  Brian,  227 
rocketry  and  jet  propulsion, 

first  jet  transport,  58 

navy  planes,  61 

progress  in,  57 

Nazi  V-2,  431 
Roman,  Dr.  Victor  Manuel, 

398 

Roman  Catholic  Church.  See 
Catholic  Church,  Roman, 
and  under  names  of  coun- 
tries. 
Roosevelt-King  Ogdensburg 

declaration,  94 
rowing,  479  * 

in  U.S.,  479 

Olympic  results,  405 
Royal  Masonic  Institute,  212 
Roxes,  Manuel  A.,  423 
Ruanda-Urundi,    Territory    of, 

72 
rubber,  480-481  * 

Far  East  supply,  481 

legislation,  480 

raw  materials,  480 

security  planning,  481 

synthetic,  108,  470 
Ruhr  question,  211,  231 
Rumania,  481-482  * 

army  strength,  339 

Communism,  482 

elections,  481 

Soviet  alliance,  482 
rural  electric  cooperatives,  8 
rural  electrification, 

effect  on  farmers,  16 

statistics  on,  167 
Rural   Electrification   Adminis- 
tration, 19 

Russo-Polish  treaty,  441 
Russian  literature,  483-484  * 

drama,  484 

memoirs,  484 

novels,  483 

poetry,  483 
Russian  Orthodox  Church,  156 


Saar,  281 
safety, 
aviation,  53,  118 


INDEX 

Safety  (Continued) 
code  for  mechanical  refriger- 
ation, revision  of,  20 
hotel  fire  safety  measures, 

194 

maritime,  271 
in  mines,  344 
in  radio,  182 

Safety  of  Life  at  Sea,  Interna- 
tional Conference  on,  121 
St.  Christopher,  (Island),  312 
St,  Laurent,  Louis,  93 
St.  Louis,  architecture,  3(3 
Salazar,  Antonio  de  Oliveira, 

447 

Samarin,  Mikhial,  562 
San  Diego  Fine  Arts  Gallery, 

41 

Sanger,  Mrs.  Margaret,  436 
sanitation,  486-487  * 
Health  and  Sanitation 
Division  of  Institute  of 
Inter-American  Affairs, 
269 

industrial  wastes,  487 
inter-American  cooperation, 

269 
Ohio  River  Sanitation  Pact, 

486 

sewerage  treatment,  486 
See  also  public  health. 
Sarnoff,  David,  542 
Sartre,  Jean-Paul,  215 
Saud,  King  Ibn,  488 
Saudi  Arabia,  488-489  * 
American  oil  companies,  488 
Arab  League  affairs,  32,  488 
effect  of  war  in  Palestine, 

488 

savings, 
consumer,  190 
trends  in,  190 
Savings  Bonds  Division,  U.S., 

489 

Scandinavian  states, 
cooperation  between,  153 
Socialism  in,  501 
schools,  489-490 
auto-driving,  159 
enrollment  by  states,  489 
FBI,  181 
libraries  in,  316 
private  and  parochial 

schools,  490 
Roman  Catholic,  98 
Schuman,  Robert,  209 
sciences, 

in  education,  160 
Rockefeller  Foundation 
research  grants,  478 
U.S.  writings  on,  28 
work  of  UNESCO,  558 
Scotland,  233 

Sculptor's  Guild  Exhibition,  44 
sculpture,  43 
seals,  Alaskan,  21 
securities, 

new  issues  of,  189,  190 
selling  of,  68 
Security  Council,  UN, 
Berlin  blockade,  230 
Corfu  incident,  23 
Czech  coup,  148 
Indonesian  war,  263 
Kashmir  dispute,  260,  413 


684 

Security   Council,    UN    (Con- 
tinued) 

Palestine  question,  414 

Trieste  problem,  552 
seismology,  490-492  * 

earthquakes,  492 

organizations,  491 

scope  of,  490 

seismographs,  490 

usefulness  of,  491 
Selassie,  Emperor  Haile,  173 
Selective  Service,  492-494,  586 

exemptions,  493 

legal  aspects  of,  307,  308 

need  for,  493 

number  registered  under, 
494 

school  deferments,  159,  160 
Senanayake,  D.  S.,  100 
Senate,  U.S.,  members  of,  131 
Senegal,  217 
sewage  and  industrial  wastes, 

107,  486 
Shinto,  288 

shipbuilding,  merchant,  494- 
496* 

conversion,  495 

employment  in,  495 

postwar  construction,  495 

U.S.  Navy,  366 
shipping,  merchant,  496-497  * 

labor  strife,  496 

Maritime  Consultative 
Organization,  271  * 

Maritime  Organization, 
271* 

passenger  ships,  497 

tankers,  496 

UN  Maritime  Conference, 
579 

U.S.  Maritime  Commission, 
324-325  * 

wartime  production,  496 
shooting,  497  * 

U.S.  matches,  497 

Olympic  results,  405 
short  stories,  English,  171 
Shriners'  Hospitals  for  Crip- 
pled children,  212 
Siam,  497-498  * 

Communist  violence,  498 

elections,  498 

FAO  mission  to,  199 

French  Indochina  issue,  498 

opium  curbs,  498 

uprisings,  498 

Sino-American  agreement,  117 
Sino-Soviet  Treaty  of  Friend- 
ship and  Alliance,  117 
slum  areas,  clearance  and 
redevelopment  of,  249 
Small  Business,  Office  of,  202 
small  business,  training  pro- 
grams for,  161 
Smithsonian  Institution,  30 
smuggling,  146 
Smuts,  General,  524 
Soaring  Society  of  America,  57 
Social  and  Economic  Council, 

117 
Socialism,  500-502 

Asia,  502 

Belgium,  501 

Great  Britain,  501 

Italy,  501 


Socialism  (Continued) 
France,  501 

relation  to  Communism,  500 
Scandinavia,  501 
Switzerland,  501 
United  States,  502 
Socialist  Party,  U.S.,  platform 

of,  502 
social  security, 

Bureau  of  Employees*  Com- 
pensation, 168  * 
Federal  Security  Agency, 

185  *~186  * 
Social  Security  Administration, 

502-508  * 
maternal  and  child  health 

services,  507-508 
beneficiaries  and  payments 
by  states,  tables  on,  504, 
506 

old-age  and  survivors  in- 
surance, 503 

public  assistance,  506-507 
unemployment  insurance, 

505,  506 

Societies,  See  under  societies 
and  organizations,  508- 
523. 

Society  Islands,  216 
Soil  Conservation  Service,  19, 

523 

Soil  Mechanics  and  Foundation 
Engineering,  Conference 
on,  208 

soils,  research  on,  10 
Sokolovsky,  Marshal  Vassily 

D.,  227,  228,  230 
Somalia.  Ethiopian  view  on, 

174 

Somoza,  General  August,  398 
Sophoulis,  Themostocles,  239 
South  Africa,  Union  of,  523- 

525* 

defeat  of  Smuts,  524 
general  elections,  524 
Malan  administration,  524 
shortage  of  foreign  exchange, 

525 

South-West  Africa,  525 
treatment  of  natives,  525 
South  Carolina,  525  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 
legislation,  525 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
South  Dakota,  526  * 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Southern  Baptist  Convention, 
68 


South  Schleswig  issue,  152 
South-West  Africa, 

administrative  dispute,  525 

UN  action  on,  574,  580 
soybeans,  production,  11 
Spaatz,  Gen.  Carl,  21 
Spaak,  Premier  Paul-Henri, 

72,  73 
Spain,  526-528  * 

application  for  UN  member- 
ship, 528 

army  strength,  339 

election,   528 

monarchist  activities,  527 

reopening  of  frontier,  209, 
528 

U.S.  loan,  appeal  for,  427 
Spanish  literature,  528-530  * 

drama,  529 

literary  criticism,  529 

poetry,  529 

reviews,  529 
Spellman,  Francis  Cardinal, 

117 
spending, 

by  farm  families,  15,  16 

on  food,  12 

national,  190 
Spitsbergen,  533  * 
sports, 

automobile  racing,  52  * 

badminton,  65  * 

baseball,  69  * 

basketball,  70  * 

billiards,  74 

bobsledding,  75* 

bowling,  78  * 

boxing,  78  * 

chess,  110* 

court  games,  142  * 

cross-country  running,  144  * 

dogs,  155  * 

fencing,  187* 

football,  200  * 

golf,  232  * 

gymnastics,  242  * 

handball,  243  * 

hockey,  245  * 

horse  racing,  247  * 

lacross,  300  * 

motorboating,  351  * 

polo,  442  * 

rowing,  479  * 

shooting,  497  * 

skating,  499  * 

siding,  499  * 

swimming,  536  * 

tennis,  543  * 

track  and  field  athletics, 
550* 

wrestling,  648  * 

yachting,  648  * 

televising  of,  427 

See  also  under  Olympic 

Games. 

SS,  German,  trial  of,  641 
Stainback,  Ingram  W.,  243 
Stalin,  Joseph  B.,  559 
Standards,  National  Bureau  of, 

357-358  * 
starch,  chemical  experiments, 

107 

State,  U.S.  Department  of, 
531-532  * 

diplomatic  missions,  531 


685 

State,  U.S.  Department  of 

( Continued ) 

international  meetings,  531 
officers  of,  531 
organization  of,  532 
participation  in  UN,  531 
State  Governments,  Council  of. 

142* 
State  Highway  Commission, 

138 

statehood, 
for  Alaska,  22 
for  Hawaii,  244 
statistics, 

libraries,  316 

UN  Statistical  Commission, 

579 
steel,  280-281 

consumption  of,  103 
See  iron  and  steel. 
Stern  gang,  282 
stocks,  187,  188 

new  issues,  189,  190 
Securities  and  Exchange 

Commission,  490 
tables  of,  188,  189 
storms,  332,  333,  334,  423 
strikes, 

Canada,  298 

Colombia,  124 

Cuba,  145 

Czechoslovakia,  147 

France,  210,  298 

Great  Britain,  298 

Hungary,  252 

Italy,  130,  285,  286 

Japan,  290 

Mexican  university  students, 

337 

Peru,  421 

Puerto  Rican  students,  466 
Syria,  538 
United  States, 
airline,  55 
auto  workers,  590 
Boeing  Airplane  Com- 
pany, 298 

Chicago  newspapers,  394 
longshoremen,  590 
maritime  workers,  298 
mine  workers,  589 
packing  house  workers, 

298,  590 

United  Mine  Workers,  298 
stratigraphy,  220 
students,  foreign,  161 
Stuyvesant  Town  (N.Y.C.), 

208 

styles,  women's,  180 
submarines,  366 
subsidies,  U.S.  merchant  ship- 
ping, 324 
Sudan,  Anglo-Egyptian,  28,* 

217 

sugar,  532-533  * 
consumption  of,  175 
production  of,  18 
Puerto  Rican  industry,  466 
Sumatra,  East,  263 
Sumatra,  South,  263 
Sun  Yat-sen,  Dr.,  115 
Supreme  Court,  U.S.,  533* 

decision  of,  304-311 
suretyship,  268 


INDEX 

surgery, 

and  medicine,  326 

optical,  410 

technical  advances  in,  330 
surplus  property,  disposal  of, 

205 
Sweden,  533-535 

army  strength,  339 

aviation,  65 

dollar  shortage,  535 

feneral  elections,  534 
terature,  535 

military  preparedness,  534 

Socialism  in,  501 
Swedish  literature,  535-536 

awards,  536 

non-fiction,  535 

poetry,  535 

reprints,  536 

translations,  535-536 
swimming,  536 

A.A.U.  winners,  536 

Olympic  results,  506 
Switzerland,  536-537  * 

cooperation  with  UN,  537 

Marshall  Plan,  537 
symphony  orchestras,  353 
synchrocyclotrons,  104 
synthetics,  textile,  546 
Syria,  537-538  * 

Arab  League  affairs,  32 

demonstrations  on  Palestine 
issue,  538 


Taft-Ellender-Wagner  Bill,  249 
Taft-Hartley  Law.  See  Labor 
Management  Relations 
Act. 

Tahiti,  216 
Tangier,  539 
blockade  of,  347 
Moslem  conference,  539 
Taruc,  Luis,  423 
Taoism,  China,  113 
Tariffs  and  Trade,  General 

Agreement  on,  146 
taxation,  Federal  Government, 
Bureau  of  Internal  Revenue, 

271* 

graphs,  of,  460 
increase  in  receipts,  459 
internal  revenue  collections, 

541 

reduction  of  rates,  460,  586 
Revenue  Act  of  1948,  540 
Tax  Court  of  the  United 

States,  541 
taxonomy,  76 
tea,  541-542 
price  control,  U.S.,  542 
world  production,  542 
Teacher  Education  and  Profes- 
sional Standards,  National 
Commission  on,  158 
teachers, 

in  Bulgaria,  85 
education  of,  158,  160 
investigation  of,  159 
recruitment  of,  159 
salaries,  158 
supply  of,  160 


INDEX 


686 


Technicolor  Corporation,  426 
teeth, 

decay  of,  463 
See  also  under  dentistry, 
telegraphy,  127,  126 

International  telecommuni- 
cation Union,  275  * 
regulation  by  FCC,  183 
telephony,  126,  128 
International  Telecommuni- 
cation Union,  275* 
number  of  telephones  in 

service,  182 
overseas  service,  183 
rates,  182 
use  of  telephones  in  dental 

teaching,  154 

telescopes,  Mt  Palomar,  45 
television,  427 
advertising  on,  4 
effect  on  motion  picture  in- 
dustry, 350 

expansion  of  network  facili- 
ties, 542 

as  fire  hazard,  195 
growth  of,  542,  626 
Temporary  Commission  on 

Korea,  UN,  294 
Temporary  Transport  and 
Communications  Com- 
mission, UN,  271 
Tennessee,  543 
highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Tennessee  Valley  Authority, 

543* 

testing,  357-358 
Texas,  544  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
Texas  City  disaster,  267 
textiles,  544-546  * 
Baker  loom,  546 
expansion,  544 


cotton  goods,  545 
wool  goods,  545 

research,  546 

synthetics,  546 

textile  Foundation,  Inc.,  544 
theater,  in  U.S.,  546-549 

Drive-In  type,  351 

list  of  forty  outstanding 
plays,  546r549 

See  also  articles  on  national 

literature. 

Thunderstorm  Research  Proj- 
ect, 644 


timber, 

aerial  photography  of,  426 
U.S.  output,  206 
research,  206 
tin,  549  * 

Texas  City  smelter,  470 
Tito,  Marshal,  22,  23,  129,  650 
tobacco,  549  * 

consumption  of,  175 
cooperatives,  7 
production  by  states,  549 
U.S.  exports  of,  18 
U.S.  production,  18 
Tobago,  83 

Togliatti,  Palmiro,  130,  286 
Togoland,  British  549  * 
administration  of,  232 
UN  action  on,  580 
Tojo,  General,  290,  639 
Tolstoy,  Countess,  563 
Tongass  National  Forest,  206 
tooth  decay,  prevention  of,  154 
Topographic  Division  of  Geo- 
logical Survey,  220 
tornadoes,  332 
track  and  field  athletics,  A.A.U. 

winners,  550 

Olympic  results,  406,  407 
trade,  U.S.  foreign,  550-551,* 

91 

exports,  551 
imports,  551 
trade,  retail,  89 
trade,  agencies, 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Do- 
mestic Commerce,  200- 
202* 

Commodity  Exchange  Au- 
thority, 125* 
Federal  Trade  Commission, 

186-187  * 

International  Trade  Organi- 
zation, UN,  275-276  * 
Trade  Mark  Act  of  1946,  419  * 
trademarks,  25 

Office  of  Alien  Property,  25 
Trades  Union  Congress,  Eng- 
land, 299 
Trading  With  the  Enemy  Act, 

308 

administration  in  Philip- 
pines, 422 
Trans-Continental  Pipe  Line 

Company,  245  - 
Trans-Iranian  Railway,  276 
Transjordan,  551-552  * 
Arab  League  affairs,  32,  552 
reaction  to  Palestine  prob- 
lem, 552 

transportation,  court  cases  af- 
fecting, 308 

Department  of  transporta- 
tion proposed,  54 
Great  Britain,  236 
Interstate  Commerce  Act, 

310 

Office  of  Defense  Trans- 
portation, 151  * 
railroads,  468 
rapid  transit,  469  * 
See  also  under  names  of 

countries. 

trans-Saharan  railway,  24 
travel,  on  U.S.  highways,  476 
Treaty  of  Brussels,  238 


trees,  research  with,  206 
Trieste,  Free  Territory  of,  552- 

553* 

disagreement  on  adminis- 
tration, 552 
Security  Council  action  on, 

577 

Yugoslavia,  role  of,  553 
Tripolitania,  disposition  of, 

287 
Trujillo,  President  Leonidas, 

156 

Truman,  Harry  S.,  582,  583 
trust  funds,  131 
trust  territories,  UN,  573-574, 

580-581 

Cameroons,  British,  92 
Cameroons,  French,  92 
New  Guinea,  48 
Ruanda-Urundi,  72 
tuberculosis,  control  of,  462 
tumor  enzymology,  109 
Tungting  flood,  116 
Turkey,  555-556  * 
archaeology,  34 
army  strength,  339 
five-year  plan,  555 
Greek-Turkish  Assistance 

Act,  555 
and  Islam,  282 
reform  measures,  556 
typhoon  in  Philippines,  423 


U 


"Ultrafax,"  126,  425 
Un-American  Activities,  House 
Committee  on,  159,  588 
unemployment,  See  under  em- 
ployment. 

Uniform  Crime  Reporting  pro- 
gram, 143,  181 
unions, 

International   Typographical 
Union,  394 

mining  unions  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, 236 

United  Auto  Workers,  297 

United  Mine  Workers,   120, 
298 

See  also  under  labor  unions. 
Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Re- 
publics, 558-566  * 

architecture,  36 

Austrian  Treaty,  51 

aviation,  64 

Berlin  controversy,  229,  565- 
566 

biological  controversy,  561 

China-U.S.S.R.  relations,  117 

Cominform  activities,  563 

Danube  controversy,  563 

Five-Year  Plan,  560 

Germany, 

dispute  over,  564-565 
Eastern  Zone  Administra- 
tion, 230 

interruption  of  consular  rela- 
tions with  U.S.,  562-563 

military  preparedness,  340 

pact  with  Finland,  192 

party  conference,  559 

steel  production,  281 


Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Re- 
publics (Continued) 
UN,  relations  with,  566 
war  guilt  question,  564 
United  Nations,  567-581  * 
Economic  and  Social  Coun- 
cil, 

appeal,  for  Children,  580 
Conference  on  Trade  and 

Employment,  580 
Maritime  Conference,  579 
statistical  publications,  579 
General  Assembly, 

administrative  questions, 

574 

economic  and  social  ques- 
tions, 570-573 
legal  questions,  574-575 
political   and   security   ques- 
tions, 570-572 
trusteeship  questions,  573- 

574 

International  Court   of  Jus- 
tice, 581 

membership,  (UN),  567 
organization,  (UN),  568-569 
Security  Council, 
Berlin  question,  576 
Commission  for  Conven- 
tional Armaments,  578 
Czechoslovakian   question, 

577 

Hyderabad  question,  577 
India-Pakistan  question, 

576-577 

Indonesian  question,   576 
Military  Staff  Committee, 

578 
new  members,   admission 

of,  577 
Palestine  question,  575- 

576 

Trieste,  question  of,  577 
Trusteeship  and  non-self-gov- 
erning territories, 
non-self-governing   territo- 
ries, 581 

Trusteeship  Council,  580 
See  also  General  Assembly, 
UN;  Security  Council,  UN; 
UNESCO;  and  under 
names   of   countries   con- 
cerned. 

United  Nations  Educational, 
Scientific  and  Cultural  Or- 
ganization, 557-558  * 
Beirut  Conference,  157  * 
communications,  557 
cultural  interchange,  557 
education,  557 
human  relations,  557 
member  states,  558 
natural  sciences,  558 
officers,  558 
reconstruction,  557 
United  Packing  House  Workers, 

298 

United  Press  Associations,  393 
United  States,  581-590  * 
archaeology  in,  36 
architecture  in,  36 
atomic  energy,  586 
cabinet,  584 

Canada,  relations  with,  93 
Communism,  130,  581-588 


687 

United  States  (Continued) 

cost  of  living,  589 

displaced  persons,  586 

80th  Congress,  584 

employment,  296 

farm  legislation,  586-587 

fiscal  legislation,  586 

food  production,  11 

foreign  legislation,  585 

foreign  relations,  531 

housing  legislation,  586 

inflation  legislation,  585 

Kosenkina  affair,  562 

labor,  589 

the  presidency,  583-584 

rent  legislation,  585 

social  legislation,  587 

strikes,  298 

un-American  activities,  588 

the  White  House,  584 
United  States  Education  Foun- 
dation in  China,  117 
U.S.  Steel  Company,  court  case, 

310 

Universal  Atlas  Cement  Com- 
pany, 245 
Uruguay,  624-625 

army  size,  339 

art,  301 

literature,  303 
U.S.  elections,  625-626  * 

state  elections,  625-626 

Truman  surprise  victory,  626 
Utah,  627  * 

highways,  motor  vehicles, 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

mining,  140 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  135 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  132 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 

V 

Vandenberg,  Gen.  Hoyt  S,,  21, 

360 

Vandenburg  resolution,  84 
van  Mook,  Gen.  Huberrus  J., 

263,  388 

van  Zyl,  Major  Gideon  B.,  524 
Vatican  Mitigation  Bureau  of 

the  Holy  See,  98 
Venereal  disease,  control  pro- 
gram, 185,  463 
Venezuela,  628-629 
army  revolt,  629 
army  size,  339 
art,  301 
literature,  303 
ventilation  and  heating,  244- 

245     • 
Vermont,  629  * 

highways,   vehicles,   motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 


INDEX 

Vermont  (Continued) 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
veterans, 

cost  of  program  for,  459 
education,  159,  161 
employment,  job  preference 

in,  119,  120 
housing 

home  loans  to,  248 
preference  in  housing  ac- 
commodations, 248 
pensions  and  compensations, 

507 
Veterans  Administration,  629  * 

housing  functions  of,  251 
Veterans  Educational  Facilities 

Program,  131,  161 
Veterans  Emergency  Housing 

Program,  247,  248 
Veterans  Employment  Service, 

169 

Veterans  Preference  Act,  119 
veterinary  medicine,  630 
books  and  pamphlets,  632 
bovine  tuberculosis  eradica- 
tion, 631 

brucellosis,  progress  in  eradi- 
cation of,  631 
decrease  in  pullorum  disease, 

632 
equine  infections  anemia 

study,  631 
foot-and-mouth  disease  in 

Mexico,  630 
rabies  survey,  632 
veterinary  education,  631 
veto,  use  of  in  UN,  585 
Videla,  Gabriel  Gonzilez,  111 
video,  use  in  dental  teaching, 

154 

Vietnam,  213 
Viking  Fund  Medals  and 

Awards,  632  *,  31 
Virginia,  633  * 

highways,  vehicles,  motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
legislation,  633 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  132 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
vitamins,  109 
vital  statistics,  634 
divorce  statistics,  635,  636 
marriage  statistics,  635,  636 
mortality  statistics,  634,  635, 

636 

natality  statistics,  634,  636 
vocational  rehabilitation, 
State-Federal  program,  186 
Office  of  Vocational  Rehabili- 
tation, 636  * 

Voice  of  America  program,  322 
reaction  in  Hungary  to,  253 
volcanoes  in  Philippines,  423 


W 


wages  and  salaries, 
Canada,  297 


INDEX 


688 


Wages     and    Salaries     (Con- 
tinued ) 

Federal  legislation,  587 
Great  Britain,  235,  297 
increases,  450 
library  personnel,  315 
miners,  120 
overtime,  138 
teachers,  158 
United  States,  297 
consumers,  12 
fanners,  14 

See  also  profits  and  earnings. 
Wagner  Act,  court  cases  pend- 
ing, 359 
Wales,  233 

Wallace,  Henry  A.,  26 
See  elections  under  States 

and  U.S.  Elections. 
War  Department,  40 
war  crimes  trials,  639-642  * 
Denmark,  153 
Niirnberg  trials, 

industrial   cases,    640-641 
military  cases,  639-640 
Pohl  case,  642 
Rusha  case,  641 
SS  cases,  641-642 
Tokyo   judgment,   290,   639 
war  legislation,  U.S.,  307 
War  Relief  Services,  National 
Catholic  Welfare  Confer- 
ence, 98,  479 
Warsaw  Conference,  441 
Washington,  642  * 
highways,   vehicles,   motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  135 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  133 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 
water  polo  in  U.S.  Olympics, 

406 
Water  Pollution  Control  Act, 

185 

Water  Pollution  Control  Pro- 
gram, 131 
Water   Resources    Division   of 

Geological  Survey,  222 
water  supply,  642-643 
aqueducts,  31 

Bureau  of  Community  Facil- 
ities program,  131 
controlling  pollution,  464 
and  flood  control,  196-197 
Los  Angeles  plans,  643 
Miama,  Florida,  plant,   643 
New  York  City  project,  643 
pollution  control,  486 
protection  of,  207 
research,  642 

Second  Mokelumne  Aque- 
duct, 31 

sewage  treatment  works,  185 
source  of,  206 
and  TVA,  543 

U.S.  Geological  survey  work. 
222,  223 


waterways,  643-644  * 

Danube,  150 

Inland  Waterways  Corpora- 
tion, 264  * 
Watts,  John  R.,  20 
weather.  See  meteorology. 
Weather  Bureau  U.S.,  644  * 

aviation  weather  services,  644 

flood  prediction,  197 

research,  644 
weightlifting,    Olympic   results 

in,  406 

Weizmann,  Chaim,  282 
"Western  Union,"  74,  183 

British  view  of,  238 

attitude  towards,  Italy,  287 

Swedish  view  of,  534 

Treaty  of  Brussels,  84  * 
Western  European  Union,  U.S. 

role  in,  531 

Western  Union  Military  Com- 
mittee, 60 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Com- 
pany, 127 

West  Indian  Conference,  96 
West  Indies,  British,  83*  65, 

96 
West  Indies  Customs  Union 

Commission,  83 
West  Virginia,  645  * 

highways,    vehicles,    motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  135 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  133 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
wheat,  645  * 

exports  of,  13,  14 

production;  prices,  17,  22 

Tunisia,  554 
White,  Walter,  386 
White  House,  U.S.,  repair  of, 

584 
Whitney  Museum  of  American 

Art,  41,  42,  43 
wildlife, 

aerial  photography  of,  426 

in  national  forests,  206 

See  Fish  and  Wildlife  Serv- 
ice. 

Wilhelmina,  Queen,  387 
Wisconsin,  645 

highways,    vehicles,    motor 
fuel  consumption,  477 

mineral  production,  343 

petroleum  production,  421 

population,  444 

representatives,  135 

school  enrollment,  489,  490 

senators,  133 

social  security,  504,  506 

vital  statistics,  636 
women, 

in  industry,  296,  297 

in  Olympic  Games,  406,  407 

in  U.S.  Army,  41 
Women's  Armed  Services  Inte- 
gration Act,  41 


Women's  styles  in  dress,  180 
Women's  Army  Corps,  U.S. 

Army,  41 

Women's  Bureau,  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Labor,  645-646  * 
legislation,  646 
services,  646 
studies,  646 

Women's  International  Demo- 
cratic   Federation    confer- 
ence, 253 
wood, 

chemical  experiments,  109 
standard  grade  specifications, 

207 
World  Food  Council,  work  of, 

198 
World   Health   Organization, 

646-648  * 
members,  647 
origin,  647 
work  of,  647-648 
World  War  II,  histories  of,  26 
Worcester  Museum,  42,  43 
wrestling,  Olympic  results  in, 

408 

Wyoming,  648  * 
highways,   vehicles,   motor 

fuel  consumption,  477 
mineral  production,  343 
petroleum  production,  421 
population,  444 
representatives,  136 
school  enrollment,  489,  490 
senators,  133 
social  security,  504,  506 
vital  statistics,  636 


Yahya,  Imam,  281 
Yellowstone  National  Park,  362 
Yemen,  649  * 

and  Islam,  281 

Arab  League  affairs,  32 
Yugoslavia,  649-651  * 

army  size,  339 

break  with  Cominform,  128, 
650 

Danube  Conference,  650 

and  Greek  civil  war,  239 

purges,  650 
Trieste  problem,  552 


Zhdanov,  Andrei,  559,  386 

zinc,  651  * 

domestic  consumption,  651 
domestic  production,  341 
world  production,  651 

Zionism, 

Arab  League  affairs,  32 
Franco's  policy  toward,  348 

Zoology,  651-654  * 
anatomy,  652 
animal  behavior,  652 
anthropology,  654 
ecology,  651-652 
invertebrates,  652-653 
mammals,  653-654 


i 


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